Datasets:

Aarushhh

/

WikiLong

like 0

[ "A census of agriculture is a statistical operation for collecting, processing and disseminating data on the structure of agriculture, covering the whole or a significant part of a country. Typical structural data collected in a census of agriculture are number and size of holdings, land tenure, land use, crop area, irrigation, livestock numbers, gender of holders, number of household members, labour and other agricultural inputs", ". In a census of agriculture, data are collected at the holding level, but some community-level data may also be collected.", "The most widely accepted definition of the census of agriculture is that provided by the World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA), particularly in its guidelines that are updated every ten years.\n\nIn practice, countries adapt this definition to their national circumstances and needs. Some examples are available here. Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union provides a common definition for all its member countries.", "Objectives of the census of agriculture \nThe census of agriculture aims to provide data on the structure of agricultural holdings, with attention given to providing data for small administrative units. Censuses of agriculture are also used to provide benchmarks to improve current crop and livestock statistics and to provide sampling frames for follow-up agricultural sample surveys.\n\nThe general objectives of the census of agriculture are:", "The general objectives of the census of agriculture are:\n\n To provide data on the structure of agriculture, especially for small administrative units, and to enable detailed cross-tabulations;\n To provide data to use as benchmarks for and reconciliation of current agricultural statistics;\n To provide frames for agricultural sample surveys.\n\nIn practice, countries expand these objectives or add specific objectives to serve their needs.", "Since censuses of agriculture are usually undertaken only every ten years, it is natural to associate them with those aspects of agriculture that change relatively slowly over time. Some national censuses of agriculture, however, are conducted at five-year intervals (e.g. Australia, Canada, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, USA and Viet Nam), which can provide more up-to-date structural data for agricultural policy purposes", ". Thus, censuses of agriculture are mainly concerned with data on the basic organizational structure of agricultural holdings (see structural data in the definition above). Censuses of agriculture do not normally include data that change from year to year, such as agricultural production or prices. The latter type of fast-changing information is usually collected in sample surveys.", "In terms of international comparability, some cross-country analytical studies on agricultural sectors have been carried out using census data.\n\nStatistical unit of the census of agriculture \nThe statistical unit for the census of agriculture is the agricultural holding. In developed countries the statistical units are often establishments with sales or operations above a certain level. Eurostat provides a common definition of the statistical unit for all European Union member countries.", "Definition of agricultural holding \nThe most widely accepted definition of an agricultural holding is:", "\"An agricultural holding is an economic unit of agricultural production under single management comprising all livestock kept and all land used wholly or partly for agricultural production purposes, without regard to title, legal form or size. Single management may be exercised by an individual or household, jointly by two or more individuals or households, by a clan or tribe, or by a juridical person such as a corporation, cooperative or government agency", ". The holding's land may consist of one or more parcels, located in one or more separate areas or in one or more territorial or administrative divisions, providing the parcels share the same production means, such as labour, farm buildings, machinery or draught animals.\"", "Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union, provides a similar definition for all its member countries:\n\n\"An agricultural holding, or holding or farm is a single unit, both technically and economically, operating under a single management and which undertakes economic activities in agriculture within the economic territory of the European Union, either as its primary or secondary activity. The holding may also provide other supplementary (non-agricultural) products and services.\"", "There are two types of agricultural holding:\n\n holdings in the household sector – that is, those operated by household members; and\n holdings in the non-household sector, such as corporations and government institutions.\n\nIn most developing countries, the majority of agricultural production is in the household sector. The concept of \"agricultural holding\" in those countries is often closely related to the concept of \"household\".", "Scope of the census of agriculture", "A census of agriculture aims to measure the structure of the agricultural production industry. The scope of the agricultural production industry broadly covers not only crop and livestock production activities, but also forestry and fisheries production activities, as well as other food- and agriculture-related activities", ". The World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA) recommends that the census of agriculture focus only on those units engaged in the production of crop and livestock products, including aquaculture. Units engaged in forestry and fisheries are not covered unless they also had some crop or livestock production activities. Usually, separate data collection operations are organized to cover forestry and fisheries.", "The scope of a census of agriculture may be defined under ISIC (Rev.4) as follows:\n\n Group 011: Growing of non-perennial crops\n Group 012: Growing of perennial crops\n Group 013: Plant propagation\n Group 014: Animal production\n Group 015: Mixed farming", "However, country practices show that the scope varies according to the objectives set for the census. Some countries such as Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Brazil, Japan, Korea and New Zealand include forestry within the scope of their census of agriculture. Other countries such as Colombia, Brazil, Republic of Korea, the Philippines and Thailand include fisheries.", "Coverage of the census of agriculture \nIdeally, a census of agriculture should cover agricultural activity across the whole country. However, for operational reasons, sometimes countries omit certain areas of the country, such as urban areas, remote areas with marginal levels of agriculture or areas with security problems. Country practices on coverage in national censuses of agriculture can be found here.", "Census of agriculture's reference period \nThe census has two main reference periods, namely, the census reference year and the census reference day:", "The census reference year is a period of twelve months, usually either a calendar year or an agricultural year, generally encompassing the various time reference dates or periods of data collection for individual census items. Use of the agricultural year has the advantage that respondents often think of their activities in seasonal terms and thus find recall easier for this reference period. In practice, \"the last 12 months\" is commonly used instead of a fixed census reference year.", "The census reference day is a point in time used for inventory items such as livestock numbers and machinery. In practice, many countries use \"day of enumeration\" instead of a fixed census reference day to facilitate the enumeration.", "Country practices on the use of census of agriculture's reference periods can be found here.", "Timing of the census of agriculture \nThe World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA) encourages countries to carry out their decennial census of agriculture as close as possible to the year ending in \"0\", to help make international comparisons more meaningful. The WCA also encourages countries to take into consideration the timing implications imposed by the population and housing census to ensure a good coordination of the two censuses.", "There are many advantages to conducting the census of agriculture soon after the population and housing census, especially as agriculture-related data and field materials will still be current. If the population and housing census is being used to develop a frame, i.e. the list of households engaged in own-account agricultural activities, the need to conduct the census of agriculture soon after the population and housing census becomes more critical, to ensure the frame remains as up-to-date as possible.", "History", "The first censuses of agriculture were carried out in Norway (1835), USA (1840), Belgium (1846), Uruguay (1852), the UK (1866), Argentina (1888), Hungary (1895), Canada (1896) and Bulgaria (1897). Following the establishment of the International Institute of Agriculture (IIA) in Rome in 1905, governments from many countries agreed to promote the coordinated implementation of censuses of agriculture around the world on a basis as uniform as possible", ". The first Programme for the World Census of Agriculture (WCA) was developed for the years 1929-1930 and implemented in about 60 countries. The 1940 round could not be completed due to the onset of World War II. Following its creation in 1945, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) succeeded the IIA and took over the task of organizing the World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA) starting from the 1950 round and continued with successive decennial Programmes", ". The current WCA 2020 is the tenth decennial international Census of Agriculture Programme and covers the period 2016–2025.", "The World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA)", "In the 1920s, governments from many countries agreed to promote a coordinated implementation of censuses of agriculture around the world on a uniform basis. The International Institute of Agriculture (IIA) developed the World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA) for the years 1929-1930 and 1940. The IIA recommended the use of a \"standard form\" by all countries referring to the same census period", ". The 1929-1930 constituted the first world census of agriculture round and was implemented in about 60 countries.  The 1940 census round was interrupted by the onset of World War II. After World War II and following the dissolution of the IIA in 1946, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) took over the programme and launched in 1948 the WCA 1950 as well as the successive decennial programmes", ". Seven decennial rounds – in 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020 – have been promoted by FAO. In each decennial WCA, FAO supports member countries to carry out their national agricultural censuses through the development and dissemination of methodological and practical guidelines, and technical assistance.", "Cost-effectiveness of the census of agriculture", "The census of agriculture is one of the largest and most costly national statistical operations and takes several years to implement from planning to dissemination of results. The census should be planned and carried out as inexpensively as possible without compromising the objectives and quality of the data. Some publications discuss approaches conducive to improving the cost efficiency of the census of agriculture while ensuring data quality, and present some country experiences.", "The impact of COVID-19 on the implementation of national censuses of agriculture \nThe pandemic affected the planning and implementation of censuses of agriculture in the current 2020 census round in all world's regions. The extent of the impact varied according to the stages at which the censuses were, ranging from planning (i.e. staffing, procurement, preparation of frames, questionnaires), fieldwork (field training and enumeration) or data processing/analysis stages.", "The census of agriculture's reference period is the agricultural year. Thus, countries carefully schedule census activities to ensure that crop and livestock data are collected at the right time. A delay in census activities may be critical and can result in a full year postponement of the enumeration if the agricultural season is missed. Some publications discussed the impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture.", "Censuses of agriculture by country \nAfter each decennial census round, FAO publishes the profiles of each census of agriculture, including main results and metadata. A summary of the historical outline of the countries and territories that conduct censuses of agriculture is provided below.\n\nAfrica", "Africa\n\nAngola \nAngola conducted its first Agricultural and Fisheries Census (AFC) in 2019-2020. The AFC was the country's first census since its independence in 1975. However, only the core module was conducted while the supplementary modules are awaiting funding.\n\nBenin\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2019/2020.", "Benin\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2019/2020.\n\nBotswana \nThe first livestock census was carried out in 1971, while three censuses of agriculture, covering both crops and livestock, were conducted in 1982, 1993, 2004 and 2015.\n\nBurkina Faso \nThe Census of Agriculture 2006–2010 of Burkina Faso was the first census of agriculture ever undertaken in the country. The country conducted a population and housing census in 2019 with an agricultural module.", "Cabo Verde \nCensuses of agriculture were carried out in 1963, 1978, 1988, 2004 and 2015.\n\nCameroon\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1984.\n\nComoros\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2004.\n\nThe Congo \nThe Congo conducted its first census of agriculture in 1985–1986. The second General Agricultural Census (GAC) in the Congo was carried out in 2014–2015.", "Côte d'Ivoire \nThe 2015/2016 Census of Agricultural Holders and Holdings (REEA), was the third census of agriculture carried out in the Côte d'Ivoire (only the core module). The previous censuses were conducted in 1974 and 2001.\n\nDemocratic Republic of the Congo\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1990.\n\nEgypt \nEgypt has conducted eight national censuses of agriculture, all by complete enumeration, in the years 1929, 1939, 1950, 1961, 1982, 1990, 2000 and 2009/2010.", "Equatorial Guinea \nThe first General Census of Agriculture (GCA) in Equatorial Guinea was carried out in 2015, along with the fourth Population and Housing Census (PHC) and the first Labour Force, Training and Employment Survey (LFTES). However, the GCA results were not published.\n\nEswatini \nThe first census of agriculture in the Kingdom of Eswatini was conducted in 1971/1972, followed by censuses of agriculture carried out in 1983/1984, in 1992/1993, 2002/2003 and in 2012/2013.\n\nEthiopia", "Ethiopia\n\nThe country conducted a sample-based census of agriculture in 2001/2002. \n\nGabon\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1981-1982.\n\nThe Gambia \nThe 2011/2012 census of agriculture was the second comprehensive census of agriculture conducted in the Gambia. The first one was undertaken in 2001/2002.\n\nGhana", "Ghana\n\nThe Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) conducted the last Ghana Census of Agriculture (GCA) in 2018. The previous one had been in 1984.", "Lesotho \nLesotho has been conducting decennial censuses of agriculture since 1949. The censuses of agriculture 1949/1950 and 1959/1960 were both organized by the Ministry of Agriculture, while the censuses of agriculture for 1969/1970, 1979/1980, 1989/1990, 1999/2000, 2009/2010 and the latest, census of agriculture 2020/2021, were organized by the Bureau of Statistics (BOS).", "Malawi \nThe Census of Agriculture 2006/2007  was the fourth census of agriculture conducted in Malawi. The first one was conducted in 1968/1969, the second in 1980/1981 and the third in 1991/1992.\n\nMali\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2005.\n\nMadagascar\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2004.", "Madagascar\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2004.\n\nMauritius \nThe first census of agriculture was carried out in the Republic of Mauritius in 1930 and the second one in 1940. The census of agriculture 2014 was the first one to be carried out after more than 70 years.\n\nMauritania\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1984-1985.\n\nMayotte\n\nThis French overseas territory conducted its last census of agriculture in 2020.\n\nMorocco", "Mayotte\n\nThis French overseas territory conducted its last census of agriculture in 2020.\n\nMorocco\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2016 (only the core module), but the census results were not published.", "Mozambique \nThe first census of agriculture during the colonial period was conducted in 1951, followed by a second one in 1961, and a third census of agriculture in 1999/2000 (this was the first census of agriculture in the post-independence period). The census of agriculture 2009/2010 was the fourth census of agriculture carried out in the Republic of Mozambique.", "Namibia \nThe Census of Agriculture 1994/1995 was the first one undertaken since the independence of Namibia. It was followed by the census of agriculture 2004/2005 and the one in 2013/2014.\n\nNiger \nThe last census of agriculture in Niger was conducted in 2004–2008. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1970 and 1980.", "Reunion \nThe last census of agriculture in the French territory of Reunion was conducted in 2020. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1970, 1979, 1988, 2000 and 2010.\n\nSenegal \nThe first census of agriculture was conducted in the Republic of Senegal in 1998/1999. In 2013, the country carried out the fourth General Census of Population and Housing (GCPH), combined with the second census of agriculture called General Census of Population and Housing, Agriculture and Livestock (RGPHAE) 2013.", "Seychelles \nCensuses of agriculture in Seychelles were conducted in 1950 and 1961. Agriculture modules were included in the Censuses of Population and Housing (CPH) conducted in 1971, 1977, 1987, 1994, 2002 and 2010. The last census of agriculture, was conducted in 2011.\n\nSouth Africa \nSouth Africa has conducted censuses of agriculture since 1918. The last Censuses of Commercial Agriculture (CoCAs) were conducted in 2002, 2007 and 2017.", "Tanzania \nThe first census of agriculture was conducted in 1971/1972, the second in 1994/1995, the third in 2002/2003, and the fourth in 2007/2008 since the country independence. Tanzania conducted its fifth National Sample Census of Agriculture (NSCA) in 2020.\n\nTogo \nThe first census of agriculture was carried out in 1972, the second in 1982, the third in 1996, and the fourth one in 2012–2014.\n\nTunisia\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2004.", "Tunisia\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2004.\n\nUganda \nThe first census of agriculture in Uganda was undertaken in 1963/1965, the second in 1990/1991, and the third in 2008/2009. Agriculture modules were included in the Population and Housing Censuses (PHCs) conducted in 2002 and 2014. Uganda also conducted a National Livestock Census (NLC) in 2008. In 2008/2009 Uganda conducted its last Census of Agriculture (UCA).\n\nThe Americas", "The Americas\n\nAntigua and Barbuda \nThe 2007 Census of Agriculture was the third census of agriculture carried out in Antigua and Barbuda. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1961 and 1984.\n\nArgentina \nThe first census of agriculture in Argentina was conducted in 1888. Subsequently, eleven censuses were carried out in 1895, 1908, 1914, 1937, 1947, 1952, 1960, 1969, 1988, 2002, 2008 and 2018.", "Belize \nThe first census of agriculture of Belize was conducted in the frame of the 1970 World Programme for the Census of Agriculture round- (WCA 1970), followed by others in 1984/1985, 2011 and 2018/2019. The report of the 2018/2019 census was not published.\n\nBolivia \nThe first Census of Agriculture was conducted in 1950 and the second in 1984. The 2013 Census of Agriculture was the third census to be conducted in the Plurinational State of Bolivia.", "Brazil \nThe first census of agriculture in Brazil was conducted in 1920. Since 1940, censuses of agriculture have been conducted on a decennial basis until 1970, and quinquennially thereafter, until 1985. The following agricultural censuses were in 1996, 2006 and 2017.\n\nCanada", "Canada \n\nStarting in 1896, a separate census of agriculture was taken every five years in Manitoba and, beginning in 1906, in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Since 1956, the five-year census of agriculture was extended to the entire country, and conducted in conjunction with the Census of Population. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2021.", "Chile \nThe first census of agriculture in Chile was conducted in 1930. Since 1936, censuses of agriculture have been carried out regularly, on a ten-year basis, normally following the Population and Housing Censuses. The eighth one was conducted in 2021 and called National Census of Agriculture and Forestry (CAF).", "Colombia \nThe first census of agriculture in Colombia was carried out in 1960 and covered 16 administrative departments. The second census of agriculture was carried out in 1970 and covered 21 administrative departments. The census of agriculture 2014 was the third census of agriculture conducted in the country and covered all rural areas.", "Costa Rica \nThe National Agricultural Census (NAC) 2014 of the Republic of Costa Rica was the sixth census of agriculture to be conducted. The previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1950, 1955, 1963, 1973 and 1984.\n\nDominica\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1995.\n\nDominican Republic\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1981.\n\nEcuador\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1999/2000.", "Ecuador\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1999/2000.\n\nEl Salvador \nEl Salvador conducted its first census of agriculture in 1950, followed by the other two censuses of agriculture carried out in 1961 and 1971. After 36 years, the country conducted its fourth Census of Agriculture in 2007–2008, within the framework of the 2010 census round.", "French Guiana \nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in French Guiana in 2020. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1970, 1979, 1988, 2000 and 2010.\n\nGrenada \nSix censuses of agriculture have been conducted in Grenada in the last 50 years. Two were conducted as part of the West Indies, in 1946 and 1961, while the other four were conducted as Grenada's Censuses of Agriculture, in 1975, 1981, 1995 and 2012.", "Guadeloupe \nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in the French territory of Guadeloupe in 2020. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1970, 1979, 1988, 2000 and 2010.\n\nGuyana \nGuyana planned to organize its first census of agriculture in 2020 but was finally cancelled due mainly to COVID-19.", "Haiti \nThe General Agricultural Census (GAC) 2008/2009 was the first census of agriculture to be carried out in Haiti. Earlier structural data on agriculture were provided through population censuses (PCs), which were conducted in 1950, 1971 and 1982, and included a section with agriculture-related items.\n\nHonduras\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1993.", "Honduras\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 1993.\n\nJamaica \nThe first census of agriculture in Jamaica was undertaken, together with the Census of Population and Housing, in 1943. The second one was carried out in 1961, while the third was conducted in 1968/1969, and represented the first participation of Jamaica in the FAO World Census of Agriculture Programme. Subsequently, censuses of agriculture were undertaken in 1978/1979, 1996 and 2007.", "Martinique \nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in the French territory of Martinique in 2020. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1970, 1979, 1988, 2000 and 2010.\n\nMexico \nThe first census of agriculture in Mexico was carried out in 1930, followed, every ten years, by those carried out in 1940, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1981 and 1991. The last Census of Agriculture and Forestry (CAF) was conducted in 2007. The country planned to conduct a new census of agriculture in 2022.", "Nicaragua \nThe first National Census of Agriculture in Nicaragua was conducted in 1963. A second census of agriculture was conducted in 1971. Almost 30 years later, Nicaragua carried out its third census of agriculture, in 2001. The fourth one was conducted in 2011.", "Panama \nThe first nationwide census of agriculture in Panama was conducted in 1950 through complete enumeration; the second one was carried out in 1961, on a sample basis. The other six decennial censuses of agriculture were conducted, through complete enumeration, in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011.", "Paraguay \nThe first nationwide census of agriculture in Paraguay was undertaken in 1942/1944. The second census was undertaken in 1957, the third in 1981, and the fourth in 1991. The National Census of Agriculture 2008, was the fifth one to be conducted in the country. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2022.\n\nPeru \nThe first census of agriculture in Peru was conducted in 1961 (jointly with the Census of Population and Housing), followed by others conducted in 1972, 1994 and 2012.", "Puerto Rico", "The first census of agriculture in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was conducted in 1910. From that year to 1950, a census of agriculture was taken every ten years, in conjunction with the decennial censuses of population. Later, the timing was adjusted, such that the census of agriculture is conducted on the basis of a five-year data collection cycle, covering the years ending in 2 and 7", ". The census of agriculture 2002 for Puerto Rico was the first to be taken on a calendar-year basis, bringing the Puerto Rico census in line with the United States of America; subsequent censuses of agriculture continue to be done on a calendar basis, the last one conducted in 2018. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2022.", "Saint Kitts and Nevis\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2000. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2022.\n\nSaint Lucia \nThe 2007 Saint Lucia Census of Agriculture, was the country's sixth census of agriculture. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1946, 1961, 1973/74, 1986 and 1996. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2023.\n\nSaint Vincent and the Grenadines", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2000. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2024.\n\nSuriname \nThe first census of agriculture in Suriname was undertaken in 1953. The second and the third ones were taken in 1959 and 1969. The fourth census of agriculture was held in 1981, and the fifth one was carried out in 2008. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2023.\n\nUnited States", "The first census of agriculture in the United States of America was taken in 1840 as part of the sixth decennial census of population. After the 1920 census, the census interval was changed to every five years, resulting in a separate mid-decade census of agriculture being conducted in 1925, 1935, and 1945. The census of agriculture continued to be taken as part of the decennial census through 1950. From 1954 to 1974, the census was taken for the years ending in 4 and 9", ". From 1954 to 1974, the census was taken for the years ending in 4 and 9. In 1976, Congress changed the five-year data collection cycle to years ending in 2 and 7, to coincide with other economic censuses, a cycle that continues to this day. The 2017 Census of Agriculture was the twenty-ninth federal census of agriculture and the fifth to be conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA), National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS)", ". The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2022.", "US Virgin Islands", "The first census of agriculture was conducted in the United States Virgin Islands (U.S. Virgin Islands) in 1920 and the second in 1930. Other censuses were conducted at a ten-year interval through 1960 when, starting with the census taken in 1964, the U.S. Virgin Islands were included in the quinquennial (five-year) Census of agriculture Plan", ".S. Virgin Islands were included in the quinquennial (five-year) Census of agriculture Plan. Successively, the dates were adjusted in order to coincide with economic censuses, and, consequently, the subsequent censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1978 and 1982. After 1982, censuses of agriculture were reverted to a five-year cycle. The census of agriculture 2018 was the fifteenth one to be undertaken in the U.S. Virgin Islands. This U.S territory was planning a new census of agriculture in 2022.", "Uruguay \nThe first census of agriculture in Uruguay was conducted in 1852. From 1852 to 2000, four livestock censuses and 14 general ACs were carried out. The last census of agriculture was carried out in 2011. The country was planning a new census of agriculture in 2022.", "Venezuela \nThe first census of agriculture of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela was carried out in 1937. In 1949, 1961 and 1971, the censuses of agriculture and the censuses of population and housing were carried out jointly. A series of independent censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1985, 1997 and 2008. The report of the 2024 census was not published.\n\nAsia", "Asia\n\nArmenia \nThe first comprehensive census of agriculture in Armenia was conducted in 2014. Until 2014, several specialized ACs were carried out, such as livestock censuses and permanent crop censuses.", "Azerbaijan \nThe first comprehensive census of agriculture was carried out in 1921. In 2015, Azerbaijan conducted its second comprehensive census of agriculture. Between these two comprehensive censuses of agriculture, only specialized censuses of agriculture were conducted, such as livestock censuses or censuses of sown areas of crops, orchards and vineyards.", "Bangladesh \nThe first census of agriculture undertaken in Bangladesh was carried out in 1960. The second one was conducted in 1977, followed by the 1983/1984, the 1996, the 2008 and the 2019/2020 censuses of agriculture.\n\nBhutan \nThe Kingdom of Bhutan conducted its first Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) Census in 2000 and then in 2009 and 2019.\n\nCambodia \nCambodia conducted its first National Census of Agriculture (NCAC) in 2013.", "Cambodia \nCambodia conducted its first National Census of Agriculture (NCAC) in 2013.\n\nChina \nThe censuses of agriculture were conducted in China in 1996, 2006 and 2016.\n\nCyprus \nThe Republic of Cyprus conducted six censuses of agriculture since the country achieved independence in 1960, 1977, 1985, 1994, 2003, 2010 and 2020. A Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM) was carried out together with the census of agriculture 2010.", "Georgia \nThe first census of agriculture in Georgia was conducted in 2004. The Censuses of Agriculture 2014 was the second one conducted in conjunction with the 2014 General Population Census (GPC).", "India \nIndia participated in the World Programme for the Census of Agriculture (WCA) 1930, 1950 and 1960 through sample surveys carried out by the Directorate of National Sample Surveys. The 1970/1971 Census was considered the first comprehensive census of agriculture to be conducted in the country. Quinquennial censuses of agriculture were successively undertaken in 1976/1977, 1980/1981, 1985/1986, 1990/1991, 1995/1996, 2000/2001, 2005/2006, 2010/2011 and 2015/2016. A new census was planned for 2022.", "Indonesia \nThe first census of agriculture of Indonesia was conducted in 1963, and, ever since then, every tenth year; therefore, in 1973, 1983, 1993, 2003 and 2013. A new census was planned for 2023.\n\nIran \nThe first Census of Agriculture in the country was conducted in 1973, followed by the ones conducted in 1988, 1993, 2003 and 2014.\n\nIsrael\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2017.", "Israel\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2017.\n\nJapan \nThe census of agriculture and forestry (CAF) in Japan was first conducted in 1950, in accordance with the World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 1950. Census data collection for the forestry has been conducted since 1960. Since the CAF 2005, censuses of agriculture and forestry have been conducted every five years. The CAF 2020 was the fifteenth census data collection to be conducted for agriculture and the ninth for forestry.", "Jordan \nThe first census of agriculture was carried out in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1953, followed by ACs conducted in 1965, 1975, 1983, 1997, 2007 and 2017.\n\nKazakhstan \nThe Census of Agriculture 2006/2007 was the first one to be carried out in Kazakhstan.\n\nKyrgyzstan\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2002.", "Republic of Korea", "The Republic of Korea participated in the decennial WCA, with censuses of agriculture being conducted every ten years from 1960 to 1990 (in 1960, 1970, 1980 and 1990). Starting in 1995, censuses of agriculture in Korea were undertaken every five years. Starting in 2010, three censuses were consolidated into a single census, the Census of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (CAFF), with a periodicity of five years", ". In addition, the Rural Community Survey, implemented since 1980, was carried out concurrently with the CAFF 2015. The country conducted a new CAFF in 2020.", "Lao PDR \nThe first census of agriculture in the Lao People's Democratic Republic was conducted in 1998/1999, the second in 2010/2011 and the third in 2020.\n\nLebanon \nCensuses of agriculture were conducted in Lebanon in 1961/1962, 1970 and 1998. A livestock census was conducted in 1980. The last census of agriculture was carried out in 2010.\n\nMalaysia\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2005.\n\nMongolia \nMongolia conducted its first Census of Agriculture in 2011.", "Mongolia \nMongolia conducted its first Census of Agriculture in 2011.\n\nMyanmar \nMyanmar participated in the World Census of Agriculture in 1953/1954; however, the coverage of that census was limited to 2 143 village tracts in a neighbourhood of 252 townships. A sample-based census of agriculture was conducted in 1993, followed by complete censuses in 2003 and 2010.", "Nepal \nThe first census of agriculture in Nepal was conducted in 1961/1962, followed by the decennial censuses of agriculture held in 1971/1972, 1981/1982, 1991/1992, 2001/2002 and 2011/2012. A new census was conducted in 2022.\n\nOman \nThe Sultanate of Oman has carried out four general censuses of agriculture, starting with the one in 1978/1979. The second census of agriculture was conducted in 1992/1993, and the third in 2004/2005. The fourth census of agriculture was carried out in 2012/2013.", "Pakistan \nSix censuses of agriculture were conducted in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan: the first in 1960, then in 1972, 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010.\n\nPalestine \nThe census of agriculture 2010 was the first one to be conducted in Palestine. Palestine conducted a second census of agriculture in 2021.", "Philippines \nThe first decennial census of agriculture in the Philippines was conducted in 1960, followed by censuses carried out in 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2002. The 2012 Census of Agriculture and Fishery (CAF) was the sixth in a series of decennial censuses of agriculture and the fifth in a series of decennial censuses of fisheries to be conducted in the country.\n\nQatar\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2000.", "Qatar\n\nThe country conducted its last census of agriculture in 2000.\n\nSaudi Arabia \nThe first census of agriculture in Saudi Arabia was conducted in 1973/1974, the second in 1982, the third in 1999, and the fourth in 2015.", "Sri Lanka \nThe first attempt to conduct a census of agriculture in the country was the Census of Production, held in 1921. Partial censuses of agriculture were then carried out in 1924 and 1929. Subsequently, censuses of agriculture were carried out in 1946, 1952, 1962, 1973, 1982 and 2002. In 2013/2014 the country conducted an Economic Census – Agricultural Activities (EC-AA).", "Tajikistan \nThe Census of Agriculture 2013 was the first comprehensive census of agriculture to be conducted in the Republic of Tajikistan. Until 2013, only specialized censuses of agriculture were conducted, such as the census of crop sown areas, the livestock census and the census of permanent crops.\n\nThailand \nThe first census of agriculture in Thailand was conducted in 1950, followed by the ones carried out in 1963, 1978, 1993, 2003 and 2013.\n\nTimor-Leste", "Timor-Leste\n\nThe country conducted its first Timor-Leste Census of Agriculture (TLAC) in 2019 as an independent country.\n\nVietnam \nThe first census of agriculture in Vietnam was conducted in 1994. The second one was carried out in 2001, which was followed by those carried out in 2006, 2011 and 2016. In 2020, the General Statistics Office (GSO) implemented for the first time a mid-term census of agriculture, involving around 10% of total agricultural, forestry and fisheries holdings.", "Europe \nEurostat, the statistical office of the European Union, provides information for all its member countries.\n\nAlbania \nThe 1998 Census of Agricultural Holdings (CAH) was the first census of agriculture conducted in Albania. The second census of agriculture was carried out in 2012.", "Austria \nAustria conducted its first census of agricultural and forestry holdings in 1902. Subsequent censuses of agriculture were held in 1930, 1939 and 1951, and every ten years from 1960 to 1990. The last three censuses of agriculture took place in 1999, 2010 and 2020. The census of agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).\n\nBelarus", "Belarus\n\nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in 2019 integrated, for the first time, in the Population and Housing Census 2019.", "Belgium", "Belgium participated in all the census rounds. The first census of agriculture was conducted in 1846. Between 1846 and 1960, eight censuses were conducted, at intervals of 10 to 15 years. As one of the six founding countries of the European Union (EU), Belgium has been organizing censuses of agriculture harmonized with EU standards and requirements since 1960. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2020", ". The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2020. The Census of Agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Bulgaria \nThe first census of land ownership in Bulgaria was carried out in 1897. Subsequent censuses of agriculture were held in 1934 (under the general census of population), 1946, 1993, 2003, 2010 and 2020. The last census of agriculture, carried out in 2020, was the third one that complied with EU legislation and the second to be carried out after Bulgaria acceded to the EU.", "Croatia", "The first census of agriculture since independence was conducted in Croatia in 2003. Previously, a comprehensive census of agriculture was undertaken in 1960, while in 1969, the census of agriculture was conducted using the sample method. In 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001, the enumeration of agricultural holdings was conducted in the framework of the Population Census. A Farm Structure Survey (FSS), was conducted in Croatia in 2010 on a sample basis", ". A Farm Structure Survey (FSS), was conducted in Croatia in 2010 on a sample basis. A Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM) was carried out together with the FSS 2010. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2020.", "Czechia \nCzechia participated in the census rounds 1930, 1970, 1980 and 1990 as part of Czechoslovakia, the federal state formed by Czechia and Slovakia. These were followed by censuses of agriculture carried out in 2000, 2010 and 2020. The Census of Agriculture 2010 was conducted together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Denmark \nDenmark has participated in census rounds since 1930. In the following years, the agricultural surveys were conducted as censuses (on a complete enumeration basis): until 1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1999, 2010 and 2020. A Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM) was carried out in 2011 to complete the data collected in the 2010 Census of Agriculture (or Farm Structure Survey, FSS).", "Estonia \nThe Census of Agriculture 2020 was the seventh one to be conducted in Estonia. The previous ones were conducted in 1919, 1925, 1929, 1939 and 2001, 2010.\n\nFinland \nThe first census of agriculture in Finland was conducted in 1910. Since then, censuses of agriculture have been conducted almost every ten years. The latest ones were carried out in 1959, 1969, 1990, 1999/2000 and 2020/2021. The eleventh and last one was carried out in 2020/2021.", "France \nThe last census of agriculture was conducted in France in 2020. Previous censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1955, 1970, 1979, 1988, 2000 and 2010. The first census of agriculture was carried out only in France, in Europe. In French territories (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Réunion and Martinique), censuses of agriculture were conducted starting from 1970.", "Germany \nBeginning with 1949, censuses of agriculture have been carried out in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1960, 1971 and 1979. The 1991 census of agriculture was the first carried out in unified Germany, followed by the ones conducted in 1999, 2010 and 2020. The census of agriculture 2010 was conducted together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Greece \nThe first census of agriculture was conducted in 1950. Since 1950, five censuses of agriculture have been held, in 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 1999/2000, 2009/2010 and 2021, the latter postponed from 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The 2009/2010 census of agriculture, was conducted simultaneously with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Hungary \nThe first census of agriculture was conducted in Hungary in 1895, followed by the second one in 1935. Starting from 1972, censuses of agriculture were conducted regularly, in line with the ten-year rounds of the WCA, in 1972, 1981, 1991, 2000, 2010 and 2020. The Census of Agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Iceland \nThe Census of Agriculture 2010 was the first one conducted in Iceland. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2020, sourced mainly from administrative records.\n\nIreland \nIreland participated in all census rounds. Censuses of agriculture were conducted annually between 1847 and 1953, and every five years from 1960 to 1980. The 1985 Census of Agriculture was cancelled on budgetary grounds and the next censuses were undertaken in 1991, 2000, 2010 and 2020.", "Italy \nThe census of agriculture is carried out every ten years in Italy. Seven censuses of agriculture have been conducted, in the years 1961, 1970, 1982, 1990, 2000, 2010 and the latest in 2021.", "Latvia", "During the first Republic, in Latvia, six censuses of agriculture were carried out, in: 1920, 1923, 1929, 1935, 1937 and 1939. The first census of agriculture of Latvia was carried out in compliance with the requirements of EU legislation took place in 2001, followed by FSSs conducted (on sample basis) in 2003, 2005 and 2007. The last two censuses of agriculture were conducted in 2010 and 2020. The census of agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM)", ".", "Lithuania \nThe first census of agriculture in Lithuania was conducted in 1930. The second one, in independent Lithuania, was conducted in 2003. The third census of agriculture was carried out in 2010, after Lithuania's accession to the EU. The last census of agriculture was carried out in 2020. The Census of Agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Luxembourg \nLuxembourg has participated in census rounds since the 1950. A census of agriculture covering crops and livestock is undertaken annually, following almost the same criteria and definitions since 1953. Until 2010, the censuses were organized using an indirect data collection approach (that is, via municipalities). The censuses of agriculture 2010 and 2020 were conducted based on direct data collection.", "Malta \nBetween 1949 and 1954, censuses of agriculture were carried out in Malta every year. The next ones were carried out in 1956, 1960, 1968/1969, 1979, 1982/1983 and 2001, followed by sample-based FSS in 2003, 2005 and 2007. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2020/2021. The Census of Agriculture 2010 was carried out in conjunction with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).\n\nMontenegro \nCensuses of agriculture in Montenegro were conducted in 1931, 1960 and 2010.", "Montenegro \nCensuses of agriculture in Montenegro were conducted in 1931, 1960 and 2010.\n\nThe Netherlands \nFrom 1934, a census of agriculture has been carried out almost every year in the Netherlands. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2020. The 2010 Census of Agriculture, was conducted together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM). In recent years, the census of agriculture is conducted annually with the help of administrative registers and CAWI.", "North Macedonia \nThe country conducted its first census of agriculture in 2007.\n\nNorway \nThe first census of agriculture was carried out in Norway in conjunction with the census of population (CP) in 1835. Separate censuses devoted exclusively to agriculture were conducted in 1907, 1918, 1929, 1939, 1949, 1959, 1969, 1979, 1989, 1999, 2010 and the latest in 2020. The census of agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Poland \nAnnual June censuses of agriculture, covering the entire population of farms, were conducted from 1946 until 1988. Next censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1996, 2002, 2010 and the latest in 2020. The census of agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Portugal", "The first exhaustive, systematic and organized statistical data collection on the agriculture of Portugal took place in 1934, with the \"General inventory of livestock and poultry\", which was later repeated in 1940 and 1972. In Portugal's Mainland, censuses of agriculture (farm surveys) were held in 1952–1954, 1968 and 1979, while in 1965, a census was conducted on agricultural holdings in the adjacent islands (Azores and Madeira)", ". The first General Census on Agriculture was carried out in 1989, exhaustively and simultaneously across all regions of the country, and was harmonized with the EU. This was followed by the General Census of Agriculture carried out in 1999, 2009 and 2019/2020. The 2009 census of agriculture was carried out together with the survey on agricultural production methods (SAPM).", "Republic of Moldova \nThe General Census of Agriculture (GAC) 2011 was the first comprehensive census of agriculture carried out in the Republic of Moldova. Until 2011, only specialized censuses of agriculture were conducted, such as the census of sown area in 1985, the livestock census in 1992, and the census of permanent crops in 1994.", "Romania \nRomania conducted its first regular census of agriculture in 1941 (together with the population census), followed in 1948 by a general census of agriculture. The third General Agricultural Census (GAC) was conducted in 2002, after more than 50 years. The last GACs were carried out in 2010 and 2020/2021.", "Russia \nThe first All-Russian Census of Agriculture was conducted by the Russian Empire in 1916, and the next in 1917. The last large-scale census was conducted in Russia during the Soviet period in 1920. The 2006 All-Russia Census of Agriculture was the first comprehensive census of agriculture conducted in the country. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2016.", "Serbia \nThe last comprehensive census of agriculture in the Republic of Serbia was carried out in 2012. The previous census of agriculture was conducted in 1960. Between these two censuses, basic structural data on agriculture were collected within the Population Censuses.", "Slovakia \nThe first census of agriculture was conducted in the Slovak Republic in 2001, followed by those carried out in 2010 and 2020/2021. The census of agriculture 2010 was conducted in conjunction with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Slovenia", "Two independent censuses of agriculture were conducted by complete enumeration in Slovenia before the year 2000: the first was in 1930 and the second in 1960. In 1969, a sample census of agriculture was carried out. In 1971, 1981 and 1991, censuses of agricultural holdings were conducted as a component of population censuses. The first census of agriculture to be carried out in the independent Republic of Slovenia took place in 2000; the second in 2010, and the most recent one was conducted in 2020.", "Spain \nThe first census of agriculture in Spain was carried out in 1962 and, since then, censuses of agriculture were conducted in 1972, 1982, 1989, 1999, 2009 and 2020/2021. The census of agriculture 2009 was conducted together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Sweden \nThe Swedish accession to the EU in 1995 created the need to adapt national agricultural statistics to EU legislation. Until 2001, Sweden compiled FSSs annually, switching every year between EU and national legislation. The last two censuses of agriculture were conducted in 2010 and 2020. The census of agriculture 2010 was conducted together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "Switzerland", "Switzerland has a long tradition of conducting censuses in the area of agriculture. From 1955, the census of agriculture, conducted every five years, was the main source of information. A turning point came in 1966, with the introduction of farm surveys based on administrative sources. Switzerland has a yearly census for the main agricultural topics like farmland, livestock and labour force. The main data source is the declaration for direct payments for farmers", ". The main data source is the declaration for direct payments for farmers. The last two censuses of agriculture were conducted in 2010 and 2020. The 2010 census of agriculture was carried out together with a thematic survey (on holdings' labour force and characteristics related to agricultural production methods) and the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).", "United Kingdom \nA census of agriculture is conducted in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) since 1866. The UK has participated in the ten-yearly census rounds since 1930, with a selected year. A census of agriculture is carried out once every ten years, 2021 being the most recent (delayed by Covid-19). The census of agriculture 2010 was carried out together with the Survey on Agricultural Production Methods (SAPM).\n\nOceania", "American Samoa", "The U.S. Bureau of the Census conducted the first Census of Agriculture in this U.S. territory in 1920, as part of the decennial Population and Housing Census (PHC). Subsequent censuses of agriculture were carried out every ten years. Since 1998, American Samoa was included in the Five-Year Agriculture Census Program. The next census was carried out in 2003", ". The next census was carried out in 2003. The 2018 Census of Agriculture was the twelfth census to be conducted in American Samoa, and the fourth to be conducted strictly as an independent census of agriculture since the one undertaken in 1998.", "Australia", "Agricultural commodity data have been collected in Australia since the 1860s. The census of agriculture was usually conducted annually at the end of March, until 1996–1997, when the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), to ensure better alignment with other ABS surveys, changed the collection period to 30 June. The current strategy envisages a five-year-interval census with sample surveys in inter-censal years. Subsequent censuses of agriculture have been conducted on a quinquennial basis since 2000/2001", ". Subsequent censuses of agriculture have been conducted on a quinquennial basis since 2000/2001. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2021.", "Cook Islands \nThe first census of agriculture in the Cook Islands was conducted in 1988 followed by the ones conducted in 2000, 2011 and 2021/2022.\n\nFiji \nThe 2020 National Agricultural Census (NAC) in Fiji, was the fifth to be conducted by the country. Before then, Fiji had undertaken three NACs: in 1968, 1978, 1991, and 2009.", "Guam", "The U.S. Bureau of the Census conducted the first census of agriculture in this U.S. territory in 1920, as part of the decennial Population and Housing Census (PHC) of that year. From 1930 through 1960, censuses of agriculture continued to be carried out in conjunction with the decennial PHC program. Beginning in 1964, censuses on Guam were conducted as part of the quinquennial censuses of agriculture, and have been conducted on a five-year cycle for years ending in 2 and 7", ". The 2018 census was the fifteenth census of agriculture to be conducted by Guam. Guam was planning to conduct its next agricultural census in 2022.", "Kiribati\n\nThe country conducted its first census of agriculture in 2020 by including an agriculture module in its population census 2020.\n\nMarshall Islands\n\nThe country conducted its first census of agriculture in 2021 by including an agriculture module in its population census 2021.\n\nMicronesia \nThe Federated States of Micronesia conducted in 2016 its first agriculture census since the country became a sovereign nation.\n\nNauru", "Nauru\n\nThe country conducted its first census of agriculture in 2021 by including an agriculture module in its population census 2021.\n\nNew Zealand \nNew Zealand has participated in the World Programme of Agriculture since the 1950 round. From 1955-1956 until 1987, a full postal census of agriculture was conducted annually. Four other censuses were conducted in 1990, 1994, 2002, 2012 and 2017. The country was planning a new census in 2022.", "Niue \nThe first census of agriculture in Niue was conducted in 1989. The second one was carried out after 20 years, in 2009. The last census of agriculture was conducted in 2021.", "Northern Mariana Islands", "The first census of agriculture in the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) was conducted in 1970, in conjunction with the decennial population census. This practice continued in 1980 and 1990. However, in 1998, the CNMI carried out the first agriculture census separately from the population census. The self-standing agriculture census was conducted by NASS", ". The self-standing agriculture census was conducted by NASS. The 2002 Census of Agriculture in the CNMI, the fifth in the series, was synchronized with the quinquennial programme of censuses of agriculture followed in the mainland United States of America. The census of agriculture 2018 was the last census in the CNMI. The next census was planned in 2022.", "Palau \nThe 2015 Census of Population, Housing and Agriculture (CPHA) was the first census in Palau in which items on agricultural activities of households were included in a census. The country conducted a new census of agriculture in 2020 by including an agriculture module in its population census 2020.\n\nPapua New Guinea\n\nPapua New Guinea conducted its last census of agriculture in 1961/1962.", "Papua New Guinea\n\nPapua New Guinea conducted its last census of agriculture in 1961/1962.\n\nSamoa \nSamoa conducted its first census of agriculture in 1989. The second census was carried out in 1999, the third one in 2009, and the fourth one in 2019.\n\nTonga \nThe first census of agriculture in Tonga was conducted in 1985. The second one was carried out in 2001, and the third one was undertaken after 14 years, in 2015.", "Tuvalu \nThe country conducted its first census of agriculture in 2017 by including an agriculture module in its population census 2017.\n\nVanuatu \nThe first census of agriculture in Vanuatu was conducted in 1983, and the second in 1993. The third census of agriculture was undertaken in 2007. The fourth census was underway in early 2023 but was put on hold in March 2023 due to the two Category 4 cyclones Judy and Kevin that made landfall over the country.\n\nSee also", "See also \n\n List of national and international statistical services\n Intercensal estimate\n World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020\n\nSources\n\nReferences \n\nAgricultural censuses" ]

[ "The Gujarati people, or Gujaratis, are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who reside in or can trace their ancestry or heritage to a region of the Indian subcontinent primarily centered in the present-day western Indian state of Gujarat. They primarily speak Gujarati, an Indo-Aryan language. While Gujaratis mainly inhabit Gujarat, they have a diaspora worldwide. Gujaratis in India and the diaspora are prominent entrepreneurs and industrialists and maintain high social capital", ". Many notable independence activists were Gujarati, including Mahatma Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel.", "Geographical locations", "Despite significant migration primarily for economic reasons, most Gujaratis in India live in the state of Gujarat in Western India. Gujaratis also form a significant part of the populations in the neighboring metropolis of Mumbai and union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, formerly colonial possessions of Portugal. There are very large Gujarati immigrant communities in other parts of India, most notably in Mumbai, Pune, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore and other cities like Kochi", ". All throughout history. Gujaratis have earned a reputation as being India's greatest merchants, industrialists and business entrepreneurs and have therefore been at forefront of migrations all over the world, particularly to regions that were part of the British Empire such as Fiji, Hong Kong, Malaya, East Africa and South Africa. Diasporas and transnational networks in many of these countries date back to more than a century", ". Diasporas and transnational networks in many of these countries date back to more than a century. In recent decades, larger numbers of Gujaratis have migrated to English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States.", "History\n\nIn anthropological surveys conducted in India about 60% of the people claim that their community is a migrant to their state or region. In Gujarat that number is around 70%. In the state, 124 Hindu communities out of 186 claim a migrant past. For example, the Audichya Brahmins claim migration from present day Uttar Pradesh. With Muslims in Gujarat, 67 out of 86 communities claim a migrant past.", "Early European travelers like Ludovico di Varthema (15th century) traveled to Gujarat and wrote on the people of Gujarat. He noted that Jainism had a strong presence in Gujarat and opined that Gujaratis were deprived of their kingdom by Mughals because of their kind heartedness. His description of Gujaratis was:\n\nIn 1790 and 1791, an epidemic devastated numerous parts of Gujarat during which 100,000 Gujaratis were killed in Surat alone.", "An outbreak of bubonic plague in 1812 has been claimed to have killed about half the Gujarati population.", "Gujarati mercantile history", "Ports on the western coast of India have been engaged in trade for millennia. During the medieval and early modern period, ports in Gujarat such as Diu, Surat, Mandavi, Cambay, and Porbandar became important.Gujarati merchants operating from these ports operated not only in India Ocean but also in Southeast Asia.It is estimated that there were 1000 Gujarati merchants resident in Malacca in fifteenth century with a thousand others operating in the Bay of Bengal and Indonesian archipelago", ". Most of the Gujarati traders were Muslims but there were Hindu and Jains too despite religious prohibitions. Gujarati merchants in operating in southeast asia were primarily involved exporting India cotton to southeast Asia in exchange for spices from the Islands which were then exported to Persia.Surat was the principal port for this trade. Gujaratis played a big part in the Indian ocean trade", ".Surat was the principal port for this trade. Gujaratis played a big part in the Indian ocean trade. The Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama noted presence of Muslim and Hindu navigators and merchants from Gujarat in Zanzibar and Pemba and along the East Africa coast in towns such as Kilwa, Bagamoyo, Mombasa and Malindi. International trade by Gujarati merchants increased with the advent of the Gujarat sultanate at the beginning of the 1400s", ". The trade involved gold, ivory and slaves from Africa in exchange for cotton and glass beads from India. The important Gujarati traders active in the Indian Ocean trade at different periods of history included those from Jain, Hindu Bhatia, and Lohana, muslim Khoja, Memon, Bohra, and the Parsee communities. The Jains were active traders during the Solannki period on trade with Arabian and Red sea ports.The Portuguese also preferred Jains to the Arab traders.", "Social stratification", "Orthodox Gujarati society, which was mercantile by nature, was historically organized along ethno-religious lines and shaped into existence on the strength of its Mahajan (\"guild assemblies\"), and for its institution of Nagarsheth (\"head of the guild assembly\"); a 16th-century Mughal system akin to medieval European guilds which self-regulated the mercantile affairs of multi-ethnic, multi-religious communities in the Gujarati bourgeoisie long before municipal state politics was introduced", ". Historically, Gujaratis belonging to numerous faiths and castes, thrived in an inclusive climate surcharged by a degree of cultural syncretism, in which Hindus and Jains dominated occupations such as shroffs and brokers whereas, Muslims, Hindus and Parsis largely dominated sea shipping trade. This led to religious interdependence, tolerance, assimilation and community cohesion ultimately becoming the hallmark of modern-day Gujarati society.", "Religion\nThe Gujarati people are predominantly Hindu. There are also minority of Muslims, Jains, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jews, and followers of the Baháʼí Faith.", "Hindu communities", "The major communities in Gujarat are traditional agriculturalist (such as Patidar, Koli), traders (such as Bania, Bhatia, Soni), sailor and seafood exporters Kharwa, Artisan & Business communities (such as Prajapati, Variya family, Sindhi Mochi, Brahmin communities (such as Joshi, Anavil, Nagar, Modh, Shrimali), other farming communities (such as Charan, Rabari, Bharvad), Genealogist communities (such as Barots), Kshatriya communities (such as Koli Thakor, Bhanushali, Choudhary jats, Rajputs, Kathi Darbars", ", Kshatriya communities (such as Koli Thakor, Bhanushali, Choudhary jats, Rajputs, Kathi Darbars, Karadia, Nadoda, Dabhi, Chudasama, (Ahir, Gurjar), Lohana, Maher), Tribal communities (such as Bhils, Meghwal and Kolis, Gamit, Konkani, varli) and Devipujak (such as Dataniya, Dantani, Chunara, Patni)", ".", "Muslim communities\n\nThe majority of Gujarati Muslims are Sunni Muslim. Minority communities include Twelver, Nizari Ismailis, Daudi Bohra, Khoja, Pathans,Shaikhs, Maliks .", "Diaspora", "Gujaratis have a long tradition of seafaring and a history of overseas migration to foreign lands, to Yemen Oman Bahrain, Kuwait, Zanzibar and other countries in the Persian Gulf since a mercantile culture resulted naturally from the state's proximity to the Arabian Sea. The countries with the largest Gujarati populations are Pakistan, United Kingdom, United States, Canada and many countries in Southern and East Africa", ". Globally, Gujaratis are estimated to comprise around 33% of the Indian diaspora worldwide and can be found in 129 of 190 countries listed as sovereign nations by the United Nations. Non Resident Gujaratis (NRGs) maintain active links with the homeland in the form of business, remittance, philanthropy, and through their political contribution to state governed domestic affairs.", "Gujarati parents in the diaspora are not comfortable with the possibility of their language not surviving them. In a study, 80% of Malayali parents felt that \"children would be better off with English\", compared to 36% of Kannada parents and only 19% of Gujarati parents.\n\nPakistan", "There is a large community of Gujarati Muslims mainly settled in the Pakistani province of Sindh for generations. Community leaders say there are 3,500,000 speakers of Gujarati language in Karachi. Significant Gujarati communities existed here before 1947 Partition of India. Many of them migrated after the Partition of India and subsequent creation of Pakistan in 1947", ". Many of them migrated after the Partition of India and subsequent creation of Pakistan in 1947. These Pakistani Gujaratis belong mainly to the Ismāʿīlī, Khoja, Dawoodi Bohra, Chundrigar, Charotar Sunni Vohra, khatri Muslims Kutchi Memons and Khatiawari Memons; however, many Gujaratis are also a part of Pakistan's small Hindu community. A number of them belong to the dalit community", ". Famous Gujaratis of Pakistan include Muhammed Ali Jinnah (father of Pakistan), Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (sixth Prime Minister of Pakistan), Sir Adamjee Haji Dawood (philanthropist), Abu Bakr Osman Mitha (Major-General), Abdul Razzak Yaqoob (philanthropist), Javed Miandad (Pakistani cricketer), Abdul Sattar Edhi (humanitarian), Abdul Gaffar Billoo (philanthropist), Ramzan Chhipa (philanthropist), Tapu Javeri (Pakistani fashion and art photographer), Pervez Hoodbhoy (Pakistani nuclear physicist)", ", Pervez Hoodbhoy (Pakistani nuclear physicist), Dipak Bardolikar (poet)", ".", "Sri Lanka", "There is relatively a large number of Gujarati Muslims settled in Sri Lanka. They mainly represent the Dawoodi Bhora and the Memon community, and there is also a minority of Sindhi people in Sri Lanka. These communities are mainly into trading businesses and lately, they have diversified into different trades and sectors. Gujarati Muslims started their trading route between India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the late 1880s. Great number of Gujarati Muslims migrated after the Partition of India in 1947", ". Great number of Gujarati Muslims migrated after the Partition of India in 1947. These communities are well known for their social welfare activities in Sri Lanka. In addition, Gujarati Muslims have shown their excellence in business and various trades by developing large enterprises in Sri Lanka. Few of them are: Expolanka and Brandix. Members of these community maintain their Indian Gujarati culture in their every day life", ". Members of these community maintain their Indian Gujarati culture in their every day life. Bhoras speak the Gujarati language and follow Shia Islam and the Memon people speak the Memon language and they follow the Sunni Hanafi Islam.", "United States", "The United States has the second-largest Gujarati diaspora after Pakistan. The highest concentration of the population of over 200,000 is in the New York City Metropolitan Area, notably in the growing Gujarati diasporic center of India Square in Jersey City, New Jersey, and Edison in Middlesex County in Central New Jersey. Significant immigration from India to the United States started after the landmark Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. Early immigrants after 1965 were highly educated professionals", ". Early immigrants after 1965 were highly educated professionals. Since US immigration laws allow sponsoring immigration of parents, children and particularly siblings on the basis of family reunion, the numbers rapidly swelled. A number of Gujarati are twice or thrice-migrant because they came directly from the former British colonies of East Africa or from East Africa via Great Britain respectively. Given the Gujarati propensity for business enterprise, a number of them opened shops and motels", ". Given the Gujarati propensity for business enterprise, a number of them opened shops and motels. While they may make up only around 0.1% of the population in the United States, Gujarati Americans control over 40% of the hospitality market in the country, for a combined net worth of over US$40 billion and employing over one million employees. Gujaratis, especially the Patidar samaj, also dominate as franchisees of fast food restaurant chains such as Subway and Dunkin' Donuts", ". The descendants of the Gujarati immigrant generation have also made high levels of advancement into professional fields, including as physicians, engineers and politicians.", "Notable Gujarati Americans include Sunita Williams (NASA Astronaut), Ami Bera (United States Congress), Reshma Saujani (American politician), Sonal Shah (economist to White House), Raj Shah (White House Deputy Press Secretary under President Trump), Rohit Vyas (Indian American journalist),", "Bharat Desai (CEO Syntel), Vyomesh Joshi (Forbes), Raj Bhavsar (sports) Halim Dhanidina (first Muslim judge of California), Savan Kotecha (Grammy nominated American songwriter), and Hollywood actresses, Sheetal Sheth and Noureen DeWulf. Kal Penn, actor, author, and civil servant.", "Europe\n\nUnited Kingdom", "Gujaratis have had a long involvement with Britain. The original East India Company set up a factory (trading post) in the port city of Surat in Gujarat in 1615. These were the beginnings of first real British involvement with India that eventually led to the formation of the British Raj.", "The third largest overseas diaspora of Gujaratis, after Pakistan and United States, is in the United Kingdom. At a population of around 800,000 Gujaratis form almost more than half of the Indian community who live in the UK (1.2 million). Gujaratis first went to the UK in the 19th century with the establishment of the British Raj in India", ". Prominent members of this community such as Shyamji Krishna Varma played a vital role in exerting political pressure upon colonial powers during the Indian independence movement.", "The present day Gujarati diaspora in the UK is mostly the second and third generation descendants of \"twice-over\" immigrants from the former British colonies of East Africa, Portugal, and Indian Ocean Islands. Most of them despite being British Subjects had restricted access to Britain after successive Immigration acts of 1962, 1968 and 1971", ". Most were, however, eventually admitted on the basis of a Quota voucher system or, in case of Uganda, as refugees after the expulsion order by the Ugandan ruler, Idi Amin in August 1972.", "Gujaratis in Britain are regarded as affluent middle-class peoples who have assimilated into the milieu of British society. They are celebrated for revolutionizing the corner shop, and energising the British economy which changed Britain's antiquated retail laws forever. Demographically, Hindus form a majority along with a significant number of Jains and Muslims, and smaller numbers of Gujarati Christians", ". They are predominantly settled in metropolitan areas like Greater London, East Midlands, West Midlands, Lancashire and Yorkshire. Cities with significant Gujarati populations include Leicester and London boroughs of Harrow, Barnet and Brent. There is also a small, but vibrant Gujarati-speaking Parsi community of Zoroastrians present in the country, dating back to the bygone era of Dadabhai Navroji, Shapurji Saklatvala and Pherozeshah Mehta", ". Both Hindus and Muslims have established caste or community associations, temples, and mosques to cater for the needs of their respective communities. A well known temple popular with Gujaratis is the BAPS Swaminarayan Temple in Neasden, London. A popular mosque that caters for the Gujarati Muslim community in Leicester is the Masjid Umar. Leicester has a Jain Temple that is also the headquarters of Jain Samaj Europe", ". Leicester has a Jain Temple that is also the headquarters of Jain Samaj Europe. The Shree Prajapati Association is a charity, already thriving in East Africa, which has 13 branches in the U.K. and is strongly dependent on support from the Gujarati community in", "Gujarati Hindus in the UK have maintained many traditions from their homeland. The community remains religious with more than 100 temples catering for their religious needs. All major Hindu festivals such as Navratri, Dassara, and Diwali are celebrated with a lot of enthusiasm even from the generations brought up in UK", ". Gujarati Hindus also maintain their caste affiliation to some extent with most major castes having their own community association in each population center with significant Gujarati population such as Leicester and London suburbs. Patidars form the largest community in the diaspora including Kutch Leva Patels, followed closely by Lohanas of Saurashtra origin", ". Gujarati Rajputs from various regional backgrounds are affiliated with several independent British organizations dependent on caste such as Shree Maher Samaj UK, and the Gujarati Arya Kshatriya Mahasabha-UK.", "Endogamy remains important to Gujarati Muslims in UK with the existence of matrimonial services specifically dedicated to their community. Gujarati Muslim society in the UK have kept the custom of Jamat Bandi, literally meaning communal solidarity. This system is the traditional expression of communal solidarity. It is designed to regulate the affairs of the community and apply sanctions against infractions of the communal code", ". Gujarati Muslim communities, such as the Ismāʿīlī, Khoja, Dawoodi Bohra, Sunni Bohra, and Memon have caste associations, known as jamats that run mosques and community centers for their respective communities.", "India becoming the predominant IT powerhouse in the 1990s has led to waves of new immigration by Gujaratis, and other Indians with software skills to the UK.\n\nIn 2005, the Gujarat Studies Association was formed in order to raise awareness about research being conducted on the Gujaratis - their patron is Lord Bhikhu Parekh.", "Belgium\nTwo Gujarati business communities, the Palanpuri Jains and the Kathiawadi Patels from Surat, have come to dominate the diamond industry of Belgium. They have largely displaced the Orthodox Jewish community which previously dominated this industry in Belgium.", "Portugal\nThe 1961 takeover of Portuguese Goa by India made life difficult for the Indian population in the then Portuguese colony of Mozambique. The independence of Mozambique like in other African countries led to many Gujaratis to move to Portugal. Many Hindu Gujaratis have moved from Portugal to Great Britain since the 1990s.\n\nCanada", "Canada, just like its southern neighbour, is home to a large Gujarati community. As per the 2021 Canadian census, Gujarati Canadians number approximately 210,000 and account for roughly 0.6% of Canada's population. The majority of them live in Toronto and its suburbs - home to the second largest Gujarati community in North America, after the New York Metropolitan Area", ". Gujarati Hindus are the second largest linguistic/religious group in Canada's Indian community after Punjabi Sikhs, and Toronto is home to the largest Navratri raas garba festival in North America. The Muslim Ismaili Khoja form a significant part of the Canadian diaspora estimated to be about 80,000 in numbers overall. Most of them arrived in Canada in the 1970s as either refugees or immigrants from Uganda and other countries of East Africa.", "Notable Gujarati Canadians include Naheed Nenshi (36th Mayor of Calgary), Bharat Masrani (CEO of TD Bank Group), Zain Verjee (CNN journalist), Ali Velshi (former CNN, current MSNBC journalist), Rizwan Manji (Canadian actor), Avan Jogia (Canadian actor), Richie Mehta (Canadian film director), Nazneen Contractor (Canadian actress), Ishu Patel (BAFTA-winning Animations director), Arif Virani (Member of Parliament for Parkdale-High Park), Rahim Jaffer (Member of Parliament for Edmonton-Strathcona)", ", Rahim Jaffer (Member of Parliament for Edmonton-Strathcona), Omar Sachedina (CTV News anchor) and Prashant Pathak (Investor and Philanthropist)", ".", "East Africa", "Former British colonies in East Africa had many residents of South Asian descent. The primary immigration was mainly from Gujarat and to a lesser extent from Punjab. They were brought there by the British Empire from India to do clerical work in Imperial service, or unskilled and semi-skilled manual labour such as construction or farm work", ". In the 1890s, 32,000 labourers from British India were brought to the then British East African colonies under indentured labour contracts to work on the construction of the Uganda Railway that started in the Kenyan port city of Mombasa and ended in Kisumu on Kenyan side of Lake Victoria. Most of the surviving Indians returned home, but 6,724 individuals decided to remain in the African Great Lakes after the line's completion.", "Many Asians, particularly the Gujaratis, in these regions were in the trading businesses. They included Gujaratis of all religions as well many of the castes and Quoms. Since the representation of Indians in these occupations was high, stereotyping of Indians in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika as shopkeepers was common. A number of people worked for the British run banks. They also worked in skilled labor occupations, as managers, teachers and administrators", ". They also worked in skilled labor occupations, as managers, teachers and administrators. Gujarati and other South Asians had significant influence on the economy, constituting 1% of the population while receiving a fifth of the national income. For example, in Uganda, the Mehta and Madhvani families controlled the bulk of the manufacturing businesses. Gated ethnic communities served elite healthcare and schooling services", ". Gated ethnic communities served elite healthcare and schooling services. Additionally, the tariff system in Uganda had historically been oriented toward the economic interests of South Asian traders. One of the oldest Jain overseas diaspora was of Gujarat. Their number was estimated at 45,000 at the independence of the East African countries in the early 1960s. Most members of this community belonged to Gujarati speaking Halari Visa Oshwal Jain community originally from the Jamnagar area of Saurashtra.", "The countries of East Africa gained independence from Britain in the early 1960s. At that time most Gujarati and other Asians opted to remain as British Subjects. The African politicians at that time accused Asians of economic exploitation and introduced a policy of Africanization. The 1968 Committee on \"Africanisation in Commerce and Industry\" in Uganda made far-reaching Indophobic proposals", ". A system of work permits and trade licenses was introduced in 1969 to restrict the role of Indians in economic and professional activities. Indians were segregated and discriminated against in all walks of life. During the middle of the 1960s many Asians saw the writing on the wall and started moving either to UK or India. However, restrictive British immigration policies stopped a mass exodus of East African Asians until Idi Amin came to power in 1971", ". He exploited pre-existing Indophobia and spread propaganda against Indians involving stereotyping and scapegoating the Indian minority. Indians were stereotyped as \"only traders\" and \"inbred\" to their profession. Indians were labelled as \"dukawallas\" (an occupational term that degenerated into an anti-Indian slur during Amin's time), and stereotyped as \"greedy, conniving\", without any racial identity or loyalty but \"always cheating, conspiring and plotting\" to subvert Uganda", ". Amin used this propaganda to justify a campaign of \"de-Indianization\", eventually resulting in the expulsion and ethnic cleansing of Uganda's Indian minority.", "Kenya", "Gujarati and other Indians started moving to the Kenya colony at the end of the 19th century when the British colonial authorities started opening up the country with the laying down of the railroads. A small colony of merchants, however, had existed on the port cities such Mombasa on the Kenyan coast for hundreds of years prior to that. The immigrants who arrived with the British were the first ones to open up businesses in rural Kenya a century ago", ". These dukanwalas or shopkeepers were mainly Gujarati (Mostly Jains and Hindus and a minority of Muslims). Over the following decades the population, mainly Gujarati but also a sizable number of Punjabi, increased in size. The population started declining after the independence of Kenya in the 1960s. At that time the majority of Gujaratis opted for British citizenship and eventually moved there, especially to cities like Leicester or London suburbs", ". Famous Kenyans of Gujarati heritage who contributed greatly to the development of East Africa include Thakkar Bapa, Manu Chandaria, Atul Shah, Baloobhai Patel, Bhimji Depar Shah (Forbes), Naushad Merali (Forbes), and Indian philanthropist, Alibhai Mulla Jeevanjee, who played a large role in the development of modern-day Kenya during colonial rule.", "Uganda", "There is a small community of people of Indian origin living in Uganda, but the community is far smaller than before 1972 when Ugandan ruler Idi Amin expelled most Asians, including Gujaratis. In the late 19th century, mostly Sikhs, were brought on three-year contracts, with the aid of Imperial British contractor Alibhai Mulla Jeevanjee to build the Uganda Railway from Mombasa to Kisumu by 1901, and to Kampala by 1931", ". Some died, while others returned to India after the end of their contracts, but few chose to stay. They were joined by Gujarati traders called \"passenger Indians\", both Hindu and Muslim free migrants who came to serve the economic needs of the indentured labourers, and to capitalise on the economic opportunities.", "After the 1972 expulsion, most Indians and Gujaratis migrated to the United Kingdom. Due to the efforts of the Aga Khan, many Khoja Nizari Ismaili refugees from Uganda were offered asylum in Canada.\n\nTanzania", "Tanzania\n\nIndians have a long history in Tanzania starting with the arrival of Gujarati traders in the 19th century. There are currently over 50,000 people of Indian origin in Tanzania. Many of them are traders and they control a sizeable portion of the Tanzanian economy. They came to gradually control the trade in Zanzibar. Many of the buildings constructed then still remain in Stone Town, the focal trading point on the island.\n\nSouth Africa", "The Indian community in South Africa is more than a 150 years old and is concentrated in and around the city of Durban", ". The vast majority of immigrant pioneer Gujaratis who came in the latter half of the 19th century were passenger Indians who paid for their own travel fare and means of transport to arrive and settle South Africa, in pursuit of fresh trade and career opportunities and as such were treated as British subjects, unlike the fate of a class of Indian indentured labourers who were transported to work on the sugarcane plantations of Natal Colony in dire conditions", ". Passenger Indians, who initially operated in Durban, expanded inland, to the South African Republic (Transvaal), establishing communities in settlements on the main road between Johannesburg and Durban. After wealthy Gujarati Muslim merchants began experiencing discrimination from repressive colonial legislation in Natal, they sought the help of one young lawyer, Mahatma Gandhi to represent the case of a Memon businessman", ". Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri was consequently elected the first president of the South African Indian Congress.", "Indians in South Africa could traditionally be bifurcated as either indentured labourers (largely from Tamil Nadu, with smaller amounts from UP and Bihar) and merchants (exclusively from Gujarat).", "Peculiarities of the South African Gujarati diaspora include high amounts of Southern Gujaratis and a disproportionately high amount of Surti Sunni Vohra and Khatiawari Memons. Post apartheid, a sizeable number of new immigrants have settled in various parts of South Africa, including many Gujarati.", "Indians have played an important role in the anti-apartheid movement of South Africa. Many were incarcerated alongside Nelson Mandela following the Rivonia Trial, and many became martyred fighting to end racial discrimination", ". Notable South African Indians of Gujarati heritage include Marxist freedom fighters such as Ahmed Timol (activist), Yusuf Dadoo (activist), Ahmed Kathrada (activist), Amina Cachalia (activist) and Dullah Omar (activist), as well as Ahmed Deedat (missionary), Imran Garda (Al Jazeera English) and Hashim Amla (cricketer).", "Mozambique", "In the second half of the 1800s, many Gujarati Hindus belonging to the Vaniya community migrated to the South of Mozambique, in particular to the provinces of Inhambane and Lourenço Marques to run businesses. This was followed by migration of Hindus of various artisan castes from Diu to the region", ". This was followed by migration of Hindus of various artisan castes from Diu to the region. Later in 1800s, immigration restrictions imposed by the colonial authorities in neighboring South Africa and the Boer republic made Mozambique the preferred destination for many Gujarati Hindus from the Saurashtra (namely, Rajkot and Porbandar) and Surat regions.", "The 1961 takeover of Portuguese Goa by India made life difficult for the Indian population in the then Portuguese colony of Mozambique. The independence of Mozambique like in other African countries led to many Gujaratis to move to Portugal.\n\nOman", "Oman, holding a strategically important position at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, has been the primary focus of trade and commerce for medieval Gujarati merchants for much of its history and Gujaratis, along with various other ethnic groups, founded and settled its capital port city, Muscat. Some of the earliest Indian immigrants to settle in Oman were the Bhatias of Kutch, who have had a powerful presence in Oman dating back to the 16th century", ". At the turn of the 19th century, Gujaratis wielded enough clout that Faisal bin Turki, the great-grandfather of the current ruler, spoke Gujarati and Swahili along with his native Arabic and Oman's sultan Syed Said (1791-1856) was persuaded to shift his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, more than two thousand miles from the Arabian mainland, on the recommendation of Shivji Topan and Bhimji families who lent money to the Sultan", ". In modern times, business tycoon Kanaksi Khimji, from the famous Khimji family of Gujarat was conferred title of Sheikh by the Sultan, the first ever use of the title for a member of the Hindu community. The Muscati Mahajan is one of the oldest merchants associations founded more than a century ago.", "Southeast Asia\nGujaratis had a flourishing trade with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries, and played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in the region. Miller (2010) presented a theory that the indigenous scripts of Sumatra (Indonesia), Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippines are descended from an early form of the Gujarati script. Tomé Pires reported a presence of a thousand Gujaratis in Malacca (Malaysia) prior to 1512. The Gujarati language continues to be spoken in Singapore and Malaysia.", "Hong Kong\nThe Gujarati community in Hong Kong is tiny but nevertheless contributed to progress and growth of Hong Kong over the years.\n\nThe Hong Kong University: \nIn 1911 a Gujarati Parsi businessman in Hong Kong, Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody donated HK$150,000 towards the construction and HK$30,000 towards other costs to build the Hong Kong University.", "Star Ferry: \nDorabjee Naorojee Mithaiwala founded of the Kowloon Ferry Company in 1888 for transporting passengers and cargo (especially bread) between Kowloon and Hong Kong Island. The company was renamed in 1898 to Star Ferry, which today transports passengers throughout Hong Kong.", "Ruttonjee Hospital: \nJehangir Hormusjee Ruttonjee born in a Gujarati Parsi family in Mumbai moved to Hong Kong in 1892 to join his father. Ruttonjee donated a great deal of money to build Ruttonjee Sanatorium, now Ruttonjee Hospital, to fight against tuberculosis.\n\nGujaratis also dominate the diamond trade in the city. As of 2012 350 diamond firms in Hong Kong were owned by Gujaratis.\n\nMalaysia", "Malaysia\n\nThere estimated around 31,500 Gujarati in Malaysia. Most of this community work as traders and settled in the urban parts of Malaysia like Melaka, George Town, Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh.\n\nFiji\nGujaratis in Fiji comprise of an important trading community within the large Indian population.\n\nCulture\n\nLiterature", "The history of Gujarati literature may be traced to 1000 AD. Since then literature has flourished until date. Well known laureates of Gujarati literature are Jhaverchand Meghani, Avinash Vyas, Hemchandracharya, Narsinh Mehta, Gulabdas Broker, Akho, Premanand Bhatt, Shamal Bhatt, Dayaram, Dalpatram, Narmad, Govardhanram Tripathi, Mahatma Gandhi, K. M", ". M. Munshi, Umashankar Joshi, Suresh Joshi, Pannalal Patel, Imamuddin Khanji Babi Saheb (Ruswa Majhalumi), Niranjan Bhagat, Rajendra Keshavlal Shah, Raghuveer Chaudhari and Sitanshu Yashaschandra Mehta.", "Kavi Kant, Kalapi and Abbas Abdulali Vasi are Gujarati language poets. Ardeshar Khabardar, Gujarati-speaking Parsi who was president of Gujarati Sahitya Parishad was a nationalist poet. His poem, Jya Jya Vase Ek Gujarati, Tya Tya Sadakal Gujarat (Wherever a Gujarati resides, there forever is Gujarat) depicts Gujarati ethnic pride and is widely popular in Gujarat.", "Gujarat Vidhya Sabha, Gujarat Sahitya Sabha, and Gujarati Sahitya Parishad are Ahmedabad based literary institutions promoting the spread of Gujarati literature.\nSaraswatichandra is a novel by Govardhanram Tripathi. Writers like Harindra Dave, Suresh Dalal, Jyotindra Dave, Dinkar Joshi, Prahlad Brahmbhatt, Tarak Mehta, Harkisan Mehta, Chandrakant Bakshi, Vinod Bhatt, Kanti Bhatt, Makarand Dave, and Varsha Adalja have influenced Gujarati thinkers.", "Swaminarayan paramhanso, like Bramhanand, Premanand, contributed to Gujarati language literature with prose like Vachanamrut and poetry in the form of bhajans. Kanji Swami a spiritual mystic who was honored with the title, 'Koh-i-Noor of Kathiawar' made literary contributions to Jain philosophy and promoted Ratnatraya.", "Gujarati theatre owes a lot to bhavai. Bhavai is a musical performance of stage plays. Ketan Mehta and Sanjay Leela Bhansali explored artistic use of bhavai in films such as Bhavni Bhavai, Oh Darling! Yeh Hai India and Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam. Dayro (gathering) involves singing and conversation reflecting on human nature.", "Gujarati language is enriched by the Adhyatmik literature written by the Jain scholar, Shrimad Rajchandra and Pandit Himmatlal Jethalal Shah. This literature is both in the form of poetry and prose.\n\nCuisine", "Gujarati food has famously been described as \"the haute cuisine of vegetarianism\" and meals have a subtle balance of sweet, tart and mild hot sensations on the palate. Gujarati Jains, many Hindus and Buddhist in Gujarat are vegetarian. However, many Gujarati Hindu communities such as Ghanchi, Koli Patel, and Kharwa consume fish as part of their diet. Christians, and Muslims have traditionally eaten a variety of meats and seafood, although Muslims don't eat pork and Hindus don't eat beef", ". Gujarati cuisine follows the traditional Indian full meal structure of rice, cooked vegetables, lentil dal or curry and roti. The different types of flatbreads that a Gujarati cooks are rotli or chapati, bhakhri, puri, thepla, rotla, dhebara, maal purah, and puran-pohli", ". Popular snacks such as Khaman, Dhokla, Dhokli, dal-dhokli, Undhiyu, Jalebi, fafda, chevdoh, Muthia, Bhajia, Patra, bhusu, locho, sev , fafda gathiya, vanela gathiya and Sev mamra, Sev Khaman, Dabeli are traditional Gujarati dishes savoured by many communities across the world.", "Khichdi – a mix of rice and mung dal, cooked with spice – is a popular and nutritious dish which has regional variations. Quite often the khichdi is accompanied by Kadhi. It is found satisfying by most Gujaratis, and cooked very regularly in most homes, typically on a busy day due to its ease of cooking. It can also become an elaborate meal such as a thali when served with several other side dishes such as a vegetable curry, yogurt, sabzi shaak, onions, mango pickle and papad.", "Spices have traditionally been made on grinding stones, however, since villages have seen rapid growth and industrialization in recent decades, today people may use a blender or grinder. People from north Gujarat use dry red chili powder, whereas people from south Gujarat prefer using green chili and coriander in their cooking. There is no standard recipe for Gujarati dishes, however the use of tomatoes and lemons is a consistent theme throughout Gujarat.", "Traditionally Gujaratis eat mukhwas at the end of a meal to enhance digestion, and desserts such as aam shrikhand made using mango salad and hung curd are very popular. In many parts of Gujarat, drinking chaas (chilled buttermilk) or soda after lunch or dinner is also quite common.", "Surti delicasies include ghari which is a puri filled with khoa and nuts that is typically eaten during the festival Chandani Padva. Khambhat delicacies include famous sutarfeni – made from fine strands of sweet dough (rice or maida) garnished with pistachios, and halwasan which are hard squares made from broken wheat, khoa, nutmeg and pistachios. A version of English custard is made in Gujarat that uses cornstarch instead of the traditional eggs", ". It is cooked with cardamom and saffron, and served with fruit and sliced almonds. Gujarati families celebrate Sharad Purnima by having dinner with doodh-pauva under moonlight.", "Folk dance and music\nThe folk dances of Gujurat are Garba, Dandiya Padhar, Dangi and Tippani etc. which are done during festivals.", "Gujarati folklore", "Folklores are important part of Gujarati culture. The folktales of Kankavati are religious in nature because they sprung from the ordinary day-to-day human cycle of life independent of, and sometimes deviating from the scriptures. They are part of the Hindu rituals and practices for marriage, baby shower, naming ceremony, the harvest and death, and are not merely religious acts but they reflect the lived life of people in rural and urban societies", ". The anthologies of Dadaji Ni Vato and Raang Chhe Barot are pragmatic with practical and the esoteric wisdom. Saurashtra Ni Rasdhar is a collection of love legends and depicts every shade of love and love is the main emotion which makes human world beautiful because it calls forth patience, responsibility, sense of commitment and dedication. Also the study of Meghani's works is quintessential because he was a trailblazer in exploring the vast unexplored heritage of Gujarati folklore", ". His folktales mirrors milieu of Gujarat, dialects, duhas, decors, humane values, sense of sacrifice and spirit of adventure, enthusiasm and, of course, the flaws in people. Meghani's folktales are verbal miniature of Gujarati culture.", "Notable people\n\nBusiness people\n\nPoliticians\n\nSocial activists\n\nArts and entertainment\n\nScience and technology\nPranav Mistry, computer scientist and inventor of SixthSense \nSam Pitroda (Communication Revolution)\nVikram Sarabhai, considered the \"father of India's space programme\".\n\nImages\n\nSee also\n Jethwa Rajputs\n Rajputs of Gujarat\n Dharasana Satyagraha\n Navnirman Andolan\n Mahagujarat Movement\nHind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule\n Genetic studies on Gujarati people\nKhatiawari Memons\n\nReferences", "References\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \nEthnic groups in India\nSocial groups of Pakistan\nSocial groups of Gujarat\nGujarati culture\nCulture of Kollam\nIndo-Aryan peoples\nGujarati-language writers\nCultural assimilation\nIndian industrialists\nLinguistic groups of the constitutionally recognised official languages of India" ]

[ "Buffalo is the second-most populated city in the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Erie County. It lies in Western New York, at the eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of the Niagara River, on the United States border with Canada. With a population of 278,349 according to the 2020 census, Buffalo is the 78th-largest city in the United States", ". Buffalo and the city of Niagara Falls together make up the two-county Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), which had an estimated population of 1.2 million in 2020, making it the 49th largest MSA in the United States.", "Before the 17th century, the region was inhabited by nomadic Paleo-Indians who were succeeded by the Neutral, Erie, and Iroquois nations. In the early 17th century, the French began to explore the region. In the 18th century, Iroquois land surrounding Buffalo Creek was ceded through the Holland Land Purchase, and a small village was established at its headwaters. In 1825, after its harbor was improved, Buffalo was selected as the terminus of the Erie Canal, which led to its incorporation in 1832", ". The canal stimulated its growth as the primary inland port between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. Transshipment made Buffalo the world's largest grain port of that era. After the coming of railroads greatly reduced the canal's importance, the city became the second-largest railway hub (after Chicago). During the mid-19th century, Buffalo transitioned to manufacturing, which came to be dominated by steel production. Later, deindustrialization and the opening of the St", ". Later, deindustrialization and the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway saw the city's economy decline and diversify. It developed its service industries, such as health care, retail, tourism, logistics, and education, while retaining some manufacturing. In 2019, the gross domestic product of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls MSA was $53 billion (~$ in ).", "The city's cultural landmarks include the oldest urban parks system in the United States, the Buffalo AKG Art Museum, the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, Shea's Performing Arts Center, the Buffalo Museum of Science, and several annual festivals. Its educational institutions include the University at Buffalo, Buffalo State University, Canisius College, D'Youville University and Medaille College", ". Buffalo is also known for its winter weather, Buffalo wings, and three major-league sports teams: the National Football League's Buffalo Bills, the National Hockey League's Buffalo Sabres and the National Lacrosse League's Buffalo Bandits.", "History\n\nPre-Columbian era to European exploration\n\nBefore the arrival of Europeans, nomadic Paleo-Indians inhabited the western New York region from the 8th millennium BCE. The Woodland period began around 1000 BC, marked by the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy and the spread of its tribes throughout the state. Seventeenth-century Jesuit missionaries were the first Europeans to visit the area.", "During French exploration of the region in 1620, the region was sparsely populated and occupied by the agrarian Erie people in the south and the Wenrohronon (Wenro) of the Neutral Nation in the north. The Neutral grew tobacco and hemp to trade with the Iroquois, who traded furs with the French for European goods. The tribes used animal- and war paths to travel and move goods across what today is New York State", ". The tribes used animal- and war paths to travel and move goods across what today is New York State. (Centuries later, these same paths were gradually improved, then paved, then developed into major modern roads.) During the Beaver Wars in the mid-17th century the Senecas partly wiped out and partly absorbed the Erie and Neutrals in the region. Native Americans did not settle along Buffalo Creek permanently until 1780, when displaced Senecas were relocated from Fort Niagara.", "Louis Hennepin and Sieur de La Salle explored the upper Niagara and Ontario regions in the late 1670s. In 1679, La Salle's ship, Le Griffon, became the first to sail above Niagara Falls near Cayuga Creek. Baron de Lahontan visited the site of Buffalo in 1687. A small French settlement along Buffalo Creek lasted for only a year (1758). After the French and Indian War, the region was ruled by Britain. After the American Revolution, the Province of New York—now a U.S", ". After the American Revolution, the Province of New York—now a U.S. state—began westward expansion, looking for arable land by following the Iroquois.", "New York and Massachusetts were vying for the territory which included Buffalo, and Massachusetts had the right to purchase all but a one-mile-(1600-meter)-wide portion of land. The rights to the Massachusetts territories were sold to Robert Morris in 1791. Despite objections from Seneca chief Red Jacket, Morris brokered a deal between fellow chief Cornplanter and the Dutch dummy corporation Holland Land Company", ". The Holland Land Purchase gave the Senecas three reservations, and the Holland Land Company received for about thirty-three cents per acre.", "Permanent white settlers along the creek were prisoners captured during the Revolutionary War. Early landowners were Iroquois interpreter Captain William Johnston, former enslaved man Joseph \"Black Joe\" Hodges and Cornelius Winney, a Dutch trader who arrived in 1789", ". As a result of the war, in which the Iroquois sided with the British Army, Iroquois territory was gradually reduced in the late 1700s by European settlers through successive statewide treaties which included the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) and the First Treaty of Buffalo Creek (1788). The Iroquois were moved onto reservations, including Buffalo Creek. By the end of the 18th century, only of reservations remained.", "After the Treaty of Big Tree removed Iroquois title to lands west of the Genesee River in 1797, Joseph Ellicott surveyed land at the mouth of Buffalo Creek. In the middle of the village was an intersection of eight streets at present-day Niagara Square. Originally named New Amsterdam, its name was soon changed to Buffalo.\n\nErie Canal, grain and commerce", "The village of Buffalo was named for Buffalo Creek. British military engineer John Montresor referred to \"Buffalo Creek\" in his 1764 journal, the earliest recorded appearance of the name. A road to Pennsylvania from Buffalo was built in 1802 for migrants traveling to the Connecticut Western Reserve in Ohio. Before an east–west turnpike across the state was completed, traveling from Albany to Buffalo would take a week; a trip from nearby Williamsville to Batavia could take over three days.", "British forces burned Buffalo and the northwestern village of Black Rock in 1813. The battle and subsequent fire was in response to the destruction of Niagara-on-the-Lake by American forces and other skirmishes during the War of 1812. Rebuilding was swift, completed in 1815. As a remote outpost, village residents hoped that the proposed Erie Canal would bring prosperity to the area", ". To accomplish this, Buffalo's harbor was expanded with the help of Samuel Wilkeson; it was selected as the canal's terminus over the rival Black Rock. It opened in 1825, ushering in commerce, manufacturing and hydropower. By the following year, the Buffalo Creek Reservation (at the western border of the village) was transferred to Buffalo. Buffalo was incorporated as a city in 1832. During the 1830s, businessman Benjamin Rathbun significantly expanded its business district", ". During the 1830s, businessman Benjamin Rathbun significantly expanded its business district. The city doubled in size from 1845 to 1855. Almost two-thirds of the city's population was foreign-born, largely a mix of unskilled (or educated) Irish and German Catholics.", "Fugitive slaves made their way north to Buffalo during the 1840s. Buffalo was a terminus of the Underground Railroad, with many free blacks crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario; others remained in Buffalo. During this time, Buffalo's port continued to develop. Passenger and commercial traffic expanded, leading to the creation of feeder canals and the expansion of the city's harbor. Unloading grain in Buffalo was a laborious job, and grain handlers working on lake freighters would make $1", ".50 a day () in a six-day work week. Local inventor Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar created the grain elevator in 1843, adapting the steam-powered elevator. Dart's Elevator initially processed one thousand bushels per hour, speeding global distribution to consumers. Buffalo was the transshipment hub of the Great Lakes, and weather, maritime and political events in other Great Lakes cities had a direct impact on the city's economy", ". In addition to grain, Buffalo's primary imports included agricultural products from the Midwest (meat, whiskey, lumber and tobacco), and its exports included leather, ships and iron products. The mid-19th century saw the rise of new manufacturing capabilities, particularly with iron.", "By the 1860s, many railroads terminated in Buffalo; they included the Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh Railroad, Buffalo and Erie Railroad, the New York Central Railroad, and the Lehigh Valley Railroad. During this time, Buffalo controlled one-quarter of all shipping traffic on Lake Erie. After the Civil War, canal traffic began to drop as railroads expanded into Buffalo", ". After the Civil War, canal traffic began to drop as railroads expanded into Buffalo. Unionization began to take hold in the late 19th century, highlighted by the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and 1892 Buffalo switchmen's strike.", "Steel, challenges, and the modern era", "At the start of the 20th century, Buffalo was the world's leading grain port and a national flour-milling hub. Local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectricity generated by the Niagara River. Buffalo hosted the 1901 Pan-American Exposition after the Spanish–American War, showcasing the nation's advances in art, architecture, and electricity. Its centerpiece was the Electric Tower, with over two million light bulbs, but some exhibits were jingoistic and racially charged", ". At the exposition, President William McKinley was assassinated by anarchist Leon Czolgosz. When McKinley died, Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion in Buffalo.", "Attorney John Milburn and local industrialists and convinced the Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company to relocate from Scranton, Pennsylvania to the town of West Seneca in 1904. Employment was competitive, with many Eastern Europeans and Scrantonians vying for jobs. From the late 19th century to the 1920s, mergers and acquisitions led to distant ownership of local companies; this had a negative effect on the city's economy", ". Examples include the acquisition of Lackawanna Steel by Bethlehem Steel and, later, the relocation of Curtiss-Wright in the 1940s. The Great Depression saw severe unemployment, especially among the working class. New Deal relief programs operated in full force, and the city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party.", "During World War II, Buffalo regained its manufacturing strength as military contracts enabled the city to manufacture steel, chemicals, aircraft, trucks and ammunition. The 15th-most-populous US city in 1950, Buffalo's economy relied almost entirely on manufacturing; eighty percent of area jobs were in the sector. The city also had over a dozen railway terminals, as railroads remained a significant industry.", "The St. Lawrence Seaway was proposed in the 19th century as a faster shipping route to Europe, and later as part of a bi-national hydroelectric project with Canada. Its combination with an expanded Welland Canal led to a grim outlook for Buffalo's economy. After its 1959 opening, the city's port and barge canal became largely irrelevant. Shipbuilding in Buffalo wound down in the 1960s due to reduced waterfront activity, ending an industry which had been part of the city's economy since 1812", ". Downsizing of the steel mills was attributed to the threat of higher wages and unionization efforts. Racial tensions culminated in riots in 1967. Suburbanization led to the selection of the town of Amherst for the new University at Buffalo campus by 1970. Unwilling to modernize its plant, Bethlehem Steel began cutting thousands of jobs in Lackawanna during the mid-1970s before closing it in 1983. The region lost at least 70,000 jobs between 1970 and 1984", ". The region lost at least 70,000 jobs between 1970 and 1984. Like much of the Rust Belt, Buffalo has focused on recovering from the effects of late-20th-century deindustrialization.", "Geography\n\nTopography \n\nBuffalo is on the eastern end of Lake Erie opposite Fort Erie, Ontario. It is at the head of the Niagara River, which flows north over Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario.", "The Buffalo metropolitan area is on the Erie/Ontario Lake Plain of the Eastern Great Lakes Lowlands, a narrow plain extending east to Utica, New York. The city is generally flat, except for elevation changes in the University Heights and Fruit Belt neighborhoods. The Southtowns are hillier, leading to the Cattaraugus Hills in the Appalachian Upland. Several types of shale, limestone and lagerstätten are prevalent in Buffalo and its surrounding area, lining their stream beds.", "According to Fox Weather, Buffalo is one of the top five snowiest large cities in the country, receiving, on average, 95 inches of snow annually.", "Although the city has not experienced any recent or significant earthquakes, Buffalo is in the Southern Great Lakes Seismic Zone (part of the Great Lakes tectonic zone). Buffalo has four channels within its boundaries: the Niagara River, Buffalo River (and Creek), Scajaquada Creek, and the Black Rock Canal, adjacent to the Niagara River. The city's Bureau of Forestry maintains a database of over seventy thousand trees.", "According to the United States Census Bureau, Buffalo has an area of ; is land, and the rest is water. The city's total area is 22.66 percent water. In 2010, its population density was 6,470.6 per square mile.\n\nCityscape", "Buffalo's architecture is diverse, with a collection of 19th- and 20th-century buildings. Downtown Buffalo landmarks include Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building, an early skyscraper; the Ellicott Square Building, once one of the largest of its kind in the world; the Art Deco Buffalo City Hall and the McKinley Monument, and the Electric Tower", ". Beyond downtown, the Buffalo Central Terminal was built in the Broadway-Fillmore neighborhood in 1929; the Richardson Olmsted Complex, built in 1881, was an insane asylum until its closure in the 1970s. Urban renewal from the 1950s to the 1970s spawned the Brutalist-style Buffalo City Court Building and Seneca One Tower, the city's tallest building. In the city's Parkside neighborhood, the Darwin D. Martin House was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in his Prairie School style.", "Since 2016, Washington DC real estate developer Douglas Jemal has been acquiring, and redeveloping iconic properties throughout the city.", "Neighborhoods", "According to Mark Goldman, the city has a \"tradition of separate and independent settlements\". The boundaries of Buffalo's neighborhoods have changed over time. The city is divided into five districts, each containing several neighborhoods, for a total of thirty-five neighborhoods. Main Street divides Buffalo's east and west sides, and the west side was fully developed earlier", ". Main Street divides Buffalo's east and west sides, and the west side was fully developed earlier. This division is seen in architectural styles, street names, neighborhood and district boundaries, demographics, and socioeconomic conditions; Buffalo's West Side is generally more affluent than its East Side.", "Several neighborhoods in Buffalo have had increased investment since the 1990s, beginning with the Elmwood Village. The 2002 redevelopment of the Larkin Terminal Warehouse led to the creation of Larkinville, home to several mixed-use projects and anchored by corporate offices. Downtown Buffalo and its central business district (CBD) had a 10.6-percent increase in residents from 2010 to 2017, as over 1,061 housing units became available; the Seneca One Tower was redeveloped in 2020", ". Other revitalized areas include Chandler Street, in the Grant-Amherst neighborhood, and Hertel Avenue in Parkside.", "The Buffalo Common Council adopted its Green Code in 2017, replacing zoning regulations which were over sixty years old. Its emphasis on regulations promoting pedestrian safety and mixed land use received an award at the 2019 Congress for the New Urbanism conference.\n\nClimate", "Buffalo has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb/Dfa), and temperatures have been warming with the rest of the US. Lake-effect snow is characteristic of Buffalo winters, with snow bands (producing intense snowfall in the city and surrounding area) depending on wind direction off Lake Erie. However, Buffalo is rarely the snowiest city in the state. The Blizzard of 1977 resulted from a combination of high winds and snow which accumulated on land and on the frozen Lake Erie", ". Although snow does not typically impair the city's operation, it can cause significant damage in autumn (as the October 2006 storm did). In November 2014 (called \"Snowvember\"), the region had a record-breaking storm which produced over of snow. Buffalo's lowest recorded temperature was , which occurred twice: on February 9, 1934, and February 2, 1961.", "Although the city's summers are drier and sunnier than other cities in the northeastern United States, its vegetation receives enough precipitation to remain hydrated. Buffalo summers are characterized by abundant sunshine, with moderate humidity and temperatures; the city benefits from cool, southwestern Lake Erie summer breezes which temper warmer temperatures. Temperatures rise above an average of three times a year", ". Temperatures rise above an average of three times a year. No official recording of or more has occurred to date, with a maximum temperature of reached on August 27, 1948. Rainfall is moderate, typically falling at night, and cooler lake temperatures hinder storm development in July. August is usually rainier and muggier, as the warmer lake loses its temperature-controlling ability.", "Demographics\n\nSeveral hundred Seneca, Tuscarora and other Iroquois tribal peoples were the primary residents of the Buffalo area before 1800, concentrated along Buffalo Creek. After the Revolutionary War, settlers from New England and eastern New York began to move into the area.", "From the 1830s to the 1850s, they were joined by Irish and German immigrants from Europe, both peasants and working class, who settled in enclaves on the city's south and east sides. At the turn of the 20th century, Polish immigrants replaced Germans on the East Side, who moved to newer housing; Italian immigrant families settled throughout the city, primarily on the lower West Side.", "During the 1830s, Buffalo residents were generally intolerant of the small groups of Black Americans who began settling on the city's East Side. In the 20th century, wartime and manufacturing jobs attracted Black Americans from the South during the First and Second Great Migrations. In the World War II and postwar years from 1940 to 1970, the city's Black population rose by 433 percent. They replaced most of the Polish community on the East Side, who were moving out to suburbs", ". They replaced most of the Polish community on the East Side, who were moving out to suburbs. However, the effects of redlining, steering, social inequality, blockbusting, white flight and other racial policies resulted in the city (and region) becoming one of the most segregated in the U.S.", "During the 1940s and 1950s, Puerto Rican migrants arrived en masse, also seeking industrial jobs, settling on the East Side and moving westward. In the 21st century, Buffalo is classified as a majority minority city, with a plurality of residents who are Black and Latino.", "Buffalo has experienced effects of urban decay since the 1970s, and also saw population loss to the suburbs and Sun Belt states, and experienced job losses from deindustrialization. The city's population peaked at 580,132 in 1950, when Buffalo was the 15th-largest city in the United Statesdown from the eighth-largest city in 1900, after its growth rate slowed during the 1920s", ". Buffalo's population began declining in the second half of the 20th century, due to suburbanization and loss of industrial jobs, and the city's population is now less than half its peak population in 1950. Buffalo finally saw a population gain of 6.5% in the 2020 census, reversing a decades long trend of population decline. The city has 278,349 residents as of the 2020 census, making it the 76th-largest city in the United States. Its metropolitan area had 1", ". Its metropolitan area had 1.1 million residents in 2020, the country's 49th-largest.", "Compared to other major US metropolitan areas, the number of foreign-born immigrants to Buffalo is low. New immigrants are primarily resettled refugees (especially from war- or disaster-affected nations) and refugees who had previously settled in other U.S. cities. During the early 2000s, most immigrants came from Canada and Yemen; this shifted in the 2010s to Burmese (Karen) refugees and Bangladeshi immigrants", ". Between 2008 and 2016, Burmese, Somali, Bhutanese, and Iraqi Americans were the four largest ethnic immigrant groups in Erie County.", "Poverty has remained an issue for the city; in 2019, it was estimated that 30.1 percent of individuals and 24.8 percent of families lived below the federal poverty line. Per capita income was $24,400 and household income was $37,354: much less than the national average. A 2008 report noted that although food deserts were seen in larger cities and not in Buffalo, the city's neighborhoods of color have access only to smaller grocery stores and lack the supermarkets more typical of newer, white neighborhoods", ". A 2018 report noted that over fifty city blocks on Buffalo's East Side lacked adequate access to a supermarket.", "Health disparities exist compared to the rest of the state: Erie County's average 2019 lifespan was three years lower (78.4 years); its 17-percent smoking and 30-percent obesity rates were slightly higher than the state average. According to the Partnership for the Public Good, educational achievement in the city is lower than in the surrounding area; city residents are almost twice as likely as adults in the metropolitan area to lack a high-school diploma.\n\nReligion", "During the early 19th century, Presbyterian missionaries tried to convert the Seneca people on the Buffalo Creek Reservation to Christianity. Initially resistant, some tribal members set aside their traditions and practices to form their own sect. Later, European immigrants added other faiths. Christianity is the predominant religion in Buffalo and Western New York", ". Christianity is the predominant religion in Buffalo and Western New York. Catholicism (primarily the Latin Church) has a significant presence in the region, with 161 parishes and over 570,000 adherents in the Diocese of Buffalo.", "A Jewish community began developing in the city with immigrants from the mid-1800s; about one thousand German and Lithuanian Jews settled in Buffalo before 1880. Buffalo's first synagogue, Temple Beth El, was established in 1847. The city's Temple Beth Zion is the region's largest synagogue.", "With changing demographics and an increased number of refugees from other areas on the city's East Side, Islam and Buddhism have expanded their presence. In this area, new residents have converted empty churches into mosques and temples. Hinduism maintains a small, active presence in the area, including the town of Amherst.\n\nA 2016 American Bible Society survey reported that Buffalo is the fifth-least \"Bible-minded\" city in the United States; 13 percent of its residents associate with the Bible.\n\nEconomy", "The Erie Canal was the impetus for Buffalo's economic growth as a transshipment hub for grain and other agricultural products headed east from the Midwest. Later, manufacturing of steel and automotive parts became central to the city's economy. When these industries downsized in the region, Buffalo's economy became service-based. Its primary sectors include health care, business services (banking, accounting, and insurance), retail, tourism and logistics, especially with Canada", ". Despite the loss of large-scale manufacturing, some manufacturing of metals, chemicals, machinery, food products, and electronics remains in the region. Advanced manufacturing has increased, with an emphasis on research and development (R&D) and automation. In 2019, the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis valued the gross domestic product (GDP) of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls MSA at $53 billion (~$ in ).", "The civic sector is a major source of employment in the Buffalo area, and includes public, non-profit, healthcare and educational institutions. New York State, with over 19,000 employees, is the region's largest employer. In the private sector, top employers include the Kaleida Health and Catholic Health hospital networks and M&T Bank, the sole Fortune 500 company headquartered in the city. Most have been the top employers in the region for several decades", ". Most have been the top employers in the region for several decades. Buffalo is home to the headquarters of Rich Products, Delaware North and New Era Cap Company; the aerospace manufacturer Moog Inc. and toy maker Fisher-Price are based in nearby East Aurora. National Fuel Gas and Life Storage are headquartered in Williamsville, New York.", "Buffalo weathered the Great Recession of 2006–09 well in comparison with other U.S. cities, exemplified by increased home prices during this time. The region's economy began to improve in the early 2010s, adding over 25,000 jobs from 2009 to 2017. With state aid, Tesla, Inc.'s Giga New York plant opened in South Buffalo in 2017. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, however, increased the local unemployment rate to 7.5 percent by December 2020. The local unemployment rate had been 4", ".5 percent by December 2020. The local unemployment rate had been 4.2 percent in 2019, higher than the national average of 3.5 percent.", "The Buffalo area has a larger-than-average pay disparity than the rest of the U.S. The average salary ($43,580) was six percent less than the national average in 2017, with the pay gap increasing to ten percent with increased career specialization. Workforce productivity is higher and turnover lower than other regions.\n\nCulture\n\nPerforming arts and music", "Culture\n\nPerforming arts and music\n\nBuffalo is home to over 20 theater companies, with many centered in the downtown Theatre District. Shea's Performing Arts Center is the city's largest theater. Designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany and built in 1926, the theater presents Broadway musicals and concerts. Shakespeare in Delaware Park has been held outdoors every summer since 1976.", "Stand-up comedy can be found throughout the city and is anchored by Helium Comedy Club, which hosts both local talent and national touring acts.", "The Nickel City Opera (NCO) was founded in 2004 by Valerian Ruminski and performs at Shea's Performing Arts Center. Matthias Manasi was music director of NCO from 2017 to 2021, his predecessor Michael Ching was music director from 2012 to 2017. NCO's repertoire consists of a wide range of operas from 18th-century Baroque and 19th-century Bel canto to the Minimalism of the 20th century and to contemporary operas of the 20th and 21st centuries", ". The NCO has commissioned operas and has staged world premieres of notable works.", "The Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra was formed in 1935 and performs at Kleinhans Music Hall, whose acoustics have been praised. Although the orchestra nearly disbanded during the late 1990s due to a lack of funding, philanthropic contributions and state aid stabilized it. Under the direction of JoAnn Falletta, the orchestra has received a number of Grammy Award nominations and won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Classical Composition in 2009.", "KeyBank Center draws national music acts year-round. Sahlen Field hosts the annual WYRK Taste of Country music festival every summer with national country music acts. Canalside regularly hosts outdoor summer concerts, a tradition that spun off from the defunct Thursday at the Square concert series. Colored Musicians Club, an extension of what was a separate musicians'-union chapter, maintains jazz history.", "Rick James was born and raised in Buffalo and later lived on a ranch in the nearby Town of Aurora. James formed his Stone City Band in Buffalo, and had national appeal with several crossover singles in the R&B, disco and funk genres in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Around the same time, the jazz fusion band Spyro Gyra and jazz saxophonist Grover Washington Jr. also got their start in the city.", "The Goo Goo Dolls, an alternative rock group which formed in 1986, had 19 top-ten singles. Singer-songwriter and activist Ani DiFranco has released over 20 folk and indie rock albums on Righteous Babe Records, her Buffalo-based label.\n\nUnderground hip-hop acts in the city partner with Buffalo-based Griselda Records, whose artists include Westside Gunn and Conway the Machine, and occasionally refer to Buffalo culture in their lyrics.\n\nCuisine", "The city's cuisine encompasses a variety of cultures and ethnicities. In 2015, the National Geographic Society ranked Buffalo third on its \"World's Top Ten Food Cities\" list. Teressa Bellissimo first prepared Buffalo wings (seasoned chicken wings) at the Anchor Bar in 1964. The Anchor Bar has a crosstown rivalry with Duff's Famous Wings, but Buffalo wings are served at many bars and restaurants throughout the city (some with unique cooking styles and flavor profiles)", ". Buffalo wings are traditionally served with blue cheese dressing and celery. In 2003, the Anchor Bar received a James Beard Foundation Award in the America's Classics category.", "The Buffalo area has over 600 pizzerias, estimated at more per capita than New York City. Several craft breweries began opening in the 1990s, and the city's last call is 4 am. Other mainstays of Buffalo cuisine include beef on weck, butter lambs, kielbasa, pierogi, sponge candy, chicken finger subs (including the stinger - a version that also includes steak), and the fish fry (popular any time of year, but especially during Lent)", ". With an influx of refugees and other immigrants to Buffalo, its number of ethnic restaurants (including the West Side Bazaar kitchen incubator) has increased. Some restaurants use food trucks to serve customers, and nearly fifty food trucks appeared at Larkin Square in 2019.", "Museums and tourism", "Buffalo was ranked the seventh-best city in the United States to visit in 2021 by Travel + Leisure, which noted the growth and potential of the city's cultural institutions. The Albright–Knox Art Gallery is a modern and contemporary art museum with a collection of more than 8,000 works, of which only two percent are on display. With a donation from Jeffrey Gundlach, a three-story addition designed by the Dutch architectural firm OMA is under construction and scheduled to open in 2022", ". Across the street, the Burchfield Penney Art Center contains paintings by Charles E. Burchfield and is operated by Buffalo State College. Buffalo is home to the Freedom Wall, a 2017 art installation commemorating civil-rights activists throughout history. Near both museums is the Buffalo History Museum, featuring artwork, literature and exhibits related to the city's history and major events, and the Buffalo Museum of Science is on the city's East Side.", "Canalside, Buffalo's historic business district and harbor, attracts more than 1.5 million visitors annually. It includes the Explore & More Children's Museum, the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park, LECOM Harborcenter, and a number of shops and restaurants. A restored 1924 carousel (now solar-powered) and a replica boathouse were added to Canalside in 2021", ". Other city attractions include the Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site, the Michigan Street Baptist Church, Buffalo RiverWorks, Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino, Buffalo Transportation Pierce-Arrow Museum, and the Nash House Museum.", "The National Buffalo Wing Festival is held every Labor Day at Highmark Stadium. Since 2002, it has served over 4.8 million Buffalo wings and has had a total attendance of 865,000. The Taste of Buffalo is a two-day food festival held in July at Niagara Square, attracting 450,000 visitors annually. Other events include the Allentown Art Festival, the Polish-American Dyngus Day, the Elmwood Avenue Festival of the Arts, Juneteenth in Martin Luther King Jr", ". Park, the World's Largest Disco in October and Friendship Festival in summer, which celebrates Canada-US relations.", "Sports", "Buffalo has two major professional sports teams: the Buffalo Sabres (National Hockey League) and the Buffalo Bills (National Football League). The Bills were a founding member of the American Football League in 1960, and have played at Highmark Stadium in Orchard Park since they moved from War Memorial Stadium in 1973. They are the only NFL team based in New York State. Before the Super Bowl era, the Bills won the American Football League Championship in 1964 and 1965", ". With mixed success throughout their history, the Bills had a close loss in Super Bowl XXV and returned to consecutive Super Bowls after the 1991, 1992, and 1993 seasons (losing each time). The Sabres, an expansion team in 1970, share KeyBank Center with the Buffalo Bandits of the National Lacrosse League. The Bandits are the most decorated of the city's professional teams, with five championships. The Bills, Sabres and Bandits are owned by Pegula Sports and Entertainment.", "Several colleges and universities in the area field intercollegiate sports teams; the Buffalo Bulls and the Canisius Golden Griffins compete in NCAA Division I. The Bulls have 16 varsity sports in the Mid-American Conference (MAC); the Golden Griffins field 15 teams in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC), with the men's hockey team part of the Atlantic Hockey Association (AHA). The Bulls participate in the Football Bowl Subdivision, the highest level of college football", ". The Bulls participate in the Football Bowl Subdivision, the highest level of college football. Buffalo's minor-league teams include the Buffalo Bisons (Triple-A baseball), who play at Sahlen Field, and the Buffalo eXtreme (American Basketball Association).", "Parks and recreation", "Frederick Law Olmsted described Buffalo as being \"the best planned city [...] in the United States, if not the world\". With encouragement from city stakeholders, he and Calvert Vaux augmented the city's grid plan by drawing inspiration from Paris and introducing landscape architecture with aspects of the countryside. Their plan would introduce a system of interconnected parks, parkways and trails, unlike the singular Central Park in New York City", ". The largest would be Delaware Park, across Forest Lawn Cemetery to amplify the amount of open space. With construction of the system finishing in 1876, it is regarded as the country's oldest; however, some of Olmsted's plans were never fully realized. Some parks later diminished and succumbed to diseases, highway construction, and weather events such as Lake Storm Aphid in 2006. The non-profit Buffalo Olmsted Park Conservancy was created in 2004 to help preserve the of parkland", ". Olmsted's work in Buffalo inspired similar efforts in cities such as San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston.", "The city's Division of Parks and Recreation manages over 180 parks and facilities, seven recreational centers, twenty-one pools and splash pads, and three ice rinks. The Delaware Park features the Buffalo Zoo, Hoyt Lake, a golf course, and playing fields. Buffalo collaborated with its sister city Kanazawa to create the park's Japanese Garden in 1970, where cherry blossoms bloom in the spring. Opening in 1976, Tifft Nature Preserve in South Buffalo is on of remediated industrial land", ". Opening in 1976, Tifft Nature Preserve in South Buffalo is on of remediated industrial land. The preserve is an Important Bird Area, including a meadow with trails for hiking and cross-country skiing, marshland and fishing. The Olmsted-designed Cazenovia and South Parks, the latter home to the Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens, are also in South Buffalo", ". According to the Trust for Public Land, Buffalo's 2022 ParkScore ranking had high marks for access to parks, with 89 percent of city residents living within a ten-minute walk from a park. The city ranked lower in acreage, however; nine percent of city land is devoted to parks, compared with the national median of about fifteen percent.", "Efforts to convert Buffalo's former industrial waterfront into recreational space have attracted national attention, with some writers comparing its appeal to that of Niagara Falls. Redevelopment of the waterfront began in the early 2000s, with the reconstruction of historically aligned canals on the site of the former Buffalo Memorial Auditorium. Placemaking initiatives would lead to the area's popularity, rather than permanent buildings and attractions", ". Under Mayor Byron Brown, Canalside was cited by the Brookings Institution as an example of waterfront revitalization for other U.S. cities to follow. Summer events have included paddle-boating and fitness classes, and the frozen canals permit ice skating, curling, and ice cycling in winter. Its success spurred the state to create Buffalo Harbor State Park in 2014; the park has trails, open recreation areas, bicycle paths and piers", ". The park's Gallagher Beach, the city's only public beach, has prohibited swimming due to high bacteria levels and other environmental concerns.", "The Shoreline Trail passes through Buffalo near the Outer Harbor, Centennial Park, and the Black Rock Canal. The North Buffalo–Tonawanda rail trail begins in Shoshone Park, near the LaSalle metro station in North Buffalo.\n\nGovernment", "Buffalo has a Strong mayor–council government. As the chief executive of city government, the mayor oversees the heads of the city's departments, participates in ceremonies, boards and commissions, and is as the liaison between the city and local cultural institutions. Some agencies, including utilities, urban renewal and public housing, are state- and federally-funded public benefit-corporations semi-independent of city government", ". Byron Brown, the city's first African American mayor, has held the office since 2006, longer than anyone else. Brown, defeated by India Walton in the 2021 mayoral primary election, began a write-in campaign for the general election. Brown initially denied Walton the chance to become the first female and socialist mayor of Buffalo, winning just under 60% of the votes. No Republican has been mayor of Buffalo since Chester A. Kowal in 1965.", "With its nine districts, the Buffalo Common Council enacts laws, levies taxes, and approves mayoral appointees and the city budget. Pastor Darius Pridgen has been the Common Council president since 2014. Generally reflecting the city's electorate, all nine councilmen are members of the Democratic Party. Buffalo is the Erie County seat, and is within five of the county's eleven legislative districts.", "The city is part of the Eighth Judicial District. Court cases handled at the city level include misdemeanors, violations, housing matters, and claims under $15,000; more severe cases are handled at the county level. Buffalo is represented by members of the New York State Assembly and New York State Senate. At the federal level, the city takes up most of and has been represented by Democrat Brian Higgins since 2005.", "Federal offices in the city include the Buffalo District of the United States Army Corps of Engineers' Great Lakes and Ohio River Division, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States District Court for the Western District of New York.", "In 2020, the city spent $519 million (~$ in ) on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. supplemented by about $50 million in federal stimulus money. The proposed budget includes a slight increase in the commercial tax and a slight decrease in the residential tax to compensate for the pandemic.\n\nPublic safety", "Buffalo is served by the Buffalo Police Department. The police commissioner is Byron Lockwood, who was appointed by Mayor Byron Brown in 2018. Although some criminal activity in the city remains higher than the national average, total crimes have decreased since the 1990s; one reason may be the gun buyback program implemented by the Brown administration in the mid-2000s. Before this, the city was part of the nationwide crack epidemic of the 1980s and 1990s and its accompanying record-high crime levels", ". In 2018, city police began wearing 300 body cameras. A 2021 Partnership for the Public Good report noted that the BPD, which had a 2020–21 budget of about $145.7 million, had an above-average police-to-citizen ratio of 28.9 officers per 10,000 residents in 2020higher than peer cities Minneapolis and Toledo, Ohio. The force had a roster of 740 officers during the year, about two-thirds of whom handled emergency requests, road patrol and other non-office assignments", ". The department has been criticized for misconduct and brutality, including the 2004 wrongful termination of officer Cariol Horne for opposing police brutality toward a suspect and a 2020 protest-shoving incident.", "The Buffalo Fire Department and American Medical Response (AMR) handle fire-protection and emergency medical services (EMS) calls in the city. The fire department has about 710 firefighters and thirty-five stations, including twenty-three engine companies and twelve ladder companies. The department also operates the Edward M. Cotter, considered the world's oldest active fireboat.", "With vacant and abandoned homes prone to arson, squatting, prostitution and other criminal activities, the fire and police department's resources were overburdened before the 2010s. Buffalo ranked second nationwide to St. Louis for vacant homes per capita in 2007, and the city began a five-year program to demolish five thousand vacant, damaged and abandoned homes", ". On May 14, 2022, there was a mass shooting in a Tops supermarket on the East Side of Buffalo where 13 victims were shot in a racially motivated attack by a white supremacist who was not a Buffalo native. Ten victims, all of whom were Black, were murdered and three were injured.", "Media", "Buffalo's major daily newspaper is The Buffalo News. Established in 1880 as the Buffalo Evening News, the newspaper is estimated to have a daily circulation of 87,000 and 125,000 on Sundays (down from a high of 300,000). The newspaper announced in February 2023 that is had a pending sale on its building and was to be moving printing operations to the home of the Cleveland Plain Dealer", ". Other newspapers in the Buffalo area include The Public, the Black-focused Challenger Community News, The Record of Buffalo State College, The Spectrum of the University at Buffalo, and Buffalo Business First.", "Eighteen radio stations are licensed in Buffalo, including an FM station at Buffalo State College. Over ninety FM and AM radio signals can be received throughout the city. Eight full-power television outlets serve the city. Major stations include WKBW-TV (ABC), WIVB-TV (CBS), WGRZ (NBC), WUTV (Fox, received in parts of Southern Ontario), and WNED-TV (PBS); WNED reported that most of the station's members live in the Greater Toronto Area", ". According to Nielsen Media Research, the Buffalo television market was the 51st largest in the United States .", "Movies shooting significant footage in Buffalo include Hide in Plain Sight (1980), Tuck Everlasting (1981), Best Friends (1982), The Natural (1984), Vamping (1984), Canadian Bacon (1995), Buffalo '66 (1998), Manna from Heaven (2002), Bruce Almighty (2003), The Savages (2007), Slime City Massacre (2010), Henry's Crime (2011), Sharknado 2: The Second One (2014), Killer Rack (2015), Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows (2016), Marshall (2016), The American Side (2017), The First Purge (2018)", ", Marshall (2016), The American Side (2017), The First Purge (2018), The True Adventures of Wolfboy (2019), A Quiet Place Part II (2021) and Guns of Eden (2022)", ". Although higher Buffalo production costs led to some films being finished elsewhere, tax credits and other economic incentives have enabled new film studios and production facilities to open. In 2021, several studio projects were in the planning stages.", "Education\n\nPrimary and secondary education", "The Buffalo Public Schools have about thirty-four thousand students enrolled in their primary and secondary schools. The district administers about sixty public schools, including thirty-six primary schools, five middle high schools, fourteen high schools and three alternative schools, with a total of about 3,500 teachers. Its board of education, authorized by the state, has nine elected members who select the superintendent and oversee the budget, curriculum, personnel, and facilities", ". In 2020, the graduation rate was seventy-six percent. The public City Honors School was ranked the top high school in the city and 178th nationwide by U.S. News & World Report in 2021. There are twenty charter schools in Buffalo, with some oversight by the district. The city has over a dozen private schools, including Bishop Timon – St", ". The city has over a dozen private schools, including Bishop Timon – St. Jude High School, Canisius High School, Mount Mercy Academy, and Nardin Academy—all Roman Catholic, and Darul Uloom Al-Madania and Universal School of Buffalo (both Islamic schools); nonsectarian options include Buffalo Seminary and the Nichols School.", "Colleges and universities", "Founded by Millard Fillmore, the University at Buffalo (UB) is one of the State University of New York's two flagship universities and the state's largest public university. A Research I university, over 32,000 undergraduate, graduate and professional students attend its thirteen schools and colleges. Two of UB's three campuses (the South and Downtown Campuses) are in the city, but most university functions take place at the large North Campus in Amherst. In 2020, U.S", ". In 2020, U.S. News & World Report ranked UB the 34th-best public university and 88th in national universities. Buffalo State College, founded as a normal school, is one of SUNY's thirteen comprehensive colleges. The city's four-year private institutions include Canisius College, D'Youville University, Medaille University, Trocaire College, and Villa Maria College. SUNY Erie, the county's two-year public higher-education institution, and the for-profit Bryant & Stratton College have small downtown campuses", ".", "Libraries", "Established in 1835, Buffalo's main library is the Central Library of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library system. Rebuilt in 1964, it contains an auditorium, the original manuscript of the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (donated by Mark Twain), and a collection of about two million books. Its Grosvenor Room maintains a special-collections listing of nearly five hundred thousand resources for researchers", ". A pocket park funded by Southwest Airlines opened in 2020, and brought landscaping improvements and seating to Lafayette Square. The system's free library cards are valid at the city's eight branch libraries and at member libraries throughout Erie County.", "Infrastructure", "Healthcare", "Nine hospitals are operated in the city: Oishei Children's Hospital and Buffalo General Medical Center by Kaleida Health, Mercy Hospital and Sisters of Charity Hospital (Catholic Health), Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, the county-run Erie County Medical Center (ECMC), Buffalo VA Medical Center, BryLin (Psychiatric) Hospital and the state-operated Buffalo Psychiatric Center. John R", ". John R. Oishei Children's Hospital, built in 2017, is adjacent to Buffalo General Medical Center on the Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus north of downtown; its Gates Vascular Institute specializes in acute stroke recovery. The medical campus includes the University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute and Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, ranked the 14th-best cancer-treatment center in the United States by U.S", ".S. News & World Report.", "Transportation", "Growth and changing transportation needs altered Buffalo's grid plan, which was developed by Joseph Ellicott in 1804. His plan laid out streets like the spokes of a wheel, naming them after Dutch landowners and Native American tribes. City streets expanded outward, denser in the west and spreading out east of Main Street. Buffalo is a port of entry with Canada; the Peace Bridge crosses the Niagara River and links the Niagara Thruway (I-190) and Queen Elizabeth Way", ". I-190, NY 5 and NY 33 are the primary expressways serving the city, carrying a total of over 245,000 vehicles daily. NY 5 carries traffic to the Southtowns, and NY 33 carries traffic to the eastern suburbs and the Buffalo Airport. The east-west Scajacquada Expressway (NY 198) bisects Delaware Park, connecting I-190 with the Kensington Expressway (NY 33) on the city's East Side to form a partial beltway around the city center", ". The Scajacquada and Kensington Expressways and the Buffalo Skyway (NY 5) have been targeted for redesign or removal. Other major highways include US 62 on the city's East Side; NY 354 and a portion of NY 130, both east–west routes; and NY 265, NY 266 and NY 384, all north–south routes on the city's West Side. Buffalo has a higher-than-average percentage of households without a car: 30 percent in 2015, decreasing to 28.2 percent in 2016; the 2016 national average was 8.7 percent. Buffalo averaged 1", ".2 percent in 2016; the 2016 national average was 8.7 percent. Buffalo averaged 1.03 cars per household in 2016, compared to the national average of 1.8.", "The Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) operates the region's public transit, including its airport, light-rail system, buses, and harbors. The NFTA operates 323 buses on 61 lines throughout Western New York. Buffalo Metro Rail is a line which runs from Canalside to the University Heights district. The line's downtown section, south of the Fountain Plaza station, runs at grade and is free of charge", ". The Buffalo area ranks twenty-third nationwide in transit ridership, with thirty trips per capita per year. Expansions have been proposed since Buffalo Metro Rail's inception in the 1980s, with the latest plan (in the late 2010s) reaching the town of Amherst. Buffalo Niagara International Airport in Cheektowaga has daily scheduled flights by domestic, charter and regional carriers. The airport handled nearly five million passengers in 2019. It received a J.D", ". The airport handled nearly five million passengers in 2019. It received a J.D. Power award in 2018 for customer satisfaction at a mid-sized airport, and underwent a $50 million expansion in 2020–21. The airport, light rail, small-boat harbor and buses are monitored by the NFTA's transit police.", "Buffalo has an Amtrak intercity train station, Buffalo–Exchange Street station, which was rebuilt in 2020. The city's eastern suburbs are served by Amtrak's Buffalo–Depew station in Depew, which was built in 1979. Buffalo was a major stop on through routes between Chicago and New York City through the lower Ontario Peninsula; trains stopped at Buffalo Central Terminal, which operated from 1929 to 1979. Intercity buses depart and arrive from the NFTA's Metropolitan Transportation Center on Ellicott Street.", "Since Buffalo adopted a complete streets policy in 2008, efforts have been made to accommodate cyclists and pedestrians into new infrastructure projects. Improved corridors have bike lanes, and Niagara Street received separate bike lanes in 2020. Walk Score gave Buffalo a \"somewhat walkable\" rating of 68 out of 100, with Allentown and downtown considered more walkable than other areas of the city.", "Utilities", "Buffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water, and water treatment begins at the Colonel Francis G. Ward Pumping Station. When it opened in 1915, the station's capacity was second only to Paris. Wastewater is treated by the Buffalo Sewer Authority, its coverage extending to the eastern suburbs. National Grid and New York State Electric & Gas (NYSEG) provide electricity, and National Fuel Gas provides natural gas", ". The city's primary telecommunications provider is Spectrum; Verizon Fios serves the North Park neighborhood. A 2018 report by Ookla noted that Buffalo was one of the bottom five U.S. cities in average download speeds at 66 megabits per second.", "The city's Department of Public Works manages Buffalo's snow and trash removal and street cleaning. Snow removal generally operates from November 15 to April 1. A snow emergency is declared by the National Weather Service after a snowstorm, and the city's roads, major sidewalks and bridges are cleared by over seventy snowplows within 24 hours. Rock salt is the principal agent for preventing snow accumulation and melting ice. Snow removal may coincide with driving bans and parking restrictions", ". Snow removal may coincide with driving bans and parking restrictions. The area along the Outer Harbor is the most dangerous driving area during a snowstorm; when weather conditions dictate, the Buffalo Skyway is closed by the city's police department.", "To prevent ice jams which may impact hydroelectric plants in Niagara Falls, the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation began installing an ice boom annually in 1964. The boom's installation date is temperature-dependent, and it is removed on April 1 unless there is more than of ice remaining on eastern Lake Erie. It stretches from the outer breakwall at the Buffalo Outer Harbor to the Canadian shore near Fort Erie. Originally made of wood, the boom now consists of steel pontoons.", "Notable residents\n\nSister cities\nBuffalo has eighteen sister cities:\n\n Aboadze, Ghana\n Baní, Dominican Republic\n Bursa, Turkey\n Cape Coast, Ghana (1976)\n Changzhou, China (2011)\n Dortmund, Germany (1972)\n Drohobych, Ukraine (2000)\n Horlivka, Ukraine (2007)\n Kanazawa, Japan (1962)\n Kiryat Gat, Israel (1977)\n Lille, France (2000)\n Rzeszów, Poland (1975)\n Saint Ann, Jamaica (2007)\n Siena, Italy (1961)\n Torremaggiore, Italy (2004)\n Wolverhampton, United Kingdom\n Yıldırım, Turkey (2010)\n\nSee also", "Architecture of Buffalo, New York\nBuffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo\nBuffalo crime family\nBuffalo wing\nHistory of Buffalo, New York\nIndex of New York (state)–related articles\nInland Northern American English\nList of City of Buffalo landmarks and historic districts\nList of mayors of Buffalo, New York\nList of people from Buffalo, New York\nList of routes of City of Buffalo streetcars\nNational Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York\nSports in Buffalo", "National Register of Historic Places listings in Buffalo, New York\nSports in Buffalo\nPolitics and government of Buffalo, New York\nTimeline of Buffalo, New York\nUSS Buffalo, 4 ships", "Explanatory notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. online; see index at pp. 406–411 for list.\n\nExternal links", "External links\n \n\nNYPL Digital Gallery, Media related to Buffalo\nLibrary of Congress, Prints & Photos Division: Historical images related to Buffalo\nWNED Documentaries and Specials: Historical and cultural programming related to Buffalo from Buffalo–Toronto Public Media", "1801 establishments in New York (state)\nCities in Erie County, New York\nCities in New York (state)\nCounty seats in New York (state)\nErie Canal\nInland port cities and towns of the United States\nNew York State Heritage Areas\nPopulated places established in 1801\nNew York (state) populated places on Lake Erie\nPopulated places on the Underground Railroad\nWestern New York" ]

[ "This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue.\n\nThe standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC 1) have been made freely and publicly available.", "ISO 28000 – ISO 28999\n ISO 28000:2007 Specification for security management systems for the supply chain\n ISO 28001:2007 Security management systems for the supply chain – Best practices for implementing supply chain security, assessments and plans – Requirements and guidance\n ISO 28002:2011 Security management systems for the supply chain – Development of resilience in the supply chain – Requirements with guidance for use", "ISO 28003:2007 Security management systems for the supply chain – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of supply chain security management systems\n ISO 28004 Security management systems for the supply chain – Guidelines for the implementation of ISO 28000\n ISO 28004-1:2007 Part 1: General principles\n ISO 28004-2:2014 Part 2: Guidelines for adopting ISO 28000 for use in medium and small seaport operations", "ISO 28004-3:2014 Part 3: Additional specific guidance for adopting ISO 28000 for use by medium and small businesses (other than marine ports)\n ISO 28004-4:2014 Part 4: Additional specific guidance on implementing ISO 28000 if compliance with ISO 28001 is a management objective\n ISO 28005 Security management systems for the supply chain – Electronic port clearance (EPC)\n ISO 28005-1:2013 Part 1: Message structures\n ISO 28005-2:2011 Part 2: Core data elements", "ISO 28005-1:2013 Part 1: Message structures\n ISO 28005-2:2011 Part 2: Core data elements\n ISO/PAS 28007:2012 Ships and marine technology—Guidelines for Private Maritime Security Companies (PMSC) providing privately contracted armed security personnel (PCASP) on board ships (and pro forma contract) [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 28007-1:2015]", "ISO 28007 Ships and marine technology - Guidelines for Private Maritime Security Companies (PMSC) providing privately contracted armed security personnel (PCASP) on board ships (and pro forma contract)\n ISO 28007-1:2015 Part 1: General\n ISO/TS 28037:2010 Determination and use of straight-line calibration functions\n ISO/CIE 28077:2016 Photocarcinogenesis action spectrum (non-melanoma skin cancers)\n ISO/TR 28118:2009 Information and documentation - Performance indicators for national libraries", "ISO/TR 28118:2009 Information and documentation - Performance indicators for national libraries\n ISO 28178:2009 Graphic technology - Exchange format for colour and process control data using XML or ASCII text\n ISO 28219:2009 Packaging - Labelling and direct product marking with linear bar code and two-dimensional symbols\n ISO 28238:2010 Compression and injection moulds - Components for gating systems", "ISO 28238:2010 Compression and injection moulds - Components for gating systems\n ISO 28239:2008 Textile machinery – Opener and cleaner for staple fibres preparation – Vocabulary and principles of construction\n ISO 28300:2008 Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries – Venting of atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks\n ISO/IEC 28361:2007 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Near Field Communication Wired Interface (NFC-WI)", "ISO/TR 28380 Health informatics – IHE global standards adoption\n ISO/TR 28380-1:2014 Part 1: Process\n ISO/TR 28380-2:2014 Part 2: Integration and content profiles\n ISO/TR 28380-3:2014 Part 3: Deployment\n ISO 28401:2010 Light metals and their alloys – Titanium and titanium alloys – Classification and terminology\n ISO 28500:2017 Information and documentation - WARC file format\n ISO 28560 Information and documentation - RFID in libraries", "ISO 28560 Information and documentation - RFID in libraries\n ISO 28560-1:2014 Part 1: Data elements and general guidelines for implementation\n ISO 28560-2:2014 Part 2: Encoding of RFID data elements based on rules from ISO/IEC 15962\n ISO 28560-3:2014 Part 3: Fixed length encoding\n ISO/TS 28560-4:2014 Part 4: Encoding of data elements based on rules from ISO/IEC 15962 in an RFID tag with partitioned memory\n ISO 28564 Public information guidance systems", "ISO 28564 Public information guidance systems\n ISO 28564-1:2010 Part 1: Design principles and element requirements for location plans, maps and diagrams\n ISO 28564-2:2016 Part 2: Guidelines for the design and use of location signs and direction signs\n ISO 28620:2010 Medical devices – Non-electrically driven portable infusion devices\n ISO 28640:2010 Random variate generation methods\n ISO/TR 28682:2008 Intelligent transport systems – Joint APEC-ISO study of progress to develop and deploy ITS standards", "ISO 28801:2011 Double sampling plans by attributes with minimal sample sizes, indexed by producer's risk quality (PRQ) and consumer's risk quality (CRQ)\n ISO 28902 Air quality – Environmental meteorology\n ISO 28902-1:2012 Part 1: Ground-based remote sensing of visual range by lidar\n ISO 28902-2:2017 Part 2: Ground-based remote sensing of wind by heterodyne pulsed Doppler lidar\n ISO/TR 28980:2007 Ophthalmic optics – Spectacle lenses – Parameters affecting lens power measurement", "ISO 29000 – ISO 29999\n ISO/TS 29001:2010 Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries – Sector-specific quality management systems – Requirements for product and service supply organizations\n ISO/IEC 29100:2011 Information technology - Security techniques - Privacy framework\n ISO/IEC 29101:2013 Information technology - Security techniques - Privacy architecture framework\n ISO/IEC TR 29106:2007 Information technology - Generic cabling - Introduction to the MICE environmental classification", "ISO/IEC TR 29107 Information technology - Intelligent homes - Taxonomy of specifications\n ISO/IEC TR 29107-1:2010 Part 1: The scheme\n ISO/IEC TR 29108:2013 Information technology - Terminology for intelligent homes\n ISO/IEC 29109 Information technology – Conformance testing methodology for biometric data interchange formats defined in ISO/IEC 19794\n ISO/IEC 29109-1:2009 Part 1: Generalized conformance testing methodology\n ISO/IEC 29109-2:2010 Part 2: Finger minutiae data", "ISO/IEC 29109-2:2010 Part 2: Finger minutiae data\n ISO/IEC 29109-4:2010 Part 4: Finger image data\n ISO/IEC 29109-5:2014 Part 5: Face image data\n ISO/IEC 29109-6:2011 Part 6: Iris image data\n ISO/IEC 29109-7:2011 Part 7: Signature/sign time series data\n ISO/IEC 29109-8:2011 Part 8: Finger pattern skeletal data\n ISO/IEC 29109-9:2011 Part 9: Vascular image data\n ISO/IEC 29109-10:2010 Part 10: Hand geometry silhouette data", "ISO/IEC 29109-10:2010 Part 10: Hand geometry silhouette data\n ISO/IEC 29110 Systems and software engineering - Lifecycle profiles for Very Small Entities (VSEs)\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-1:2016 Part 1: Overview\n ISO/IEC 29110-2-1:2015 Part 2-1: Framework and taxonomy\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-2-2:2016 Part 2-2: Guide for the development of domain-specific profiles\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-3-1:2015 Part 3-1: Assessment guide", "ISO/IEC TR 29110-3-1:2015 Part 3-1: Assessment guide\n ISO/IEC 29110-3-3:2016 Part 3-3: Certification requirements for conformity assessments of VSE profiles using process assessment and maturity models\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-3-4:2015 Part 3-4: Autonomy-based improvement method\n ISO/IEC 29110-4-1:2011 Part 4-1: Profile specifications: Generic profile group\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-5-1-1:2012 Part 5-1-1: Management and engineering guide: Generic profile group: Entry profile", "ISO/IEC TR 29110-5-1-2:2011 Part 5-1-2: Management and engineering guide: Generic profile group: Basic profile\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-5-1-3:2017 Part 5-1-3: Software engineering - Management and engineering guide: Generic profile group - Intermediate profile\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-5-2-1:2016 Part 5-2-1: Organizational management guidelines\n ISO/IEC TR 29110-5-6-1:2015 Part 5-6-1: Systems engineering - Management and engineering guide: Generic profile group: Entry profile", "ISO/IEC TR 29110-5-6-2:2014 Part 5-6-2: Systems engineering - Management and engineering guide: Generic profile group: Basic profile \n ISO/IEC TS 29113:2012 Information technology - Further interoperability of Fortran with C\n ISO/IEC 29115:2013 Information technology - Security techniques - Entity authentication assurance framework\n ISO/IEC 29119 Software and systems engineering – Software testing\n ISO/IEC 29120 Information technology – Machine readable test data for biometric testing and reporting", "ISO/IEC 29120-1:2015 Part 1: Test reports\n ISO/IEC 29121:2013 Information technology - Digitally recorded media for information interchange and storage - Data migration method for DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, +R, and +RW disks\n ISO/IEC TR 29123:2007 Identification Cards – Proximity Cards – Requirements for the enhancement of interoperability", "ISO/IEC 29124:2010 Information technology - Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces - Extensions to the C++ Library to support mathematical special functions\n ISO/IEC TS 29125:2017 Information technology - Telecommunications cabling requirements for remote powering of terminal equipment\n ISO/IEC TR 29127:2011 Information technology - System Process and Architecture for Multilingual Semantic Reverse Query Expansion", "ISO/IEC 29128:2011 Information technology - Security techniques - Verification of cryptographic protocols\n ISO/IEC 29133:2010 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques - Quality test specification for rewritable hybrid media data carriers\n ISO/IEC 29134:2017 Information technology - Security techniques - Guidelines for privacy impact assessment\n ISO/IEC 29136:2012 Information technology – User interfaces – Accessibility of personal computer hardware", "ISO/IEC TR 29138 Information technology – Accessibility considerations for people with disabilities\n ISO/IEC TR 29138-1:2009 Part 1: User needs summary\n ISO/IEC TR 29138-2:2009 Part 2: Standards inventory\n ISO/IEC TR 29138-3:2009 Part 3: Guidance on user needs mapping\n ISO/IEC TS 29140 Information technology for learning, education and training - Nomadicity and mobile technologies\n ISO/IEC TS 29140-1:2011 Part 1: Nomadicity reference model", "ISO/IEC TS 29140-1:2011 Part 1: Nomadicity reference model\n ISO/IEC TS 29140-2:2011 Part 2: Learner information model for mobile learning\n ISO/IEC 29141:2009 Information technology – Biometrics – Tenprint capture using biometric application programming interface (BioAPI)\n ISO/IEC 29143:2011 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques - Air interface specification for Mobile RFID interrogators", "ISO/IEC TR 29144:2014 Information technology – Biometrics – The use of biometric technology in commercial Identity Management applications and processes\n ISO/IEC 29145 Information technology - Wireless Beacon-enabled Energy Efficient Mesh network (WiBEEM) for wireless home network services\n ISO/IEC 29145-1:2014 Part 1: PHY Layer\n ISO/IEC 29145-2:2014 Part 2: MAC Layer\n ISO/IEC 29145-3:2014 Part 3: NWK Layer", "ISO/IEC 29145-2:2014 Part 2: MAC Layer\n ISO/IEC 29145-3:2014 Part 3: NWK Layer\n ISO/IEC 29146:2016 Information technology - Security techniques - A framework for access management\n ISO/IEC 29147:2014 Information technology - Security techniques - Vulnerability disclosure\n ISO/IEC/IEEE 29148:2011 Systems and software engineering - Life cycle processes - Requirements engineering", "ISO/IEC TR 29149:2012 Information technology - Security techniques - Best practices for the provision and use of time-stamping services\n ISO/IEC 29150:2011 Information technology - Security techniques - Signcryption\n ISO/IEC 29151:2017 Information technology - Security techniques - Code of practice for personally identifiable information protection", "ISO/IEC TR 29154:2013 Software engineering - Guide for the application of ISO/IEC 24773:2008 (Certification of software engineering professionals - Comparison framework)\n ISO/IEC 29155 Systems and software engineering - Information technology project performance benchmarking framework\n ISO/IEC 29155-1:2017 Part 1: Concepts and definitions\n ISO/IEC 29155-2:2013 Part 2: Requirements for benchmarking\n ISO/IEC 29155-3:2015 Part 3: Guidance for reporting", "ISO/IEC 29155-3:2015 Part 3: Guidance for reporting\n ISO/IEC 29155-4:2016 Part 4: Guidance for data collection and maintenance\n ISO/IEC TR 29156:2015 Information technology – Guidance for specifying performance requirements to meet security and usability needs in applications using biometrics\n ISO/IEC 29157:2015 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – PHY/MAC specifications for short-range wireless low-rate applications in the ISM band", "ISO/IEC TR 29158:2011 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques - Direct Part Mark (DPM) Quality Guideline\n ISO/IEC 29159 Information technology – Biometric calibration, augmentation and fusion data\n ISO/IEC 29159-1:2010 Part 1: Fusion information format\n ISO/IEC 29160:2012 Information technology - Radio frequency identification for item management - RFID Emblem", "ISO/IEC 29161:2016 Information technology - Data structure - Unique identification for the Internet of Things\n ISO/IEC TR 29162:2012 Information technology - Guidelines for using data structures in AIDC media \n ISO/IEC TR 29163 Information technology - Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM®) 2004 3rd Edition\n ISO/IEC TR 29163-1:2009 Part 1: Overview Version 1.1\n ISO/IEC TR 29163-2:2009 Part 2: Content Aggregation Model Version 1.1\n ISO/IEC TR 29163-3:2009 Part 3: Run-Time Environment Version 1.1", "ISO/IEC TR 29163-3:2009 Part 3: Run-Time Environment Version 1.1\n ISO/IEC TR 29163-4:2009 Part 4: Sequencing and Navigation Version 1.1\n ISO/IEC 29164:2011 Information technology – Biometrics – Embedded BioAPI\n ISO/IEC TR 29166:2011 Information technology - Document description and processing languages - Guidelines for translation between ISO/IEC 26300 and ISO/IEC 29500 document formats\n ISO/IEC 29167 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques", "ISO/IEC 29167 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques\n ISO/IEC 29167-1:2014 Part 1: Security services for RFID air interfaces\n ISO/IEC 29167-10:2015 Part 10: Crypto suite AES-128 security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29167-11:2014 Part 11: Crypto suite PRESENT-80 security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29167-12:2015 Part 12: Crypto suite ECC-DH security services for air interface communications", "ISO/IEC 29167-13:2015 Part 13: Crypto suite Grain-128A security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29167-14:2015 Part 14: Crypto suite AES OFB security services for air interface communications \n ISO/IEC 29167-16:2015 Part 16: Crypto suite ECDSA-ECDH security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29167-17:2015 Part 17: Crypto suite cryptoGPS security services for air interface communications", "ISO/IEC 29167-19:2016 Part 19: Crypto suite RAMON security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29167-21:2018 Part 21: Crypto suite SIMON security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29167-22:2018 Part 22: Crypto suite SPECK security services for air interface communications\n ISO/IEC 29168 Information technology - Open systems interconnection\n ISO/IEC 29168-1:2011 Part 1: Object identifier resolution system", "ISO/IEC 29168-1:2011 Part 1: Object identifier resolution system\n ISO/IEC 29168-2:2011 Part 2: Procedures for the object identifier resolution system operational agency\n ISO/IEC 29169:2016 Information technology - Process assessment - Application of conformity assessment methodology to the assessment to process quality characteristics and organizational maturity\n ISO/IEC 29170 Information technology - Advanced image coding and evaluation", "ISO/IEC 29170 Information technology - Advanced image coding and evaluation\n ISO/IEC 29170-2:2015 Part 2: Evaluation procedure for nearly lossless coding\n ISO/IEC 29171:2009 Information technology - Digitally recorded media for information interchange and storage - Information Versatile Disk for Removable usage (iVDR) cartridge\n ISO/IEC TR 29172:2011 Information technology - Mobile item identification and management - Reference architecture for Mobile AIDC services", "ISO/IEC 29173 Information technology - Mobile item identification and management\n ISO/IEC 29173-1:2012 Part 1: Mobile RFID interrogator device protocol for ISO/IEC 18000-63 Type C\n ISO/IEC 29175:2012 Information technology - Mobile item identification and management - User data for Mobile AIDC services\n ISO/IEC 29176:2011 Information technology - Mobile item identification and management - Consumer privacy-protection protocol for Mobile RFID services", "ISO/IEC 29177:2016 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture technique - Identifier resolution protocol for multimedia information access triggered by tag-based identification\n ISO/IEC 29178:2012 Information technology - Mobile item identification and management - Service broker for Mobile AIDC services\n ISO/IEC 29179:2012 Information technology - Mobile item identification and management - Mobile AIDC application programming interface", "ISO/IEC 29180:2012 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Security framework for ubiquitous sensor networks\n ISO/IEC TR 29181 Information technology – Future Network – Problem statement and requirements\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-1:2012 Part 1: Overall aspects\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-2:2014 Part 2: Naming and addressing\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-3:2013 Part 3: Switching and routing\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-4:2013 Part 4: Mobility\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-5:2014 Part 5: Security", "ISO/IEC TR 29181-4:2013 Part 4: Mobility\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-5:2014 Part 5: Security\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-6:2013 Part 6: Media transport\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-7:2013 Part 7: Service composition\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-8:2017 Part 8: Quality of Service\n ISO/IEC TR 29181-9:2017 Part 9: Networking of everything\n ISO/IEC 29182 Information technology – Sensor networks: Sensor Network Reference Architecture (SNRA)\n ISO/IEC 29182-1:2013 Part 1: General overview and requirements", "ISO/IEC 29182-1:2013 Part 1: General overview and requirements\n ISO/IEC 29182-2:2013 Part 2: Vocabulary and terminology\n ISO/IEC 29182-3:2014 Part 3: Reference architecture views\n ISO/IEC 29182-4:2013 Part 4: Entity models\n ISO/IEC 29182-5:2013 Part 5: Interface definitions\n ISO/IEC 29182-6:2014 Part 6: Applications\n ISO/IEC 29182-7:2015 Part 7: Interoperability guidelines", "ISO/IEC 29182-7:2015 Part 7: Interoperability guidelines\n ISO/IEC 29187 Information technology - Identification of privacy protection requirements pertaining to learning, education and training (LET)\n ISO/IEC 29187-1:2013 Part 1: Framework and reference model\n ISO/IEC TR 29189:2015 Information technology – Biometrics – Evaluation of examiner assisted biometric applications\n ISO/IEC 29190:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Privacy capability assessment model", "ISO/IEC 29191:2012 Information technology - Security techniques - Requirements for partially anonymous, partially unlinkable authentication.\n ISO/IEC 29192 Information technology - Security techniques - Lightweight cryptography\n ISO/IEC 29192-1:2012 Part 1: General\n ISO/IEC 29192-2:2012 Part 2: Block ciphers\n ISO/IEC 29192-3:2012 Part 3: Stream ciphers\n ISO/IEC 29192-4:2013 Part 4: Mechanisms using asymmetric techniques\n ISO/IEC 29192-5:2016 Part 5: Hash-functions", "ISO/IEC 29192-5:2016 Part 5: Hash-functions\n ISO/IEC 29192-6:2016 Part 6: Message authentication codes (MACs)\n ISO/IEC 29192-7:2016 Part 7: Broadcast authentication protocols\n ISO/IEC TR 29194:2015 Information Technology – Biometrics – Guide on designing accessible and inclusive biometric systems\n ISO/IEC TR 29195:2015 Traveller processes for biometric recognition in automated border control systems\n ISO/IEC TR 29196:2015 Guidance for biometric enrolment", "ISO/IEC TR 29196:2015 Guidance for biometric enrolment\n ISO/IEC 29197:2015 Information technology - Evaluation methodology for environmental influence in biometric system performance\n ISO/IEC TR 29198:2013 Information technology – Biometrics – Characterization and measurement of difficulty for fingerprint databases for technology evaluation\n ISO/IEC 29199 Information technology - JPEG XR image coding system\n ISO/IEC TR 29199-1:2011 Part 1: System architecture", "ISO/IEC TR 29199-1:2011 Part 1: System architecture\n ISO/IEC 29199-2:2012 Part 2: Image coding specification\n ISO/IEC 29199-3:2010 Part 3: Motion JPEG XR\n ISO/IEC 29199-4:2010 Part 4: Conformance testing\n ISO/IEC 29199-5:2012 Part 5: Reference software\n ISO 29281 Intelligent transport systems – Communication access for land mobiles (CALM) – Non-IP networking\n ISO 29281-1:2013 Part 1: Fast networking & transport layer protocol (FNTP)\n ISO 29281-2:2013 Part 2: Legacy system support", "ISO 29281-2:2013 Part 2: Legacy system support\n ISO 29282:2011 Intelligent transport systems – Communications access for land mobiles (CALM) – Satellite networks\n ISO 29283:2011 ITS CALM Mobile Wireless Broadband applications using Communications in accordance with IEEE 802.20\n ISO/TS 29284:2012 Intelligent transport systems – Event-based probe vehicle data\n ISO/IEC 29341 Information technology - UPnP Device Architecture\n ISO/IEC 29341-1:2011 Part 1: UPnP Device Architecture Version 1.0", "ISO/IEC 29341-1:2011 Part 1: UPnP Device Architecture Version 1.0\n ISO/IEC 29341-1-1:2011 Part 1-1: UPnP Device Architecture Version 1.1\n ISO/IEC 29341-1-2:2017 Part 1-2: UPnP Device Architecture Version 2.0\n ISO/IEC 29341-2:2008 Part 2: Basic Device Control Protocol - Basic Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-1:2011 Part 3-1: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Audio Video Architecture\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-2:2008 Part 3-2: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Media Renderer Device", "ISO/IEC 29341-3-2:2008 Part 3-2: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Media Renderer Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-3:2008 Part 3-3: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Media Server Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-10:2015 Part 3-10: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Audio Video Transport Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-11:2008 Part 3-11: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Connection Manager Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-12:2008 Part 3-12: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Content Directory Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-3-12:2008 Part 3-12: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Content Directory Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-3-13:2008 Part 3-13: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Rendering Control Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-4-2:2011 Part 4-2: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Media Renderer Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-4-3:2008 Part 4-3: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Media Server Device", "ISO/IEC 29341-4-4:2011 Part 4-4: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Audio Video Data Structures\n ISO/IEC 29341-4-10:2011 Part 4-10: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Audio Video Transport Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-4-11:2011 Part 4-11: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Connection Manager Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-4-12:2008 Part 4-12: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Content Directory Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-4-13:2011 Part 4-13: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Rendering Control Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-4-14:2011 Part 4-14: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Scheduled Recording Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-5-1:2008 Part 5-1: Digital Security Camera Device Control Protocol - Digital Security Camera Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-5-10:2008 Part 5-10: Digital Security Camera Device Control Protocol - Digital Security Camera Motion Image Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-5-11:2008 Part 5-11: Digital Security Camera Device Control Protocol - Digital Security Camera Settings Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-5-12:2008 Part 5-12: Digital Security Camera Device Control Protocol - Digital Security Camera Still Image Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-1:2008 Part 6-1: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - System Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-2:2008 Part 6-2: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Zone Thermostat Device", "ISO/IEC 29341-6-10:2008 Part 6-10: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Control Valve Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-11:2008 Part 6-11: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Fan Operating Mode Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-12:2008 Part 6-12: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Fan Speed Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-13:2008 Part 6-13: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - House Status Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-6-14:2008 Part 6-14: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Setpoint Schedule Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-15:2008 Part 6-15: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Temperature Sensor Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-6-16:2008 Part 6-16: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - Temperature Setpoint Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-6-17:2008 Part 6-17: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Device Control Protocol - User Operating Mode Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-7-1:2008 Part 7-1: Lighting Device Control Protocol - Binary Light Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-7-2:2008 Part 7-2: Lighting Device Control Protocol - Dimmable Light Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-7-10:2008 Part 7-10: Lighting Device Control Protocol - Dimming Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-7-11:2015 Part 7-11: Lighting Device Control Protocol - Switch Power Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-7-11:2015 Part 7-11: Lighting Device Control Protocol - Switch Power Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-1:2008 Part 8-1: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Internet Gateway Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-2:2008 Part 8-2: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Local Area Network Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-3:2008 Part 8-3: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-4:2008 Part 8-4: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Connection Device", "ISO/IEC 29341-8-5:2008 Part 8-5: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wireless Local Area Network Access Point Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-10:2008 Part 8-10: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Local Area Network Host Configuration Management Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-11:2008 Part 8-11: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Layer 3 Forwarding Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-12:2008 Part 8-12: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Link Authentication Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-8-13:2008 Part 8-13: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Radius Client Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-14:2008 Part 8-14: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Cable Link Configuration Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-15:2008 Part 8-15: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Common Interface Configuration Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-16:2008 Part 8-16: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Digital Subscriber Line Configuration Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-8-17:2008 Part 8-17: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Ethernet Link Configuration Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-18:2008 Part 8-18: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Internet Protocol Connection Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-19:2008 Part 8-19: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Plain Old Telephone Service Link Configuration Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-8-20:2008 Part 8-20: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wide Area Network Point-to-Point Protocol Connection Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-8-21:2008 Part 8-21: Internet Gateway Device Control Protocol - Wireless Local Area Network Configuration Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-9-1:2008 Part 9-1: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Printer Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-9-2:2008 Part 9-2: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Scanner", "ISO/IEC 29341-9-2:2008 Part 9-2: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Scanner\n ISO/IEC 29341-9-10:2008 Part 9-10: Imaging Device Control Protocol - External Activity Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-9-11:2008 Part 9-11: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Feeder Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-9-12:2008 Part 9-12: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Print Basic Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-9-13:2008 Part 9-13: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Scan Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-9-13:2008 Part 9-13: Imaging Device Control Protocol - Scan Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-10-1:2008 Part 10-1: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Quality of Service Architecture\n ISO/IEC 29341-10-10:2008 Part 10-10: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Quality of Service Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-10-11:2008 Part 10-11: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Quality of Service Manager Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-10-12:2008 Part 10-12: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Quality of Service Policy Holder Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-11-1:2008 Part 11-1: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Quality of Service Architecture\n ISO/IEC 29341-11-2:2008 Part 11-2: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Quality of Service Schemas\n ISO/IEC 29341-11-10:2008 Part 11-10: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Quality of Service Device Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-11-11:2008 Part 11-11: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Quality of Service Manager Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-11-12:2008 Part 11-12: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 2 - Quality of Service Policy Holder Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-12-1:2015 Part 12-1: Remote User Interface Device Control Protocol - Remote User Interface Client Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-12-2:2015 Part 12-2: Remote User Interface Device Control Protocol - Remote User Interface Server Device", "ISO/IEC 29341-12-10:2015 Part 12-10: Remote User Interface Device Control Protocol - Remote User Interface Client Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-12-11:2015 Part 12-11: Remote User Interface Device Control Protocol - Remote User Interface Server Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-13-10:2008 Part 13-10: Device Security Device Control Protocol - Device Security Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-13-11:2008 Part 13-11: Device Security Device Control Protocol - Security Console Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-14-3:2011 Part 14-3: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Media Server Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-14-12:2011 Part 14-12: Audio Video Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Audio Video Content Directory Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-15-10:2011 Part 15-10: Content Synchronization Device Control Protocol - Content Synchronization Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-16-1:2011 Part 16-1: Low Power Device Control Protocol - Low Power", "ISO/IEC 29341-16-1:2011 Part 16-1: Low Power Device Control Protocol - Low Power\n ISO/IEC 29341-16-10:2011 Part 16-10: Low Power Device Control Protocol - Low Power Proxy Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-16-11:2011 Part 16-11: Low Power Device Control Protocol - Low Power Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-17-1:2011 Part 17-1: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Quality of Service Architecture", "ISO/IEC 29341-17-10:2011 Part 17-10: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Quality of Service Device Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-17-11:2011 Part 17-11: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Quality of Service Manager Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-17-12:2011 Part 17-12: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Quality of Service Policy Holder Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-17-13:2011 Part 17-13: Quality of Service Device Control Protocol - Level 3 - Quality of Service Device Service - Underlying Technology Interfaces\n ISO/IEC 29341-18-1:2011 Part 18-1: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Architecture\n ISO/IEC 29341-18-2:2011 Part 18-2: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Client Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-18-3:2011 Part 18-3: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Server Device", "ISO/IEC 29341-18-4:2011 Part 18-4: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Discovery Agent Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-18-10:2011 Part 18-10: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Inbound Connection Configuration Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-18-11:2011 Part 18-11: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Discovery Agent Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-18-12:2011 Part 18-12: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Discovery Agent Synchronization Service", "ISO/IEC 29341-18-13:2011 Part 18-13: Remote Access Device Control Protocol - Remote Access Transport Agent Configuration Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-19-1:2011 Part 19-1: Solar Protection Blind Device Control Protocol - Solar Protection Blind Device\n ISO/IEC 29341-19-10:2011 Part 19-10: Solar Protection Blind Device Control Protocol - Two Way Motion Motor Service\n ISO/IEC 29341-30-1:2017 Part 30-1: IoT management and control device control protocol - IoT management and control architecture overview", "ISO/IEC 29341-30-2:2017 Part 30-2: IoT management and control device control protocol - IoT management and control device\n ISO/IEC 29341-30-10:2017 Part 30-10: IoT management and control device control protocol - Data store service\n ISO/IEC 29341-30-11:2017 Part 30-11: IoT management and control device control protocol - IoT management and control data model service", "ISO/IEC 29341-30-12:2017 Part 30-12: IoT management and control device control protocol - IoT management and control transport generic service\n ISO/IEC 29361:2008 Information technology – Web Services Interoperability – WS-I Basic Profile Version 1.1\n ISO/IEC 29362:2008 Information technology – Web Services Interoperability – WS-I Attachments Profile Version 1.0\n ISO/IEC 29363:2008 Information technology – Web Services Interoperability – WS-I Simple SOAP Binding Profile Version 1.0", "ISO 29383:2020 Terminology policies — Development and implementation\n ISO 29404:2015 Ships and marine technology - Offshore wind energy - Supply chain information flow\n ISO 29461 Air intake filter systems for rotary machinery – Test methods\n ISO 29461-1:2013 Part 1: Static filter elements\n ISO 29464:2017 Cleaning of air and other gases – Terminology\n ISO/IEC 29500 Information technology – Document description and processing languages – Office Open XML File Formats", "ISO/IEC 29500-1:2016 Part 1: Fundamentals and Markup Language Reference\n ISO/IEC 29500-2:2012 Part 2: Open Packaging Conventions\n ISO/IEC 29500-3:2015 Part 3: Markup Compatibility and Extensibility\n ISO/IEC 29500-4:2016 Part 4: Transitional Migration Features\n ISO/TS 29585:2010 Health informatics – Deployment of a clinical data warehouse\n ISO 29621:2017 Cosmetics – Microbiology – Guidelines for the risk assessment and identification of microbiologically low-risk products", "ISO/IEC 29642:2009 Information technology - Data interchange on 120 mm and 80 mm optical disk using +RW DL format - Capacity: 8,55 Gbytes and 2,66 Gbytes per side (recording speed 2,4X)\n ISO 29701:2010 Nanotechnologies – Endotoxin test on nanomaterial samples for in vitro systems – Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test", "ISO 29781:2008 Prostheses and orthoses – Factors to be included when describing physical activity of a person who has had a lower limb amputation(s) or who has a deficiency of a lower limb segment(s) present at birth\n ISO 29782:2008 Prostheses and orthoses – Factors to be considered when specifying a prosthesis for a person who has had a lower limb amputation\n ISO 29783 Prosthetics and orthotics - Vocabulary\n ISO 29783-1:2008 Part 1: Normal gait\n ISO 29783-2:2015 Part 2: Prosthetic gait", "ISO 29783-1:2008 Part 1: Normal gait\n ISO 29783-2:2015 Part 2: Prosthetic gait\n ISO 29783-3:2016 Part 3: Pathological gait (excluding prosthetic gait)\n ISO/IEC 29794 Information technology – Biometric sample quality\n ISO/IEC 29794-1:2016 Part 1: Framework\n ISO/IEC 29794-4:2017 Part 4: Finger image data\n ISO/IEC TR 29794-5:2010 Part 5: Face image data\n ISO/IEC 29794-6:2015 Part 6: Iris image data\n ISO 29821 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Ultrasound", "ISO 29821 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Ultrasound\n ISO 29821-1:2011 Part 1: General guidelines\n ISO 29821-2:2016 Part 2: Procedures and validation\n ISO 29845:2011 Technical product documentation – Document types\n ISO/IEC 29881:2010 Information technology - Systems and software engineering - FiSMA 1.1 functional size measurement method\n ISO/TR 29901:2007 Selected illustrations of full factorial experiments with four factors", "ISO/TR 29901:2007 Selected illustrations of full factorial experiments with four factors\n ISO 29990:2010 Learning services for non-formal education and training – Basic requirements for service providers\n ISO 29991:2014 Language learning services outside formal education – Requirements\n ISO 29993:2017 Learning services outside formal education – Service requirements", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n International Organization for Standardization\n ISO Certification Provider\n ISO Consultant\n\nInternational Organization for Standardization" ]

[ "Apophatic theology, also known as negative theology, is a form of theological thinking and religious practice which attempts to approach God, the Divine, by negation, to speak only in terms of what may not be said about the perfect goodness that is God. It forms a pair together with cataphatic theology, which approaches God or the Divine by affirmations or positive statements about what God is.", "The apophatic tradition is often, though not always, allied with the approach of mysticism, which aims at the vision of God, the perception of the divine reality beyond the realm of ordinary perception.\n\nEtymology and definition \n\"Apophatic\", (noun); from ἀπόφημι apophēmi, meaning 'to deny'. From Online Etymology Dictionary: \n\n or (Latin), 'negative way' or 'by way of denial'. The negative way forms a pair together with the kataphatic or positive way. According to Deirdre Carabine,", "Origins and development\nAccording to Fagenblat, \"negative theology is as old as philosophy itself;\" elements of it can be found in Plato's unwritten doctrines, while it is also present in Neo-Platonic, Gnostic and early Christian writers. A tendency to apophatic thought can also be found in Philo of Alexandria.", "According to Carabine, \"apophasis proper\" in Greek thought starts with Neo-Platonism, with its speculations about the nature of the One, culminating in the works of Proclus. Carabine writes that there are two major points in the development of apophatic theology, namely the fusion of the Jewish tradition with Platonic philosophy in the writings of Philo, and the works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, who infused Christian thought with Neo-Platonic ideas.", "The Early Church Fathers were influenced by Philo, and Meredith even states that Philo \"is the real founder of the apophatic tradition.\" Yet, it was with Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus the Confessor, whose writings shaped both Hesychasm, the contemplative tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the mystical traditions of western Europe, that apophatic theology became a central element of Christian theology and contemplative practice.", "Elijah's hearing of a \"still, small voice\" at I Kings 19:11-13 has been proposed as a Biblical example of apophatic prayer.\n\nGreek philosophy", "Pre-Socratic", "For the ancient Greeks, knowledge of the gods was essential for proper worship. Poets had an important responsibility in this regard, and a central question was how knowledge of the Divine forms can be attained. Epiphany played an essential role in attaining this knowledge", ". Epiphany played an essential role in attaining this knowledge. Xenophanes () noted that the knowledge of the Divine forms is restrained by the human imagination, and Greek philosophers realized that this knowledge can only be mediated through myth and visual representations, which are culture-dependent.", "According to Herodotus (484–425 BC), Homer and Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) taught the Greek the knowledge of the Divine bodies of the Gods. The ancient Greek poet Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) describes in his Theogony the birth of the gods and creation of the world, which became an \"ur-text for programmatic, first-person epiphanic narratives in Greek literature,\" but also \"explores the necessary limitations placed on human access to the divine", ".\" According to Platt, the statement of the Muses who grant Hesiod knowledge of the Gods \"actually accords better with the logic of apophatic religious thought.\"", "Parmenides (fl. late sixth or early fifth century BC), in his poem On Nature, gives an account of a revelation on two ways of inquiry. \"The way of conviction\" explores Being, true reality (\"what-is\"), which is \"What is ungenerated and deathless,/whole and uniform, and still and perfect.\" \"The way of opinion\" is the world of appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which are false and deceitful", ". His distinction between unchanging Truth and shifting opinion is reflected in Plato's allegory of the Cave. Together with the Biblical story of Moses's ascent of Mount Sinai, it is used by Gregory of Nyssa and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite to give a Christian account of the ascent of the soul toward God. Cook notes that Parmenides poem is a religious account of a mystical journey, akin to the mystery cults, giving a philosophical form to a religious outlook", ". Cook further notes that the philosopher's task is to \"attempt through 'negative' thinking to tear themselves loose from all that frustrates their pursuit of wisdom.\"", "Plato\n\nPlato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC), \"deciding for Parmenides against Heraclitus\" and his theory of eternal change, had a strong influence on the development of apophatic thought.", "Plato further explored Parmenides's idea of timeless truth in his dialogue Parmenides, which is a treatment of the eternal forms, Truth, Beauty and Goodness, which are the real aims for knowledge. The Theory of Forms is Plato's answer to the problem how one fundamental reality or unchanging essence can admit of many changing phenomena, other than by dismissing them as being mere illusion.", "In The Republic, Plato argues that the \"real objects of knowledge are not the changing objects of the senses, but the immutable Forms,\" stating that the Form of the Good is the highest object of knowledge. His argument culminates in the Allegory of the Cave, in which he argues that humans are like prisoners in a cave, who can only see shadows of the Real, the Form of the Good", ". Humans are to be educated to search for knowledge, by turning away from their bodily desires toward higher contemplation, culminating in an intellectual understanding or apprehension of the Forms, c.q. the \"first principles of all knowledge.\"", "According to Cook, the Theory of Forms has a theological flavour, and had a strong influence on the ideas of his Neo-Platonist interpreters Proclus and Plotinus. The pursuit of Truth, Beauty and Goodness became a central element in the apophatic tradition, but nevertheless, according to Carabine \"Plato himself cannot be regarded as the founder of the negative way", ".\" Carabine warns not to read later Neo-Platonic and Christian understandings into Plato, and notes that Plato did not identify his Forms with \"one transcendent source,\" an identification which his later interpreters made.", "Middle Platonism", "Middle Platonism (1st century BC–3rd century AD) further investigated Plato's \"Unwritten Doctrines,\" which drew on Pythagoras' first principles of the Monad and the Dyad (matter). Middle Platonism proposed a hierarchy of being, with God as its first principle at its top, identifying it with Plato's Form of the Good. An influential proponent of Middle Platonism was Philo (c. 25 BC–c", ". An influential proponent of Middle Platonism was Philo (c. 25 BC–c. 50 AD), who employed Middle Platonic philosophy in his interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures, and asserted a strong influence on early Christianity. According to Craig D. Allert, \"Philo made a monumental contribution to the creation of a vocabulary for use in negative statements about God.\" For Philo, God is undescribable, and he uses terms which emphasize God's transcendence.", "Neo-Platonism", "Neo-Platonism was a mystical or contemplative form of Platonism, which \"developed outside the mainstream of Academic Platonism.\" It started with the writings of Plotinus (204/5–270 AD), and ended with the closing of the Platonic Academy by Emperor Justinian in 529 AD, when the pagan traditions were ousted. It is a product of Hellenistic syncretism, which developed due to the crossover between Greek thought and the Jewish scriptures, and also gave birth to Gnosticism. Proclus of Athens (*412–485 C.E", ". Proclus of Athens (*412–485 C.E.) played a crucial role in the transmission of Platonic philosophy from antiquity to the Middle Ages., serving as head or ‘successor’ (diadochos, sc. of Plato) of the Platonic ‘Academy’ for over 50 years. His student Pseudo-Dionysius had a far-stretching Neo-Platonic influence on Christianity and Christian mysticism.", "Plotinus", "Plotinus (204/5–270 AD) was the founder of Neo-Platonism. In the Neo-Platonic philosophy of Plotinus and Proclus, the first principle became even more elevated as a radical unity, which was presented as an unknowable Absolute. For Plotinus, the One is the first principle, from which everything else emanates. He took it from Plato's writings, identifying the Good of the Republic, as the cause of the other Forms, with the One of the first hypothesis of the second part of the Parmenides", ". For Plotinus, the One precedes the Forms, and \"is beyond Mind and indeed beyond Being.\" From the One comes the Intellect, which contains all the Forms. The One is the principle of Being, while the Forms are the principle of the essence of beings, and the intelligibility which can recognize them as such. Plotinus's third principle is Soul, the desire for objects external to itself", ". Plotinus's third principle is Soul, the desire for objects external to itself. The highest satisfaction of desire is the contemplation of the One, which unites all existents \"as a single, all-pervasive reality.\"", "The One is radically simple, and does not even have self-knowledge, since self-knowledge would imply multiplicity. Nevertheless, Plotinus does urge for a search for the Absolute, turning inward and becoming aware of the \"presence of the intellect in the human soul,\" initiating an ascent of the soul by abstraction or \"taking away,\" culminating in a sudden appearance of the One. In the Enneads Plotinus writes:", "Carabine notes that Plotinus' apophasis is not just a mental exercise, an acknowledgement of the unknowability of the One, but a means to ecstasis and an ascent to \"the unapproachable light that is God.\" Pao-Shen Ho, investigating what are Plotinus' methods for reaching henosis, concludes that \"Plotinus' mystical teaching is made up of two practices only, namely philosophy and negative theology", ".\" According to Moore, Plotinus appeals to the \"non-discursive, intuitive faculty of the soul,\" by \"calling for a sort of prayer, an invocation of the deity, that will permit the soul to lift itself up to the unmediated, direct, and intimate contemplation of that which exceeds it (V.1.6).\" Pao-Shen Ho further notes that \"for Plotinus, mystical experience is irreducible to philosophical arguments", ".\" The argumentation about henosis is preceded by the actual experience of it, and can only be understood when henosis has been attained. Ho further notes that Plotinus's writings have a didactic flavour, aiming to \"bring his own soul and the souls of others by way of Intellect to union with the One.\" As such, the Enneads as a spiritual or ascetic teaching device, akin to The Cloud of Unknowing, demonstrating the methods of philosophical and apophatic inquiry", ". Ultimately, this leads to silence and the abandonment of all intellectual inquiry, leaving contemplation and unity.", "Proclus", "Proclus (412-485) introduced the terminology used in apophatic and cataphatic theology. He did this in the second book of his Platonic Theology, arguing that Plato states that the One can be revealed \"through analogy,\" and that \"through negations [dia ton apophaseon] its transcendence over everything can be shown", ".\" For Proclus, apophatic and cataphatic theology form a contemplatory pair, with the apophatic approach corresponding to the manifestation of the world from the One, and cataphatic theology corresponding to the return to the One. The analogies are affirmations which direct us toward the One, while the negations underlie the confirmations, being closer to the One. According to Luz, Proclus also attracted students from other faiths, including the Samaritan Marinus", ". Luz notes that \"Marinus' Samaritan origins with its Abrahamic notion of a single ineffable Name of God () should also have been in many ways compatible with the school's ineffable and apophatic divine principle.\"", "Christianity\n\nApostolic Age\nThe Book of Revelation mentions \"the silence of the perpetual choir in heaven.\" According to Dan Merkur,\n\nEarly Church Fathers\nThe Early Church Fathers were influenced by Philo (c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD), who saw Moses as \"the model of human virtue and Sinai as the archetype of man's ascent into the \"luminous darkness\" of God.\" His interpretation of Moses was followed by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, the Cappadocian Fathers, Pseudo-Dionysius, and Maximus the Confessor.", "God's appearance to Moses in the burning bush was often elaborated on by the Early Church Fathers, especially Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 395), realizing the fundamental unknowability of God; an exegesis which continued in the medieval mystical tradition. Their response is that, although God is unknowable, Jesus as person can be followed, since \"following Christ is the human way of seeing God.\"", "Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) was an early proponent of apophatic theology. Clement holds that God is unknowable, although God's unknowability, concerns only his essence, not his energies, or powers. According to R.A. Baker, in Clement's writings the term theoria develops further from a mere intellectual \"seeing\" toward a spiritual form of contemplation. Clement's apophatic theology or philosophy is closely related to this kind of theoria and the \"mystic vision of the soul", ".\" For Clement, God is transcendent and immanent. According to Baker, Clement's apophaticism is mainly driven not by Biblical texts, but by the Platonic tradition. His conception of an ineffable God is a synthesis of Plato and Philo, as seen from a Biblical perspective. According to Osborne, it is a synthesis in a Biblical framework; according to Baker, while the Platonic tradition accounts for the negative approach, the Biblical tradition accounts for the positive approach", ". Theoria and abstraction is the means to conceive of this ineffable God; it is preceded by dispassion.", "According to Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 240),\n\nSaint Cyril of Jerusalem (313-386), in his Catechetical Homilies, states:", "Augustine of Hippo (354-430) defined God aliud, aliud valde, meaning \"other, completely other\", in Confessions 7.10.16, wrote Si [enim] comprehendis, non est Deus, meaning \"if you understand [something], it is not God\", in Sermo 117.3.5 (PL 38, 663), and a famous legend tells that, while walking along the Mediterranean shoreline meditating on the mystery of the Trinity, he met a child who with a seashell (or a little pail) was trying to pour the whole sea into a small hole dug in the sand", ". Augustine told him that it was impossible to enclose the immensity of the sea in such a small opening, and the child replied that it was equally impossible to try to understand the infinity of God within the limited confines of the human mind.", "The Chalcedonian Christological dogma\n\nThe Christological dogma, formulated by the Fourth Ecumenical Council held in Chalcedon in 451, is based on dyophysitism and hypostatic union, concepts used to describe the union of humanity and divinity in a single hypostasis, or individual existence, that of Jesus Christ. This remains transcendent to our rational categories, a mystery which has to be guarded by apophatic language, as it is a personal union of a singularly unique kind.", "Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite\nApophatic theology found its most influential expression in the works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (late 5th to early 6th century), a student of Proclus (412-485) who combined a Christian worldview with Neo-Platonic ideas. He is a constant factor in the contemplative tradition of the eastern Orthodox Churches, and from the 9th century onwards his writings also had a strong impact on western mysticism.", "Dionysius the Areopagite was a pseudonym, taken from Acts of the Apostles chapter 17, in which Paul gives a missionary speech to the court of the Areopagus in Athens. In Paul makes a reference to an altar-inscription, dedicated to the Unknown God, \"a safety measure honoring foreign gods still unknown to the Hellenistic world.\" For Paul, Jesus Christ is this unknown God, and as a result of Paul's speech Dionysius the Areopagite converts to Christianity", ". Yet, according to Stang, for Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Athens is also the place of Neo-Platonic wisdom, and the term \"unknown God\" is a reversal of Paul's preaching toward an integration of Christianity with Neo-Platonism, and the union with the \"unknown God.\"", "According to Corrigan and Harrington, \"Dionysius' central concern is how a triune God, ... who is utterly unknowable, unrestricted being, beyond individual substances, beyond even goodness, can become manifest to, in, and through the whole of creation in order to bring back all things to the hidden darkness of their source.\" Drawing on Neo-Platonism, Pseudo-Dionysius described human ascent to divinity as a process of purgation, illumination and union", ". Another Neo-Platonic influence was his description of the cosmos as a series of hierarchies, which overcome the distance between God and humans.", "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "In Orthodox Christianity apophatic theology is taught as superior to cataphatic theology. The fourth-century Cappadocian Fathers stated a belief in the existence of God, but an existence unlike that of everything else: everything else that exists was created, but the Creator transcends this existence, is uncreated", ". The essence of God is completely unknowable; mankind can acquire an incomplete knowledge of God in His attributes (propria), positive and negative, by reflecting upon and participating in His self-revelatory operations (energeiai). Gregory of Nyssa (c.335-c.395), John Chrysostom (c. 349 – 407), and Basil the Great (329-379) emphasized the importance of negative theology to an orthodox understanding of God. John of Damascus (c", ". John of Damascus (c.675/676–749) employed negative theology when he wrote that positive statements about God reveal \"not the nature, but the things around the nature.\"", "Maximus the Confessor (580-622) took over Pseudo-Dionysius' ideas, and had a strong influence on the theology and contemplative practices of the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Gregory Palamas (1296–1359) formulated the definite theology of Hesychasm, the Eastern Orthodox practices of contemplative prayer and theosis, \"deification.\"", "Influential 20th-century Orthodox theologians include the Neo-Palamist writers Vladimir Lossky, John Meyendorff, John S. Romanides, and Georges Florovsky. Lossky argues, based on his reading of Dionysius and Maximus Confessor, that positive theology is always inferior to negative theology, which is a step along the way to the superior knowledge attained by negation. This is expressed in the idea that mysticism is the expression of dogmatic theology par excellence.", "According to Lossky, outside of directly revealed knowledge through Scripture and Sacred Tradition, such as the Trinitarian nature of God, God in His essence is beyond the limits of what human beings (or even angels) can understand. He is transcendent in essence (ousia). Further knowledge must be sought in a direct experience of God or His indestructible energies through theoria (vision of God). According to Aristotle Papanikolaou, in Eastern Christianity, God is immanent in his hypostasis or existences.", "Western Christianity\n\nNegative theology has a place in the Western Christian tradition as well. The 9th-century theologian John Scotus Erigena wrote: \n\nWhen he says \"He is not anything\" and \"God is not\", Scotus does not mean that there is no God, but that God cannot be said to exist in the way that creation exists, i.e. that God is uncreated. He is using apophatic language to emphasise that God is \"other\".", "Theologians like Meister Eckhart and John of the Cross (San Juan de la Cruz) exemplify some aspects of or tendencies towards the apophatic tradition in the West. The medieval work, The Cloud of Unknowing and Saint John's Dark Night of the Soul are particularly well known. In 1215 apophatism became the official position of the Catholic Church, which, on the basis of Scripture and church tradition, during the Fourth Lateran Council formulated the following dogma:\n\nThe via eminentiae", "Thomas Aquinas was born ten years later (1225-1274) and, although in his Summa Theologiae he quotes Pseudo-Dionysius 1,760 times, stating that \"Now, because we cannot know what God is, but rather what He is not, we have no means for considering how God is, but rather how He is not\" and leaving the work unfinished because it was like \"straw\" compared to what had been revealed to him", ", his reading in a neo-Aristotelian key of the conciliar declaration overthrew its meaning inaugurating the \"analogical way\" as tertium between via negativa and via positiva: the via eminentiae (see also analogia entis)", ". In this way, the believers see what attributes are common between them and God, as well as the unique, not human, properly divine and not understandable way in respect of which God possesses that attributes.", "According to Adrian Langdon,\n\nAccording to Catholic Encyclopedia, the Doctor Angelicus and the scholastici declare [that] \n\nSince then Thomism has played a decisive role in resizing the negative or apophatic tradition of the magisterium.\n\n20th century", "20th century\n\nApophatic statements are still crucial to many modern theologians, restarting in the 1800s by Søren Kierkegaard (see his concept of the infinite qualitative distinction) up to Rudolf Otto, Karl Barth (see their idea of \"Wholly Other\", i.e. ganz Andere or totaliter aliter), the Ludwig Wittgenstein of the Tractatus, and Martin Heidegger after his Kehre.", "C. S. Lewis, in his book Miracles (1947), advocates the use of negative theology when first thinking about God, in order to cleanse our minds of misconceptions. He goes on to advocate refilling the mind with the truth about God, untainted by mythology, bad analogies or false mind-pictures.", "The mid-20th century Dutch philosopher Herman Dooyeweerd, who is often associated with a neo-Calvinistic tradition, provides a philosophical foundation for understanding the impossibility of absolutely knowing God, and yet the possibility of truly knowing something of God. Dooyeweerd made a sharp distinction between theoretical and pre-theoretical attitudes of thought", ". Dooyeweerd made a sharp distinction between theoretical and pre-theoretical attitudes of thought. He argues that most of the discussion of knowledge of God presupposes theoretical knowledge, which involves reflection and attempts to define and discuss. Theoretical knowing, for Dooyeweerd, is never absolute, always depends on religious presuppositions, and cannot grasp either God or the law side", ". Pre-theoretical knowing, on the other hand, is intimate engagement, exhibits a diverse range of aspects, and can grasp at least the law side. According to Dooyeweerd, knowledge of God, as God wishes to reveal it, is pre-theoretical, immediate and intuitive, never theoretical in nature. The philosopher Leo Strauss considered that the Bible, for example, should be treated as pre-theoretical (everyday) rather than theoretical in what it contains.", "Ivan Illich (1926-2002), the historian and social critic, can be read as an apophatic theologian, according to a longtime collaborator, Lee Hoinacki, in a paper presented in memory of Illich, called \"Why Philia?\"\n\n21st century\nKaren Armstrong, in her book The Case for God (2009), notices a recovery of apophatic theology in postmodern theology.", "Philosopher and literary scholar William Franke, particularly in his 2007 two-volume collection On What Cannot Be Said and his 2014 monograph A Philosophy of the Unsayable, puts forth that negative theology's exploration and performance of language's limitations is not simply one current among many in religious thought, but is \"a kind of perennial counter-philosophy to the philosophy of Logos\" that persistently challenges central tenets of Western thought throughout its history", ". For Franke, literature demonstrates the \"infinitely open\" nature of language which negative theology and related forms of philosophical thought seek to draw attention to. Franke therefore argues that literature, philosophy, and theology begin to bleed into one another as they approach what he frames as the \"apophatic\" side of Western thought.", "Islam", "Various traditions and schools in Islam (see Islamic schools and branches) draw on sundry theologies in approaching God in Islam (Allah, Arabic الله) or the ultimate reality. \"Negative theology\" involves the use of تَعْطِيل, ta'tīl, defined as \"setting aside\", \"canceling out\", \"negation\", or \"nullification\"", ". The followers of the Mu'tazili school of Kalam, the spread of which is often attributed to Wasil ibn Ata, are often called the (\"cancelers\" or \"negators\"), a description, sometimes employed derogatorily, deriving from the school's descriptions of the Islamic God.", "Rajab ʿAlī Tabrīzī, an Iranian and Shi'ite philosopher and mystic of the 17th century, is credited with instilling an apophatic theology in a generation of philosophers and theologians whose influence extended into the Qajar period. Mulla Rajab affirmed the completely unknowable,\nunqualifiable, and attributeless nature of God and upheld a general view concerning God's attributes which can only be negatively 'affirmed' (that is, by affirmingly negating all that is not God about God).", "Shia Islam largely adopts \"negative theology\". In the words of the Persian Ismaili missionary, Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani: \"There does not exist a tanzíh [\"transcendence\"] more brilliant and more splendid than that by which we establish the absolute transcendence of our Originator through the use of these phrases in which a negative and a negative of a negative apply to the thing denied.\"", "Literalists completely reject and condemn any negation that would clash with the wording of the Islamic Scriptures or with the narratives ascribed to the Islamic Prophet. They therefore hold that descriptors and qualifiers that occur in the Qur'ān and in the canonized religious traditions, even if seeming or sounding humanlike such as \"hand\", \"finger, or \"foot\", are to be wholly affirmed as attributes of God (not limbs).", "Many Sunnites, like the Ash'aris and Maturidis, adhere to some middle path or synthesis between negation and anthropomorphism, though the kind of each combination of negation and affirmation varies greatly.\n\nJudaism", "Judaism\n\nMaimonides (1135/1138-1204) was \"the most influential medieval Jewish exponent of the via negativa.\" Maimonides - along with Samuel ibn Tibbon - draws on Bahya ibn Paquda, who shows that our inability to describe God is related to the fact of His absolute unity. God, as the entity which is \"truly One\" (האחד האמת), must be free of properties and is thus unlike anything else and indescribable. In The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides states:", "According to Rabbi Yosef Wineberg, Maimonides stated that \"[God] is knowledge,\" and saw His Essence, Being, and knowledge as completely one, \"a perfect unity and not a composite at all.\" Wineberg quotes Maimonides as stating:", "According to Fagenblat, it is only in the modern period that negative theology really gains importance in Jewish thought. Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903-1994) was a prominent modern exponent of Jewish negative theology. According to Leibowitz, a person's faith is his commitment to obey God, meaning God's commandments, and this has nothing to do with a person's image of God", ". This must be so because Leibowitz thought that God cannot be described, that God's understanding is not man's understanding, and thus all the questions asked of God are out of place.", "Jacques Derrida", "The work of Jewish philosopher Jacques Derrida, and in particular his critical method called deconstruction, has frequently been compared to negative theology, and led to renewed interest in apophaticism in the late 20th century, even among continental philosophers and literary scholars who may not have otherwise have been particularly invested in theological issues", ". Conversely, the perception that deconstruction resembled or essentially was a form of secular negative theology also - according to Derrida himself - took the form of an accusation from his critics, implicitly positing both negative theology and deconstruction as being elaborate ways of saying nothing of any substance or importance. However, Derrida strongly repudiated this comparison for much of his career, arguing that any resemblance between his thought and apophaticism is purely superficial", ". Derrida argued that the aims of negative theology - to demonstrate the ultimate, incomprehensible, transcendent reality of God - are a form of ontotheology which runs fundamentally counter to deconstruction's aim of purging Western thought of its pervasive metaphysics of presence.", "Later in his career, such in as his essay \"Sauf le nom\", Derrida comes to see apophatic theology as potentially but not necessarily a means through which the intractable inadequacies of language and the ontological difficulties which proceed from them can brought to our attention and explored:", "Scholars such as Stephen Shakespeare have noted that - despite Derrida's pervasive concern with many aspects of Jewish theology and identity - his writing on negative theology draws almost exclusively on Christian writing and couches the topic in the language of Christianity generally. Derrida's thought in general, but in particular his later writing on negative theology, was highly influential in the development of the Weak Theology movement, and of postmodern theology as a whole.", "David Wood and Robert Bernasconi have highlighted how Derrida explains what deconstruction is in an overwhelmingly negative, \"apophatic\" fashion.\n\nIndian parallels", "Indian parallels\n\nEarly Indian philosophical works which have apophatic themes include the Principal Upanishads (800 BC to the start of common era) and the Brahma Sutras (from 450 BC and 200 AD). An expression of negative theology is found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, where Brahman is described as \"neti neti\" or \"neither this, nor that\". Further use of apophatic theology is found in the Brahma Sutras, which state:", "Buddhist philosophy has also strongly advocated the way of negation, beginning with the Buddha's own theory of anatta (not-atman, not-self) which denies any truly existent and unchanging essence of a person. Madhyamaka is a Buddhist philosophical school founded by Nagarjuna (2nd-3rd century AD), which is based on a fourfold negation of all assertions and concepts and promotes the theory of emptiness (shunyata)", ". Apophatic assertions are also an important feature of Mahayana sutras, especially the prajñaparamita genre. These currents of negative theology are visible in all forms of Buddhism.", "Apophatic movements in medieval Hindu philosophy are visible in the works of Shankara (8th century), a philosopher of Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), and Bhartṛhari (5th century), a grammarian. While Shankara holds that the transcendent noumenon, Brahman, is realized by the means of negation of every phenomenon including language, Bhartṛhari theorizes that language has both phenomenal and noumenal dimensions, the latter of which manifests Brahman.", "In Advaita, Brahman is defined as being Nirguna or without qualities. Anything imaginable or conceivable is not deemed to be the ultimate reality. The Taittiriya hymn speaks of Brahman as \"one where the mind does not reach\". Yet the Hindu scriptures often speak of Brahman's positive aspect. For instance, Brahman is often equated with bliss. These contradictory descriptions of Brahman are used to show that the attributes of Brahman are similar to ones experienced by mortals, but not the same.", "Negative theology also figures in the Buddhist and Hindu polemics. The arguments go something like this – Is Brahman an object of experience? If so, how do you convey this experience to others who have not had a similar experience? The only way possible is to relate this unique experience to common experiences while explicitly negating their sameness.\n\nBahá'í Faith", "Bahá'í's believe that God is an ultimately unknowable being (see God in the Baháʼí Faith) and Bahá'í writings state that \"there can be no tie of direct intercourse to bind the one true God with His creation, and no resemblance whatever can exist between the transient and the Eternal, the contingent and the Absolute", ".\" According to the Bahá'í Faith, the only way to grow nearer to God is to gain knowledge of the Manifestation of God, who is a reflection of God's reality in a similar way to how a mirror reflects an image of the sun. Stephen Lambden has written a paper entitled, \"The Background and Centrality of Apophatic Theology in Bábí and Bahá'í Scripture\" and Ian Kluge has also looked into the Apophatic Theology and the Baha'i faith in the second part of his paper, Neoplatonism and the Bahá'í Writings.", "Apophatic theology and atheism", "Even though the via negativa essentially rejects theological understanding in and of itself as a path to God, some have sought to make it into an intellectual exercise, by describing God only in terms of what God is not", ". One problem noted with this approach is that there seems to be no fixed basis on deciding what God is not, unless the Divine is understood as an abstract experience of full aliveness unique to each individual consciousness, and universally, the perfect goodness applicable to the whole field of reality. Apophatic theology is often accused of being a version of atheism or agnosticism, since it cannot say truly that God exists", ". \"The comparison is crude, however, for conventional atheism treats the existence of God as a predicate that can be denied (\"God is nonexistent\"), whereas negative theology denies that God has predicates\". \"God or the Divine is\" without being able to attribute qualities about \"what He is\" would be the prerequisite of positive theology in negative theology that distinguishes theism from atheism. \"Negative theology is a complement to, not the enemy of, positive theology\"", ". \"Negative theology is a complement to, not the enemy of, positive theology\". Since religious experience—or consciousness of the holy or sacred, is not reducible to other kinds of human experience, an abstract understanding of religious experience cannot be used as evidence or proof that religious discourse or praxis can have no meaning or value", ". In apophatic theology, the negation of theisms in the via negativa also requires the negation of their correlative atheisms if the dialectical method it employs is to maintain integrity.", "See also\nBuddhism\n\n Anatta\n Dharmadhatu\n Dharmakāya\n Sunyata\n Tathātā\n Vipassana\n\nChristianity\n\n Christian contemplation\n Christian meditation\n Conceptions of God\n Existence of God\n Monastic silence\n Tabor Light\n\nHinduism\n\n Neti neti\n Self-enquiry\n\nIslam\n\n Fana (Sufism)\n Ta'tili\n\nJudaism\n\n Tzimtzum\n \n\nTaoism\n Taoism#Theology\n\nPhilosophy\n\n Nihilism\n Existence of God\n Fideism\n Limit-experience\n Rational fideism\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nPrinted sources\n\nWebsources\n\nFurther reading", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nPrinted sources\n\nWebsources\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links and resources", "General\nGod and Other Necessary Beings, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\nAt the Origins of Modern Atheism, Michael J. Buckley, Yale University Press 1987, \nChristian material\nNegative Theology , Austin Cline\nApophatic theology, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions\nSaying Nothing about No-Thing: Apophatic Theology in the Classical World, Jonah Winters\nJewish material\n\"Paradoxes\", in \"The Aryeh Kaplan Reader\", Aryeh Kaplan, Artscroll 1983,", "Jewish material\n\"Paradoxes\", in \"The Aryeh Kaplan Reader\", Aryeh Kaplan, Artscroll 1983, \nUnderstanding God , Ch2. in \"The Handbook of Jewish Thought\", Aryeh Kaplan, Moznaim 1979, \nChovot ha-Levavot 1:8, Bahya ibn Paquda – Online class, Yaakov Feldman\nAttributes, jewishencyclopedia.com\nModern material\nDerrida and Negative Theology, ed H. G Coward, SUNY 1992.", "Religious terminology\nTheology\nThomas Aquinas" ]

[ "Ann Hart Coulter (; born December 8, 1961) is an American conservative media pundit, author, syndicated columnist, and lawyer. She became known as a media pundit in the late 1990s, appearing in print and on cable news as an outspoken critic of the Clinton administration. Her first book concerned the impeachment of Bill Clinton and sprang from her experience writing legal briefs for Paula Jones's attorneys, as well as columns she wrote about the cases", ". Coulter's syndicated column for Universal Press Syndicate appears in newspapers and is featured on conservative websites. Coulter has also written 13 books.", "Early life\n\nAnn Hart Coulter was born on December 8, 1961, in New York City, to John Vincent Coulter (1926–2008), an FBI agent from a working class Catholic Irish American and German American family in Albany, New York, and Nell Husbands Coulter (née Martin; 1928–2009), who was born in Paducah, Kentucky.", "Coulter's mother's ancestry has been traced back on both sides of her family to a group of Puritan settlers in Plymouth Colony, British America arriving on the Griffin with Thomas Hooker in 1633, and her father's family were Catholic Irish and German immigrants who arrived in America in the 19th century. Her father's Irish ancestors emigrated during the famine—and became ship laborers, tilemakers, brickmakers, carpenters and flagmen", ". Coulter's father attended college on the GI Bill, and would later idolize Joseph McCarthy.", "She has two older brothers: James, an accountant, and John, an attorney. Her family later moved to New Canaan, Connecticut, where Coulter and her two brothers were raised. Coulter graduated from New Canaan High School in 1980.", "While attending Cornell University, Coulter helped found The Cornell Review, and was a member of the Delta Gamma national sorority. She graduated cum laude from Cornell in 1984 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and received her Juris Doctor from the University of Michigan Law School in 1988, where she was an editor of the Michigan Law Review. At Michigan, Coulter was president of the local chapter of the Federalist Society and was trained at the National Journalism Center.", "Coulter's age was disputed in 2002. While she argued that she was not yet 40, The Washington Post columnist Lloyd Grove cited a birthdate of December 8, 1961, which Coulter provided when registering to vote in New Canaan, Connecticut, prior to the 1980 Presidential election, for which she had to be 18 years old to register. A driver's license issued several years later purportedly listed her birthdate as December 8, 1963. Coulter will not confirm either date, citing privacy concerns.", "Career", "After law school, Coulter served as a law clerk, in Kansas City, for Judge Pasco Bowman II of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit. After a short time working in New York City in private practice, where she specialized in corporate law, Coulter left to work for the United States Senate Judiciary Committee after the Republican Party took control of Congress in 1994", ". She handled crime and immigration issues for Senator Spencer Abraham of Michigan and helped craft legislation designed to expedite the deportation of aliens convicted of felonies. She later became a litigator with the Center for Individual Rights.", "Coulter has written 13 books, and also publishes a syndicated newspaper column. She is particularly known for her polemical style, and describes herself as someone who likes to \"stir up the pot. I don't pretend to be impartial or balanced, as broadcasters do\".", "She idolized Clare Boothe Luce for her satirical style. She also makes numerous public appearances, speaking on television and radio talk shows, as well as on college campuses, receiving both praise and protest. Coulter typically spends 6 to 12 weeks of the year on speaking engagement tours, and more when she has a book coming out.", "In 2010, she made an estimated $500,000 on the speaking circuit, giving speeches on topics of modern conservatism, gay marriage, and what she describes as the hypocrisy of modern American liberalism. During one appearance at the University of Arizona, a pie was thrown at her. In defense of her ideas, Coulter has on occasion responded with inflammatory remarks toward hecklers and protestors who attend her speeches.", "Books\n\nCoulter is the author of twelve books, including many that have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list, with a combined 3 million copies sold .\n\nCoulter's first book, High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Case Against Bill Clinton, was published by Regnery Publishing in 1998 and made The New York Times Bestseller list. It details Coulter's case for the impeachment of President Bill Clinton.", "Her second book, Slander: Liberal Lies About the American Right, published by Crown Forum in 2002, reached the number one spot on The New York Times non-fiction best seller list. In Slander, Coulter argues that President George W. Bush was given unfair negative media coverage. The factual accuracy of Slander was called into question by then-comedian and author, later Democratic U.S. Senator from Minnesota, Al Franken; he also accused her of citing passages out of context", ".S. Senator from Minnesota, Al Franken; he also accused her of citing passages out of context. Others investigated these charges, and also raised questions about the book's accuracy and presentation of facts. Coulter responded to criticisms in a column called \"Answering My Critics\".", "In her third book, Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism, also published by Crown Forum, she reexamines the 60-year history of the Cold Warincluding the career of Senator Joseph McCarthy, the Whittaker Chambers-Alger Hiss affair, and Ronald Reagan's challenge to Mikhail Gorbachev to \"tear down this wall\"—and argues that liberals were wrong in their Cold War political analyses and policy decisions, and that McCarthy was correct about Soviet agents working for the U.S", ".S. government.", "She also argues that the correct identification of Annie Lee Moss, among others, as communists was misreported by the liberal media.\nTreason was published in 2003, and spent 13 weeks on the Best Seller list.", "Crown Forum published a collection of Coulter's columns in 2004 as her fourth book, How to Talk to a Liberal (If You Must): The World According to Ann Coulter.\n\nCoulter's fifth book, published by Crown Forum in 2006, is Godless: The Church of Liberalism.\nIn it, she argues, first, that American liberalism rejects the idea of God and reviles people of faith, and second, that it bears all the attributes of a religion itself.\nGodless debuted at number one on the New York Times Best Seller list.", "Coulter's If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans (Crown Forum), published in October 2007, and Guilty: Liberal \"Victims\" and Their Assault on America (Crown Forum), published on January 6, 2009, both also achieved best-seller status.\n\nOn June 7, 2011, Crown Forum published her eighth book Demonic: How the Liberal Mob Is Endangering America.", "Her ninth book, published September 25, 2012, was Mugged: Racial Demagoguery from the Seventies to Obama. It argues that liberals, and Democrats in particular, have taken undue credit for racial civil rights in America.", "Coulter's tenth book, Never Trust a Liberal Over 3 – Especially a Republican, was released on October 14, 2013. It is her second collection of columns and her first published by Regnery since her first book, High Crimes and Misdemeanors. Coulter published her eleventh book, Adios, America: The Left's Plan to Turn Our Country Into a Third World Hellhole, on June 1, 2015. The book addresses illegal immigration, amnesty programs, and border security in the United States.", "Columns\nIn the late 1990s, Coulter's weekly (biweekly from 1999 to 2000) syndicated column for Universal Press Syndicate began appearing. Her column is featured on six conservative websites: Human Events Online, WorldNetDaily, Townhall.com, VDARE, FrontPage Magazine, Jewish World Review and her own website. Her syndicator says, \"Ann's client newspapers stick with her because she has a loyal fan base of conservative readers who look forward to reading her columns in their local newspapers\".", "In 1999, Coulter worked as a columnist for George magazine. Coulter also wrote weekly columns for the conservative magazine Human Events between 1998 and 2003, with occasional columns thereafter. In her columns, she discussed judicial rulings, constitutional issues, and legal matters affecting Congress and the executive branch.", "In 2001, as a contributing editor and syndicated columnist for National Review Online (NRO), Coulter was asked by editors to make changes to a piece written after the September 11 attacks. On the show Politically Incorrect, Coulter accused NRO of censorship and said she was paid $5 per article. NRO dropped her column and terminated her editorship. Jonah Goldberg, the editor-at-large of NRO, said: \"We did not 'fire' Ann for what she wrote..", ". Jonah Goldberg, the editor-at-large of NRO, said: \"We did not 'fire' Ann for what she wrote... we ended the relationship because she behaved with a total lack of professionalism, friendship, and loyalty [concerning the editing disagreement].\"", "In August 2005, the Arizona Daily Star dropped Coulter's syndicated column, citing reader complaints: \"Many readers find her shrill, bombastic, and mean-spirited. And those are the words used by readers who identified themselves as conservatives\".", "In July 2006, some newspapers replaced Coulter's column with those of other conservative columnists following the publication of her fourth book, Godless: The Church of Liberalism. After The Augusta Chronicle dropped her column, newspaper editor Michael Ryan said: \"it came to the point where she was the issue rather than what she was writing about.\" Ryan added that he continued himself \"to be an Ann Coulter fan\" as \"her logic is devastating and her viewpoint is right most of the time.\"", "Television and radio\n\nCoulter made her first national media appearance in 1996 after she was hired by the then-fledgling network MSNBC as a legal correspondent. She later appeared on CNN and Fox News, and went on to make frequent guest appearances on many television and radio talk shows.", "Films\nCoulter appeared in three films released during 2004. The first was Feeding the Beast, a made-for-television documentary on the \"24-Hour News Revolution\". The other two films were FahrenHYPE 9/11, a direct-to-video documentary rebuttal of Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 911, and Is It True What They Say About Ann?, a documentary on Coulter containing clips of interviews and speeches. In 2015, Coulter had a cameo as the Vice President in the made-for-TV movie Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!\n\nPolitical views", "Political views \n\nCoulter is a Presbyterian. She is a conservative columnist and in 2003, described herself as a \"typical, immodest-dressing, swarthy male-loving, friend-to-homosexuals, ultra-conservative.\" She is a registered Republican and former member of the advisory council of GOProud since August 9, 2011.", "She supports the display of the Confederate flag. When Milo Yiannopoulos initially defended pederasty, Coulter commented, \"Well, Milo learned HIS lesson. Pederasty acceptable only for refugees and illegals. Then libs will support you.\"", "Abortion \nCoulter supported the overturning of Roe v. Wade. She is anti-abortion but believes there should be an exception if a woman is raped. However, in 2015, she prioritized the issue of immigration, stating: \"I don't care if [Trump] wants to perform abortions in the White House after this immigration policy paper\".", "Christianity", "Coulter was raised by a Catholic father and Protestant mother. At one public lecture she said: \"I don't care about anything else; Christ died for my sins, and nothing else matters.\" She summarized her view of Christianity in a 2004 column, saying, \"Jesus' distinctive message was: People are sinful and need to be redeemed, and this is your lucky day, because I'm here to redeem you even though you don't deserve it, and I have to get the crap kicked out of me to do it.\" She then mocked \"the message of Jesus..", ".\" She then mocked \"the message of Jesus... according to liberals\", summarizing it as \"something along the lines of 'be nice to people, which, in turn, she said \"is, in fact, one of the incidental tenets of Christianity.\"", "Confronting some critics' views that her content and style of writing is unchristian, Coulter said that she is \"a Christian first and a mean-spirited, bigoted conservative second, and don't you ever forget it.\" Six years later, in 2011, she also said: \"Christianity fuels everything I write. Being a Christian means that I am called upon to do battle against lies, injustice, cruelty, hypocrisy—you know, all the virtues in the church of liberalism\"", ". In Godless: The Church of Liberalism, Coulter characterized the theory of evolution as bogus science, and contrasted her beliefs to what she called the left's \"obsession with Darwinism and the Darwinian view of the world, which replaces sanctification of life with sanctification of sex and death\". Coulter advocates intelligent design, a pseudoscientific antievolution ideology.", "Civil liberties \nCoulter endorsed the NSA's Terrorist Surveillance Program directed at Al-Qaeda. During a 2011 appearance on Stossel, she said \"PATRIOT Act, fantastic, Gitmo, fantastic, waterboarding, not bad, though torture would've been better.\" She criticized Rand Paul for \"this anti-drone stuff\".", "Coulter opposes hate crime laws, calling them \"unconstitutional\". She also stated that \"Hate-crime provisions seem vaguely directed at capturing a sense of cold-bloodedness, but the law can do that without elevating some victims over others.\"", "Immigration \nCoulter has criticized former president George W. Bush's immigration proposals, saying they led to \"amnesty\". In a 2007 column, she claimed that the current immigration system was set up to deliberately reduce the percentage of whites in the population. In it, she said:", "Coulter strongly opposes the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. Regarding illegal immigration, she strongly opposed amnesty for undocumented immigrants, and at the 2013 CPAC said she has now become \"a single-issue voter against amnesty\".\n\nIn June 2018, during the controversy caused by the Trump administration family separation policy, Coulter dismissed immigrant children as \"child actors weeping and crying\" and urged Trump not to \"fall for it\".", "Coulter is an advocate of the white genocide conspiracy theory. She has compared non-white immigration into the United States with genocide, and claiming that \"a genocide\" is occurring against South African farmers, she has said that the Boers are the \"only real refugees\" in South Africa. Regarding domestic politics, Vox labelled Coulter as one of many providing a voice for \"the 'white genocide' myth\", and the SPLC covered Coulter's remarks that if the demographic changes occurring in the U.S", ".S. were being \"legally imposed on any group other than white Americans, it would be called genocide\".", "LGBT rights", "Coulter opposes same-sex marriage, opposes Obergefell v. Hodges, and supports, after previously saying she did not, a federal U.S. constitutional amendment defining marriage as a union of one man and one woman. She insists that her opposition to same-sex marriage \"wasn't an anti-gay thing\" and that \"It's genuinely a pro-marriage position to oppose gay marriage\". Coulter argues that same-sex marriage would \"ruin gay culture\", because \"gays value promiscuous sex over monogamy\"", ". In an April 1, 2015, column, Coulter declared that liberals had \"won the war on gay marriage (by judicial fiat)\".", "Coulter also opposes civil unions and privatizing marriage. When addressed with the issue of rights granted by marriage, she said, \"Gays already can visit loved ones in hospitals. They can also visit neighbors, random acquaintances, and total strangers in hospitals—just like everyone else. Gays can also pass on property to whomever they would like\"", ". Gays can also pass on property to whomever they would like\". She also stated that same-sex sexual intercourse was already protected under the Fourth Amendment, which prevents police from going into your home without a search warrant or court order.", "In regard to Romer v", ". Evans, in which the United Supreme Court overturned Article II, Section 30b of the Colorado Constitution, which prohibited the \"State of Colorado, through any of its branches or departments, nor any of its agencies, political subdivisions, municipalities or school districts, shall enact, adopt or enforce any statute, regulation, ordinance or policy whereby homosexual, lesbian or bisexual orientation, conduct", ", regulation, ordinance or policy whereby homosexual, lesbian or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships shall constitute or otherwise be the basis of or entitle any person or class of persons to have or claim any minority status, quota preferences, protected status or claim of discrimination", ".\", Coulter described the ruling as \"they couldn't refuse to give affirmative action benefits to people who have sodomy\". She also disagreed with repealing Don't Ask Don't Tell, stating that it is not an \"anti-gay position; it is a pro-military position\" because \"sexual bonds are disruptive to the military bond\". She also stated that there is \"no proof that all the discharges for homosexuality involve actual homosexuals", ".\" On April 1, 2015, in a column, she expressed support for Indiana's Religious Freedom Restoration Act and said it was an \"apocryphal\" assertion to claim the Religious Freedom Restoration Act would be used to discriminate against LGBT people. She expressed her support for the Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission ruling.", "Coulter has expressed her opposition to treatment of LGBT people in the countries of Cuba, China, and Saudi Arabia. Coulter opposes publicly funded sex reassignment surgery. She supports the Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act and opposes transgender individuals using bathrooms corresponding to their gender identity", ". She says her opposition to bathroom usage corresponding to gender identity has nothing to do with transgender people, but cisgendered \"child molesters\" who \"now [have] the right to go into that bathroom.\" She supports banning transgender military service personnel from the United States military.", "Since the 1990s, Coulter has had many acquaintances in the LGBT community. She considers herself \"the Judy Garland of the Right\", reflecting Garland's large fan base from the gay community. In the last few years before 2015 she attracted LGBT fans, namely gay men and drag queens.", "At the 2007 CPAC, Coulter said, \"I do want to point out one thing that has been driving me crazy with the media—how they keep describing Mitt Romney's position as being pro-gays, and that's going to upset the right wingers\", and \"Well, you know, screw you! I'm not anti-gay. We're against gay marriage. I don't want gays to be discriminated against.\" She added, \"I don't know why all gays aren't Republican. I think we have the pro-gay positions, which is anti-crime and for tax cuts", ". I think we have the pro-gay positions, which is anti-crime and for tax cuts. Gays make a lot of money and they're victims of crime. No, they are! They should be with us.\"", "In Coulter's 2007 book If Democrats Had Any Brains, They'd Be Republicans, in the chapter \"Gays: No Gay Left Behind!\", she argued that Republican policies were more pro-gay than Democratic policies. Coulter attended the 2010 HomoCon of GOProud, where she gave a speech about why gays should oppose same-sex marriage. On February 9, 2011, in a column, she described the national Log Cabin Republicans as \"ridiculous\" and \"not conservative at all\"", ". She did, however, describe the Texas branch of Log Cabin Republicans, for whom she has been signing books for years, as \" real conservatives\".", "At the 2011 CPAC, during her question-and-answer segment, Coulter was asked about GOProud and the controversy over their inclusion at the 2011 CPAC. She boasted how she talked GOProud into dropping its support for same-sex marriage in the party's platform, saying, \"The left is trying to co-opt gays, and I don't think we should let them. I think they should be on our side\", and \"Gays are natural conservatives\". Later that year, she joined advisory board for GOProud", ". Later that year, she joined advisory board for GOProud. On Logos The A-List: Dallas she told gay Republican Taylor Garrett that \"The gays have got to be pro-life\", and \"As soon as they find the gay gene, guess who the liberal yuppies are gonna start aborting?\"", "War on Drugs \nCoulter strongly supports continuing the War on Drugs. However, she has said that, if there were not a welfare state, she \"wouldn't care\" if drugs were legal. She spoke about drugs as a guest on Piers Morgan Live, where she said that marijuana users \"can't perform daily functions\".", "Bernie Sanders", "In April 2019, Coulter said of Senator Bernie Sanders she would vote and perhaps even work for him in the 2020 U.S. presidential election if he stuck to his \"original position\" on U.S. border policy. \"If he went back to his original position, which is the pro blue-collar position—I mean, it totally makes sense with him\", and \"If he went back to that position, I'd vote for him, I might work for him. I don't care about the rest of the socialist stuff. Just, can we do something for ordinary Americans?\"", "Political activities and commentary", "Ann Coulter has described herself as a \"polemicist\" who likes to \"stir up the pot\" and does not \"pretend to be impartial or balanced, as broadcasters do\". While her political activities in the past have included advising a plaintiff suing President Bill Clinton as well as considering a run for Congress, she mostly serves as a political pundit, sometimes creating controversy ranging from rowdy uprisings at some of the colleges where she speaks to protracted discussions in the media.", "Time magazine's John Cloud once observed that Coulter \"likes to shock reporters by wondering aloud whether America might be better off if women lost the right to vote\". This was in reference to her statement that \"it would be a much better country if women did not vote. That is simply a fact. In fact, in every presidential election since 1950—except Goldwater in '64—the Republican would have won, if only the men had voted.\" Similarly, in an October 2007 interview with The New York Observer, Coulter said:", "Coulter has also appeared on Fox News and advocated for a poll tax and a literacy test for voters (this was in 1999, and she reiterated her support of a literacy test in 2015).", "Paula Jones – Bill Clinton case\nCoulter first became a public figure shortly before becoming an unpaid legal adviser for the attorneys representing Paula Jones in her sexual harassment suit against President Bill Clinton. Coulter's friend George Conway had been asked to assist Jones' attorneys, and shortly afterward Coulter, who wrote a column about the Paula Jones case for Human Events, was also asked to help, and she began writing legal briefs for the case.", "Coulter later stated that she would come to mistrust the motives of Jones' head lawyer, Joseph Cammaratta, who by August or September 1997 was advising Jones that her case was weak and to settle, if a favorable settlement could be negotiated. From the outset, Jones had sought an apology from Clinton at least as eagerly as she sought a settlement", ". However, in a later interview Coulter recounted that she herself had believed that the case was strong, that Jones was telling the truth, that Clinton should be held publicly accountable for his misconduct, and that a settlement would give the impression that Jones was merely interested in extorting money from the President.", "David Daley, who wrote the interview piece for The Hartford Courant recounted what followed:\n\nIn his book, Isikoff also reported Coulter as saying: \"We were terrified that Jones would settle. It was contrary to our purpose of bringing down the President.\" After the book came out, Coulter clarified her stated motives, saying:", "The case went to court after Jones broke with Coulter and her original legal team, and it was dismissed via summary judgment. The judge ruled that even if her allegations proved true, Jones did not show that she had suffered any damages, stating, \"... plaintiff has not demonstrated any tangible job detriment or adverse employment action for her refusal to submit to the governor's alleged advances. The president is therefore entitled to summary judgment on plaintiff's claim of quid pro quo sexual harassment", ".\" The ruling was appealed by Jones' lawyers. During the pendency of the appeal, Clinton settled with Jones for $850,000 ($151,000 after legal fees) in November 1998, in exchange for Jones' dismissal of the appeal. By then, the Jones lawsuit had given way to the Monica Lewinsky sex scandal.", "In October 2000, Jones revealed that she would pose for nude pictures in an adult magazine, saying she wanted to use the money to pay taxes and support her grade-school-aged children, in particular saying, \"I'm wanting to put them through college and maybe set up a college fund", ".\" Coulter publicly denounced Jones, calling her \"the trailer-park trash they said she was\" (Coulter had earlier chastened Clinton supporters for calling Jones this name), after Clinton's former campaign strategist James Carville had made the widely reported remark, \"Drag a $100 bill through a trailer park, and you'll never know what you'll find\", and called Jones a \"fraud, at least to the extent of pretending to be an honorable and moral person\".", "Coulter wrote:\n Jones claimed not to have been offered any help with a book deal of her own or any other additional financial help after the lawsuit.", "2013 CPAC Conference", "In March 2013, Coulter was one of the keynote speakers at the Conservative Political Action Conference, where she made references to New Jersey Governor Chris Christie's weight (\"CPAC had to cut back on its speakers this year about 300 pounds\") and progressive activist Sandra Fluke's hairdo. (Coulter quipped that Fluke didn't need birth control pills because \"that haircut is birth control enough\"", ".) Coulter advocated against a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants because such new citizens would never vote for Republican candidates: \"If amnesty goes through, America becomes California and no Republican will ever win another election.\"", "VDARE\nSince 2013, Coulter has been a contributor to VDARE, a far-right website and blog founded by anti-immigration activist and paleo-conservative Peter Brimelow. Michael Malice has said that \"Coulter and VDARE can be considered the furthest edge of the Overton Window\" as any political position further to the right would be too heretical to find mainstream success. VDARE is controversial because of its alleged white supremacist rhetoric and support of scientific racism and white nationalism.", "Candidate endorsements", "Coulter initially supported George W. Bush's presidency, but later criticized its approach to immigration. She endorsed Duncan Hunter and later Mitt Romney in the 2008 Republican presidential primaries and the 2012 Republican presidential primary and presidential run. In the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries, she endorsed Donald Trump", ". In the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries, she endorsed Donald Trump. Coulter later distanced herself from Trump following arguments over immigration policies; she called for his impeachment in September 2017, saying \"Put a fork in Trump, he's dead\". She described herself in 2018 as a \"former Trumper\"; in a 2020 speech to a Turning Point USA event, she said, \"The Trump agenda without Trump would be a lot easier. Our new motto should be 'Going on with Trumpism without Trump", ". Our new motto should be 'Going on with Trumpism without Trump.' That's a winning strategy.\" Coulter blamed Trump's son-in-law and advisor Jared Kushner for Trump's 2020 election loss, and said that Trump had failed to deliver for the white working class.", "Other candidates Coulter has endorsed include Greg Brannon (2014 Republican primary candidate for North Carolina Senator), Paul Nehlen (2016 Republican primary candidate for Wisconsin's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives), Mo Brooks (2017 Republican primary candidate for Alabama Senator), and Roy Moore (2017 Republican candidate for Alabama Senator).\n\nControversies", "Controversies\n\nComments on Islam, Arabs, and terrorism\nCoulter's September 14, 2001, column eulogized her friend Barbara Olson, killed three days earlier in the September 11 attacks, and ended with a call for war:", "These comments resulted in Coulter being fired as a columnist by National Review, which she subsequently referred to as \"squeamish girly-boys\". Responding to this comment, Ibrahim Hooper of the Council on American–Islamic Relations remarked in the Chicago Sun-Times that before September 11, Coulter \"would have faced swift repudiation from her colleagues\", but \"now it's accepted as legitimate commentary\".", "One day after the attacks (when death toll estimates were higher than later), Coulter asserted that only Muslims could have been behind them: \"Not all Muslims may be terrorists, but all terrorists are Muslims—at least all terrorists capable of assembling a murderous plot against America that leaves 7,000 people dead in under two hours.\"", "Coulter was highly critical in 2002 of the U.S. Department of Transportation and especially its then-secretary Norman Mineta. Her many criticisms include their refusal to use racial profiling as a component of passenger security screening", ". After a group of Muslims was expelled from a US Airways flight when other passengers expressed concern, sparking a call for Muslims to boycott the airline because of the ejection from a flight of six imams, Coulter wrote, \"If only we could get Muslims to boycott all airlines, we could dispense with airport security altogether.\"", "Coulter also cited the 2002 Senate testimony of FBI whistleblower Coleen Rowley, who was acclaimed for condemning her superiors for refusing to authorize a search warrant for 9-11 conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui when he refused to consent to a search of his computer. They knew that he was a Muslim in flight school who had overstayed his visa, and the French Intelligence Service had confirmed his affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups", ". Coulter said she agreed that probable cause existed in the case, but that refusing consent, being in flight school and overstaying a visa should not constitute grounds for a search", ". Citing a poll which found that 98 percent of Muslims between the ages of 20 and 45 said they would not fight for Britain in the war in Afghanistan, and that 48 percent said they would fight for Osama bin Laden she asserted \"any Muslim who has attended a mosque in Europe—certainly in England, where Moussaoui lived—has had 'affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups", ", where Moussaoui lived—has had 'affiliations with radical fundamentalist Islamic groups,'\" so that she parsed Rowley's position as meaning that probable cause' existed to search Moussaoui's computer because he was a Muslim who had lived in England\"", ". Coulter says the poll was \"by The Daily Telegraph\", actually it was by Sunrise, an \"Asian\" (therefore an Indian subcontinent-oriented) radio station, canvassing the opinions of 500 Muslims in Greater London (not Britain as a whole), mainly of Pakistani origin and aged between 20 and 45. Because \"FBI headquarters ... refused to engage in racial profiling\", they failed to uncover the 9-11 plot, Coulter asserted. \"The FBI allowed thousands of Americans to be slaughtered on the altar of political correctness", ". \"The FBI allowed thousands of Americans to be slaughtered on the altar of political correctness. What more do liberals want?\"", "Coulter wrote in another column that she had reviewed the civil rights lawsuits against certain airlines to determine which of them had subjected Arabs to the most \"egregious discrimination\" so that she could fly only that airline. She also said that the airline should be bragging instead of denying any of the charges of discrimination brought against them", ". In an interview with The Guardian she said, \"I think airlines ought to start advertising: 'We have the most civil rights lawsuits brought against us by Arabs.'\" When the interviewer, Jonathan Freedland, replied by asking what Muslims would do for travel, she responded, \"They could use flying carpets.\"", "In the wake of the Boston Marathon bombing, Coulter told Hannity host Sean Hannity that the wife of bombing suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev should be jailed for wearing a hijab. Coulter continued by saying \"Assimilating immigrants into our culture isn't really working. They're assimilating us into their culture.\" (Tsarnaev's wife was American-born.)", "Anti-semitism accusations", "Coulter was accused of anti-semitism in an October 8, 2007, interview with Donny Deutsch on The Big Idea. During the interview, Coulter stated that the United States is a Christian nation, and said that she wants \"Jews to be perfected, as they say\" (referring to them being converted to Christianity). Deutsch, a practicing Jew, implied that this was an anti-semitic remark, but Coulter said she did not consider it to be a hateful comment", ". Coulter's comments on the show were condemned by the Anti-Defamation League, American Jewish Committee and Bradley Burston, and the National Jewish Democratic Council asked media outlets to cease inviting Coulter as a guest commentator", ". Talk show host Dennis Prager, while disagreeing with her comments, said that they were not \"anti-semitic\", noting, \"There is nothing in what Ann Coulter said to a Jewish interviewer on CNBC that indicates she hates Jews or wishes them ill, or does damage to the Jewish people or the Jewish state. And if none of those criteria is present, how can someone be labeled anti-Semitic?\" Conservative activist David Horowitz also defended Coulter against the allegation.", "Coulter in September 2015 tweeted in response to multiple candidates' references to Israel during a Republican presidential primary debate, \"How many f—ing Jews do these people think there are in the United States?\" The Anti-Defamation League referred to the tweets as \"ugly, spiteful and anti-Semitic\". In response to accusations of anti-Semitism, she tweeted \"I like the Jews, I like fetuses, I like Reagan. Didn't need to hear applause lines about them all night.\"", "Plagiarism accusations \nIn October 2001, Coulter was accused of plagiarism for her 1998 book High Crimes and Misdemeanors: The Case Against Bill Clinton by Michael Chapman, a columnist for the journal Human Events who claims that passages were taken from a supplement he wrote for the journal in 1997 titled \"A Case for Impeachment\".", "On the July 5, 2006, episode of Countdown with Keith Olbermann on MSNBC, guest John Barrie, the CEO of iParadigms, offered his professional opinion that Coulter plagiarized in her book Godless as well as in her columns over the previous year. Barrie ran \"Godless\" through iThenticate, his company's machine which is able to scan works and compare them to existing texts", ". He found a 25-word section of the text that was \"virtually word-for-word\" matched with a Planned Parenthood pamphlet and a 33-word section almost duplicating a 1999 article from the Portland Press as some examples of evidence. Barrie also said that it was \"very, very difficult to try to determine whether Ann Coulter was citing that material or whether she was just trying to pass it off\".", "Left-wing activist group Media Matters for America has appealed to Random House publishing to further investigate Coulter's work. The syndicator of her columns cleared her of the plagiarism charges. Universal Press Syndicate and Crown Books also defended Coulter against the charges.", "Columnist Bill Nemitz from the Portland Press Herald accused Coulter of plagiarizing a very specific sentence from his newspaper in her book Godless, but he also acknowledged that one sentence is insufficient grounds for filing suit.", "Public perception", "Coulter rejects \"the academic convention of euphemism and circumlocution\", and is claimed to play to misogyny in order to further her goals; she \"dominates without threatening (at least not straight men)\". Feminist critics also reject Coulter's opinion that the gains made by women have gone so far as to create an anti-male society and her call for women to be rejected from the military because they are more vicious than men", ". Like the late anti-feminist Phyllis Schlafly, Coulter uses traditionally masculine rhetoric as reasoning for the need for traditional gender roles, and she carries this idea of feminized dependency into her governmental policies, according to feminist critics.", "Coulter was played by Cobie Smulders in Impeachment: American Crime Story; Betty Gilpin was originally cast in the role but dropped out due to scheduling conflicts. The series portrays Coulter's actions while assisting the prosecution in Clinton v. Jones.\n\nCoulter was satirically depicted in season 2, episode 11 of The Boondocks—\"The S Word\"—where she voiced support for a white teacher in the show who said the N-word.", "Personal life", "Coulter has been engaged several times, but she has never married and has no children. She has dated Spin founder and publisher Bob Guccione Jr. and conservative writer Dinesh D'Souza. In October 2007, she began dating Andrew Stein, the former president of the New York City Council, a liberal Democrat. On January 7, 2008, however, Stein told the New York Post that the relationship was over, citing irreconcilable differences", ". Kellyanne Conway, who refers to Coulter as a friend, told New York magazine in 2017 that Coulter \"started dating her security guard probably ten years ago because she couldn't see anybody else\".", "Coulter owns a house, bought in 2005, in Palm Beach, Florida, a condominium in Manhattan, and an apartment in Los Angeles. She votes in Palm Beach and is not registered to do so in New York or California.\n\nBibliography\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n In Depth interview with Coulter, August 7, 2011", "Bibliography\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n In Depth interview with Coulter, August 7, 2011\n\nColumn archives\n Ann Coulter column archive for Human Events articles at BNet Find Articles with advanced search (1998–2007)\n Ann Coulter column archive at Human Events (2002–present) (use search feature)\n Ann Coulter column archive at National Review (2000–2001)\n Ann Coulter column archive at uExpress.com (1999–present) [select headline archive]", "Year of birth uncertain\nLiving people\n20th-century American women writers\n20th-century American non-fiction writers\n20th-century Presbyterians\n21st-century American women writers\n21st-century American non-fiction writers\n21st-century Presbyterians\nRight-wing politics in the United States\nAmerican women columnists\nAmerican critics of Islam\nAmerican people of German descent\nAmerican people of Irish descent\nAmerican political commentators\nAmerican political writers\nAmerican Presbyterians", "American political commentators\nAmerican political writers\nAmerican Presbyterians\nAmerican nationalists\nCalifornia Republicans\nClinton–Lewinsky scandal\nConnecticut Republicans\nCornell University alumni\nCritics of atheism\nChristian critics of Islam\nCritics of multiculturalism\nFemale critics of feminism\nFlorida Republicans\nHuman Events people\nIntelligent design advocates\nLawyers from New York City\nNational Review people\nNew York (state) Republicans\nPeople from New Canaan, Connecticut", "National Review people\nNew York (state) Republicans\nPeople from New Canaan, Connecticut\nMass media people from New York City\nUniversity of Michigan Law School alumni\nWriters from California\nWriters from Connecticut\nWriters from Florida\nWriters from New York City\nAmerican women non-fiction writers\n1961 births" ]

[ "Egypt was a major battlefield in the North African campaign during the Second World War, being the location of the First and Second Battles of El Alamein", ". Legally an independent kingdom since 1922, and an equal sovereign power in the condominium of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in reality Egypt was heavily under the coercive influence of the United Kingdom, a state of affairs that had persisted since the United Kingdom intervened militarily in the Orabi Revolt in favour of Egypt's Khedive, Tawfik Pasha, in 1882, subsequently occupying the country.", "The continuing British dominance of Egyptian affairs, including British efforts to exclude Egypt from the governance of Sudan, provoked fierce Egyptian nationalist opposition to the United Kingdom. Consequently, despite playing host to thousands of British troops following the outbreak of the conflict, as it was treaty-bound to do, Egypt remained formally neutral during the war, only declaring war on the Axis powers in the spring of 1945", ". Though escaping the fate of Iraq, and Iran, both of whose governments were toppled by the United Kingdom during the war (the latter in conjunction with the Soviet Union), Egypt experienced the Abdeen Palace Incident, a confrontation between Egypt's King Farouk and the British military in 1942, the results of which would contribute directly to the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 a decade later.", "Politics\n\nEgypt before World War Two", "For most of the 19th century, though nominally a self-governing vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty was a virtually independent state, with ever-increasing territorial possessions in East Africa, chiefly Sudan and a political elite class of pashas. Ultimately the United Kingdom would become the dominant foreign power in Egypt and Sudan", ". Ultimately the United Kingdom would become the dominant foreign power in Egypt and Sudan. In 1875, facing an economic emergency caused in large measure by his grand modernisation plans, Egypt's Khedive, Isma'il the Magnificent, sold to the British government Egypt's shares in the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez, the company established by Egypt to hold the 99-year lease to manage the Suez Canal", ". Seen by the United Kingdom as a vital connection to its maritime empire, particularly in India, British control of the Canal was the foundation for British control over Egypt as a whole. Four years later in 1879, the United Kingdom along with the other Great Powers deposed and exiled Isma'il, replacing him with his pliant son Tewfik. After a nationalist revolt led by officer Ahmed Urabi, Britain invaded under the guise of stability", ". After the revolt was defeated, Britain became the de facto colonial overlord of Egypt, with Evelyn Baring managing the finances of Egypt. British involvement in politics pressured Egypt to join World War One against the Ottoman Empire, who were at war with the British.", "After the war, a delegation of Egyptian nationalists led by Sa'ad Zaghoul requested for Egyptian independence at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Britain tried to prevent independence by arresting the leaders of the delegation, triggering mass protests culminating in the Egyptian Revolution of 1919. In 1922, the United Kingdom formally recognised Egypt as an independent state", ". In 1922, the United Kingdom formally recognised Egypt as an independent state. The delegation (Wafd in Arabic) formed the Wafd party, which was Egypt's most popular and influential political party under the 1923 Egyptian constitution. While the constitution created a democractically elected parliament, the king still had significant political power, being able to appoint the prime minister and dissolve parliament", ". However, the United Kingdom was able to reserve for itself specific powers in Egypt regarding foreign policy, the deployment of British military personnel in the defense of Egypt and the Suez Canal, and the administration of Sudan. This became a point of contention among Egyptian nationalists who kept negotiating for a more independent Egypt.Politically, Egyptian politics was divided into three main power brokers: the conservative palace, the liberal Wafd Party, and the imperialist British", ". Each would wrestle for control over one another during this time. While anti-Wafdist parties existed, they did not have the prestige or popularity that the Wafd enjoyed. The British wanted to prevent another revolution while still preserving its influence, while the King and his conservative allies sought to preserve a strong Islamic monarchy against the modern secular liberal forces.", "1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty", "After the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, the British position was threatened, as the Kingdom of Egypt was the only country separating Italian Libya and Italian East Africa. According to the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, British troops in Egypt were limited to the Suez Canal until 1956 and Alexandria until 1944, except in the case of a war, where instead Britain could increase their troop count", ". Egypt would also be obligated to materially assist Britain in the case of a war, though Egypt was not obligated to fight for Britain. This treaty gave Britain the legal right to fight World War Two on Egyptian soil, while it gave Egypt the right to remain technically neutral in the conflict.", "The Egyptian government", "Ali Maher's premiership", "By the start of the war, native power in Egypt was split in between King Farouk, and parliament, led by the conservative anti-Wafdist prime minister Ali Maher Pasha. Initially Maher obliged by the treaty; the Egyptian government broke off relations with Germany, confiscated German property, and interned German subjects. However, the government was not willing to declare war on Germany. The war was seen as a European conflict, disconnected from Egypt", ". The war was seen as a European conflict, disconnected from Egypt. King Farouk was keen for Egypt to remain neutral in the conflict, opposing the United Kingdom's continued dominance of Egyptian affairs. The return of British soldiers to Egyptian streets merely a handful of years after they had been removed or relocated to the Suez Canal Zone, increased the already powerful opposition in Egypt to the United Kingdom", ". Maher's continued unwillingness to declare war on Italy after the Italian invasion of Egypt further frustrated Britain. While Italian-Egyptian relations were broken off, the Egyptian government refused to declare war on Italy. Another focus of grievance between the Egyptian government and the United Kingdom was the insistence that Farouk expel or intern Italians in Egypt, including those Italians in the service of the King", ". An unconfirmed story assets that Farouk told the United Kingdom's Ambassador, Sir Miles Lampson: \"I'll get rid of my Italians when you get rid of yours\". This remark was a reference to the ambassador's Italian wife.The Egyptian government did not do its best to stay neutral because of pro-fascist sympathies, but because of the game of political tug-of-war between Egyptian nationalists and British influence. Egypt was under no obligation to declare war on the enemies of Britain under the 1936 treaty", ". Egypt was under no obligation to declare war on the enemies of Britain under the 1936 treaty. The front with Italy was seen as border incidents that would only weaken the British, and many Egyptians didn't feel like fighting for the British colonial empire", ". Lampson was furious at this, demanding in 1940 the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from the Western Desert, Egypt paying for the assumption of its defense by British forces; and the removal of Egyptian chief of staff Aziz Ali al-Misri for pro-Axis sympathies. These demands led to a compromise; General Henry Maitland Wilson would command Egyptian forces in the Western Desert, and al-Misri was dismissed from his post.", "Hassan Sabry's premiership", "After Maher was forced to resign due to British influence, Hassan Sabry was appointed prime minister, leading a coalition of anti-Wafdist parties. His government accomplished two concessions from Britiain, the abolition of the Caisse de la Dette Publique (the Public Debt Commission, where Egypt paid its debts to European creditors) and the British purchase of Egyptian cotton to support the industry while trade with mainland Europe was cut off", ". In return, Egypt would cooperate with the British forces, supplying their troops and subsidizing their army with millions of dollars every year. Despite not declaring war, Britain found a compromise, where Britain would be supported by the Egyptian government without direct Egyptian military involvement. This cooperation would have continued, if not for Sabry dying in November 1940.", "Hussein Sirri Pasha's premiership", "With the suggestion of Lampson, Hussein Sirri Pasha was quickly appointed prime minister. Sirri promised to continue pro-British politics in parliament, but the state of Egyptian politics at the time was against him. Too deep in conservative politics to ally with the Wafd, and too pro-British to ally with the Italophile King Farouk, his fate was left with a shaky coalition of parties, a coalition of Ittihadists, Liberal-Constitutionalists, the Sa'adists led by Ahmad Maher Pasha, and Independents", ". During his time, vital problems such as an increased cost of living and food insecurity struck Egypt. The Wafd, led by veteran politician Mostafa el-Nahhas Pasha, saw this as their chance for regaining power, arguing for an end to the Egypt-British condominium in Sudan and the complete evacuation of British forces after the war. The Wafd blamed these problems on the British presence in the country, as the Egyptian people, spurred on by Ali Maher, protested their declining living conditions.", "After the fall of Greece, the Greek government of exile was stationed in Egypt. On January 6, 1942, Egypt broke off relations with Vichy France, the fascist rump puppet state of Nazi Germany. This angered King Farouk, who was not considered in this decision. A constitutional crisis emerged over whether or not the king needed to be consulted regarding severring relations with foreign countries. Sirri agreed to resign on February 1st, but the crisis soon spiraled out of control.\n\nThe Abdeen Palace Incident", "On February 2, Lamspon demanded Farouk worked with the Wafdist leader Nahhas to form a coalition government to continue the British presence in Egypt. Lamspon was convinced that the Wafd's anti-British rhetoric was only opposition politics, and at their heart, their liberal democractic values and popularity in Egypt would make them a strongest possible ally. However, Nahhas rejected a coalition government, knowing that an alliance with the conservatives would greatly limit his power", ".On February 4, Lampson threatened Farouk, saying 'Unless I hear by 6 P.M. today that Nahas has been asked to form a Government His Majesty King Farouk must accept the consequences.\". The Egyptian response was a condemnation against British involvement in Egypt's internal affairs. At 9 P.M, Lampson arrived at Abdeen Palace with British soldiers and tanks and threatened the King with the bombardment of his palace, his abdication and exile from Egypt unless he conceded to the British demands", ". This was not an empty threat; Britain invaded Iraq and overthrew the government of Iran to secure pro-Allied governments. After Lampson ordered Farouk to sign his abdication statement, Farouk offered to call Nahhas to form a cabinet. Though Lampson could have sacked the king right then and there, he agreed to a Nahhas-led Wafd government in Egypt.", "Mohamed Naguib, a distinguished military officer and one of the future leaders of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, appealed to Farouk to resist the British, and pledged loyal officers to defend the palace. The incident was seen as a personal humiliation for Farouk, and a national humiliation for Egypt", ". The incident was seen as a personal humiliation for Farouk, and a national humiliation for Egypt. Gamal Abdel Nasser, then a young military officer who would later lead the Revolution of 1952 with Mohamed Naguib, declared the incident a blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty, and wrote: \"I am ashamed that our army has not reacted against this attack\", and wished for \"calamity\" to overtake the British.", "Mostafa El-Nahas' premiership", "Elections were held in March, with the Wafd winning 203 out of 264 seats, because of a boycott by the opposition. Ali Maher was arrested in April. Finance minister Makram Ebied Pasha broke with the Wafd Part after calling the agreement between Nahhas and Lampson a \"second treaty\" and objecting to corruption wtitihn the government. After his ouster, he spent the next year writing the Black Book, a book which exposed extreme corruption within the government, especially implicating Nahhas and his wife", ". Not only was this a major blow to the government, it destroyed relations between Nahhas and Ebied, who were founders of the Wafd party and veterans of the 1919 revolution. Nahhas' legacy as the successor to the revolution after Sa'ad Zaghoul was in serious ruin by this time, especially after Ebied and 26 Wafdist politicians loyal to him formed a rival party. For his journalism, Ebied was arrested on May 9, 1944, until the end of Nahhas' premiership.", "During his premiership, Egypt hosted two Allied World War II conferences in its capital, Cairo. The First Cairo Conference planned for the counterattack on Japan, and announced the Cairo Declaration, stating the Allied objective to be unconditional surrender of Japan. The Second Cairo Conference discuessed the possible involvement of Turkey in the war against Germany, though it was agreed Turkey would remain neutral", ". Egypt also hosted the Alexandria Protocol, an agreement between five Arab countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Yemen and Syria) agreeing to the formation of a joint Arab Organization, which led to the formation of the League of Arab States in the following year.", "By 1944, World War Two in North Africa had ended. King Farouk saw this as his chance to strike at Nahhas and the Wafd. The Wafd's message as the nationalist opposition to the British had been tarnished. Though Lampson saw the Wafd as an ally against the young King, he knew that the government had exhausted its mandate. After Nahhas' tour of Egypt, Farouk claimed that he had acted in a semi-royal fashion, saying that \"there could not be two kings of Egypt\". Lampson remarked, 'God forbid", ". Lampson remarked, 'God forbid. We have found that one is quite enough.'. Relations between the king and Nahhas were beyond repair. On October 6, 1944, Nahhas was dismissed and Ali Maher and Ebeid were released from prison.", "Ahmed Maher's premiership", "Ahmed Maher, the leaders of the Sa'adists - a party of ex-Wafdists - formed a government with the now-freed Ebeid returning as Minister of Finance. The 1945 elections, which were boycotted by the Wafd, were a victory for anti-Wafdist parties. In Europe, it was clear the Germany would lose the war, so politicians looked at a post-war future. The countries that fought the Axis formed the United Nations, a massive inter-governmental organization", ". It was clear that Egypt would be excluded from the UN if it did not join the war. On February 24, 1945, Egypt declared war on Germany and Japan. Afterwards, as Maher walked down the halls of parliament, he was assassinated by an Egyptian nationalist furious at this 'capitulation' to British influence. Egypt joined the United Nations on October 24, 1945.", "Egypt after the War", "The war was a major moment in Egyptian history. An Egyptian prime minister had not been assassinated since Boutros Ghali in 1910, starting a wave of post-war assassinations including ex-finance minister Amin Osman, prime minister Norashy Pasha, and Hasan al-Banna, leader of the Muslim Brotherhood. Egypt's contributions to the war effort re-opened points of contentions like the status of the Sudan, British troop presence in the country, and the Suez Canal", ". Meanwhile, American interests and involvement in Egypt were growing, signifying the end of the British \"old order\". The war, more specifically the 1942 Abdeen Palace incident, demonstrated to Egyptians that neither the king or the Wafd could challenge British influence. After the war, riots in 1945 and students protests in 1946 rocked the nation. Egyptian nationalism continued to grower more potent; the 1936 treaty would be annulled in 1951", ". Egyptian nationalism continued to grower more potent; the 1936 treaty would be annulled in 1951. The extreme divide between rich and poor led to increasing resentment towards the government. The Egyptian ancien régime would collapse during the 1952 revolution, just seven years after the war.", "Domestic opinion in Egypt\n\nNewspapers", "Newspapers in Egypt regularly commented on the world affairs at the time, and consistently criticized both fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War alarmed Egyptians, as Italy's naked aggression was denounced as imperialism. The Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram denounced Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, criticizing not just the brutal Italian conquest, but the world for allowing a League of Nations member to be invaded", ". The newspapers al-Muqattam called it \"white imperialism\", while al-Ahram \"called on the civilized world to join together to oppose Fascist imperialism\". An al-Ahram editorial in April 1937 entitled “Italy and the Arabs: A New Orientation in Fascist Policy\", stated that Mussolini's attempt at outreach to the Arab world was nothing but hypocrisy. The paper also denounced Germany's aggressive expansion before the war", ". The paper also denounced Germany's aggressive expansion before the war. The Egyptian journalist Muhammad Zaki Abd al-Qadir criticized appeasement, saying “If the world comes under the influence of Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, and their ilk, it will suffer a ghastly regression into the Dark Ages when the military knighthood was the law and war was the symbol of glory\". al-Qadir argued that the West should abandon appeasement and should instead confront Germany.", "The weekly Ar-risala contained articles in which Hitler was denounced, one of them was an editorial which was published in 1939 and it contained the following quote: \"Nazism by its very nature is contradictory to freedom of expression and freedom of opinion; it is based on the rule of force\" and \"The competition between fascism and Hitlerism is for the enslavement of people\". Ahmad Hasan al-Zayyat was an influential Egyptian political writer and intellectual", ". Ahmad Hasan al-Zayyat was an influential Egyptian political writer and intellectual. While he worked as an editor for Ar-risala, he wrote scathing articles on Hitler and fascism. While he attacked Nazi rascism and Italy's invasion of Ethiopia before, his magnum opus was a 1939 editorial \"The Crime of Nazism against Humanity.\" Zayyat viewed Nazism as a demonic power in contradiction to the Abrahamic religions and rejected the racist anti-Semitic ideology of Hitler", ". The newspaper Al Muqattam contained articles which criticized Nazi racial ideology and its anti-semitism.", "Nazi Germany's expansion in Austria and Czechoslovakia further worried the press. Al-Muqattam also criticized the racial laws in Nazi Germany, going on to say:", "\"Who are these Aryans who boast of Aryan origin? After all, the Arab and Persian peoples— Egyptians, Iraqis, Syrians, Palestinians, Iranians— who are assumed not be Aryan are the ones who brought civilization as we know it to the world. These peoples lighted the human path to life, and from them the three monotheistic religions emerged, religions that the so-called Aryans accept and believe. So what is the advantage of these Aryan nations over them?\"", "Taha Hussein, the famous Egyptian academic and twenty-one time Nobel Prize in Literature nominee, critisized the lack of freedom of thought in Nazi Germany, writing \"They live like a society of insects. They must behave like ants in an anthill or like bees in a hive.\" In a 1940 review of Hermann Rauschning's Hitler Speaks, Hussein wrote:Hitler is an intellectually limited man who does not like to delve deeply into problems or to reflect in any depth", ". He hates books and culture, he is superbly ignorant about what science and experience could offer him, and he resorts only to wild fantasies that have no precise aim. He has only contempt for philosophers, politicians, and thinkers ... It is for that reason that he wants to give it the means to crush all resistance, wherever it may come from. The individual exists only insofar as he places himself in the service of the German people", ". The individual exists only insofar as he places himself in the service of the German people. What does it matter if he suffers from hunger, thirst, woes of every kind? What does it matter if he is sacrificed, if he dies or is subjected to a thousand atrocities, provided the Hitlerian regime takes root in Germany? What does it matter if millions of others are also sacrificed so that German domination of the world can be established? ...", ".... I give thanks to God that I did not wait until the declaration of war to hate Hitler and his regime. In fact, I have hated them both since they made their appearance; I have resisted them with all my strength. I have always envisioned Hitler as a man whose conscience drips with blood, who considers nothing respectable or sacred, an enemy of the spirit, of humanity, of all the ideals of civilization", ". And now his acts and words confirm in everyone’s eyes what I had understood from the beginning of his fateful rise. It is therefore a duty more than a right for anyone who believes in spiritual, moral, and religious values, and in liberty, to stand up as the adversary of that man and that regime, and to mobilize every resource against both so that humanity may one day recover its civilization intact and its conscience in integrity", ".Political cartoons of Mussolini and Hitler \"combined an overall message of menace and threat with one of ridicule and clownishness\".", "Egyptian Socialists \nThe Egyptian left were motivated and encouraged by the Soviet Union's fight against Nazi Germany. The Democratic Movement for National Liberation, founded by Henri Curiel and Iskra, founded by Hillel Schwartz used the economic and political condition of Egypt to spread Marxism.", "Material Support \nDespite not supplying troops on the frontlines, the Egyptian government were a key supporter of the British government during the war. The Egyptian government constructed the military barracks for the British troops, at the cost of 12 million Egyptian Pounds (EP), and fortifications and defense lines at 45,000,000 EP.", "The Egyptian military played a supportive role for the British during the war. It was Egyptian soldiers who received the first attack when Italy invaded in September 1940. Egyptian anti-air support helped defend Egypt from Axis air raids on the Suez Canal. The German air force dropped anti-naval mines on the canal to sink British ships. Egyptian troops were posted along the Canal every 200 meters in order to keep watch, remove and destroy anti-naval mines dropped by the Axis planes", ". The army was also involved in training British forces in joint exercises, with some British officers remarking that the Egyptian army saved them two divisions. The Egyptian army suffered 1,125 fatalities and 1,308 injuries in the war.", "The Egyptian navy was involved in transporting troops, ammunition and other supplies, wounded and prisoners of war. In addition, they participated in rescue missions to the Allied naval fleets. Egyptian military intelligence collected intel on the Axis from nomadic tribes across the Egyptian-Libyan border for the Allies. Responsibility for guarding prisoners of war was transferred to the Egyptian army, who collected, deported and guarded the prisoners.", "Despite only having being created in 1937, the Egyptian Royal Air Force took part in defending the country. When the British Air Force encountered a shortage of pilots, Egyptian pilots took their place. A report published by the military delegation to Egypt in 1945, mentioned that in taking over the administration of the air power, the Egyptian army had saved Britain a thousand men that were deployed elsewhere in other areas", ". All engineers and pilots of Egypt Air, the commercial Egyptian Airline, joined the ranks of the British Forces. When British planes would crash in desert areas or other uninhabited locations, the responsibility of finding the aircraft and missing pilots fell on the Egyptian Camel Corps", ". Egyptian engineers were involved in de-mining fields, establishing and maintaining water pipelines between Sidi Abdel Qader and Mersa Matruh, so clean water was available to the Allied Forces, and also laying railroads tracks across the Western desert.", "Egypt supplied over 65,000 tons of wheat and maize, 6,000 tons of corn, 4,000 tons of barley, 800 tons of wheat bran, 68,003 tons of sugar and 107,679 tons of rice. The Egyptian Agency for Land Survey also provided a vital role in mapping out the land for the British. The agency undertook geological and topographical studies of terrain and climate conditions, and valuable projects for water resources in the desert such as digging wells and testing the water for soldiers to be deployed to these areas", ". In total, the government prepared 2,739,678 maps for the entire British army. The government also printed 669,060 banknotes for the National Bank of Egypt, which were used to purchase supplies for the British but were never paid back, eventually leading to a financial crisis", ". It also printed millions of stamps for the governments of Iraq, Syria and eastern Jordan; and around a million and a half consular stamps for the Greek government in exile in Egypt, as well as 17 million Syrian banknotes of various denominations that were needed for the Allies. The Egyptian medical industry was utilized by the Allies to treat injured Allied soldiers and fight diseases.", "Italian invasion", "The Italian invasion of Egypt began as a limited tactical operation towards Mersa Matruh, rather than for the strategic objectives sketched in Rome, due to the chronic lack of transport, fuel and wireless equipment, even with transfers from the 5th Army. Musaid was subjected to a \"spectacular\" artillery bombardment at dawn and occupied. The British withdrew past Buq Buq on 14 September but continued to harass the Italian advance", ". The British withdrew past Buq Buq on 14 September but continued to harass the Italian advance. The British continued to fall back, going to Alam Hamid on the 15th and Alam el Dab on the 16th. An Italian force of fifty tanks attempted a flanking move, which led the British rearguard to retire east of Sidi Barrani. Graziani halted the advance.", "Despite prodding from Mussolini, the Italians dug in around Sidi Barrani and Sofafi, about west of the British defences at Mersa Matruh. The British anticipated that the Italian advance would stop at Sidi Barrani and Sofafi and began to observe the positions. British naval and air operations continued to harass the Italian army as the 7th Armoured Division prepared to confront an advance on Matruh.\n\nItalian defeat", "Selby Force guarded the eastern approaches to Sidi Barrani, as the rest of the WDF attacked the fortified camps further inland. On 10 December, the 4th Armoured Brigade, which had been screening the attackers from a possible Italian counter-attack from the west, advanced northwards, cut the coast road between Sidi Barrani and Buq Buq, and sent armoured car patrols westwards. The 7th Armoured Brigade remained in reserve, and the 7th Support Group blocked an approach from Rabia and Sofafi to the south.", "The 16th Brigade, supported by a squadron of Matilda II tanks, RAF aircraft, Royal Navy ships, and artillery fire, started its advance at . The fighting continued for many hours, without substantial gains, until when the Blackshirts holding two strongholds on the western side suddenly surrendered. The brigade continued advancing with the last of the Infantry tanks, an extra infantry battalion, and support from the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment.", "The second attack began just after . Italian artillery opened fire on the infantry as they were dismounting. The last ten Matildas drove into the western face of the Sidi Barrani defences, and although they were met by Italian artillery, it was ineffective. At 6 p.m., approximately surrendered. In two hours, the first objectives had been captured; only a sector east of the harbour, held by a Blackshirt legion and the remains of the 1st Libyan Division, was still resisting", ". The British continued advancing until they reached Mersa Brega by February, 1941.", "German intervention", "Adolf Hitler sent his army to North Africa starting in February 1941 (see Operation Sonnenblume). Nazi Germany's General Erwin Rommel's Deutsches Afrikakorps coming from victories at Tobruk in Libya, and in a classic blitzkrieg, comprehensively outfought British forces. Within weeks the British had been pushed back into Egypt. It was during this time that Einsatzgruppe Egypt, a Nazi SS unit, was founded with the purpose of genociding the Jews of Egypt and Palestine, though it never left for Egypt.", "German defeat", "Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway halt of El Alamein, 150 miles from Cairo. In July 1942 Rommel lost the First Battle of El Alamein, largely due to the problem of an extended supply line which troubled both sides throughout the war in Egypt . The British were now very close to their supplies and had fresh troops on hand. In early September 1942 Rommel tried again to break through the British lines during the Battle of Alam el Halfa", ". He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived British commander, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery.", "With British forces from Malta interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert, Rommel could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle from late October to early November 1942, the Second Battle of El Alamein, to defeat the Germans forcing them to retreat westwards towards Libya and Tunisia.", "Egyptian participation", "Although Egypt was part of the British Military Operations zone and British forces were stationed there, many Egyptian Army units also fought alongside them. Some units like 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Infantry Regiments, 16th and 12th Cavalry Regiments, 17th Horse Artillery Regiment, and 22nd King's Own Artillery Regiment. Some other units also fought but its names are unknown", ". Some other units also fought but its names are unknown. Beside these units, the Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiments all over Egypt played a vital role in destroying Luftwaffe attacks on Alexandria, Cairo, Suez, and Northern Delta.", "Allied victory", "The leadership of the United Kingdom's General Bernard Montgomery at the Second Battle of El Alamein, or the Battle of Alamein, marked a significant turning point of World War II and was the first major victory by British Commonwealth forces over the German Army. The battle lasted from 23 October to 3 November 1942. Following the First Battle of El Alamein, which had stalled the Axis advance, British general Bernard Montgomery took command of the Eighth Army from Claude Auchinleck in August 1942", ". Success in the battle turned the tide in the North African Campaign. Some historians believe that the battle, along with the Battle of Stalingrad, were the two major Allied victories that contributed to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.", "By July 1942, the German Afrika Korps under General Rommel had struck deep into Egypt, threatening the vital Allied supply line across the Suez Canal. Faced with overextended supply lines and lack of reinforcements and yet well aware of massive Allied reinforcements arriving, Rommel decided to strike at the Allies while their build-up was still not complete. This attack on 30 August 1942 at Alam Halfa failed, and expecting a counterattack by Montgomery's Eighth Army, the Afrika Korps dug in", ". After six more weeks of building up forces, the Eighth Army was ready to strike. 200,000 men and 1,000 tanks under Montgomery made their move against the 100,000 men and 500 tanks of the Afrika Korps.", "The Allied plan \nWith Operation Lightfoot, Montgomery hoped to cut two corridors through the Axis minefields in the north. Armour would then pass through and defeat the German armour. Diversionary attacks in the south would keep the rest of the Axis forces from moving northwards. Montgomery expected a twelve-day battle in three stages — \"The break-in, the dog-fight and the final break of the enemy.\"", "The Commonwealth forces practised a number of deceptions in the months prior to the battle to wrong-foot the Axis command, not only as to the exact whereabouts of the forthcoming battle, but as to when the battle was likely to occur. This operation was codenamed, Operation Bertram. A dummy pipeline was built, stage by stage, the construction of which would lead the Axis to believe the attack would occur much later than it in fact did, and much further south", ". To further the illusion, dummy tanks made of plywood frames placed over jeeps were constructed and deployed in the south. In a reverse feint, the tanks for battle in the north were disguised as supply lorries by placing a removable plywood superstructure over them.", "The Axis were dug-in along two lines, called by the Allies the Oxalic Line and the Pierson Line. They had laid around half a million mines, mainly anti-tank, in what was called the Devil's gardens.\n\nThe battle \n\nThe battle opened at 2140 hours on 23 October with a sustained artillery barrage. The initial objective was the Oxalic Line with the armour intending to advance over this and on to the Pierson Line. However, the minefields were not yet fully cleared when the assault began.", "On the first night, the assault to create the northern corridor fell three miles short of the Pierson line. Further south, they had made better progress but were stalled at Miteirya Ridge.", "On 24 October, the Axis commander, General Stumme (Rommel was on sick leave in Austria), died of a heart attack while under fire. After a period of confusion, while Stumme's body was missing, General Ritter von Thoma took command of the Axis forces. Hitler initially instructed Rommel to remain at home and continue his convalescence but then became alarmed at the deteriorating situation and asked Rommel to return to Africa if he felt able. Rommel left at once and arrived on 25 October.", "For the Allies in the south, after another abortive assault on the Miteirya Ridge, the attack was abandoned. Montgomery switched the focus of the attack to the north. There was a successful night attack over the 25-26th. Rommel's immediate counter-attack was without success. The Allies had lost 6,200 men against Axis losses of 2,500, but while Rommel had only 370 tanks fit for action, Montgomery still had over 900.", "Montgomery felt that the offensive was losing momentum and decided to regroup. There were a number of small actions but, by 29 October, the Axis line was still intact. Montgomery was still confident and prepared his forces for Operation Supercharge. The endless small operations and the attrition by the Allied airforce had by then reduced Rommel's effective tank strength to only 102.", "The second major Allied offensive of the battle was along the coast, initially to capture the Rahman Track and then take the high ground at Tel el Aqqaqir. The attack began on 2 November 1942. By the 3rd, Rommel had only 35 tanks fit for action. Despite containing the Allied advance, the pressure on his forces made a retreat necessary. However, the same day Rommel received a \"victory or death\" message from Hitler, halting the withdrawal", ". But the Allied pressure was too great, and the German forces had to withdraw on the night of 3–4 November. By 6 November, the Axis forces were in full retreat and over 30,000 soldiers had surrendered.", "Aftermath\n\nChurchill's summation \nWinston Churchill famously summed up the battle on 10 November 1942 with the words, \"now this is not the end, it is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.\"\n\nThe battle was Montgomery's greatest triumph. He took the title \"Viscount Montgomery of Alamein\" when he was raised to the peerage.\n\nThe Torch landings in Morocco later that month marked the effective end of the Axis threat in North Africa.\n\nEgyptian fleet damages", "Egyptian fleet damages \n\nIn total, 14 Egyptian ships were sunk during the war by U-boats, those included: one ship sunk by German submarine U-83, three ships sunk, and one survived with damage by German submarine U-77, nine ships sunk by German submarine U-81.\n\nSee also \nMilitary history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War\nEgypt in the Middle Ages\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links \n\nText of Cairo Declaration", "References\n\nSources\n\nExternal links \n\nText of Cairo Declaration\n\n \nWorld War II\nWorld War II\nEgypt\nPolitics of World War II\n20th century in Egypt\nArticles containing video clips\n \n1930s in Egypt\n1940s in Egypt" ]

[ "The origins of the War of 1812 (1812-1815), between the United States and the British Empire and its First Nation allies, have been long debated. The War of 1812 was caused by multiple factors and ultimately led to the US declaration of war on Britain:", "A series of trade restrictions introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France with which Britain was at war (the US contested the restrictions as illegal under international law).\n The impressment (forced recruitment) of seamen on US vessels into the Royal Navy (the British claimed that they were British deserters).\n The British military support for American Indians who were offering armed resistance to the expansion of the American frontier to the Northwest Territory.", "A possible desire by the US to annex some or all of Canada.\n Implicit but powerful was a US motivation and desire to uphold national honor in the face of what they considered to be British insults, such as the Chesapeake affair.", "American expansion into the Northwest Territory (now Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and northeast Minnesota) was impeded by Indian raids. Some historians maintain that an American goal in the war was to annex some or all of Canada, a view that many Canadians still share. However, many argue that inducing the fear of such a seizure was merely an American tactic, which was designed to obtain a bargaining chip.", "Some members of the British Parliament and dissident American politicians such as John Randolph of Roanoke claimed that American expansionism, rather than maritime disputes, was the primary motivation for the American declaration of war. That view has been retained by some historians.", "Although the British made some concessions before the war on neutral trade, they insisted on the right to reclaim their deserting sailors. The British also had long had a goal to create a large \"neutral\" Indian state that would cover much of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. They made the demand as late as 1814 at the Ghent Peace Conference but had lost battles that would have validated those claims.", "The war was fought in four theatres: on the oceans, where the warships and privateers of both sides preyed on each other's merchant shipping; along the Atlantic Coast of the US, which was blockaded with increasing severity by the British, who also mounted large-scale raids in the later stages of the war; on the long frontier, running along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, which separated the US from Upper Canada and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec); and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.", "During the war, both Americans and British launched invasions of each other's territory, all of which either failed or gained only temporary success. At the end of the war, the British held American territory in parts of Maine and some outposts in the sparsely-populated West, and the Americans held Canadian territory near Detroit. However, all territories that were occupied by either side were restored at the peace treaty to the prewar borders.", "In the United States, battles such as New Orleans and Baltimore, the latter of which inspired the lyrics of the US national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, produced a sense of euphoria over a Second War of Independence against Britain and ushered in an Era of Good Feelings. The partisan animosity that had once verged on treason practically vanished.\n\nCanada also emerged from the war with a heightened sense of national feeling and solidarity against the American invasion.", "Britain, which had regarded the war as a sideshow to the Napoleonic Wars, which had raged in Europe, was less affected by the fighting, and its government and people welcomed an era of peaceful relations with the US.", "British goals", "The British Empire was engaged in a life-and-death war against Napoleon and could not allow the Americans to help the enemy, regardless of their lawful neutral rights to do so. As Horsman explained, \"If possible, England wished to avoid war with America, but not to the extent of allowing her to hinder the British war effort against France. Moreover..", ". Moreover... a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy.\"", "Defending British North America", "According to Historian Andrew Lambert, the British had one main goal as a response to the invasion of the Canada, that was the prosecution of war against the United states and to defend British North America: \"The British had no interest in fighting this war, and once it began, they had one clear goal: keep the United States from taking any part of Canada\"", ". Britain's policy was to effect the end of the war, though continuous campaigning, which would influence the people of the United states and Government policy.", "Defeating Napoleon", "All parties were committed to the defeat of France, which required sailors and thus impressment, as well as all-out commercial war against France, which caused the restrictions that were imposed on American merchant ships. On the question of trade with America, the British parties split. As Horsman argues, \"Some restrictions on neutral commerce were essential for England in this period", ". That this restriction took such an extreme form after 1807 stemmed not only from the effort to defeat Napoleon, but also from the undoubted jealousy of America's commercial prosperity that existed in England. America was unfortunate in that for most of the period from 1803 to 1812 political power in England was held by a group that was pledged not only to the defeat of France, but also to a rigid maintenance of Britain's commercial supremacy", ".\" That group was weakened by Whigs friendly to the US in mid-1812, and the policies were reversed although the US had already declared war. By 1815, Britain was no longer controlled by politicians dedicated to commercial supremacy and so that cause had vanished.", "The British were hindered by weakened diplomats in Washington, such as David Erskine, who were unable to represent a consistent British policy, and by communications that were so slow the Americans did not learn of the reversal of policy until they had declared war.", "Americans proposed a truce based on the British ending impressment, but the latter refused because they needed those sailors. Horsman explained, \"Impressment, which was the main point of contention between England and America from 1803 to 1807, was made necessary primarily because of England's great shortage of seamen for the war against Napoleon", ". In a similar manner the restrictions on American commerce imposed by England's Orders in Council, which were the supreme cause of complaint between 1807 and 1812, were one part of a vast commercial struggle being waged between England and France.\"", "Creation of Indian barrier state between US and Canada\nThe British also had the long-standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large \"neutral\" Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest to be a barrier between the Western US and Canada. It would be independent of the US and under the tutelage of the British, who would use it to block American expansionism and to build up their control of the fur trade.", "The British continued to make that demand as late as 1814, during the Ghent Peace Conference. However, they dropped the demand since their position had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames. Also, they simply no longer considered the goal to be worth war against the US although much of the proposed buffer state had remained largely under British and Indian control throughout the war", ". However, Britain insisted on including the right for Indians to return to lands they had lost after 1811, which was included in clause IX, even though Britain had doubts this would be upheld by America.", "American goals\nThere were several immediate stated causes for the American declaration of war:", "A series of trade restrictions, the Orders in Council (1807), were introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France, which was at war with Britain. The US contested those restrictions as illegal under international law.\n The impressment (forced recruitment) of US citizens into the Royal Navy.\n The British military support for American Indians, who were offering armed resistance to the US.", "The British military support for American Indians, who were offering armed resistance to the US.\n An unstated but powerful motivation by the US was the need that was felt to uphold national honor in the face of British insults, such as the Chesapeake affair.\n A possible US desire to annex Canada.", "British support for Indian raids", "Indians based in the Northwest Territory, now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, had organized in opposition to American settlement and were being supplied with weapons by British traders in Canada. Britain was not trying to provoke a war and, at one point, cut its allocations of gunpowder to the tribes, but it was trying to build up its fur trade and friendly relations with potential military allies", ". Britain had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783) but had the long-term goal of creating a \"neutral\" or buffer Indian state in the area to block further American growth. The Indian nations generally followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Since 1805, he had preached his vision of purifying his society by expelling the \"Children of the Evil Spirit\" (the American settlers).", "According to Pratt,\n\nThere is ample proof that the British authorities did all in their power to hold or win the allegiance of the Indians of the Northwest with the expectation of using them as allies in the event of war. Indian allegiance could be held only by gifts, and to an Indian no gift was as acceptable as a lethal weapon. Guns and ammunition, tomahawks and scalping knives were dealt out with some liberality by British agents.", "Raiding grew more common in 1810 and 1811. Westerners in Congress found the raids intolerable and wanted them to be permanently ended.Zuehlke, For Honour's Sake, p 62", "American expansionism", "Historians have considered the idea that American expansionism was one cause of the war. The American expansion into the Northwest Territory (now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin) was being blocked by Indians, which was a major cause animating the Westerners. The American historian Walter Nugent, in his history of American expansionism, argues that expansion into the Midwest \"was not the only American objective, and indeed not the immediate one area but it was an objective.\"", "Annexation", "More controversial is whether an American war goal was to acquire Canadian lands, especially what is now Western Ontario, permanently or whether it was planned to seize the area temporarily as a bargaining chip. The American desire for Canada has been a staple in Canadian public opinion since the 1830s and was much discussed among historians before 1940 but has since become less popular. The idea was first developed by the Marxist historian Louis M", ". The idea was first developed by the Marxist historian Louis M. Hacker and refined by the diplomatic specialist Julius Pratt.", "In 1925, Pratt argued that Western Americans were incited to war by the prospect of seizing Canada. Pratt's argument supported the belief of many Canadians, especially in Ontario, where fear of American expansionism was a major political element, and the notion still survives among Canadians.", "In 2010, the American historian Alan Taylor examined the political dimension of the annexation issue as Congress debated whether to declare war in 1811 and 1812. The Federalist Party was strongly opposed to war and to annexation, as were the Northeastern states. The majority in Congress was held by the Democratic-Republican Party, which was split on the issue. One faction wanted the permanent expulsion of Britain and the annexation of Canada", ". One faction wanted the permanent expulsion of Britain and the annexation of Canada. John Randolph of Roanoke, representing Virginia, commented, \"Agrarian greed not maritime right urges this war. We have heard but one word - like the whippoorwill's one monotonous tone: Canada! Canada! Canada!\"", "The other faction, based in the South, said that acquiring new territory in the North would give it too much power and so opposed the incorporation of Canada since its Catholic population was viewed as \"unfit by faith, language and illiteracy for republican citizenship.\" The Senate held a series of debates and twice voted on proposals that explicitly endorsed annexation, neither of which passed", ". However, the second failed only because of a proviso stating that Canada could be returned to British rule after it had been annexed. War was declared with no mention of annexation, but widespread support existed among the War Hawks for it", ". Some Southerners supported expansionism; Tennessee Senator Felix Grundy considered it essential to acquire Canada to preserve domestic political balance and argued that annexing Canada would maintain the free state-slave state balance, which might otherwise be ended by the acquisition of Florida and the settlement of the southern areas of the new Louisiana Purchase.", "Even James Monroe and Henry Clay, key officials in the government, expected to gain at least Upper Canada from a successful war.", "American commanders like General William Hull and Alexander Smythe issued proclamations to Canadians and their troops that assured them that annexations would actually occur during the war. Smythe wrote to his troops that when they entered Canada, \"You enter a country that is to become one with the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow-citizens.\"", "Seizing Canada as bargaining chip", "Historians now generally agree that an invasion and seizure of Canada was the main American military strategy once the war had begun. With British control of the oceans, there was no other way to fight against British interests actively. President James Madison believed that food supplies from Canada were essential to the British overseas empire in the West Indies and that an American seizure would be an excellent bargaining chip at the peace conference", ". During the war, some Americans speculated that they might as well keep all of Canada. Thomas Jefferson, for example, was now out of power but argued that the expulsion of British interests from nearby Canada would remove a long-term threat to American republicanism.", "The New Zealander historian J.C.A. Stagg argued that Madison and his advisers believed that the conquest of Canada would be easy and that economic coercion would force the British to come to terms by cutting off the food supply for their highly-valuable West Indies sugar colonies. Furthermore, the possession of Canada would be a valuable bargaining chip", ". Furthermore, the possession of Canada would be a valuable bargaining chip. Stagg suggested that frontiersmen demanded the seizure of Canada not because they wanted the land, since they had plenty of it, but because the British were thought to be arming the Indians and thus blocked settlement of the West.", "As Horsman concluded, \"The idea of conquering Canada had been present since at least 1807 as a means of forcing England to change her policy at sea. The conquest of Canada was primarily a means of waging war, not a reason for starting it.\" Hickey flatly stated, \"The desire to annex Canada did not bring on the war.\" Brown (1964) concluded, \"The purpose of the Canadian expedition was to serve negotiation not to annex Canada.\"", "Alfred Leroy Burt, a Canadian scholar but also a professor at an American university, agreed completely by noting that Foster, the British minister to Washington, also rejected the argument that annexation of Canada was a war goal. However, Foster also rejected the possibility of a declaration of war but had dinner with several of the more prominent War Hawks and so his judgement on such matters can be questioned.", "However, Stagg stated that \"had the War 1812 been a successful military venture, the Madison administration would have been reluctant to have returned occupied Canadian territory to the enemy.\" Other authors concur, with one stating, \"Expansion was not the only American objective, and indeed not the immediate one. But it was an objective.\"\n\n\"The American yearning to absorb Canada was long-standing.... In 1812 it became part of a grand strategy.\"", "Another suggested, \"Americans harbored 'manifest destiny' ideas of Canadian annexation throughout the nineteenth century.\"\n A third stated, \"The [American] belief that the United States would one day annex Canada had a continuous existence from the early days of the War of Independence to the War of 1812 [and] was a factor of primary importance in bringing on the war.\"\n\nAnother stated that \"acquiring Canada would satisfy America's expansionist desires\"", "Another stated that \"acquiring Canada would satisfy America's expansionist desires\"\n\nThe historian Spencer Tucker wrote, \"War Hawks were eager to wage war with the British, not only to end Indian depredations in the Midwest but also to seize Canada and perhaps Spanish Florida.\"", "Inhabitants of Ontario", "Most of the inhabitants of Upper Canada (now Ontario) were Americans, but some of them were exiled United Empire Loyalists, and most of them were recent immigrants. The Loyalists were extremely hostile to American annexation, and the other settlers seem to have been uninterested and to have remained neutral during the war", ". The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army, and some Americans believed that the many in Upper Canada would rise and greet the American invading army as liberators. The combination implied an easy conquest. Once the war began, ex-President Thomas Jefferson warned that the British presence posed a grave threat and pointed to \"The infamous intrigues of Great Britain to destroy our government..", "... and with the Indians to Tomahawk our women and children, prove that the cession of Canada, their fulcrum for these Machiavellian levers, must be a sine qua non at a treaty of peace.\" He predicted in late 1812 that \"the acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent.\"", "Maass argued in 2015 that the expansionist theme is a myth that goes against the \"relative consensus among experts that the primary U.S. objective was the repeal of British maritime restrictions.\" He argued the consensus among scholars to be that the US went to war \"because six years of economic sanctions had failed to bring Britain to the negotiating table, and threatening the Royal Navy's Canadian supply base was their last hope", ".\" However, he also noted that many historians still published expansionism as a cause and that even those against the idea still included caveats regarding \"possible expansionism underlying US motives.\" Maass agreed that theoretically, expansionism might have tempted Americans, but he also found that \"leaders feared the domestic political consequences of doing so", ". Notably, what limited expansionism there was focused on sparsely populated western lands rather than the more populous eastern settlements [of Canada].\"", "Violations of US rights\nThe long wars between Britain and France (1793–1815) led to repeated complaints by the US that both powers violated American rights, as a neutral power, to trade with both sides. Furthermore, Americans complained loudly that British agents in Canada were supplying munitions to hostile Native American tribes living in US territories.", "In the mid-1790s, the Royal Navy, short of manpower, began to board American merchant ships to seize American and British sailors from American vessels. Although the policy of impressment was supposed to reclaim only British subjects, the law of Britain and most other countries defined nationality by birth. However, American law allowed individuals who had been resident in the country for some time to adopt US citizenship. Therefore, many individuals were British by British law but American by American law", ". Therefore, many individuals were British by British law but American by American law. The confusion was compounded by the refusal of Jefferson and Madison to issue any official citizenship documents. Their position was that all persons serving on American ships were to be regarded as US citizens and so no further evidence was required. That stance was motivated by the advice of Albert Gallatin, who had calculated that half of the US deep-sea merchant seamen (9,000 men) were British subjects", ". Allowing the Royal Navy to reclaim those men would destroy both the US economy and the government's vital customs revenue. Any sort of accommodation would jeopardize those men and so concords such as the proposed Monroe-Pinkney Treaty (1806) between the US and Britain were rejected by Jefferson.", "To fill the need for some sort of identification, US consuls provided unofficial papers. However, they relied on unverifiable declarations by the individual concerned for evidence of citizenship, and the large fees paid for the documents made them a lucrative sideline. In turn, British officers, who were short of personnel and convinced, somewhat reasonably, that the American flag was covering a large number of British deserters, tended to treat such papers with scorn", ". Between 1806 and 1812, about 6,000 seamen were impressed and taken against their will into the Royal Navy; 3,800 of them were later released.", "Honor\nA number of American contemporaries called it \"the \"Second War for Independence.\" Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun pushed a declaration of war through Congress by stressing the need to uphold American honor and independence. Speaking of his fellow Southerners, Calhoun told Congress that they\nare not prepared for the colonial state to which again that Power [Great Britain] is endeavoring to reduce us. The manly spirit of that section of our country will not submit to be regulated by any foreign Power.", "The historian Norman Risjord emphasized the central importance of honor as a cause the war. Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honor and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third-class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response", ". Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. That quest for honor was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honor.", "The humiliating attack by HMS Leopard against USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event. Many Americans called for war, but Jefferson held back and insisted that economic warfare would prove more successful, which he initiated, especially in the form of embargoing or refusing to sell products to Britain. The policy proved a failure by not deterring the British, but it seriously damaged American industry and alienated the mercantile cities of the Northeast, which were seriously hurt.", "Historians have demonstrated the powerful motive of honor to shape public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Virginia, as well as the territory of Michigan. On 3 June 1812, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, chaired by the pro-war extremist John C. Calhoun, called for a declaration of war in ringing phrases by denouncing Britain's \"lust for power,\" \"unbounded tyranny,\" and \"mad ambition", ".\" James Roark wrote, \"These were fighting words in a war that was in large measure about insult and honor.\" Calhoun reaped much of the credit.", "In terms of honor, the conclusion of the war, especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans, restored the American sense of honor. The historian Lance Banning wrote:", "National honor, the reputation of republican government, and the continuing supremacy of the Republican party had seemed to be at stake.... National honor had [now] been satisfied.... Americans celebrated the end of the struggle with a brilliant burst of national pride. They felt that they had fought a second war for independence, and had won. If little had been gained, nothing had been lost in a contest the greatest imperial power on the earth.", "According to J.C.A. Stagg, a historian from New Zealand,", "Initially, in the studies of Norman Risjord, these values were described as an outrageous sense of \"national honor\" provoked by the conduct of Great Britain toward the United States on the high seas, but in the work of Roger Brown", ", but in the work of Roger Brown, concerns about \"national honor\" became part of a larger commitment to \"republicanism\" itself—both in the institution of the ruling Jeffersonian Republican Party and in the belief that republicanism as a national creed would be in jeopardy unless Americans made another effort to vindicate the independence that had supposedly been won in 1783", ".", "US economic motivations", "The failure of Jefferson's embargo and of Madison's economic coercion, according to Horsman, \"made war or absolute submission to England the only alternatives, and the latter presented more terrors to the recent colonists. The war hawks came from the West and the South, regions that had supported economic warfare and were suffering the most from British restrictions at sea", ". The merchants of New England earned large profits from the wartime carrying trade, in spite of the numerous captures by both France and England, but the western and southern farmers, who looked longingly at the export market, were suffering a depression that made them demand war.\"", "Prewar incidents", "This dispute came to the forefront with the Chesapeake–Leopard affair of 1807, when the British warship HMS Leopard fired on and boarded the American warship USS Chesapeake, killed three, and carried off four deserters from the Royal Navy. (Only one was a British citizen and was later hanged; the other three were American citizens and were later returned but the last two only in 1812", ".) The American public was outraged by the incident, and many called for war to assert American sovereignty and national honor.", "The Chesapeake–Leopard affair followed closely on the similar Leander affair, which had resulted in Jefferson banning certain British warships and their captains from American ports and waters. Whether in response to that incident or the Chesapeake-Leopard affair, Jefferson banned all foreign armed vessels from American waters except for those bearing dispatches", ". In December 1808, an American officer expelled HMS Sandwich from Savannah, Georgia; the schooner had entered with dispatches for the British consul there.", "Meanwhile, Napoleon's Continental System and the British Orders in Council established embargoes that made international trade precarious. From 1807 to 1812, about 900 American ships were seized as a result. The US responded with the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from sailing to any foreign ports and closed American ports to British ships", ". Jefferson's embargo was especially unpopular in New England, whose merchants preferred the indignities of impressment to the halting of overseas commerce. The discontent contributed to the calling of the Hartford Convention in 1814.", "The Embargo Act had no effect on either Britain or France and so was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which lifted all embargoes on American shipping except for those bound for British or French ports. As that proved to be unenforceable, it was replaced in 1810 by Macon's Bill Number 2, which lifted all embargoes but offered that if France or Britain ceased its interference with American shipping, the US would reinstate an embargo on the other nation", ". Napoleon, seeing an opportunity to make trouble for Britain, promised to leave American ships alone, and the US reinstated the embargo with Britain and moved closer to declaring war. However, he had no intention of honoring his promise.", "Exacerbating the situation, Sauk Indians, who controlled trade on the Upper Mississippi, were displeased with the US government after the 1804 treaty between Quashquame and William Henry Harrison ceded Sauk territory in Illinois and Missouri to the US. The Sauk felt the treaty to be unjust and that Quashquame had been unauthorized to sign away land and had been unaware of what he was signing", ". The establishment of Fort Madison in 1808 on the Mississippi had further angered the Sauk and led many, including Black Hawk, to side with the British before the war broke out. Sauk and allied Indians, including the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), were very effective fighters for the British on the Mississippi and helped to defeat Fort Madison and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien.", "The Oxford historian Paul Langford looked at the decisions by the British government in 1812:", "The British ambassador in Washington [Erskine] brought affairs almost to an accommodation, and was ultimately disappointed not by American intransigence but by one of the outstanding diplomatic blunders made by a Foreign Secretary. It was Canning who, in his most irresponsible manner and apparently out of sheer dislike of everything American, recalled the ambassador Erskine and wrecked the negotiations, a piece of most gratuitous folly", ". As a result, the possibility of a new embarrassment for Napoleon turned into the certainty of a much more serious one for his enemy. Though the British cabinet eventually made the necessary concessions on the score of the Orders-in-Council, in response to the pressures of industrial lobbying at home, its action came too late.... The loss of the North American markets could have been a decisive blow", ".... The loss of the North American markets could have been a decisive blow. As it was by the time the United States declared war, the Continental System [of Napoleon] was beginning to crack, and the danger correspondingly diminishing. Even so, the war, inconclusive though it proved in a military sense, was an irksome and expensive embarrassment which British statesman could have done much more to avert.", "Declaration of war\nIn the US House of Representatives, a group of young Democratic-Republicans, known as the \"War Hawks,\" came to the forefront in 1811 and were led by Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. They advocated going to war against Britain for all of the reasons listed above but concentrated on their grievances more than on territorial expansion.", "On 1 June 1812, President James Madison gave a speech to the US Congress that recounted American grievances against Britain but did not specifically call for a declaration of war. After Madison's speech, the House of Representatives quickly voted (79 to 49) to declare war, and the Senate did the same by 19 to 13. The conflict formally began on 18 June 1812, when Madison signed the measure into law", ". The conflict formally began on 18 June 1812, when Madison signed the measure into law. It was the first time that the US had declared war on another nation, and the congressional vote was the closest-ever vote to declare war in American history. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted for the war, whose critics later referred to it as \"Mr. Madison's War.\"", "See also\n Chronology of the War of 1812\n Presidency of Thomas Jefferson\n Presidency of James Madison\n Opposition to the War of 1812\n Results of the War of 1812\n War of 1812\n War of 1812 bibliography\n\nReferences", "Sources\n Adams, Henry. History of the United States during the Administrations of James Madison (5 vol 1890–91; 2 vol Library of America, 1986). Table of contents, the classic political-diplomatic history\n Benn, Carl. The War of 1812 (2003).\n Brown, Roger H. The Republic in Peril: 1812 (1964). on American politics\n Burt, Alfred L. The United States, Great Britain, and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812. (1940)", "Goodman, Warren H. \"The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations,\" Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1941)28#1 pp 171–86. in JSTOR\n Hacker, Louis M. \"Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812,\" Mississippi Valley Historical Review, (1924), 10#3 pp 365–95. in JSTOR\n Heidler, Donald & J, (eds) Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (2004) articles by 70 scholars from several countries", "Hickey, Donald. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. University of Illinois Press, 1989. , by leading American scholar\n Hickey, Donald R. Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. (2006) \n Hickey, Donald R. ed. The War of 1812 : writings from America's second war of independence (2013), primary sources online free to borrow\n Horsman, Reginald. The Causes of the War of 1812 (1962).", "Horsman, Reginald. The Causes of the War of 1812 (1962).\n Kaplan, Lawrence S. \"France and Madison's Decision for War 1812,\" The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 50, No. 4. (Mar., 1964), pp. 652–671. in JSTOR\n Maass, Richard W. \"'Difficult to Relinquish Territory Which Had Been Conquered': Expansionism and the War of 1812,\" Diplomatic History (Jan 2015) 39#1 pp 70–97 doi: 10.1093/dh/dht132", "Perkins, Bradford. Prologue to war: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (1961) full text online free, detailed diplomatic history by American scholar\n Perkins, Bradford. Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812·1823 (1964) excerpt; online review\n Perkins, Bradford. (1962). The causes of the War of 1812. National honor or national interest?\" online free to borrow\n Pratt, Julius W. A History of United States Foreign Policy (1955)", "Pratt, Julius W. A History of United States Foreign Policy (1955)\n Pratt, Julius W. (1925b.) Expansionists of 1812 Pratt, Julius W. \"Western War Aims in the War of 1812,\" Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 12 (June, 1925), 36–50. in JSTOR\n Risjord, Norman K. \"1812: Conservatives, War Hawks, and the Nation's Honor,\" William and Mary Quarterly, 18#2 ( 1961), 196–210. in JSTOR\n Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic 1801–1815 (1968) general survey of American politics & diplomacy", "Stagg, John C. A. Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American republic, 1783–1830. (1983), major overview (by New Zealand scholar)\n Stagg, John C. A. \"James Madison and the 'Malcontents': The Political Origins of the War of 1812,\" William and Mary Quarterly (Oct., 1976) in JSTOR\n Stagg, John C. A. \"James Madison and the Coercion of Great Britain: Canada, the West Indies, and the War of 1812,\" in The William and Mary Quarterly (Jan., 1981) in JSTOR", "Steel, Anthony. \"Anthony Merry and the Anglo-American Dispute about Impressment, 1803-6.\" Cambridge Historical Journal 9#3 (1949): 331-51 online.\n Taylor, Alan. The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (2010)\nTaylor, George Rogers, ed. The War of 1812: Past Justifications and Present Interpretations (1963) online free\n Trautsch, Jasper M. \"The Causes of the War of 1812: 200 Years of Debate,\" Journal of Military History (Jan 2013) 77#1 pp 273–293", "Updyke, Frank A. The diplomacy of the War of 1812'' (1915) online free", "External links\nReading list on the Causes of the War of 1812 compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History\n\nWar of 1812\nWar of 1812" ]

[ "The Bugis people, also known as Buginese, are an ethnicity—the most numerous of the three major linguistic and ethnic groups of South Sulawesi (the others being Makassar and Toraja), in the south-western province of Sulawesi, third-largest island of Indonesia. The Bugis in 1605 converted to Islam from Animism. The main religion embraced by the Bugis is Islam, with a small minority adhering to Christianity or a pre-Islamic indigenous belief called Tolotang.", "Despite the population numbering only around six million and constituting less than 2.5% of the contemporary Indonesian population, the Bugis are influential in the politics in the country; and historically influential on the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Islands and other parts of the archipelago where they have migrated, starting in the late seventeenth century. The third president of Indonesia, B. J. Habibie, and a former vice president of Indonesia, Jusuf Kalla, are Bugis", ". J. Habibie, and a former vice president of Indonesia, Jusuf Kalla, are Bugis. In Malaysia, the eighth prime minister, Muhyiddin Yassin and former deputy prime minister, Ismail Abdul Rahman, have Bugis ancestry.", "The Bugis people speak a distinct regional language in addition to Indonesian, called Bugis (), with several different dialects. The Bugis language belongs to the South Sulawesi language group; other members include Makassarese, Toraja, Mandar and Massenrempulu. The name Bugis is an exonym which represents an older form of the name; (To) Ugi is the endonym.\n\nOrigins and antecedents", "Toalean — Pre-Austronesian South Sulawesi", "The earliest inhabitant of South Sulawesi is potentially related to the Wajak Man, of the Proto-Australoid origin. There are a few flake materials found in Walanae River valley and Maros, likely dating between 40,000 and 19,000 BC. The hunter-gatherer culture in South Sulawesi is also known as Toalean culture, and largely based on blade, flake and microlith complex. They are probably of Melanesoid or Australoid stock, hence related to the contemporary population of New Guinea or to Australian aborigines.", "In 2015, the remains of Bessé´, a young woman was unearthed Leang Panninge, South Sulawesi. Dated over 7,200 years old, half of her DNA was identified to be connected to the indigenous Australians, the people in New Guinea and the Western Pacific; together with a previously unknown and unique human lineage that diverged approximately 37,000 years ago. Her DNA provided important evidence pertaining to the understanding on ancient human migration.\n\nThe arrival of Austronesians", "Their Austronesian ancestors settled on Sulawesi around 2500 B.C. There is \"historical linguistic evidence of some late Holocene immigration of Austronesian speakers to South Sulawesi from Taiwan\"—which means that the Bugis have \"possible ultimate ancestry in South China\", and that as a result of this immigration, \"there was an infusion of an exogenous population from China or Taiwan", ".\" Migration from South China by some of the paternal ancestors of the Bugis is also supported by studies of Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups.", "Christian Pelras, an anthropologist, hypothesized that the proto-Bugis were potentially arrived from abroad, possibly from Borneo, to the western seaboard of South Sulawesi. Their arrival was largely drawn to control the mineral and natural resources in the hinterland", ". Their arrival was largely drawn to control the mineral and natural resources in the hinterland. As the group began to spread towards the interior of the present-day Bugis heartland, they become increasingly diverged from their neighbouring Makassarese, Mandarese and Torajan brethren; simultaneously, the proto-Bugis too would assimilated the former Austronesian tribes in the sparsely-populated area, a process whereby the native populations would gradually adopt the language of the new arrivals", ". Hence, a redesigned hybrid-identity through ethnogenesis emerged, binding the original elements derived from the indigenous people together with the introduction of revolutionary techniques, items and ideas bought by the new settlers, including weaving, metal arts and theological doctrine. The society however, remains largely divided between two separate classes, the prevailing nobility and the common people.", "Tana Ogi — Land of the Bugis", "The homeland of the Bugis is the area around Lake Tempe and Lake Sidenreng in the Walannae Depression in the south-west peninsula of Sulawesi. It was here that the ancestors of the present-day Bugis settled, probably in the mid- to late second millennium B.C", ".C. The area is rich in fish and wildlife and the annual fluctuation of Lake Tempe (a reservoir lake for the Bila and Walannae rivers) allows speculative planting of wet rice, while the hills can be farmed by swidden or shifting cultivation, wet rice, hunting and gathering.", "Around A.D. 1200, the availability of prestigious imported goods including Chinese and South-East Asian ceramics and Gujarati print-block textiles, coupled with newly discovered sources of iron ore in Luwu stimulated an agrarian revolution which expanded from the great lakes region into the lowland plains to the east, south and west of the Walennae depression", ". This led over the next four hundred years to the development of the major kingdoms of South Sulawesi, and the social transformation of chiefly societies into hierarchical proto-states.", "History\n\nEarly society", "The lifestyle of ancient Bugis people were, to some extent, preserved by the pagan Torajan people until the dawn of the 20th century. Their homes were mainly constructed on stilts and the communities were likely to be scattered along the river banks, sea or lake shores. The main undertakings during this period were farming rice, millet, adlay and other edible crops, catching fish and shellfish, obtaining forest produce and hunting wild animals. Buffaloes were imported and used for important occasions.", "The earliest inhabitants potentially clad under a simple clothing. The women potentially wore a skirt; while for the men, a loincloth and possibly a headcloth. Remains of bronze and gold ornaments have also been retrieved based on archeological evidence. Pottery is evident, although bamboo containers were more extensively used together with the usage of bamboo knives. The weapons were sourced from iron and stones together with helmets and shields made from rattan.", "Theologically, the early Bugis potentially practiced ancestor worshipping. There were also ancient rituals related to agriculture and fertility. They generally buried their corpses, although there were several cases where the deceased body were being disposed by immersion in the sea or lakes, or by positioned in trees. Other mortuary practices includes cremation, especially for the rulers.", "Despite being located in a sparsely populated communities, they were not living in an absolute isolation with the outside world. Instead, trade and commerce were held high and regarded to be of pivotal importance in the society. The archeological findings near Bantaeng and Ara unearthed ancient artifacts dating from 300 to 100 BC, denoting evidence that the southern part of Sulawesi has played an integral role in the axis of early insulindian trade", ". There are also traces of imported Chinese and other continental Southeast Asian ceramics and stoneware found in the pre-Islamic cemeteries.", "However, in contrast to much of Southeast Asia, the indicators of Hindu and Buddhist materials are rather sparse in South Sulawesi cultures. Their writing system, and some of their names and words, along with few Buddhist bronze images found in Mandar and Bantaeng only suggest that the existence of trade relations made with the western archipelago and the presence of foreigners alike. It is likely that despite being benefited with the trade relationship, they would resist external assimilation", ". Thus, outside elements are almost absent in the development of native religion and the indigenous states.", "The intensity on the early insulindian trade has led to a gradual shift in terms of the economic development, social construct, political interest and the balance of power amongst the South Sulawesi people, which has fundamentally led to the Bugis states, dynasties and polities began to flourish.\n\nThe growth of Bugis kingdoms", "The growth of Bugis kingdoms\n\nThe progress of inter-insular commercial activities and the increasing interactions with Maritime Silk Road were potentially among the main factors contributing to the economic prosperity for a few leading South Sulawesi communities. The period between 1200 and 1600 witnessed a radical change throughout the political landscape of lowland South Sulawesi Peninsula.", "The trade in South Sulawesi was based on the export of rare commodities, a business which was easily dominated by an exclusive ruling class. The administrative structure is fairly basic, a majority of the states are small and in a form of a local chiefdom. A small population is sufficient to assist the elite with food, physical work and military assistance to preserve their state's independence.", "However, by the 15th century, a major economic revolution taken place, and agricultural become an important economic foundation. To continue their powers in the agrarian-based society, the ruling elites are now required to handle the near unprecedented growth on the rice-producing territories to accommodate a major population boom. Hence, in order adapt with the economic and societal change, a new system and intermediaries are needed.", "Trade and commerce however, still retains its essential importance for the South Sulawesi economy. Rice become a major source of export; and at the same time, the economy is stimulated by the import of prestige goods from other parts of archipelago. The area potentially experienced exceptional growth following the rise of Malacca as a regional entrepôt", ". Conversely, the wealth for the elite families in South Sulawesi would also consequently rose due to this intensive commercial transactions, despite the fact that trade is now not solely regarded as their single source of riches.", "Emergence of new political strengths over the Peninsula\n\nIn the 1500s, Luwu was the major political force in the Bugis heartland, with its authority proclaimed throughout a large section of the peninsula. Nevertheless, new geopolitical players that would resist its dominance were already beginning to take shape by the end of the century.", "The impact following the rise of Malacca were more visible in the western coast of South Sulawesi, an area with a high concentration of Malay merchants arriving from the west. It slowly gained the attention of the kingdoms of Soppeng and Sindereng, with the pursuit to include the area in their territorial expansions, these Bugis states have already lost their direct sea access in the west coast by Luwu.", "Sidenreng, a tributary under the domain of Soppeng had slowly grown into prominence and slowly seemed to be resistant to accept Luwu's dominance in the area. In cooperation with a few Bugis kingdoms in the western coast — Sawitto', Alitta, Suppa' and Bacukiki'; as well as Rappang in the interior, they formed a loose confederation known as Aja'tappareng ('the lands west of the lake').", "Conversely, the neighbouring Bugis territory of Wajo also possessed an aspiration for an autonomy against Luwu, and it too started to extend their influence and dominance in the surrounding areas. By 1490, they entered an agreement with Luwu, and in the agreement they would no longer be considered as \"its servant\" but as a \"Luwu's child\". By 1498, the Wajorse enthroned Arung Matoa Puang ri Ma'galatung as their ruler, he would later turn the domain as one of the major Bugis Kingdom.", "The lower western seaboard, the Bugis Kingdom of Bone under the rule of King Kerrampelua' (c.1433–83) had also enacted an expansion plan to absorb parts of neighboring Luwu territories into its vassalage. Thus, by two centuries later, it has become an area for intense confrontation between the two kingdoms.", "While the Makassarese, traditionally occupied the deep down in the south and the western coast of the peninsula were mainly concentrated their political rule in Siang and Bantaeng (the latter was potentially still under Luwu's nominal control). However, the small twin states of Gowa and Tallo (better known by foreigners as a single state of Makassar) were started to gain its importance during this period.\n\nBugis-Makassar society in the 16th century", "Bugis-Makassar society in the 16th century\n\nBy the 16th century, the Bugis life is noted by a burgeoning tolerance towards foreign influences, overseas products were no longer limited to the ruling class, but also among the commoners as well. The method of home construction, remains the same. Sketches from few western sources in the first half of 17th century illustrates tall and strong wooded home raised on piles.", "Nonetheless, inside of the more wealthy homes, some foreign furnitures, namely tables and chairs began to emerge, and basic wall opening sometimes become real windows with shutters. The Bugis names for these objects signaled their Portuguese connection, Jandela (window) deriving from Janela, Kadera (chairs) from Cadeira; and Mejang (table) from Mesa. A gradual change is also noted in the household tools and utensils, including glasses and Iberian-style jugs and trays", ". There were also the adoption of few Portuguese games notably dice, card game and marbles. The Portuguese and Spaniards also introduced new food and produce in the local diet, mainly from the New World crops: sweet potato and tobacco, and also other important items — manioc, maize and chilies.", "During the period, the women don under a baggy trousers and pants; the usage of short tunics and sleeves were also noted by the free married women. For the affluent male, there were potentially also a favour towards western shirts and hats; and sometimes being paired together with a plume, and a jacket. The slave class and the male commoners however, would usually go topless.", "The aftershocks following the Fall of Malacca were potentially being strongly felt in South Sulawesi. As noted from Tomé Pires in Suma Oriental, few traders from ‘The Macassar Islands’, including the Bugis and Bajo were amongst the people who arrived in Melaka to trade, although they are small in numbers", ". Conversely, the Muslim-Malay traders from Patani, Pahang, and Ujung Tanah in the Malay peninsula; as well as from Champa in Indochina; and Minangkabau in Sumatra settled throughout the port cities in the western coast, including Suppa’, Pancana-Tanete, Siang, Tallo, Sanrabone and Gowa. Due to this extensive bilateral connection, the people of South Sulawesi were generally well aware on the political-religious changes taken place in the western half of the archipelago.", "It can be inferred that following the Conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese Conquistadors, the trading links intensified between South Sulawesi to other commercial powerhouse: namely Johor and Patani in the Peninsula, Acheh in Sumatra, Banjarmasin in Borneo and Demak in Java — all having the status as a bastion for Islamic faith", ". However, as far as the mid 16th century, South Sulawesi persist to be one of the few remaining significant domains in the regional native trading network where Islam has yet to take hold.", "Early attempts to Christianize the Bugis states", "While early contacts with Islam had been made since 1490 with the trading relationship between Siang and Malacca, most Bugis were still believer of the native patturioloang religion. In year 1540, two aristocrats from Makassar were baptized in Ternate. They later embarked on another visit the following year and bought many of the region's previous materials, including gold, sandalwood and iron weapons", ". Antonio de Paiva, a Portuguese trader, made multiple voyages between Sulawesi and Malacca from 1542, potentially intrigued by the potential riches of the region. During his expedition to the Bugis states of Suppa' and Siang, he was involved in a theological discussion and was requested to baptize La Putebulu, Datu of Suppa' and his family, followed by king of Siang in 1544. The baptism was also concluded with a military alliance with both states.", "De Paiva's return to Malacca was not only together with official gifts to the Kingdom of Portugal, but also accompanied with four young Bugis men who would later attend the Jesuit college in Indian Goa. The two Bugis Kings also requested priests and a possible military support from the Portuguese Malaccan governor, potentially to curb the increasing peril imposed by the neighboring Makassarese states of Gowa-Tallo", ". Further baptism continued in 1545 by a priest, Father Vicente Viegas, which was involved the Christianization of Bugis rulers in Alitta and Bacukiki', according to Manuel Godinho de Erédia, kings of Sawitto and Sidenreng also participated, all were allies of Suppa' part of Ajatappareng alliance.", "Relations with Portuguese were still good, until an elopement between a Portuguese officer and daughter of La Putebulu from Suppa was exposed as they married secretly in Malacca, which would result in the birth of Manuel Godinho de Erédia. The Portuguese vessel had to rapidly left Sulawesi to avoid severe violence and they did not dared to travel back to the island until 1559", ". One member of the voyage, Manuel Pinto, decided to remain in South Sulawesi, he recorded the political development and involved in discussions with several Bugis-Makassar rulers in the region before returning to Malacca (via Java). However Datu of Suppa and its population alongside other Ajatappareng states remain largely Christians according to Manuel Godinho de Erédia.", "Following the restoration of economic relations with the Portuguese Malacca in 1559, there were repeated requests made from South Sulawesi primarily Ajatappareng states for priests, however not many were available and the Portuguese did not consider Bugis as their prime concern. Not until 1584 did the Portuguese send four Franciscans fathers to the area, and their stay was a short one. Also not known were the fates of the four Bugis men sent for education in Indian Goa", ". Also not known were the fates of the four Bugis men sent for education in Indian Goa. Subsequently, no new attempts to baptized Sulawesi were taken after the period, nor Portuguese military support against invasion by King of Gowa-Tallo, Karaeng Lakiyung Tunipalangga, which annexed and vassalized Siang alongside other Ajatappareng states.", "Quest for prestige, influence and powers over the Peninsula\n\nDuring the resumption of Portuguese-South Sulawesi relations in 1559, the political dynamic of the region have effectively morphed. The Makassarese state of Gowa had exerted his influence towards the north, and absorbed many Bugis states that have had a friendly relations towards the Portuguese.", "Simultaneously, the Kingdom of Bone also commenced its southward expansion, and soon come into a direct contact with the Makassarese. Both kingdoms are pursuing dominance in the entirety of the Peninsula together with the important trade routes.", "Thus, the two growing kingdoms are bound for a major collision course and a war finally broke out in 1562. Gowa was assisted by Luwu; and also by Wajo and Soppeng, the latter two would probably preferred in favour of a distant sovereign like Luwu or Gowa, as they would furnish Wajo and Soppeng with a greater autonomy in contrast to a nearby kingdom like Bone, which would likely dominate them.", "The war concluded in 1565 and a peace negotiation followed afterwards. The two states agreed in the Tengka River as their respective spheres of influence under the Treaty of Caleppa. The citizens of Bone and Gowa were also awarded equal rights in each other's jurisdiction.", "The ambitions for dominance continued in South Sulawesi. Between 1570 and 1591, several military operations were conducted by Gowa, in which oftentimes with the support of Luwu. Although a distant power, Gowa tend to be rather hard towards its Bugis vassals of Wajo and Soppeng, this made these two states become inclined to the invitation by Bone to restore their autonomy. In 1590, the three kingdoms (Wajo, Soppeng and Bone) entered an alliance known as Tellumpocco'e, 'the Three Summits' or 'the Big Three'.", "In 1590, Daeng Mammeta embarked on another campaign to annihilate Wajo, but he was killed during an amok. A truce was followed soon after in 1591, the peace negotiation, under the Treaty of Caleppa was thus renewed.\n\nThe Islamisation of Bugis-Makassar-Mandar", "The Islamisation of Bugis-Makassar-Mandar\n\nIn the later half of the 16th century, the contest between Islam and Christianity was still largely undecided in South Sulawesi Peninsula. Most of the surrounding kingdoms in Sulawesi have already become Muslims under the sway of Ternate-Gorontalo in 1525 and Buton in 1542. There were already individual converts in South Sulawesi.", "In 1550, the Malay-Muslim community of Macassar were awarded special privileges by the ruler of Gowa according to Lontarak Patturiolonga. However, in 1575, during the visit by Abdul Makmur (Dato' ri Bandang), one of the Minangkabau proselytizers of Islam, he noted that there are several difficulties to convert the locals — the superfluous liking towards dried boar flesh, raw deer liver diced with blood (lawa) and palm liquor", ". He then embarked to promulgate the teaching of Islam in the Kingdom of Kutei, eastern Borneo, in which he was more triumphant. In 1580, the Sultan of Ternate, Babullah, advised the ruler of Gowa to embrace the teaching of Islam, the king declined. However, as a gesture of kindness, he awarded the Makassar-Malay community the consent to construct a mosque.", "Abdul Makmur returned to Makassar with Sulaiman (Dato' ri Pa'timang) and Abdul Jawad (Dato' ri Tiro). All three of them are from Minangkabau and likely to have been educated in Aceh, before they visited Johor-Riau to study South Sulawesi culture from Bugis-Makassar sailors, followed by study under Wali Songo of Java, in a proselytization mission facilitated by Sultan of Johor. After their new attempts to introduce the Islamic teaching once more met with opposition, they left for Luwu", ". This was because Luwu was the spiritual center of South Sulawesi and its indigenous belief of Dewata SewwaE had some similarities with Islam. They successfully converted the Pattiarase, Datu of Luwu and in February 1605 he took the name of Sultan Muhammad. The group then revisited Makassar and the three of them later managed promoted Islam to the Gowan ruler, to become Muslim under the name of Sultan Ala’uddin", ". In November 1607, the first public prayers were promulgated in the newly constructed Tallo' Mosque. Conversion began slowly and adapted with native Ammatoa practitioners centered in Bulukumba.", "The twin kingdom of Gowa and Tallo persuaded other South Sulawesi Kingdoms to emulate their move on adopting Islam as their religion. When this invitation was declined, they launched a series of military actions known as \"the Islamic wars\". In 1608, the west coast states of Bacukiki', Suppa', Sa wino' and Mandar; and in the east coast, Akkotengeng and Sakkoli' submitted; followed by subjugation of Sidenreng and Soppeng in 1609, Wajo in 1610.", "Pursuant to the submission from the Bugis state of Bone in 1611, most of the South Sulawesi Peninsula (with the exception of Toraja highlands) have accepted Islam. Bone, subsequently would continue to Islamize its two vassal states located in the edge of the Torajan realm — namely Enrekang and Duri.\n\nThe Islamisation in most of South Sulawesi have provided a platform for a faith and ideological revolution. Islamic laws and principles were observed and absorbed into the Makassar, Bugis and Mandar cultures.", "Dato' ri Bandang directed first towards the foundation of Sharia principles on the land, having emphasis on the importance of religious service at the circumcision ceremony, marriage and funerals. However, with the exception of funeral rites which were absolutely Islamized; other rites of passage based on the Islamic understanding were simply incorporated with the existing traditional practices, norms and customs", ". As for prohibition, there are also strong enforcement against adultery and the consumption of pork; other behaviors including consuming alcohol and opium, offerings to sacred places, worshipping at regalia, lending money with interest (Riba) and gambling were also condemned.", "As Islamization was slowly taking root among the society in the peninsula, mosques were built in each of the states and domains. Thus, appointments were made for the newly established positions of qadi, imam and khatib throughout the Bugis-Makassar lands.", "Despite being devout Muslims, the process did not serve as a hindrance towards the Makassarese Muslim King of Gowa to maintain a friendly relationship with Portuguese and Christianity. Despite so, the Bugis and Makassarese realms became Muslim and were now prevented to convert to Christianity by the local ruler.\n\nThe twilight of dominance", "The twilight of dominance\n\nBeginning from the end of the 17th century and the dawn of the 19th, the highly delicate balance of power in South Sulawesi was completely plunged on a downward spiral due to a series of radical changes in the local statecraft, including internal dynastic disputes, geopolitical tensions, growing secondary influence from the western consumerism and the Fall of Makassar.", "After over a century following the monumental struggle between Gowa and Bone for the conquest of the Peninsula, another war was slowly being reignited between the two rivaling powers. The conflict traced its origin from a domestic affair in the Kingdom of Bone, who was ruled from 1631 to 1634 by La Ma'daremmeng. The king enforced rules based on the strong Islamic principles, including removing the pagan bissu and forbidding the consumption of palm beer and other superstitious practice", ". The final straw was the prohibition of slavery, which resulted the rebellion by the mother of the king. She later then sought the assistance of Gowa and a major military operation ensured. The Makassarese forces managed to achieve success and captured 30,000 Bugis prisoners, including La’daremmeng and installed a Makassarese governor. After a subsequent revolt, Bone was transformed into a full-fledged colony. This resulted the anger amongst the Bone people and its nobility.", "At the same time, the Dutch was also eyeing their attention towards the port city of Makassar — an important capital of commerce, wealth, political and military base in the eastern archipelago. Conversely, both Makassarese Kingdom of Gowa and the Dutch perceived each other as an imminent threat against their dominance within the highly lucrative spice trade.", "The opportunity for Bone came after the victorious Dutch attack on Makassar in 1660. Required to sign an unfavorable truce, the Gowans requested 10,000 Bone people for a forced ditch digging as defense against potential attacks from the land. Few Bone noblemen, including Arung Pallaka, took refuge in the neighbouring Buton and presented for a Bugis-Dutch alliance against Makassar", ". The military alliance was also joined by Soppeng state, which, akin to Bone, aimed the attacks as an act of retribution against the action of Gowa for enslaving thousands of their people to construct the facilities in Makassar.", "The war erupted in 1666, with the Bugis-Dutch alliance being assisted with troops from Ternate, Ambon and Buton. The main Makassarese ally during the war was the northern Bugis state of Wajo. Despite being an associate of Bone by treaty in the past, the Wajorese leader decided to enter an alliance with Gowa to combat against the Dutch influence.", "The fall of Makassar was proven to be fatal. Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bongaya on 18 November 1667. This required the Makassarese to removed most of its fortification, relinquish its trade in spices, end its import of foreign goods with the exception of the Dutch East India Company, banish the Portuguese and other non-Dutch Europeans, and reject any other attempts of suzerainty, in both Bugis lands or other parts of the archipelago", ". In 1669, Sultan Hasanuddin abdicated from the throne.", "The Dutch have succeeded to achieve its goal after the fall of Makassar, but they are not the sole victor; another was the Bugis State of Bone, despite having a few restriction following the treaty that it also signed, the kingdom would effectively maintain its sovereignty until the 19th century. Hence, in the Bone narration, Arung Palakka holds the status as an independence warrior; while in Makassar heritage, the rivaling Sultan Hasanuddin is hailed as the hero for the Makassarese.", "Once liberated from Makassar, the power vacuum has possibly set the stage for Bone to hold an unchallenged sovereignty across the whole peninsula. However, the prospect of unifying all the Bugis lands under a sole ruler was stopped by the existence of the Dutch in the region. The peninsula then continued to persist under a mosaic of various small and large confederations.\n\nA new golden age", "A new golden age\n\nOne of the major ripple effect following the conquest of Makassar was the change in the design of navigation and emigration routes among the South Sulawesi people. The cosmopolitan harbour of Makassar become a crucial maritime starting point for not only for the Makassarese, but also for the Bugis who seek for wealth and fame in the western Archipelago, as the Dutch set a heavy restriction for their access on the eastern spice islands.", "Many of the Bugis settled in the Riau Archipelago, in the proximity of the courts of Johore. A crucial meeting point between the regional and global trade routes, they launched their naval influence in various directions on commerce and politics, including the Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra and western coast of Borneo. Here they challenged against the Dutch for the dominance in the tin-mining exports", ". Here they challenged against the Dutch for the dominance in the tin-mining exports. They also heavily involved in the dynastic disputes among the kings, and through armed actions, military-based traditions and political marriage, they navigated to become one of the formidable players within the inner Malay political circle", ". The Age of Sail also marked with other closely interconnected waves of migration and trade towards Batavia, northern coast of Java, Bali, Madura, Alor, the Lesser Sunda Islands, southern-eastern Borneo, Sulu Archipelago and other parts of Sulawesi in search of riches, prestige and political influence.", "During the same period, they ushered a new golden era. With the consolidation of Islamic faith and values on one side, and the recognition as one of the major maritime society on the other; the two redefining elements that would be infused to become part and parcel with the Bugis identity until the early 20th century.\n\nCulture\n\nLanguage and dialects", "Culture\n\nLanguage and dialects\n\nThe Bugis language constitutes a part of the larger Austronesian family. It is among the major languages located in the southwest hemisphere of Sulawesi, the others being Makassar, Toraja, Massenrempulu and Mandar. These languages collectively belong to the South Sulawesi languages.", "Bugis speakers are dominant in the most of the districts in South Sulawesi — namely Bone, Soppeng, Wajo, Sidrap, Pinrang, Barru, Sinjai, and Parepare. In Bulukumba, Pangkep, and Maros, the populations are checkerboarded between Bugis and Makassar-speaking villages, each villages having their own separate language identity intact", ". A similarly unsharp language border can also be observed in the northwestern coastal towns of Pinrang (in South Sulawesi Province) and Polmas (in West Sulawesi), being a transitional area between the traditional Bugis and Mandarese cultural areas.", "Located in the periphery of the Bugis-Torajan world, the Massenrempulu people (constituting Duri, Enrekang, Maiwa and Malimpung groups) from Enrekang and northern Pindrang as well as the Tae' speakers of Luwu are also occasionally identified and embraced as among the subgroups of the Bugis family due to the shared tradition and common religious affiliation", ". Culturally, they formed a continuum between the Bugis and Toraja people; linguistically, the Massenrempulu's and Tae's mother tongue generally inherited a closer linguistic intelligibility with the Torajan language.", "Despite having some divergence in the local expression and dialects, the Bugis variants (with the exception of Massenrempulu and Tae', when considered) commonly retain a high level of mutual intelligibility between one another. Nonetheless, it is an accepted practice amongst the mainstream Bugis society to distinguish themselves regionally and culturally based on the location of their traditional and ancestral states.", "There are a subtle differences on the language spoken in these areas and linguist identified these versions as separate dialects (rather than distinct languages). Presently, there are ten main branches of Bugis Dialects — Bone, Camba, Pangkep, Sidrap, Pasangkayu, Sinjai, Soppeng, Wajo, Barru and Luwu, as well as dozens of smaller subdialects deriving from the main branches", ". However, some researchers are divided whether Sawitto — a divergent Bugis variety spoken in central Pinrang — remains under the same language group or being diverged enough to be considered as a separate language.", "The present-day Bugis people are mostly bilingual. In South Sulawesi, they use two leading languages, either Bugis or Indonesian, tailored based on the environment, social circle and activities. Bahasa Indonesia is largely incepted on official situations, it is the language of formal education, administration, mass media and modern literature; Bahasa Indonesia is also prevalent during conversation with non-Bugis speakers", ". In the informal and casual settings around the Bugis-speaking circle, a code-switch would be a commonplace, or intertwined with elements of both languages in varying degrees, such as speaking Bahasa Indonesia with a strong Bugis-influenced elements and vice versa.", "In the South Sulawesi province, the affixes such as -ki’, -ko, na-, -ji, - mi, etc. are emulated and conceived in the Indonesian-Bugis-Makassar hybrid. A Bugis-Makassar accent, known as Okkots is also observed for the usage of a stronger -ng pronunciation in its speech. The fixture is not exclusively confined in the borders of South Sulawesi, the pattern can also be heard in other parts of Indonesia with a visible Bugis population", ". Outside the province, the language hybrid is not solely influenced by Bahasa Indonesia, but alongside traces of other local languages and dialects amalgamated with the diaspora Bugis language. Similarly beyond Indonesia, the extension of the language blend can also be seen in parts of Malaysia and Singapore, home to a sizable Bugis community. Instead of having influenced with Bahasa Indonesia, the Bugis communities in these countries would also be influenced by the Malay language and its local dialects.", "Outside from their ancestral heartland in the lowland plains of South Sulawesi, the Bugis language, dialects and hybrids are found throughout their extensive network of diaspora and ethnic enclaves in Sulawesi and all across Insular Southeast Asia", ". However, presently there tends to be a pronounced language shift among the diaspora outside of South Sulawesi, hence the understanding and the command on the Bugis language may vary based on the personal background, exposure, interest and contacts with their ancestral language.", "Philosophy\n\nThe Bugis-Makassar possessed a rich heritage, philosophy, religious and social structure. Their customs are based on the concept Pangadereng — originally consist of Ade’ (custom), Rapang (Jurisprudence), Bicara (Judiciary) and Warik (Social system); following the Islamisation of the Bugis-Makassar, Syara (Syariah) was incorporated into its core values.", "Another fundamental local wisdom includes Siri' na pacce. It serves as a guidance, social convention and moral conduct. Siri signifies the consolidation a demeanor of shame and self-esteem, it acted as a pillar that bear the importance of dignity, virtue, esteem, solidarity and responsibility. Siri is essential for someone to be regarded as a tau (human). Pacce manifest as a presence of compassion and solidarity", ". Pacce manifest as a presence of compassion and solidarity. It involves a person's ability on emotional intelligence, which includes love, sadness, pain, and solidarity. Other interpretation of Pecce revolves on self-sacrifice, hard work, and abstinence. In addition to the Bugis and Makassarese, the traditional ethos is also shared by their northern cousins — the Torajans and Mandarese.", "Translated as the \"four corners\" — Sulappa Eppa represents the ancient philosophy, ideas and theories of the Bugis-Makassar on the notion that the universe was built in a form of a giant rhombus, created by four salient fundamentals — wind, fire, water and earth", ". Thus, the classical Bugis-Makassar aesthetic vibes, articulations and nuances are largely created and envisioned in a dominant four-cornered composure; including on their traditional writing scripts (the lontara), architectural layouts, ceremonial cuisines (songko and songkolo), artistic designs, textile (sarong motives) and philosophical values. The four elements are also synonymously evoked by a sense of four distinct colors — wind (yellow), fire (red), water (white) and earth (black)", ". Additionally, the Lipa' Sabbe or sarung sutra (a sarung-cloth made from silk) signifies as an embodiment to honor the refined Bugis-Makassar cultural paradigm in its purest form.", "Traditional script", "The Lontara traced its origin from the Kawi script; however, it has received a localized development and modification to accommodate the writings in the Bugis, Makassar and Mandar language. It was traditionally used for formal and official documents such as contracts, trade laws, treaties, maps, and journals, both in Western book format and in the traditional palm-leaf manuscript", ". Following the rise of South Sulawesi as a naval powerhouse in eastern archipelago, the script expanded its influence, being introduced and incorporated as the Lonta Ende in Flores, Mbojo in eastern Sumbawa and Satera Jontal in western Sumbawa, albeit with alternations for the latter languages.", "Its designation, \"Lontara\" was acquired from the term Lontar, the Javanese and Malay name from Palmyra Palm, whose leaves were commonly utilized for writing the manuscripts. It is also sometimes characterized as the Bugis script, as many of the historical writings are widely found in this language", ". In the Bugis Language, the writing system is styled as \"urupu sulapa eppa\", being described as \"square\" or \"four-cornered letters\", which served as a vivid illustration of the early Bugis-Makassar interpretation on the four ingredients that molded the universe — fire, water, earth and air.", "During the Dutch colonization of East Indies, the writing system is largely being superseded with the introduction of Latin Alphabet. Nonetheless, the script still retains its intimate cultural importance amongst the Bugis-Makassar society in their homeland and being use for the traditional ceremony, calendar and literature; as well as in personal documents and handwritten items, for instance, in letters and notes", ". The script is also being taught in many schools in South Sulawesi and the usage are visible on some street signs across the province. Presently, there is also notable efforts by Indonesian typographers and graphic designers on introducing the script to a larger audience beyond its traditional borders.", "In addition to Lontara, there is also another form of Bugis-Makassar traditional writing based on the Arabic-script, known as the Serang Alphabet. Relatively on an almost similar parallel module with its sister scripts, Jawi and Pegon for Malay and Javanese respectively, the Serang writing system incorporated the usage of Arabic elements with few additional characters to integrate with the local language.\n\nFolklore and literary traditions", "Bugis literature connotes to the forms of literature expressed in the Bugis language — which comprises both written and oral traditions. The earliest works of Bugis literature were verbally transmitted, written literature began to arose and gradually codified with the evolution of the Lontara script by the 1400s. Its foundation largely coincides and intersects with the Makassarese literature — of whom it shared a closely related development with", ". The Bugis literary tradition mainly focuses on the wisdom, moral, social life and cultural environment of the Bugis identity.", "Bugis folk literature is an oral composition deeply rooted in Bugis understanding and perception of life — in the form of prose, poetry and lyric. The classification raging from various short poems, élong; long narrative poems, tolo'''; playful sayings, such as riddles, atteppungeng and nursery rhymes; magical spells, jappi, baca-baca; pre-Islamic ritual expressions, sabo, sessukeng, lawolo; precepts, pappaseng; and oaths of allegiance, aru", ". Other important oral heritage includes — stories, curita; sermons, katoba; and speeches. Although they are essentially verbal, many of the works are also subsequently being written in the language.", "Writings in the Lontara Script was likely to be first appeared around 1400. The earliest texts were inscribed on palm leaves, followed by volumes of handwritten composition on paper manuscripts, potentially from 1500 onwards, or even earlier. The works of literature commonly commissioned by writing specialists known as palôntara, the palôntara is being delegated the task as a researcher on creating and compiling the Bugis manuscripts", ". The manuscripts tend to be rich and varied, with a plethora of themes and subjects — including historical chronicles, poems, legal works, ritual texts, manuals, ethics, among few. Printed materials in the Bugis language were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century, albeit with a smaller circulation, such as in dictionaries, grammars books, chrestomathies and translations.", "Consist of over 6,000 pages, the La Galigo is regarded as the magnum opus in the Bugis literary heritage. Composed in the old Bugis language, the saga traced its origin from the early oral traditions. The poetic text serves as a revered almanac and provide narrations about the ancient understanding on humanity and kingdoms. In the Bugis culture, episodes from La Galigo are commonly reenacted through chant and poetic recitation performance led by a La Galigo specialist, known as passure", ". The performance is sometimes held during festivals, wedding or during a house-moving ceremony. In 2012, two of the La Galigo manuscripts are included in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.", "However, the largest collection of Bugis literature is in the form of family genealogies. It is regarded as an important family heirloom, especially amongst the members of nobility and aristocratic families. Some dated as early as 1400 — about two hundred years prior to their Islamisation, the early Bugis genealogies provide a rare glimpse on the culture and ideology of an early and literate Austronesian society.\n\nDress, textiles and weaving traditions", "Dress, textiles and weaving traditions\n\nIn the traditional Bugis-Makassar culture, textiles and clothes are revered and occupied a special place in the society. Historically, the colours and motives donned by the wearer possessed an important indicator and serves as a defining symbol on the person's identity, age and status.", "The term Baju Bodo derived from the Makassarese language, being described as \"short clothing\". Conversely, in the Bugis language, it is also known as Waju Tokko and Waju Ponco. A short-sleeved tunic, the costume is commonly worn together with silk or a woven sarong. The attire traced its origin as early as the 9th century, following the introduction of muslin cloth by the foreign traders to the harbors of South Sulawesi", ". The textile, being thin and light, is highly suitable to accommodate the local tropical weather in the region. In addition to muslin cloth, the Baju Bodo is also commonly sourced from pineapple-fiber fabric and cotton.", "With the rise of Islamisation among the Bugis-Makassar, another closely related form of Baju Bodo emerged. Having a longer sleeve, the Baju La’bu (from Makassarese 'long'), also known as Bodo Panjang (both defined as \"long cloth\") is tailored in accordance of Islamic interpretation of Aurat and modesty. The Baju La’bu is also traditionally made from silk, a departure from the semi-transparent and translucent fabric of its predecessor.", "The Bugis-Makassarese handloom industry potentially commenced in the 1400s. The locally-made sarung motives were initially basic, having rudimentary stripes of vertical, horizontal or in a checkered pattern, potentially inspired by Sulappa Eppa (the four elements) foundations. By the 1600s, the designs are becoming progressively ornamented, with the inclusion of a multitude of geometrical shapes, contour and sequence", ". Almost in a coordination with the function of Baju Bodo in the past, the motives and design of the sarung would also be used to denote the status of its wearer. The sarung material is usually sourced from silk and cotton.", "The corresponding mode for the Bugis male is known as Jas Tutu or Jas Tutup (an \"enclosed coat\"), the garment is in a form of long-sleeved coat with a collar. The Jas Tutu is also synonymous to be worn with the Songkok recca/Pabiring/Songkok To Bone (Bugis songkok), Lipa’ Sabbe (sarong) and a gold or silver-coloured button. The Bugis-styled Songkok is made of woven rattan and golden thread", ". The Bugis-styled Songkok is made of woven rattan and golden thread. During a traditional wedding ceremony, the groom would also accompanied by a highly elaborated accessories, including Tataroppeng (Keris), Pabekkeng (belt), Rope (Songket), Sigara (headgear), Salempang (sash), Gelang (bangle) and Sapu tangan (handkerchief).", "In the present day, the Baju Bodo and Jas Tutu are largely being reserved as a formal wear, the sightings are common during weddings, as well as in other ceremonial and cultural functions.\n\nCulinary traditions", "The Bugis cuisine constitutes an essential part of its heritage, comprises various culinary styles and recipes frequently associated with the Bugis people. It shares many common gastronomical traditions and characteristics with the surrounding Makassarese, Mandarese and Torajans. Many of the meals are indigenously developed in the island of Sulawesi, with a focus on native ingredients; while others exhibit a notably stronger outside influences and customized according to the local palates.", "Foreign cooking techniques in the South Sulawesi cuisine can be seen on the adoption of Jalangkote, a small fried pie adopted from Portuguese papeda. The fillings for Jalangkote usually consist of rice vermicelli (denoting Chinese influence) combined with sliced vegetables, boiled eggs and mincemeat. Meanwhile Indian elements are visible and demonstrated in the localised dishes, for instance the creamy Gagape, Toppa Lada and the spicy Juku palumara.", "There is also a wide array of cuisines that signifies a bolder endemic origin: Rice cakes are particularly popular with the likes of Burasa and Tumbu/Lapa-lapa/Langka. The rice dumplings are steamed and wrapped in leave containers with coconut milk, thus contributing to its rich and creamy flavor. It is usually served as a substitute for white rice and eaten together with soups or other side dishes", ". Another distinguished forms of rice cake in the Bugis-Makassar community includes Gogos — roasted glutinous rice with fish fillings, wrapped in banana leaf. It is commonly being eaten as snacks.", "[[File:Burasa.jpg|thumb|350px|left|A few home-cooked Bugis classics during the Hari Raya celebration. Burasa''' (center); clockwise from top: Goré-Goré Daging, Ayam Saus Merah, Nasu Kari and Nasu Likku' .]]", "The peninsula's long coastline has contributed a great fishing industry in the region, creating oceanic produce as an important part of the meal. Dishes such as Pa’Deme (anchovies sambal), Bajabu (serundeng), Lawa Bale (marinated raw fish) and the clear broth soups of Nasu Bale and Nassu Meti captures its extensive maritime connection.", "In addition to seafood, there is also a diverse culinary traditions with the emphasis on meat, which can be seen in the hearty slow cooked dishes, namely Nasu Likku, Nasu Palekko and Goré-Goré. The meals are usually acted as an accompanying side dish to compliment the Nasi Putih (plain white rice), or in other cases, the rice cakes.", "Banana occupied a major importance after rice in the Bugis staple, as it is widely cultivated in South Sulawesi. Aside from being eaten fresh after a meal, Banana-based meals are extensive in the forms of snacks and desserts — raging from the sweet tasting Berongko (steamed Banana pudding), caramelized Sanggara' Balanda, to crispy and savory snacks such as Sanggara Pappek (smashed bananas).", "Other popular meals associated with the Bugis includes congee dishes — Barobbo (rice and corn porridge) and the sago-based Kapurung; and traditional Kues, notably the Kue bugis, Kue Dange, Kue Sikaporo and Bolu Peca", ". Due to the extensive and continuous friendly interactions as well as prevalent intermarriage with the kindred Makassarese people, many of the unique Makassarese meals are also widely enjoyed by the Bugis, including Coto Makassar, Sop Sodara, Pallubasa, Pallu Kacci, Pallumara and Konro, or desserts like Cucuru' Te'ne and Es Palu Butong.", "Beyond their native soil, Burasa' and other Bugis-Makassar traditional cuisines are also commonly presented as a ceremonial dish by their diaspora community. It is prepared as a significant legacy to honor their ancestral roots from the plains of South Sulawesi.\n\nWeaponry and military traditions", "A plethora of blades, knives and firearms constitute the arsenal of Bugis-Makassar weaponry. However, the Badik, also known as Kawali, is hailed as the traditional weapon strongly associated with their identity and possessed a revered status in the sociological construct of the Bugis-Makassar society. The item is not solely perceived as a mere weapon, but as an emblem designated to represent the personal character of its owner", ". It is historically used as a vital tool for hunting animals and as a self-defense mechanism.", "In the traditional Bugis-Makassar understanding, the hierarchal level of Badik is regarded as a second after the Keris. A far-cry from the Badik which known to have an almost universal usage throughout all ranks of the society, the Keris Pusaka (the \"Dynasty Keris\") is reserved as an important family regalia amongst the elite royal houses in South Sulawesi. Thus, historically the Badik received a prevalent identity as a companion for the Bugis-Makassar man.", "In the past, Badik is used as a tool of defense to protect an individual and the family honor. The doctrine is largely based on the philosophical interpretation of Siri, a cornerstone of the Bugis-Makassar culture, siri represents a responsibility to maintain the dignity in the society. The concept is historically entranced in the cognitive psyche amongst the people and traditionally become a binding force on the moral values and social system", ". Badik is also commonly passed from one generation to another, acting as an important family heirloom.", "Another important sword owned by the Bugis is the Keris, also known as Tappi. It has some minor different features in contrast to the Javanese Keris; however, the Bugis Keris is noted to bear a closer anatomical resembles with the Malay-version of the dagger, the item potentially being introduced by the Malays to the people of South Sulawesi. Almost parallel with the Badik, the Keris equally carried a revered symbol amongst many Bugis-Makassar people.", "In addition to Badik and Keris, they were known to host a multitude of classical armaments. Most of the items are collectively classified under the parewa bessi (Iron weapons) category made by the Bugis-Makassar blacksmiths. Some of the other notable collections include Alamang/Sundang, a long-sword; Bessing, a spear; Kanna, shield; Pantu’, a traditional fighting stick; Waju Rante, armor; and Tado, a trapping rope.", "The art of weapon among the Bugis-Makassar is constantly developed through the millennia. The ancient peoples of South Sulawesi are recorded to have a usage of blowpipes with poisoned darts, spears, short swords, kris and rattan helmets. By the early modern era, the Bugis-Makassar gained further exposure on the artillery knowledge with the introduction of various firearms: muskets, culverins and cannons that enhance their warfare and combatant skills", ". Mail armor with metal plates (baju lamina) is estimated to be used starting from this era, and still being worn until the 19th century.", "The strong mutual relationship between the arms development and its militaristic culture formed the advantageous momentum that fueled to their quest for political advancement and influence outside from the traditional Bugis-Makassar homeland. It become one of the wielding tools that seals their historical figures and status as soldiers, mercenaries, warriors and fighters throughout the maritime realm.\n\nTraditional architecture", "Traditional architecture\n\nIn the Bugis society, architecture is regarded as an emblem of philosophy, designed to endorse the occupier belief, faith and understanding about cosmos and universe. It is strongly rooted in its long and rich history, blending elements on the native interpretation of cosmology with culture, faith, mythology, aesthetic and functionality. The Bugis architectural style is broadly classed together with the Makassarese, of whom it shares strong architectural features and identity.", "Based on the Bugis philosophical understanding, a home is regarded as the legitimate expression of the spiritual rite of passage as a human being: a place to be born, a place to raised and nurtured as a child, a place to become a husband and wife, and a place to perish. Consequently, the habitation is designed to be solemn, sacred and highly revered. It provides ones with a place for solitude, energy, nourishment, well-being and honour to its dwellers", ". The presence of a home in the Bugis society is part-and-parcel with life, hence home ownership is regarded in utmost importance — to commemorate life and to become a beacon symbol of life.", "In the Bugis culture, architecture is not only solely perceived as a question of practice, but a subject of theological dialogue. The formula of Sulapa Eppa (the four elements) was interpreted and constructed with such intention", ". The formula of Sulapa Eppa (the four elements) was interpreted and constructed with such intention. The layout plan for the Bugis buildings would commonly have a rectangular and symmetrical consistency, the aim is to intergrade with the early Bugis understanding that the universe is in a form of a giant rhombus and the four ingredients that created the universe (wind, water, fire and earth); together with the four wind directions (north, south, east and west)", ". Thus, the Bugis houses would traditionally faces north, as an origin for positive energy; or towards east, the dawn of light.", "The houses were commissioned into three separate levels, signifying the three position of the universe based on the pre-Islamic Bugis interpretation. Rakeang (the upper world) — a tribute to the heavens above, the attic is designed to be the apex of the house and it is regarded to be a sacred place to store rice, crops and important heirlooms. Ale Bola (the middle world), appeared for a respect to the human world, thus represented by the living and the common space of the house", ". Awa Bola (the underworld), a place of dark and ferocious, this concept was exemplified by the shed and where the livestock are stored beneath the human dwelling.", "The concept of rupa-tau ('likeness of a person') is also extensively explored and adopted in the Bugis architectural principles. This led to the building structured as a grandiose manifestation of an anatomical relationship. The housing framework was monumentally characterized by distinct components based on a human physique: Aje-bola (the foot), by the stilts of the house; ale-bola (body), the common living space; ulu-bola (the head), the roof; and posi-bola (the navel) by the middle area of the house.", "The development of the Bugis architecture is originated on the belief that a home is constructed with an optimistic faith for a greater future. Based on the classical Bugis myth and understanding, the stars, skies and constellations held a great divine significance; in response, a human is entrusted to maintain the harmonious arrangement of the universe — in order to have a safer and tranquil life, as well as to avoid natural calamities (notably floods, landslides, tornado and earthquake)", ". Thus, such ethos and essences are extensively emulated, absorbed and vividly radiated in the traditional Bugis architectural articulations.", "Maritime, mercantile and migratory traditions\n\nAcross archipelagic Southeast Asia, the Bugis-Makassar earned the reputation as sailors, navigators and seafaring traders. Their naval foundation largely coordinated with the extensive shipbuilding traditions, nautical skills and the dominant presence in the inter-insular trade routes.", "Conversely, they too acquired the title as \"The Vikings of Southeast Asia\". Their extensive maritime and trading expedition has historically bought them to be as one of the notable regional players in the transoceanic journeys to Indochina, Macau, Manila, Papua and northern Australia, together with the Southeast Asian islands that lies between these areas", ". Their ships were commonly use to carry and transport exotic spices, sandalwood, textiles, rice, luxury marine products, porcelains, pearls and other important goods and materials across the ancient spice trade routes.", "During the Age of Sail, their seafaring odysseys were largely aided by padewakang, one of the early type of Bugis-Makassar vessel, which later morphed into the palari. Steep in history, the first of such watercraft was born based on the legendary tradition of Sulawesi.", "Up until the nineteenth century, the classic Padekawang was traditionally led by a captain, known as nakoda or anakoda; followed by his second-in-command, the juragang. It is also usual for the ship to have two steersman, jurumudi — delegated the task on directing the ship's course; two jurubatu — sounders, responsible to measure the depth on approaching the coast, reefs or shoals; and a single secretary — known as jurutulisi, acting as an agent on behalf of the owner of the vessel", ". The names are largely adopted from the Malay language, with an influence from Persian, such as the term of nakhoda.", "In order to identify the course of their maritime routes, the sailors would typically inclined to use a multitude of convergent nautical practice, from determining the rising and setting points of the sun; the location horizon, stars and constellations; the marine environment — the flow of the oceanic swell, the form of the waves and the water appearance; fauna — the actions of the fish and the flight arrangement of the birds; the wind directions; and specific geographical landmarks.", "The original pinisi-rigged ship (palari), is about in length overall, with light laden waterline of . Smaller palari is only about 10 m in length. A two-masted sailing vessel, the name \"pinisi\" derives from the type of gaff rig, use for its configuration. Its unique canted rectangular mainsails and tripod masts give its unparalleled design composition, a departure from other western ships. In the contemporary era, palari is also equipped with motors for its seafaring journeys.", "There are many revered shipbuilding centers in the region, including Ara, Tanah Lemo and Bira. However, the Konjo, a subgroup of the Makassarese, are particularly known as one of the respected master builders of pinisi-rigged ships, enjoying a long-prized tradition of watercraft and boat-production, a knowledge commonly inherited from fathers to sons for centuries.", "For the Konjos in Bulukumba, the boatmaking identity is deeply rooted to their lives as a precious embodiment of art, culture and rituals. Being a highly dedicated boatsmith community, the Konjo people are traditionally restricted from sailing to the seas, as their elders feared that their clan would not return to their homeland, creating a perilous risk of losing their valuable shipbuilding wisdom amongst their kinsmen", ". Thus in South Sulawesi, the transoceanic sailing responsibility were vastly executed by their closely related brethren — the Bugis and Makassarese.", "The rich nautical culture of Bugis-Makassar is equally captured and reinforced by a plethora of ships — ranging from penjajap, warship; pajala, a smaller boat, also used for fishing; palari, another descendant of the padewakang; Lambo, a trading boat; and the early ships of Somba Lete and sompe tanja. These vessels collectively have left a significant impact on the local and regional development.", "As the seafaring identity began to take root in the coastal South Sulawesi society, it gradually become a profound icon that navigated their influence and presence in the region", ". Following the Bugis-Makassar migratory tradition known as (to sail) and ; it was here, from among these historical ships, vessels and boats that many Bugis and Makassar man, woman and children braved away from their traditional heartland in search of economic pursuits, prosperity and opportunities, while others embarked for an educational experience, adventure, personal dignity, military quest or prestigious political ambitions", ". Thus, most, if not all Bugis in the diaspora may ultimately traced their ancestral origin to one of the (a term for people who sailed/ventured beyond their native soil). Tales and trails from the past waves of sails and settlements can still be witnessed until the present day, evidently illustrated by their extensive centuries-old ethnic enclaves and various diaspora communities established throughout the islands and coastal regions of maritime Southeast Asia.", "Rice and agrarian traditions", "A visible departure from the extensive maritime and nautical culture dominated by their coastal brethren, the inland Bugis-Makassar country bear witness to its strong agricultural legacy. Regarded as among the most important crop amongst the society, rice has been cultivated across the peninsula for centuries. The grain has been deeply ingrained to their agricultural way of life for generations", ". The grain has been deeply ingrained to their agricultural way of life for generations. It is not only hailed as a primary food source on the diet, but also woven into the social, legends, theories, economic, political and ideological fabric. In a sense, their traditional identity is also being coexisted by an agrarian culture.", "The simple grain is regarded as among the essence of their traditions, it has indeed enjoyed a complex and long connections with the Bugis-Makassar. The earliest trace of rice in maritime Southeast Asia was found in Ulu Leang Cave, in Maros, South Sulawesi. Dated between 4000 BC to 2000 BC, the grains potentially tied up with the arrival of their Austronesian ancestors to the region, or among the earlier Toalean hunter-gatherer society.", "Rice serves a nourishment, deeply embedded to their historical development. By the 14th century, their radical transformation from local warlords to major kingdoms was largely coincides by the unprecedented population boom across the peninsula, which in turn being a correlated result intersected from the earlier improvement of the agricultural practices", ". Blood, sweat and tears have had been shed over the soil in the quest of favorable harvests, for instance during the 16th century, the Ajatappareng confederation (constituting the Bugis states of Sidenreng, Rappang, Suppa', Bacukiki, Alitta', and Sawitto) was incorporated by the expansionist pursuit by Gowa, driven by their ambitions to control the bountiful local corps of the region.", "In their ancient beliefs and understanding, rice was perceived as a symbolism associated with providence and of creation, as well as blessing and joy by linking ancient customs, mythology and the people. The cultivation of the grains has had led to the development of an economic life circle centered primarily around the core of agriculture", ". Rooted in the pre-Islamic belief system, the mappalili (paddy growing season) was organized among the Bugis to pray for a plentiful crop season, while the grand harvest festival was held by the agrarian societies act as a joyous thanksgiving conclusion after a successful harvest", ". Rice is also highly venerated, based on the historical Bugis manual-almanac known as Kutika, only during specific schedules, day and time were permitted for cultivating activities; at home, the rice is traditionally stored at the attic of the house, signifying its zenith position in the social order; while during war, the destruction of rice fields was perceived as a highly forbidden taboo.", "The creed of Bugis-Makassar states was undoubtedly built on horticulture standing as its salient pillar. Rice farming also has influenced many other aspects of the their old economic activities. During the medieval era, it become one of the earliest main commodities of exports from the South Sulawesi heartlands to the rest of the insular Southeast Asia", ". The commodities may also serves as an early guidance to their fundamental mercantile and enterprising skills, before being rapidly evolved into amongst their major tools of trade during their maritime involvement in the regional trade routes.", "The rice-reigned supremacy and its strong agrarian foundations of the South Sulawesi people persist until this day. In 2022, the province was estimated to produce 5.4 million tonnes of rice, becoming among the prominent rice bowls in modern-day Indonesia.\n\nFestivals, celebrations and religious traditions", "Festivals, celebrations and religious traditions\n\nThe Islamisation of Bugis-Makassar states initiated by Luwu and Gowa in the 17th century has greatly morphed the religious landscape throughout the peninsula. As a consequence, most of the liturgical festivals by the Bugis are primarily coordinated with the Islamic calendar, albeit embraced with a strong sense on the localized cultural orientations.", "The biannual Hari Raya (eid) celebrations of Idul Fitri and Idul Adha are regarded as the largest festivals for the Bugis. The Idul Fitri (known as Maleppe, meaning \"release\" in the Bugis language) serves as a triumphal rite after completing a month of fasting and religious activities during Ramadhan. The term Mallepe holds a philosophical symbol as a release from the sins and the bad habits of a person", ". While Idul Adha is a dedicated religious observance held to commemorate the sacrifice made by Prophet Ibrahim.", "There are a diverse religio-cultural activates shared during both of the merriments. A day before eid, many Bugis families would prepare Burasa and Tumbu rice cakes in a tradition known as Ma’burasa and Ma’tumbu. The tradition of visiting friends, relatives and holding a grand feast for visitors are also central — known as Massiara, the visits usually commenced after the eid prayers", ". Additionally, many would also take the day to ask the forgiveness and reconcile between one another, while some would dispose their old clothes into the sea or rivers as a sign of a new beginning and chapter in life.", "Other common traditions during eid includes Mabbaca-baca, a solemn thanksgiving dua gathering and feast led by the community religious leaders known as Puang Anre Guru or Daeng Imam. A visit the final resting place of the departed love ones is also a major commonplace during the season, in the custom known as Masiara Kuburu, the visit to the grave is regarded as a gesture of love, respect and honour.", "The positive and goodwill communal spirit is also continued in a various of religious and cultural programs. In addition to eid, the Bugis organized a prolific traditions to commemorate its faith and identity, including Ramadan, a holy month dedicated by fasting and various religious activities", ". Maulu/ma maulu’ (Mawlid), honoring the birth of Prophet Muhammmad, special ceremonial meals and colorful eggs would be given to the mosque attendees to monumentalize the meaningful day; Esso Sura (Ashura), remembrance of Muharram, where a special porridge (known as Bubu Petu and Bella Pitunrupa) are prepared, the day also marked as a major shopping period for the Bugis-Makassar, as many would traditionally buy new house utensils during the Ashura", ". Furthermore, the Bugis and Makassar families would also arrange Massuro Baca, special ceremonial doa and feast held a week before Ramadhan to remember the departed relatives, as well as a preparation to cleanse the inner-self before the holy month.", "Islamic elements are also materialized during celebrations on an individual level. Being a predominantly Muslim community, the act of Mabbarazanji/Barzanji (Mawlid al-Barzanjī), communal prayers and praise to Prophet Muhammad is regarded as among the focal points during such ceremonies", ". The Bugis would commonly organized a selamatan feast for divine favor, protection, thanksgiving and gratitude — including weddings, newborn celebration, aqiqah, house construction ceremony, sending a pilgrim for umrah and hajj, and funerals.", "The importance of such personal and communal ceremonies collectively act as a testament of their mainstream ethnic character. It serves as a bind, propelled to their rite of passage as a Muslim and a manifestation of their cultural identity. The events also performed as a juxtaposition, intertwined between the essence of religion and custom; together with a sense of responsibility to solidify their values into the contemporary era.", "Historically, there are also some regional events deeply rooted to their ancient beliefs, reflected by their pre-Islamic past, geographical location, local demographic and occupation. In a few agrarian Bugis communities, the grand harvest festivals of Mappangolo Datu Ase, Mappadendang, Manre Sipulung, Maccerak Ase and Maccerak Rakkapeng acted as a thanksgiving and celebratory gesture for the abundance of harvest obtained", ". Meanwhile, in the coastal and lakeside communities where fishery industry is regarded to be in the utmost importance, they would commemorate with Maccera Tappareng and Maccerak Tasik", ". However, with the rise of various socioeconomic and educational revolution, together with mass industrialization and the introduction of modern farming and fishing techniques throughout the 19th and 20th century, the collective impact of these festivals began to waned in favor of a much aligned practice with Islamic understanding among the mainstream Bugis society. Despite so, such regional celebration offered a brief outlook on the past, on a traditional ancient religion of a once agrarian community.", "Musical traditions and performing arts\n\nMusic and dance has long occupied an integral part of the people in the South Sulawesi. It is considered as an ancient art form, pictured as a dramatic and complex encapsulation of the heritage. The Bugis performing arts can be broadly divided into four distinct categories — entertainment medium, ritualistic performance, court dance and martial arts.", "In the Bugis culture, choreography is regarded as a form of folkloric entertainment. It has enjoyed a long creative industry and maintained a close relationship with the people. It is usually presented during the communal occasions and used as a celebratory expression to commemorate significant events. The best known Bugis dance genre are Pajaga, and the more lively Pajogek — combining the elements of Ronggeng, Jaipong and accompanied by a pair of gendeng (drum)", ". Other type of dances include Jeppeng, having a fusion of stronger Islamic elements; and Tari Paduppa, a traditional welcome dance.", "In the past, the performing arts played an extensive role on the Bugis ritualistic function and observance. During such magico-religious ceremonies, esoteric energy were present and ancient dance techniques were accomplished by a Bugis shaman, known as Bissu. The depiction was characterized by a combination of spiritual aura and artistic elements to achieve a high level of possession-trance", ". The practice of possession used to be conducted by a Bissu during a vital cultural rite, such as to commemorate the beginning of the mappalili (paddy growing season) or during the important royal functions. Among the well-known ritualistic Bugis performance includes Tari Maggiri, Tari Alusu and Maddewata.", "Martial art also serves as an outlook that mirrors the symbolic ideals of its strong militaristic tradition — courage, power, heroism, prestige, strength and preparation for war. Elements of martial skills were largely drawn from the local fighting culture and being incorporated in a repertoire of Bugis performing arts, such as in Manunencak/Mencak Baruga (Bugis Pencak Silat), Mallanca and Masempek. A close parallel can equally be observed in the Bugis war dance", ". A close parallel can equally be observed in the Bugis war dance. The combatant qualities were emulated to commemorate the fortitude and spirit of the military class. The Bugis war dance of Penjaga Welado, Pajaga Gilireng and Pajaga Mutaro extensively captures such rendition.", "Historically enjoyed a royal patronage, the Bugis court ballet consist of a juxtaposed movement of fast and slow; and a contrast between passive and active, such adaptation can be seen in the Bugis courtly portrayal in Pajaga Boneballa Anakdara, Pajaga Lelengbata Tulolo and Pajaga Lili. The artistic styles constitute the essence of Bugis aesthetic impulses — involving various movements, gestures, poise, balance and music", ". Historically among the members of Bugis nobility, dance was perceived as a social importance to develop and mold an individual's personal qualities on kedo (mannerism) and ampe (speech) according to the royal standards and etiquettes.", "The Bugis also hosted a multitude of classical instruments, including Soling, flutes; Kacapi and Talindo, string musical instruments; Jalappa/Kancing-Kancing, a traditional cymbal; Aloso/Laluso, a Bugis percussion instrument, similar to Shekere; Gesok–Gesok/Keso–Keso, a Bugis-styled Rebab; Gendrang (not to be mistaken with Makassarese \"Ganrang\"), a two-headed drum; and Puik Puik/Pui-Pui, a classical trumpet", ". As with many Sulawesian musical traditions, the Gendrang occupied a prominent and sacred role in Bugis musical traditions forming the base of many accompaniments, although somewhat less revered compared with the Makassarese. In recent years, Makassarese Ganrang traditions have eroded the education of Bugis Gendrang, although sharing many similarities, such as using multiples drums with different patterns to create syncopation.", "The Bugis art of dance was predominantly being inherited via an oral tradition from one generation to another", ". To some extent, each of the artforms serves as an episode to the past and navigated as a kaleidoscopic narration on the complex development of their intricate ethnic identity — from the once prevalent ancient ancestral beliefs led by a Bissu; the royal court and military traditions during the classical era; the extensive bilateral cultural exchange with the Makassarese; and the subsequent Islamisation of the mainstream Bugis society.", "See also\n\n Bugis in Malaysia, the Bugis diaspora in Malaysia\n Bugis in Singapore, the Bugis diaspora in Singapore\n Differences between the Bugis and Makassar people\n Gender in Bugis society, the gender interpretation amongst the classical and pre-Islamic Bugis society\n List of Bugis people, a list of notable people of Bugis descent\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography", "Ethnic groups in Indonesia\nEthnic groups in Malaysia\nEthnic groups in Singapore\nMuslim communities of Indonesia" ]

[ "A security guard (also known as a security inspector, security officer, factory guard, or protective agent) is a person employed by a government or private party to protect the employing party's assets (property, people, equipment, money, etc.) from a variety of hazards (such as crime, waste, damages, unsafe worker behavior, etc.) by enforcing preventative measures", ". Security guards do this by maintaining a high-visibility presence to deter illegal and inappropriate actions, looking (either directly through patrols, or indirectly by monitoring alarm systems or video surveillance cameras) for signs of crime or other hazards (such as a fire), taking action to minimize damage (such as warning and escorting trespassers off property), and reporting any incidents to their clients and emergency services (such as the police or emergency medical services), as appropriate.", "Security officers are generally uniformed to represent their lawful authority to protect private property. Security guards are generally governed by legal regulations, which set out the requirements for eligibility (such as a criminal record check) and the permitted authorities of a security guard in a given jurisdiction. The authorities permitted to security guards vary by country and subnational jurisdiction", ". The authorities permitted to security guards vary by country and subnational jurisdiction. Security officers are hired by a range of organizations, including businesses, government departments and agencies and not-for-profit organizations (e.g., churches and charitable organizations).", "Until the 1980s, the term watchman was more commonly applied to this function, a usage dating back to at least the Middle Ages in Europe where there was no form of law enforcement. This term was carried over to North America where it was interchangeable with night watchman until both terms were replaced with the modern security-based titles. Security officers are sometimes regarded as fulfilling a private policing function.\n\nFunctions and duties", "Functions and duties \n\nMany security firms and proprietary security departments practice the \"detect, deter, observe and report\" method. Security officers are not required to make arrests, but have the authority to make a citizen's arrest, or otherwise act as an agent of law enforcement, for example, at the request of a police officer or a sheriff.", "A private security officer's responsibility is protecting their client from a variety of hazards (usually in the form of criminal acts). Security personnel enforce company rules and can act to protect lives and property, and they sometimes have a contractual obligation to provide these actions", ". In addition to basic deterrence, security officers are often trained to perform specialized tasks such as arrest and control (including handcuffing and restraints), operate emergency equipment, perform first aid, CPR, take accurate notes, write detailed reports, and perform other tasks as required by the client they are serving. All security officers are also required to go through additional training mandated by the state for the carrying of weapons such as batons, firearms, and pepper spray (e.g", ".g. the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services in California has requirements that a license for each item listed must be carried while on duty). Some officers are required to complete police certification for special duties", ". Some officers are required to complete police certification for special duties. In recent years, due to elevated threats of terrorism, most security officers are required to have bomb-threat training and/or emergency crisis training, especially those located in soft target areas such as shopping malls, schools, and any other area where the general public congregate", ". One major economic justification for security personnel is that insurance companies (particularly fire insurance carriers) will give substantial rate discounts to sites which have a 24-hour presence. For a high risk or high-value property, the discount can often exceed the money being spent on its security program. Discounts are offered because having security on site increases the odds that any fire will be noticed and reported to the local fire department before a total loss occurs", ". Also, the presence of security officers (particularly in combination with effective security procedures) tends to diminish \"shrinkage\", theft, employee misconduct, and safety rule violations, property damage, or even sabotage. Many casinos hire security officers to protect money when transferring it from the casino to the casino's bank.", "Security personnel may also perform access control at building entrances and vehicle gates; meaning, they ensure that employees and visitors display proper passes or identification before entering the facility. Security officers are called upon to respond to potential hazards (such as broken lights or doors, disturbances, lost persons, minor injuries, etc.) and to assist in serious emergencies (medicals, fires, crime, etc", ".) and to assist in serious emergencies (medicals, fires, crime, etc.) by securing the scene to prevent further loss or damage, summoning emergency responders to the incident, helping to redirect foot traffic to safe locations, and by documenting what happened on an incident report to give their client an idea of how to prevent similar situations from occurring", ". Armed security officers are frequently contracted to respond as law enforcement until a given situation at a client location is under control and/or public authorities arrive on the scene.", "Patrolling is usually a large part of a security officer's duties, as most incidents are prevented by being looked for instead of waiting for them to occur. Often these patrols are logged by use of a guard tour patrol system, which require regular patrols. Until recently the most commonly used form used to be mechanical clock systems that required a key for manual punching of a number to a strip of paper inside with the time pre-printed on it", ". But recently, electronic systems have risen in popularity due to their lightweight, ease of use, and downloadable logging capabilities. Regular patrols are, however, becoming less accepted as an industry standard, as it provides predictability for the would-be criminal, as well as monotony for the security officer on duty. Random patrols are easily programmed into electronic systems, allowing greater freedom of movement and unpredictability", ". Global positioning systems are beginning to be used because they are a more effective means of tracking officers' movements and behavior.", "Personnel\nAlthough security officers differ from police officers, military personnel, federal agents/officers, and the like, Australia and the United States have a growing proportion of security personnel that has former police or military experience, including senior management personnel. On the other hand, some security officers, young people, in particular, use the job as a practical experience to use in applying to law enforcement agencies.\n\nTypes of personnel and companies", "Types of personnel and companies\n\nSecurity personnel are classified as one of the following:", "\"In-house\" or \"proprietary\" (i.e. employed by the same company or organization they protect, such as a mall, theme park, or casino); formerly often called works police or security police in the United Kingdom.\n \"Security supervisor\", meets with clients and employees as necessary to ensure client and employee satisfaction.\n \"Scheduler\", Security Officer assignment and strategic scheduling resulting in client satisfaction, employee retention and cost maintained within District financial plans.", "\"Human Resources Manager\", effective delivery of human resources services such as employment, employee/labor relations, compensation, benefits administration, training and development, workers’ compensation, and audit compliance. Maintains and implements corporate policies and programs related to employment.\n \"Client Service Manager\", promotes financial growth for the District by ensuring client retention, Security Officer retention, and support for the development of new business.", "\"Client Service Supervisor\", provides security services for designated clients resulting in customer satisfaction, Security Officer retention, and financial growth for the District. Provides service in a large and complex area.\n \"Contract\", working for a private security company which protects many locations.\n \"Public Security\", a person employed or appointed as an (usually armed) security officer by a government or government agency.\n \"Private Police Officers\", or \"Special Police\".", "\"Private Police Officers\", or \"Special Police\".\n \"Private Patrol Officers\", vehicle patrol officers that protect multiple client premises.\n \"Parapolice\", aggressive firms that routinely engage in criminal investigation and arrest.", "Industry terms for security personnel include: security guard, security officer, security agent, safety patrol, private police, company police, security enforcement officer, and public safety. Terms for specialized jobs include Usher, bouncer, bodyguards, executive protection agent, loss prevention, alarm responder, hospital security officer, mall security officer, crime prevention officer, patrolman, private patrol officer, and private patrol operator.", "State and local governments sometimes regulate the use of these terms by law—for example, certain words and phrases that \"give an impression that he or she is connected in any way with the federal government, a state government, or any political subdivision of a state government\" are forbidden for use by California security licensees by Business and Professions Code Section 7582.26. So the terms \"private homicide police\" or \"special agent\" would be unlawful for a security licensee to use in California", ". Similarly, in Canada, various acts specifically prohibits private security personnel from using the terms Probation Officer, law enforcement, police, or police officer.", "Alberta and Ontario prohibit the use of the term Security Officer, which has been in widespread use in the United States for many decades. Recent changes to the act have also introduced restrictions on uniform and vehicle colours and markings to make private security personnel clearly distinctive from police personnel. Some sources feel that some of these restrictions are put in place to satisfy the Canadian Police Association", ". Specialized VIP security guard services and companies are in high demand and are defined by their ability to protect celebrities and executives during times of unrest. There is a marked difference between persons performing the duties historically associated with watchmen and persons who take a more active role in protecting persons and property", ". The former, often called \"guards\", are taught the mantra \"observe and report\", are minimally trained, and not expected to deal with the public or confront criminals.", "The latter are often highly trained, sometimes armed depending on contracts agreed upon with clientele, and are more likely to interact with the general public and to confront the criminal element. These employees tend to take pride in the title \"Security Officer\" or \"Protection Officer\" and disdain the label of \"guard\". Security jobs vary in pay and duties", ". Security jobs vary in pay and duties. There is sometimes little relationship between duties performed and compensation, for example some mall \"security officers\" who are exposed to serious risks earn less per hour than \"industrial security guards\" who have less training and responsibility. However, there are now more positions in the security role that separate not just the titles, but the job itself. The roles have progressed and so have the areas for which security people are needed", ". The roles have progressed and so have the areas for which security people are needed. The term \"agent\" can be confusing in the security industry because it can describe a civil legal relationship between an employee and their employer or contractor (\"agent of the owner\" in California PC 602), and also can describe a person in government service (\"Special Agent Jones of the Federal Bureau of Investigation\"", ".) The title \"agent\" can be confused with bail enforcement agents, also known as \"bounty hunters\", who are sometimes regulated by the same agencies which regulate private security. The term \"agent\" is also used in other industries, such as banking agents, loan agents and real estate agents. Security agents are often employed in loss prevention and personal or executive protection (bodyguards) roles", ". They typically work in plainclothes (without a uniform), and are usually highly trained to act lawfully in direct defense of life or property.", "Security officers are private citizens, and therefore are bound by the same laws and regulations as the citizenry they are contracted to serve, and therefore are not allowed to represent themselves as law enforcement under penalty of law.\n\nTraining", "Australia \nAny person who conducts a business or is employed in a security-related field within Australia is required to be licensed. Each of the six states and two territories of Australia have separate legislation that covers all security activities. Licensing management in each state/territory is varied and is carried out by either Police, Attorney General's Department, Justice Department or the Department of Consumer Affairs.", "New South Wales—(Police) Security Industry Act 1997 & Security Industry Regulation 2016\n Victoria—(Police) Private Security Act 2004\n Queensland—(Justice & Attorney-General) Security Providers Act 1993\n South Australia—(Consumer & Business Affairs) Security and Investigation Agents Act 1995\n Western Australia—(Police) Security & Related Activities (Control) Act 1996 & Security & Related Activities (Control) Regulations 1997\n Tasmania—(Police) *Security and Investigation Agents Act 2002", "Tasmania—(Police) *Security and Investigation Agents Act 2002\n Northern Territory—(Justice) Private Security Act & Private Security (Security Officer/Crowd Controller/Security Firms/Miscellaneous Matters) Regulations;\n Australian Capital Territory—(Regulatory Services) Security Industry Act 2003 & Security Industry Regulation 2003\nAll of this legislation was intended to enhance the integrity of the private security industry.", "All persons licensed to perform security activities are required to undertake a course of professional development in associated streams that are recognised nationally. This has not always been the case and the introduction of this requirement is expected to regulate the educational standards and knowledge base so that the particular job can be competently performed. Strict requirements are laid down as to the type of uniform and badge used by security companies", ". Strict requirements are laid down as to the type of uniform and badge used by security companies. Uniforms or badges that may be confused with a police officer are prohibited. Also, the use of the titles 'Security Police' or 'Private Detective' are unacceptable. While the term security guard is used by companies, government bodies and individuals, the term security officer is deemed more suitable", ". Bouncers use the title Crowd Controllers, and Store Detectives use the title Loss Prevention or Asset Protection Officers. Security Officers may carry firearms, handcuffs or batons where their role requires them to do so and then only when working and have the appropriate sub-class accreditation to their license.", "Notable security companies \n\n Serco\n Allied Universal\n MSS Security (SIS Group)\n SNP Security (Certis Group)\n Wilson Security\n Securitas (Pinkerton)\n Prosegur\n Chubb Security\n ISS Security\n\nPrivate security trends", "Private security trends \n\nA 2009 review of trends in private security in Australia, conducted by Tim Prenzler, Karen Earle and Rick Sarre, published by the Australian Institute of Criminology, sought to examine the size and scope of the private security industry in Australia to help inform efforts to develop national consistent standards and licensing regimes.", "The review found the industry had a similar gender profile to police (24% female, 76% male), however security had a wider, and older age profile - 35% of security officers were 45 to 64 years old, while 44% of police were concentrated between 30 and 39 years", ". The review noted that as of 2009, private security outnumbered police two to one; it expected that this rate would continue to slow as security technology become more readily-accessible, especially CCTV camera systems, which are often seen as being more cost-effective than guarding/mobile patrol service.", "The review referenced a 2007 report from IBISworld (2007:24) that indicated four out of five of the largest private security companies in Australia were foreign-owned, accounting for 44.5% of the market share at the time.", "A 2018 report authored by Anthony Bergin, Donald Williams, and Christopher Dixon and published by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, focused on the current role of private security in countering hostile threats. An evolving understanding of threats has resulted in private security playing a greater part in responding to critical incidents, such as terrorist attacks.", "The report provided a low end estimate of the total number of licensed security personnel across Australia as 120,000 (54,753 employed full-time, up from 52,768 in 2006). It said the security industry is nationally characterized as high-volume and high-turnover, given the conflict between a highly prescriptive selection process by employers and regulators who seek to ensure only fit and proper people are licensed. As such, approximately 47% of the industry consists of casual security officers.", "In 2018, referencing data provided by ASIAL, the report states that the private security industry has an annual turnover of AUD8 billion - split evenly between manpower and the electronics sector. Despite various companies being amalgamated or split up, there continues to be a high rate of foreign-ownership of major security providers; the industry overall however remains split between a small number of national companies and a large number of small, specialized businesses.", "Technological advancements in regards to drones, facial recognition, and robotics are expected to continue to augment the private security landscape in Australia.\n\nCanada", "In Canada, private security falls under the jurisdiction of Canada's ten provinces and three territories. All ten of Canada's provinces and one of its territories (the Yukon) have legislation that regulates the contract security industry. These eleven jurisdictions require that companies that provide security guard services and their employees be licensed", ". Most provinces in Canada regulate the use of handcuffs and weapons (such as firearms and batons) by contract security companies and their employees, either banning such use completely or permitting it only under certain circumstances. Additionally, in some provinces, some terms, or variations of them, are prohibited either on a uniform or in self-reference.", "Canada's federal laws also restrict the ability of security officers to be armed. For example, section 17 of the Firearms Act, 1995 makes it an offense for any person, including a security officer, to possess prohibited or restricted firearms (i.e. handguns) anywhere outside of his or her home. There are two exceptions to this prohibition found in sections 18 and 19 of the Act", ". There are two exceptions to this prohibition found in sections 18 and 19 of the Act. Section 18 deals with transportation of firearms while Section 19 deals with allowing persons to carry such firearms on their persons to protect their lives or the lives of other persons, or for the performance of their occupation (Armour Car Guards, Licensed Trappers), provided an Authorization to Carry (ATC) is first obtained.", "British Columbia", "Private security in the province of British Columbia is governed by two pieces of legislation: the Security Services Act and the Security Services Regulation. These laws are administered and enforced by the Security Programs and Police Technology Division of the Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General. The legislation requires that guards must be at least 19 years old, undergo a criminal background check, and successfully complete a training course", ". As far as weapons, British Columbia law severely restricts their use by security officers. Section 11(1)(c) of the Security Services Regulation prohibits security personnel from carrying or using any \"item designed for debilitating or controlling a person or animal\", which the government interprets to include all weapons. As well, section 11 forbids private security from using or carrying restraints, such as handcuffs, unless authorized by the government", ". However, as in other parts of Canada, armoured car officers are permitted to carry firearms. In the past, only personnel that worked for contract security, that is, security companies, were regulated in British Columbia. However, as of September 1, 2009, in-house security officers and private investigators came under the jurisdiction of the Security Services Act and Security Services Regulation. Bodyguards and bouncers, effective November 1, 2009, are also subject to these regulations.", "Europe \n\nArmed private security officers are much rarer in Europe, and illegal in many countries, such as the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. In developing countries (with host country permission), an armed security force composed mostly of ex-military personnel is often used to protect corporate assets, particularly in war-torn regions.\n\nUnited Kingdom \nSIA licence", "United Kingdom \nSIA licence\n\nAs a requirement of the Private Security Industry Act 2001, the UK requires all contract security officers to have a valid Security Industry Authority licence.The licence must be displayed when on duty, although a dispensation may be granted for store detectives, bodyguards and others who need to operate without being identified as a security guard. (This dispensation is not available to Vehicle Immobilisers).", "Licenses are valid for three years and require the holders to undergo formal training, and are also to pass mandatory Criminal Records Bureau checks. Licences for Vehicle Immobilisers are valid for one year. \n\nNon SIA licence", "Non SIA licence\n\nSome people working as 'in-house' security guards/officers do not need an SIA licence. 'In-house' means they are directly are employed by the company/people they are protecting, such as supermarkets and not if they work for a security company. The UK supermarket Asda is one such example who directly employ in-house guards, who as such need not have an SIA licence to work.\n\nThere are two exceptions to this about 'in-house' guards:", "There are two exceptions to this about 'in-house' guards:\n\ndoor supervision at a licensed premises\nvehicle immobilising – this only applies in Northern Ireland.\n\nBoth of these need SIA licences.\n\nUnarmed Guarding\n\nArmed guarding and guarding with a weapon are illegal in the United Kingdom, as almost all citizens are prohibited from carrying most firearms (such as a pistol), or offensive weapons (such as a baton). \n\nThe banned list includes:", "The banned list includes:\n\nbatons,\nincapacitant spray (pepper spray, OC spray)\nfirearms,\nTasers, stun guns.\n\nHowever, guards may carry handcuffs and leg/arm restraints (although this is rare as the grounds for using them are narrow),> and some may wear stab-resistant vests (such as cash-in-transit guards).", "Finland", "In Finland, all contract security officers (in Finnish vartija, in Swedish väktare) are required to have a valid license granted by police. Temporary license is valid for four months and normal license for five years. License requires a minimum 40-hour course for temporary license and 80 hours more for a normal license. Additionally a narrow security vetting is required. The 40-hour course does not allow the guard to carry any kind of special equipment such as a baton or handcuffs", ". Guards have to complete the 80-hour course to carry these. Separate training and license is required for the security guard to carry pepper spray, extendable baton or a firearm. Rehearse of weapons usage is mandatory every year and is regulated by the Ministry of the Interior, to ensure the safe handling of pepper spray and such. Firearms can only be carried by bodyguards and cash-in-transit guards or when guarding a person or object that is significant in terms of public interest", ". In Finland, a security guard has the right to detain a person \"red-handed\", or seen committing a crime and the right to search the detained individual for harmful items and weapons. An individual who has been forcefully detained can only be released by the police. All companies providing security guarding services are also required to have a valid license from the Ministry of the Interior.", "Netherlands", "In the Netherlands, security officers (beveiligingsbeambte) must undergo a criminal background check by the local police department in the area where the private security company is located. To become a security guard in the Netherlands, a person must complete the basic training level 2 Beveiliger2 in which there are several specialisations, such as Airport Security, Harbour Security, Object Security and Mobile Surveillance", ". In addition there are individual courses for specialiasations, such as Personal Security (Bodyguard), Private investigator and Event Security Officer, for which the basic training Beveiliger 2 is not necessary. To complete the basic level training a trainee must undergo a three-month internship with a private security company or a company that contains a security service, that is licensed by the svpb, the board that controls security exams. A trainee guard must pass for his diploma within one year", ". A trainee guard must pass for his diploma within one year. If the trainee does not pass he is not allowed to work anymore until he completes his training with a positive result. After a positive result a new Security ID can be issued and is valid for three years, after which the officer must undergo a background check by the local police again, to renew the ID. Security officers in the Netherlands are not allowed to carry any kind of weapon or handcuffs", ". Security officers in the Netherlands are not allowed to carry any kind of weapon or handcuffs. Every uniformed security guard in the Netherlands must have the V symbol on his or her uniform to advise the public they are dealing with a private guard; this rule is mandated by the Ministry of Justice. Security uniforms may not look similar to police uniforms, and may not contain any kind of rank designation", ". The colors yellow and gold are not allowed to be used because the Dutch police uses gold accents in their uniforms; also, wearing a uniform cap is not allowed. Every new uniform design or addition must be approved by the Ministry of Justice before use. A patrol vehicle may not look like a police striped vehicle", ". A patrol vehicle may not look like a police striped vehicle. The only private security officers who are allowed to carry firearms are those who work for the military or Dutch National bank (De Nederlandsche Bank); this is where the national gold reserve can be found. Security guards in the Netherlands can work for a specific security company or a security service within a company (Bedrijfsbeveiligingsdienst)", ". Since 2018 the Security business in the Netherlands has seen a trend evolve where hospitality is being considered as a more prominent priority in Security services.", "Norway", "In Norway security officers are called \"Vektere\". There are two different types of vekterethe normal uniformed or civil-clothing officers who watch over private and semi-public properties, and government-hired vektere who work in public places, such as the Parliament. The law provides more enforcement powers to security officers in the Parliament than to private security officers. Security officers must undergo five weeks of training and internship", ". Security officers must undergo five weeks of training and internship. It is also possible to choose Security as a high school major, which requires two years of school and two years of trainee positions at private companies, resulting in a certificate from the government. This certificate makes it easier to get a job, with slightly higher pay. It also makes it easier to get a job elsewhere in the security industry", ". It also makes it easier to get a job elsewhere in the security industry. The certificate can also be obtained by private security officers who have had a minimum of 5 years working experience. No security officer may carry pepper spray, batons or any other kind of weapon. However, handcuffs may be used. Norges Bank (Bank of Norway, federal reserves) had armed government guards until late 2013, when they were disarmed by the minister of finance", ". Security officers serving on ships sailing in areas of high piracy risk may be equipped with firearms. Uniforms should not resemble police worn attire, but some uniforms do. The uniform must have the text 'VEKTER' or 'SIKKERHET' above the left shirt pocket.", "A security officer, or any other person, may detain or arrest anyone that violates any law, as long as the violation carries a punishment of minimum six months imprisonment and a fine. The detainee must be released or handed over to the authorities within four hours of the arrest. Security officers assigned to public transportation, such as trains, subways, trams and buses, also have some powers under the Transportloven (transportation law)", ". Security officers may issue fixed penalty tickets for violation of parking regulations in designated areas and for passengers on public transportation without a valid pass. A security officer may only search (frisk) a person to prevent the use of or confiscate any type of weapon or anything that can be used as a weapon. In 2006, some security officers (Vakt Service/Nokas) were given extended training and limited police authority to transport prisoners between police holding cells, jails and courts, etc", ". Due to an outcry from the police union, this program was scrapped after a few months.", "In addition to normal \"vektere\" there also is a special branch for \"Ordensvakter\" who normally work as bouncers or security at concerts and similar types of events. Ordensvakter have to undergo an extra week of training to learn techniques on how to handle drunk people and people on various drugs. They also learn about the alcohol laws of Norway (which are rather strict). The police in the local police district must approve each Ordensvakt", ". The police in the local police district must approve each Ordensvakt. These special regulations arose after events in the 1990s when bouncers had a bad reputation, especially in Oslo, for being too brutal and rough with people. At that time, the police had no control over who worked as bouncers. After the government implemented training and mandatory police-issued ID cards for bouncers the problems have been reduced", ". The police of Oslo report that Ordensvakter are now helping the police identify crimes that otherwise would not be reported. In 2013, due to a high number of rapes and violent robberies, the city of Oslo (Oslo Kommune) hired a private security company (Metro Garda) to patrol the downtown immigrant areas. This patrol had a positive effect, and the city has, in addition to Metro Garda officers, now hired their own officers called Bymiljøetaten (City environment dep)", ". The municipalities in Norway are not allowed to form their own \"police\". The only police force in Norway is the national police (politiet).", "In 2007, several officers from the Securitas AB company were arrested for brutality against a robber they apprehended on the main street of Oslo. The crime was captured with a mobile camera by pedestrians and created a public outcry, with many objecting to the way the security guards took the law into their own hands. Later, it came to light that the thief first attacked the security guards when they approached him, so the brutality charges were dropped", ". As a result of this episode, the police said that they would be more careful when conducting criminal background checks for security guards. Before 2007 security guards were checked when they applied for a job, but not while they were working. Security companies were also criticized for not checking criminal records sufficiently, in some cases not at all. Now guards working in private security must be checked annually", ". Now guards working in private security must be checked annually. The police have the authority to withdraw a company's licence if the company does not submit lists of employees to the police. The police in Norway were widely criticized for not checking guards properly, and even when they encounter an issue with a guard, the guard can still work for months before anything is done", ". The security company G4S, after being criticized by police for hiring criminals, stated that they cannot do anything about the problem, because only the police have the ability to check the guard's criminal records.", "In 2012, Norwegian media reported that off-duty police officers and Home Guard soldiers had contracts of armed employment on civilian ships in the Aden bay, and police leaders were planning sanctions against the use of police officers. Today there are around 15,000 people working in private security in Norway. The police have around 10,000 employees in total.\n\nNotable companies:\n\nG4S\n Infratek\n ISS A/S (formerly Personellsikring)\n NOKAS\n Securitas\n\nHong Kong", "G4S\n Infratek\n ISS A/S (formerly Personellsikring)\n NOKAS\n Securitas\n\nHong Kong \n\nIn Hong Kong, the term Security Officer refers to a senior staff member who supervises a team of security personnel. The staff who work under security officers' supervision are called Security Guards.", "Legislation", "Before 1 October 1996, private security personnel were regulated by the Watchmen Ordinance (Chapter 299). However, there were many problems with that system of regulation—for example, there were no restrictions as to whom may establish private security service companies to provide security services to a client. Also, there was no regulation of people whom may perform installation of security systems", ". Also, there was no regulation of people whom may perform installation of security systems. Some employers hired \"caretakers\" instead of security guards to avoid their responsibilities under the ordinance (in formal definition, \"caretakers\" are supposed to provide facilities management service, although security service, which provided to residential properties, takes some parts of facilities management service)", ". As a result, the Hong Kong Government enacted a wholly new law, the Security and Guarding Services Ordinance (Chapter 460), to replace the Watchmen Ordinance.", "According to the Security and Guarding Services Ordinance:\nNo individual shall do, agree to do, or hold himself/herself out as doing, or as available to do, security work for another person unless he/she does so-\n Under and in accordance with a permit; or\n Otherwise than for reward.", "Security work means any of the following activities-\n Guarding any property;\n Guarding any person or place for the purpose of preventing or detecting the occurrence of any offence; (Replaced 25 of 2000 s. 2)\n Installing, maintaining or repairing a security device;\n Designing for any particular premises or place a system incorporating a security device.", "Security device means a device designed or adapted to be\ninstalled in any premises or place, except on or in a vehicle, for the purpose\nof detecting or recording- (Amended 25 of 2000 s. 2)\n The occurrence of any offence; or\n The presence of an intruder or of an object that persons are, for reasons of security, not permitted to bring onto the premises or place or any other premises or place.", "Singapore\nSecurity officers in Singapore are strictly regulated and overseen by the Singapore Police Force (SPF). Both domestic and international security companies operates in Singapore. There are certain requirements to met to become a licensed security officer. These include, among others:\n\nBeing at least 18 years old\nPassing a mandatory training program from a recognized training centre\nNo criminal record", "A security officers' license must be approved by the Police Licensing and Regulatory Department (PLRD), and is renewable every 5 years. Security officer ranks in Singapore are structured similarly to a police force. As of 2023, there are five standardised ranks, with promotion being given based upon a officer's length of service combined with the amount of mandatory training courses that they have successfully attended and passed based upon each specific rank", ". These ranks also follows a progressive wage model.", "Security Officer (SO)\nSenior Security Officer (SSO)\nSecurity Supervisor (SS)\nSenior Security Supervisor (SSS)\nChief Security Officer (CSO)\n\nHigher ranks at an executive level also exists, with having an academic degree education also often required for such positions. These ranks include:\n\nSecurity Executive (SE)\nOperations Manager (OM)\nOperations Executive (OE)", "Security Executive (SE)\nOperations Manager (OM)\nOperations Executive (OE)\n\nQualification\nQualification for security guards vary from country to country. Different requirements have to be completed before applying for this job.\n\nHong Kong", "Hong Kong\n\nAny applicant who wishes to apply for a Security Personnel Permit (SPP) must:\n He/she have been living in Hong Kong for at least 5 years. (This requirement may have been changed)\n No criminal record.\n At least 17 years old when submitting his/her application.\n Have passed a mandatory 16-hour training course and have been granted a certificate of the course.\n If the applicant is over 65 years old, he/she must submit his/her health examination report.", "Permit\nSecurity Personnel Permit was separated to four types: A, B, C, and D.\n Type A permit holder was permitted to work in a \"single-block\" residential building; they are not allowed to carry firearms. No age limit.\n Type B permit holder was permitted to work in any type of properties, but they also are not allowed carry firearms. The maximum age limit of this permit is 65.", "Type C permit holder was permitted to work as an armed guard. (Usually, they are members of the cash transport car crew.) The maximum age limit of this permit is 55.\n Type D permit holder was permitted to design, install, and repair security devices. No maximum age limit.\nThe permit is valid for five years. All holders must renew their permit before it expires, or they will lose their qualification to work, as such, until their permit is renewed.", "The type A and Type B security service are gradually combined with property management service, though the boundary between these two industries is unclear.", "Power of arrest", "Security Guards in Hong Kong do not have special powers of arrest above that of the ordinary citizen, i.e. citizen's arrest, also known locally as the \"101 arrest power\". The Section 101 in the Criminal Procedure Ordinance addresses that arrest of an offender by a private citizen is allowed in certain circumstances if the offender is attempting an arrestable offense. Once arrested, the suspect must be delivered to a police office as soon as possible", ". Once arrested, the suspect must be delivered to a police office as soon as possible. An arrestable offence is defined as any crime carrying a sentence of more than 12 months imprisonment. No security personnel are allowed to search other person, nor are they allowed to get personal information from other people, with the exception of some specific circumstances.", "Israel", "In Israel, almost all security guards carry a firearm, primarily to prevent terror attacks. Security guards are common: they perform entrance checks at shopping malls, transportation terminals, government and other office buildings, and many stores. Many locations with a high number of visitors, such as the Jerusalem Central Bus Station, employ X-ray machines to check passenger's bags; in other places, they are opened and visually inspected", ". Since 2009, private security guards companies as Mikud have also replaced official security forces at some checkpoints inside and on the border of the West Bank, as well as the crossings to Gaza.", "Malaysia", "The private security industry is regulated by the Ministry of Home Affairs (Kementerian Dalam Negeri). As of 2018, all private security companies in Malaysia must have a minimum of 80% of their employees complete a Certified Security Guard Training Course in order to receive approval to renew their Private Agency License", ". Peninsular Malaysia allows for the use of Nepalese security guards whereby East Malaysian immigration policy does not allow the use of foreign workers to be employed in the security industry.", "South Africa \n\nSecurity guards along with the rest of the private security industry are regulated under Act 56 of 2001, Private Security Industry Regulation Act.", "United States", "Private security guards have outnumbered police officers since the 1980s, predating the heightened concern about security brought on by the September 11 attacks of 2001. The more than 1 million contract security officers, and an equal number of guards estimated to work directly for U.S. corporations, is much greater than the nearly 700,000 sworn law enforcement officers in the United States. Most states require a license to work as a security officer", ". Most states require a license to work as a security officer. This license may include a criminal background check or mandated training requirements. Security guards have the same powers of arrest as a private citizen, called a \"private person\" arrest, \"any person\" arrest, or \"citizen's arrest\". If weapons are carried, additional permits and training are usually required", ". If weapons are carried, additional permits and training are usually required. Armed security personnel are generally employed to protect sensitive sites such as government and military installations, armored money transports, casinos, banks and other financial institutions, and nuclear power plants. However, armed security is quickly becoming a standard for vehicle patrol officers and on many other non-government sites.", "The responsibilities of security guards in the United States are expanding in scope. For example, a trend is the increasing use of private security to support services previously provided by police departments. James F. Pastor addresses substantive legal and public policy issues which directly or indirectly relate to the provision of security services. These can be demonstrated by the logic of alternative or supplemental service providers", ". These can be demonstrated by the logic of alternative or supplemental service providers. The use of private police has particular appeal because property or business owners can directly contract for public safety services, thereby providing welcome relief for municipal budgets. Finally, private police functions can be flexible, depending upon the financial, organizational, political, and circumstances of the client.", "Arizona – Licensed security companies are required to provide eight hours of pre-assignment training to all persons employed as security guards before the employee acts in the capacity of a security guard. There is a state-mandated curriculum that must be taught, and subjects covered must include criminal law and laws of arrest, uniforms and grooming, communications, use of force, general security procedures, crime scene preservation, ethics, and first response.", "California – Security Guards are required to obtain a license from the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services (BSIS), of the California Department of Consumer Affairs. Applicants must be at least 18 years old, undergo a criminal history background check through the California Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and complete a 40-hour course of required training. This required training is broken down into smaller training sections and time-lines", ". This required training is broken down into smaller training sections and time-lines. The first is 8 hours of BSIS-designed instruction on powers to arrest and weapons. Then, within 30 days of getting the individual officers license, they must receive 16 hours of training on various mandatory and elective courses. Finally, within 6 months of getting their license, they must receive an additional 16 hours of training on various mandatory and elective courses", ". California security officers are also required to complete 8 hours of annual training on security-related topics, in addition to the initial 40 hours of training. The training and exam may be administered by any private patrol operator or by any of a large number of certified training facilities. This training can be in the classroom or online.", "Illinois - Security Guards / Security Officers in Illinois are required to have a valid Permanent Employee Registration Card, also known as a PERC Card for short. You also have to be a minimum of 18 years old to work as an unarmed security guard, and a minimum of 21 years old to work as an armed security guard. A valid Firearm Owner's Identification Card, also known as a FOID Card for short, is also required if working as an armed security guard.", "New Jersey – As of 2006 all security personnel employed by a \"security officer company\" which provides security services to other entities by contract must undergo a state mandated certified training program. This law, commonly referred to as SORA, is the state's effort to increase the quality of security personnel. Security personnel employed by other types of businesses do not require the SORA certification card", ". However, those employed by the Atlantic City casinos are required to have the state issued \"Casino Employee Registration\" card.", "New Mexico – As of 2008 all security guards must undergo FBI background checks and a certified training program. Guards who carry firearms must also undergo additional training with a firearm through an approved firearms instructor and pass a psychological exam. The security industry is regulated through the New Mexico Regulation and Licensing Division.", "New Orleans, Louisiana – The City of New Orleans Department of Police in accordance with New Orleans Home Rule Charter section 4-502 (2) (a) (b) and New Orleans Municipal Code 17-271 MCS 90-86, deputizes armed Security Officers, Private Investigators, College Campus Police, City, State, and Federal agencies, within the city limits, with limited Police Power as New Orleans Police Special Officers", ". New Orleans Municipal Code 17-271 MCS 30-1122 states It shall be unlawful for any person to act as an armed guard unless he is a Peace Officer. Louisiana R.S. 40:1379.1 (b) states the Special Officer, when performing those tasks requiring a Special Officer's commission, shall have the same powers and duties as a Peace Officer. Special Officers may make arrest for felony or misdemeanor offenses on the property or area they are to protect, patrol, or in relation to their direct assignment", ". The Special Officer when making an arrest may pat down the arrested subject for weapons. Special Officers are to turn over arrested subjects and pertaining evidence to a New Orleans Police Officer. Special Officers or to honor all subpoenas on arrest made and appear in court to testify. Special Officers when not on a particular assignment are regarded as private citizens and have no Police Power", ". However, Special Officers still may make an arrest for a felony, whether in or out of his presence, while not on a particular assignment, under Louisiana Law CCRP art.214 Arrest by private person; when lawful.", "North Carolina – Security Officers in North Carolina are required to register and become certified with the Private Protective Services Board (PPSB), the private security authority body under the North Carolina Department of Justice. The purpose of the Private Protective Services Board is to administer the licensing, education and training requirements for persons, firms, associations and corporations engaged in private protective services within North Carolina", ". The board is totally fee funded and is staffed by departmental employees directed on a daily basis by the Director, who is appointed by the Attorney General. There are two classifications for an officer: armed and unarmed. While an unarmed officer is required to take a 16-hour class of training and instruction to become certified, an armed officer must take additional hours of classroom training as well as qualify on a gun range with the firearm which will be carried on duty.", "Oklahoma – Security officers in Oklahoma are licensed by CLEET (Council on Law Enforcement Education and Training). To be licensed as an unarmed officer an individual must be at least 18 years of age and undergo 40 hours of classroom training and pass criminal history checks. Armed guards must be 21 years of age, have another 40 hours of classroom training, qualify with their firearm and pass a psychological evaluation.", "Oregon – Security officers in Oregon must be licensed as either an unarmed, armed, or event security professional by the Department of Public Safety, Standards and Training to be employed for the purpose of providing security services. Unarmed and event professionals must be at least 18 years of age or older and armed professionals must be 21 years of age or older", ". All security professionals are required to complete classroom instruction and armed professionals also need to complete a basic marksmanship course. Supervisors and managers have an additional certification that is completed by additional classroom training. Loss prevention officers are required to have an unarmed or armed certification.", "Pennsylvania – No licensing requirements to be an unarmed security guard. However, anyone who carried a firearm or other \"lethal weapon\" in the course and scope of their employment must be trained as a \"Certified Agent\" and successfully complete a 40-hour training course (including shooting range time) in order to be certified to carry weapons while on duty under the Lethal Weapons Training Act (commonly referred to as Act 235 certification)", ". Certification involves completing a medical physical exam, a psychological examination, classroom training and qualifying on a pistol range, with firing of 50 rounds of ammo larger than a .380acp. Agents are also required to qualify on a shotgun. The certification is good for five years at which time an eight-hour refresher course must be taken or the certification is revoked.", "South Carolina – All Security Officers have the same authority and power of arrest as Sheriff's Deputies, while on the property they are paid to protect, and according to Attorney General Alan Wilson, are considered Law Enforcement for the purpose of making arrests and swearing out a warrant before the magistrate. Private Officers may respond to calls for service, make arrests and use blue lights and traffic radar", ". They may also be specially authorized by the State Law Enforcement Division (SLED) to issue Uniform Traffic Tickets to violators. Security Officers are licensed or registered (as appropriate) by SLED for one year at a time. Training for unarmed officers is 8 hours, an additional 8 hours is required for a security weapons permit or a concealed security weapons permit", ". Additional hours are required to be documented for officers issuing public or private tickets as well as officers who will be using batons, pepper spray or tasers.", "St. Louis, Missouri – Security officers are required to be licensed by the St. Louis County Police Department or St. Louis Police Department. St. Louis County security officer training is a two-day class and yearly renewal class. Armed officers must shoot bi-annually to keep their armed status. County license is called a Metropolitan License, meaning it is good for St. Louis City and County. The St", ". Louis City and County. The St. Louis City web site has all the information regarding licensing requirements, as they are the same in the city and county.", "Texas – There are three types of Security Officer license types in the state of Texas. Each requires a certain level of training. All training and licensing is regulated by the Department of Public Safety's Private Security Bureau. The three types of licenses are", "Non Commissioned Security Officer (Level II) A Non Commissioned Security Officer is unarmed and must wear a distinctive DPS approved uniform. The main purpose of this type of officer is the phrase most associated with security, Observe and Report. The Security Officer is generally there to be a good witness.", "Required Training: Level II/Non Commissioned Officer requires 6 hours of classroom based training. This course may be taught by any licensed company directly to new hires. The Owner, Qualified Manager, or a designee of the Qualified Manager may teach the course. At the completion of the course the candidate must pass a multiple choice exam. There are no pre requisites to this course or license.\n Background Check: FBI background check and electronic fingerprint imaging", "Background Check: FBI background check and electronic fingerprint imaging\n Renewal: Submission of renewal fee every two years. No required renewal course.", "Commissioned Security Officer (Level III) A Commissioned Security Officer openly carries a handgun and may also carry a baton, chemical dispensing device (OC), Taser, etc. Commissioned Officers also must wear a distinct DPS approved uniform and can at no time conceal their weapon while on duty and/or in uniform. The main purpose of this type of officer is to actively prevent and deter crime", ". The main purpose of this type of officer is to actively prevent and deter crime. Observe and report is now a secondary function and the officer is to actively protect the clients and property in accordance with clients procedures as well as state/federal law.", "Required Training: Level III/Commissioned Officer requires a 40-hour Level III course. The training for this license consists of classroom based learning, defense tactics, handcuffing, and firearms training. At the completion of the course the candidate must pass a firearms proficiency test and a multiple choice exam. This license requires the previous Level II course to be completed first", ". This license requires the previous Level II course to be completed first. This course may only be taught by a licensed Level III instructor working under a state licensed Level III security training school.", "Background Check: FBI background check and electronic fingerprint imaging\n Renewal: Submission of renewal fee and proof of completion of a 6-hour re-qualification class taught by a Level III instructor under a Level III training school. The re-qualification course requires completion of a multiple choice exam and a firearms qualification. This is done every two years.", "Personal Protection Officer (Level IV) A Personal Protection Officer (PPO) directly protects the life of their client. PPO's are the only license type able to wear plain clothes while working. PPO's in plain clothes MUST conceal their firearm, and they are also the only license type able to conceal their firearm at all. The Level IV/Personal Protection Officer license is tied to the Level III/Commissioned Officer license", ". To issue a PPO license the PPO candidate must be applying for at the same time or have already received a Level III/ Commissioned Security Officer license. The Security Officer's Level III and IV will also have the same expiration date regardless of date issued.", "Required Training: Level IV/ Personal Protection Officer requires a 15 hours course teaching additional law, defense tactics, considerations for personal protection of a client, and OC training. This license requires the previous Level II and Level III courses to be completed first. This course may only be taught by a licensed Level IV instructor working under a state licensed Level IV security training school.\n Background Check: FBI background check and electronic fingerprint imaging", "Background Check: FBI background check and electronic fingerprint imaging\n Psychological Testing: In addition to the training and background check a PPO must also submit an MMPI (psychological test) administered by a Texas licensed Psychologist.\n Renewal: Submission of renewal fee and a current Level III/ Commissioned Officer license or pending renewal of Level III/Commissioned Officer license.", "Virginia – Since the 1980s, Security Officers in Virginia are required to be certified by DCJS (Department of Criminal Justice Services, the same agency that certifies law enforcement officers). To be certified as an unarmed security officer one must go through 18 hours of classroom training from a certified instructor in order to obtain this card and it must be done by the end of their 90 days after hire with a Security company", ". Every two years the card must be renewed, by completing an in-service with a certified instructor. To be certified as an armed security officer one must complete an additional 24 hours of firearms training, 8 hours of training in conducting a lawful arrest, and qualification with the type and caliber of weapon they intend to carry. Firearms endorsements must be renewed annually by completing an in-service and passing a firearms qualification", ". Certified armed security officers are authorized under state code to arrest for any offense committed in their presence while they are on duty at the location they are hired to protect. Unarmed officers have no arrest powers. They also are granted the authority by the state law to issue summons to appear in court for felonies and misdemeanors", ". Virginia also allows security officers to attend additional 40 hours of training to become certified as Conservators of the Peace (Special Police) for the company employing them. This appointment is performed by a Circuit Court Judge, wherein the officer is actually sworn in and has the powers of a police officer on property they are working, as well as the lawful duty to act upon witnessing any felony and the ability to pursue fleeing felons", ". Such sworn officers are also permitted the use of sirens and red lights. Those who handle K-9s, work as dispatchers, alarm responders, private investigators, instructors, bounty hunters, armored car couriers and Executive Protection Specialists are other categories of training regulated by DCJS with additional training requirements. All positions require State Police and FBI background checks.", "Police", "Security personnel are not police officers, unless they are security police. Security personnel derive their powers from state or provincial laws, which allow them a contractual arrangement with clients that give them Agent of the Owner powers. This includes a nearly unlimited power to question with the absence of probable cause requirements that frequently dog public law enforcement officers", ". In essence, security officers keep private property / persons safe from hazards, whereas police officers protect entire communities by enforcing laws and arresting suspected offenders. Some jurisdictions do commission or deputize security officers and give them limited additional powers, particularly when employed in protecting public property such as mass transit stations. This is a special case that is often unique to a particular jurisdiction or locale", ". This is a special case that is often unique to a particular jurisdiction or locale. Additionally, security officers may also be called upon to act as an agent of law enforcement if a police officer, sheriff's deputy, etc. is in immediate need of help and has no available backup.", "Some security officers do have reserve police powers and are typically employed directly by governmental agencies. Typically, these are sworn law enforcement personnel whose duties primarily involve the security of a government installation, and are also a special case. Other local and state governments occasionally enter into special contracts with security agencies to provide patrol services in public areas. These personnel are sometimes referred to as \"private police officers\"", ". These personnel are sometimes referred to as \"private police officers\". Sometimes, police officers work as security personnel while not on duty. This is usually done for extra income, and work is particularly done in hazardous jobs such as bodyguard work and bouncers outside nightclubs. Police are called in when a situation warrants a higher degree of authority to act upon reported observations that security does not have the authority to act upon", ". However, some states allow Licensed Security Officers full arrest powers equal to those of a Sheriff's Deputy.", "In 1976, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration's National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals reported:", "One massive resource, filled with significant numbers of personnel, armed with a wide array of technology, and directed by professionals who have spent their entire adult lifetimes learning how to prevent and reduce crime, has not been tapped by governments in the fight against criminality", ". The private security industry, with over one million workers, sophisticated alarm systems and perimeter safeguards, armored trucks, sophisticated mini-computers, and thousands of highly skilled crime prevention experts, offers a potential for coping with crime that can not be equalled by any other remedy or approach...", ".... Underutilized by police, all but ignored by prosecutors and the judiciary, and unknown to corrections officials, the private security professional may be the only person in this society who has the knowledge to effectively prevent crime.", "In New York City, the Area Police/Private Security Liaison program was organized in 1986 by the NYPD commissioner and four former police chiefs working in the private security industry to promote mutual respect, cross-training, and sharing of crime-related information between public police and private security.\n\nTrends", "Trends\n\nAustralia\nIn 2006, the Australian Bureau of Statistics Report showed that private security personnel outnumbered police, with 52,768 full-time security officers in the security industry compared to 44,898 police officers. However, since the Security Industry Regulation Act of 2007 it has dropped to less than half of that.\n\nBangladesh", "Bangladesh \n\nIn Bangladesh, private companies and residential authorities may assign security guards. Some are trained to use firearms and manage emergency situations, but the majority of them are untrained and only assigned for their physical strength and presence.", "United Kingdom", "The trend in the UK is one of polarization. Manned guarding, the security industry term for the security guards most people are familiar with, is diverging toward two opposite extremes; one typified by a highly trained and well paid security officer; the other with security officers on or about minimum wage with only the minimum training required by law", ". Within the \"in-house\" sector, where security personnel are not subject to licensing under the Private Security Industry Act 2001, the same divergence can be seen, with some companies opting for in-house security to maintain control of their standards, while others use it as a route to cheaper, non-regulated, security. In a very few cases, such as the Northern Ireland Security Guard Service, security guards may be attested as Special Constables.", "United States", "Economist Robert B. Reich, in his 1991 book The Work of Nations, stated that in the United States, the number of private security guards and officers was comparable to the number of publicly paid police officers. He used this phenomenon as an example of the general withdrawal of the affluent from existing communities where governments provide public services. Instead, the wealthy pay to provide their own premium services, through voluntary, exclusive associations", ". As taxpayer resistance has limited government budgets, and as the demand for secure homes in gated communities has grown, these trends have continued in the 1990s and 2000s. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the trend in the US is one of a quiet transformation of the role of security guards into first responders in case of a terrorist attack or major disaster", ". This has resulted in longer guard instruction hours, extra training in terrorism tactics and increased laws governing private security companies in some states.", "History", "The vigiles were soldiers assigned to guard the city of Rome, often credited as the origin of both security personnel and police, although their principal duty was as a fire brigade. There have been night watchmen since at least the Middle Ages in Europe; walled cities of ancient times also had watchmen", ". A special chair appeared in Europe sometime in the late Middle Ages, called the watchman's chair; this unupholstered wooden chair had a forward slanting seat to prevent the watchman from dozing off during duty.", "Notable examples", "In June 1972, Frank Wills, a security guard at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C., noticed a piece of tape covering the latch on an entrance to one of the buildings, thereby preventing it from locking. Police, whom Wills subsequently notified, arrested five men in the portion of the building occupied by the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters", ". The following investigations and revelations—entirely enabled by Wills' discoveries and subsequent actions—ultimately led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in what is now known as the Watergate scandal, considered among the largest American political scandals.", "Christoph Meili, night guard at a Swiss bank, became a whistleblower in 1997. He told about the bank destroying records related to funds of Holocaust victims, whose money the bank was supposed to return to the victims' heirs.\n In 1999, security guard Pierlucio Tinazzi died while attempting to rescue victims from the Mont Blanc tunnel fire.", "In 2001, Gary Coleman, former child actor, was employed as an armed security officer, with permits valid for both firearm and baton through the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services of California in the Los Angeles area. While shopping for a bullet-resistant vest for his job, Coleman assaulted a female autograph collector. Coleman said he felt \"threatened by her insistence\" and punched her in the head.", "Richard Jewell, a security officer at Atlanta, Georgia's Centennial Olympic Park during the 1996 Summer Olympics who was wrongly accused of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing. Jewell was later cleared of those charges, and was in fact the one who saved hundreds of lives when he first noticed the suspicious package and got the area evacuated. Jewell later successfully sued several news agencies who erroneously reported he was the bomber.", "Unionization\n\nCanada\nMany security guards in Canada are unionized. The primary unions which represent security guards in Canada are the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW), Local 333, and the Canadian branch of the United Steelworkers (USW). In contrast to the legal restrictions in the United States, Canadian labour relations boards will certify bargaining units of security guards for a Canadian Labour Congress (CLC)-affiliated union or in the same union with other classifications of employees.", "Singapore\nSecurity officers in Singapore are unionised under the Union of Security Employees (USE), an affiliate of the National Trades Union Congress (NTUC).", "United States", "In June 1947, the United States Congress passed the Taft–Hartley Act placing many restrictions on labor unions. Section 9 (B) (3) of the act prevents the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) from certifying for collective bargaining any unit which mixes security employees with non-security employees. This restricts the ability of security employees to join any union that also represents other types of employees", ". They may be part of an independent, \"security-only\" union, not affiliated with any coalition of other types of labor unions such as the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). A union which also represents non-security employees may also represent and bargain on behalf of security employees with the employer's consent", ". Two of the largest security unions are the Security, Police, and Fire Professionals of America (SPFPA) and the United Government Security Officers of America (UGSOA), but the largest union of security officers is SEIU 32BJ, which as of 2018 had over 30,000 security officers.", "Security, Police, and Fire Professionals of America", "In 1948 with the Taft–Hartley restrictions well into effect, the Detroit, Michigan area security guards of United Auto Workers (UAW) Amalgamated Local 114 were forced to break away and start a separate \"Plant Guards Organizing Committee\". The NLRB ruled that as an affiliate of the CIO, the committee was indirectly affiliated with production unions and therefore ineligible for certification under the new restrictions", ". The committee was then forced to completely withdraw from the CIO and start the independent United Plant Guard Workers of America. By the 1990s, this union had evolved to include many other types of security officers and changed its name to the SPFPA.", "United Government Security Officers of America\nIn 1992, the UGSOA was formed. It specializes in organizing federal, state, and local government security officers, but since May, 2000 has been open to representing other types of security personnel as well.", "Others\nThe Service Employees International Union (SEIU) has also sought to represent security employees, although its efforts have been complicated by the Taft-Harley Act because the SEIU also represents janitors, trash collectors, and other building service employees.\n\nSee also", "Access control\n Airport security\n Armored car (valuables)\n Bodyguard\n Bounty hunter\n Car guard\n Certified Protection Officer\n Commissionaire\n Counterterrorism\n Executive protection\n Hotel detective\n Infrastructure security\n List of private security companies\n Loss prevention\n Northern Ireland Security Guard Service\n Nuclear security\n Paramilitary\n Physical security\n Police officer\n Port security\n Private investigator\n Private military company\n Private security company\n Security\n Security police", "Private military company\n Private security company\n Security\n Security police\n Store detective\n Traffic guard\n Transportation security officer\n Use of force continuum", "References\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nProtective service occupations\nCrime prevention\nParamilitary\nPhysical security\nPrivate security industry\nGuard\nLaw enforcement occupations\nSurveillance\nLaw enforcement" ]

[ "Moorooka State School is a heritage-listed state school at Sherley Street, Moorooka, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The buildings were designed by Department of Public Works (Queensland) and Frederick George Kirkegard with the first buildings being constructed from 1928 to 1929. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 August 2015.", "History", "Moorooka State School opened in January 1929 to accommodate the growing population of a previously rural district on the southern outskirts of Brisbane. The first Sectional School building was extended in 1933 and 1946 with further Sectional School buildings to its northeast and northwest corners. In 1956 a three-storey brick and concrete classroom block in a modernist style was added, as post-war housing construction in Moorooka continued to increase the local population", ". The standard and purpose-built school buildings are set amongst terraced, landscaped grounds with mature trees. Apart from a brief hiatus during World War II (WWII), the school has been in continuous operation since establishment and has been a focus for the local community as a place for important social and cultural activity.", "Originally part of an area called \"Boggo\", which ran from Dutton Park to Rocky Water Holes (later Rocklea, ), and which was part of the traditional lands of the Turrbal people, Moorooka's development was spurred on by transport improvements. Predominantly an agricultural area until the early 20th century, the coming of the Beenleigh railway line in 1885 increased the attraction of the district for residential development", ". The Moorooka railway station was established in 1887 and the Moorooka Railway Station Estate was advertised in 1889, but flooding in 1893 deterred settlement of the area for some time. By 1900 Moorooka was still primarily rural, with most residents living between Ipswich Road and Beaudesert Road. The house \"Greenloaning\", built for Robert Bell in 1904, was on land which later became the Moorooka State School's Infant School, and his family lived there until WWII.", "Residential development occurred to the west and north of the school site in the early 20th century, assisted by the extension of the tramline to Yeronga Park in 1915. In the 1920s the area east of Ipswich Road, to the south of Yeronga Park, was used for war service housing. The tram line was extended from Yeronga Park, down Beaudesert Road as far as Mayfield Road, in 1937", ". However, the area around Moorooka State School (east of Beaudesert Road, between Mayfield and Evans Roads) remained largely undeveloped before WWII, apart from some housing between Bracken Street and Sherley Street.", "The establishment of schools was considered an essential step in the development of growing communities and integral to their success. Locals often donated land and labour for a school's construction and the school community contributed to maintenance and development. Schools became a community focus, a symbol of progress, and a source of pride, with enduring connections formed with past pupils, parents, and teachers.", "In 1911, the population of Moorooka was 350, rising to 791 by 1921. Pressure for a state school at Moorooka occurred from around 1912, when the Moorooka Progress Association presented a petition to the Education Department. Moorooka children either attended Rocklea State School, or Yeronga State School (established 1867 as Boggo State School). A site for a new school at Moorooka, consisting of , was purchased from Charles Robert Parish by the Department of Public Instruction in December 1927.", "The first building constructed for the school, during 1928, was a standard Public Works design. To help ensure consistency and economy, the Queensland Government developed standard plans for its school buildings. From the 1860s until the 1960s, Queensland school buildings were predominantly timber-framed, an easy and cost-effective approach that also enabled the government to provide facilities in remote areas", ". Standard designs were continually refined in response to changing needs and educational philosophy and Queensland school buildings were particularly innovative in climate control, lighting, and ventilation. Standardisation produced distinctly similar schools across Queensland with complexes of typical components.", "Attention to improving light and ventilation to achieve an optimum classroom environment culminated in 1920 with the Sectional School (Type DT/1), a high-set timber structure. This fundamentally new design combined all the best features of previous types and implemented theories of an ideal education environment. It proved very successful and was used unaltered until 1950", ". It proved very successful and was used unaltered until 1950. This type was practical, economical, satisfied educational requirements and climatic needs and allowed for the orderly expansion of schools over time.", "Before the Sectional School, all school buildings were generally aligned with street and property boundaries, regardless of aspect. By late 1914, after acceptance of the principles and virtues of providing natural light into classrooms advocated by Eleanor Bourne, (appointed as the first Medical Inspector of Schools in 1911), buildings were being preferably orientated to receive maximum indirect southern light", ". The Sectional School type was designed to have an unobstructed wall of windows on its southern elevation and verandahs, typically to the north but sometimes to the end elevations, allowing for linkages to other and future buildings. Its blank end walls were also detailed to be removable, so that as the school grew, the building could be easily extended in sections, hence the name. This led to the construction of long narrow buildings of many classrooms - a distinctive feature of Queensland schools.", "The Sectional School building at Moorooka was aligned approximately east–west, being lowset at the east end, and highset at the west end (due to sloping ground), and consisted of five classrooms , with an northern verandah which wrapped around the east and west sides. A teachers room projected off the northern verandah, and the northeast and northwest verandah corners were enclosed", ". The 1928 plan indicated possible future expansion through the addition of buildings off each corner of the first building, linked by their verandahs; an expansion approach that accommodated the sloping site. The building (known as Block B in 2015) had a Dutch-gabled roof and was set on concrete piers. About two thirds of the understorey play area, on the west side, was floored with concrete. Three of the classrooms were linked by folding partitions, which could be opened to create an assembly hall", ". The remaining partitions were fixed, with centred doorways. It was reported that there was room for 200 pupils, with ample light and ventilation provided by large windows on the southern side. The completed cost was £2,607.", "Moorooka State School opened in January 1929 with 139 children and 6 teachers. By the end of the year, enrolments had increased to 230. At the school's official opening on 16 March 1929, Thomas Wilson, the Minister for Public Instruction, noted that the school, built on the elevated part of the site, had a beautiful view to the west, and was positioned to allow for future expansion.", "Efforts were made to improve the school grounds and its facilities. The Ladies Committee worked to provide a piano, a sewing machine and a library, and to install electric lights at the school. In late 1929 a concert was held in the Ideal Picture Theatre in Yeronga to raise funds. The uneven parade ground between the school and Sherley Street was levelled by government relief workers, and boys at the school helped remove tree stumps from the grounds", ". In 1931 two tennis courts were opened, southwest of the school building, with money raised by the School Committee, the Ladies Committee, and teachers.", "The continued increase in daily attendance (averaging 260 by 1933) also led to a new two-classroom wing for 100 children (known as Block A in 2015) officially opened on 27 May 1933 by Frank Cooper, the Minister for Public Instruction. Connected to the northeast corner of the 1929 block, the addition was another Sectional School building, with the same proportions and features as the first. The south wall had casement windows with fanlights, while the northern windows were double-hung sashes", ". There was a teachers room off the north verandah, and semi-enclosed hat rooms at the northwest and southeast verandah corners. Inside, the building had coved ceilings, with exposed metal tie rods.", "WWII affected the functioning of Moorooka State School. In 1942, a Staging Camp (Camp Moorooka) was constructed for the US Army between Mayfield Road and Bracken Street, extending south to the east of Medina Street, and west to the southeast corner of Moorooka State School", ". Due to the fear of a Japanese invasion of Australia, the Queensland Government closed all coastal state schools in late January 1942, but while most state schools resumed on 2 March 1942, some, such as Moorooka, remained closed for \"special reasons\". The US Army took over Moorooka State School from 24 February 1942, and as a result, most of Moorooka's pupils went to Junction Park State School. However, Moorooka's students were allowed back to their own school on 13 July 1942.", "Substantial housing development also occurred south of the school towards the end of WWII. In 1944-45 the Moorooka War Workers Housing Estate was built between Scherger Street and Evans Road, for married workers at the Rocklea Munitions Works. This complemented the hostels built for single workers, located to the west of Beaudesert Road, south of Hamilton Road, and the hostels' area was later used for housing ex-servicemen", ". After the war, the business centre of Moorooka shifted to Moorvale, at the junction of Beaudesert and Mayfield Roads.", "Moorooka State School continued to expand after WWII, as a result of housing development and an increased local population. In 1947 the combined population of Moorooka, Rocklea and Salisbury was 8,364, and this rose to 12,163 in 1954, and 17,246 by 1971. In late 1946 a new wing for infants (known as Block C in 2015) was added to the northwest corner of the original building. Another Sectional School design, this was highset (although lower than the 1929 building) with the understorey floor concreted", ". Plans also show a concrete retaining wall between the 1946 building and Sherley Street. The roof was Dutch-gabled, and the northern verandah wrapped around the east and west sides. The southern side was lit by casement windows and the northern by double-hung sash windows. The two classrooms were larger than in the previous blocks, being and divided by a folding partition. Ceilings were coved, with exposed metal tie-rods and latticed vents", ". Ceilings were coved, with exposed metal tie-rods and latticed vents. Hat rooms were located at the south end of the west verandah, and the northeast corner of the verandah of the new building; while the connection to the 1929 building, by steps rising up between the verandahs, required the relocation of an existing hatroom to the south end of the latter's western verandah. It is claimed that the windows on the verandah side of Block C improved ventilation, and that these rooms were popular.", "The Department of Public Instruction was largely unprepared for the enormous demand for state education that began in the late 1940s and continued well into the 1960s. This was a nation-wide occurrence resulting from the unprecedented population growth now termed the \"baby boom\". Queensland schools were overcrowded and, to cope, many new buildings were constructed and existing buildings were extended", ". At Moorooka State School, a former Camp Moorooka store building to the south of the school was converted into four classrooms in 1946. Between 1946 and 1950 a new teachers room was attached to the east verandah of the 1929 block, as well as a single-storey extension to the west of the existing northern teachers room. Concrete stairs to the northwest of Block A, similar to those adjacent to Block C, were also added around that time", ". Two temporary classrooms blocks (totalling five classrooms), were built between 1948 and 1951, on of land added to the south side of Moorooka State School in 1943. Such temporary buildings were constructed in Queensland schools between 1943 and 1951, and were introduced as an expedient, temporary solution to the baby boom and post-war shortages of labour and materials. The remainder of the school grounds, to the south, were added by 1950.", "While the majority of school buildings were built to standard plans, as in other periods, some buildings were also constructed to a purposed design. These were typically constructed in areas of stable, suburban and urban populations and can be seen as an evolution of the urban brick school buildings of the early 1900s and depression-era brick school buildings", ". They were generally substantial structures of brick and concrete that introduced many innovative ideas that later found their way into standard plans. For example, brick was progressively used more frequently in high schools as standard. In 1953, new brick primary school buildings were planned for Moorooka, Townsville and Walkervale (Bundaberg), as part of a school-building program at that time that was reportedly a record for the state", ". Moorooka State School's new brick and concrete three-storey classroom block (known as Block D in 2015) was approved in 1953, at a cost of £43,635, and the building was opened in 1956. The building was designed by Frederick George Kirkegard, a student architect with the Department of Public Works, in a modernist, austere style popular at the time.", "Modernist architecture developed in pre-World War I Europe and gained popularity in Australia after WWII. It is notable for a rationalisation of planning, emphasising clarity and simplicity of form and detailing. Distinguished by their extensive use of steel, reinforced concrete and glass, Australian buildings in the modern or International style were heavily influenced by American and European examples", ". Characteristics included rectangular massing, plain smooth walls with areas of contrasting textures, and selective expression of structural systems, such as concrete framework. In Queensland, architects sought to create climatically responsive modernist buildings by combining careful building orientation, sun-shading devices and natural ventilation methods", ". This design approach was consistent with the requirements espoused by United Kingdom and New South Wales educationalists at the time, who advocated for schools that were climatically responsive with diffused natural light, and constructed of modern materials that were durable, washable and attractive", ". Education in the 1950s was embracing the modern, and media reports at the time espoused the virtues of bright and attractive school buildings for encouraging student attendance, stating that \"Brisbane's modern new State schools should make for happier, healthier learning\".", "The new building at Moorooka was anticipated to \"provide classrooms and other facilities of the most modern character\". Kirkegard's design comprised an elongated form of rectangular massing, with contrasting areas of facebrick (enclosing the east and west ends) and painted concrete (verandah and shade elements). There were open verandahs on the northern side, with large concrete fins that contributed to sun control, and a concrete balustrade", ". The building had timber-framed hopper windows on the southern elevation with a long flat concrete hood, and double-hung sash windows with fanlights on the northern elevation. Constructed to the southwest of Block C, the new building contained an open play area for most of the ground floor, with a health services room, glazed entry lobby and stairwell at the east end, and a stairwell and boys lavatory at the west end", ". The first floor included four classrooms, a store and cloakroom at the west end, and a head teachers room, with associated lobby and bathroom, at the east end; while the second floor had four classrooms, with a store and cloak room at the west end and a utility room at the east end. A curved Brisbane tuff (commonly but incorrectly known as porphyry) retaining wall with incorporated planter boxes, was also built to the north and east of Block D at this time (with concrete block extension in the late 1960s)", ".", "The school continued to expand from the 1950s onwards, with new buildings and some changes to existing buildings. New tennis courts were built by 1955, further south on the east side of the school, after Block D was built north of the original tennis courts. In 1958 Blocks J and K were built for an Infant's School (opened 1959)", ". In 1958 Blocks J and K were built for an Infant's School (opened 1959). In 1959 Block C's western verandah was enclosed as a store and hat room, new stairs were built at each end of Block B (on the verandahs, leading down to the understorey), and a boys' toilet was added inside the Head Teacher's room in Block D.", "The 1960s was a period of growth at the school. Enrolments rose from 700 to 1000 between 1967 and 1970, although later fell back to 700 by 1976. Further buildings were added to the school during the 1960s and 1970s, along with a swimming pool in 1963. An east-west retaining wall was built south of Block A in the late 1960s, and the retaining wall to the northwest of Block A was extended to Sherley Street at the same time", ". Staff toilets were added to the west end of the ground floor of Block D , and a library (Block L) was built south of the east end of Block D in 1977. Meanwhile, the converted army hut was removed from the grounds , and the temporary classrooms blocks between 1972 and 1974.", "The population of Moorooka in 1976 was 9,639, but the late 1970s saw a decline in student numbers, due to an aging population. In 1983, the Junior and Primary Schools were combined. In December 2006, Blocks J and K were destroyed by an arson attack, but were replaced with a multi-purpose hall that opened in 2009. Moorooka's population was 8,609 in 2001, rising to 9,984 in 2011", ". Moorooka's population was 8,609 in 2001, rising to 9,984 in 2011. The arrival in the suburb of immigrant families from culturally diverse backgrounds is reflected in the current student body at Moorooka State School.", "The school grounds now cover , and include mature plantings, some of which were planted by students on Arbor Days. The provision of outdoor play space was a result of the early and continuing commitment by the Department of Public Instruction to play-based education, particularly in primary school. Trees and gardens were planted as part of beautification of schools", ". Trees and gardens were planted as part of beautification of schools. In the 1870s, schools inspector William Alexander Boyd was critical of tropical schools and among his recommendations stressed the importance of adding shade trees to playgrounds. In addition, Arbor Day celebrations began in Queensland in 1890. Landscape elements were often constructed to standard designs and were intrinsic to Queensland Government education philosophies", ". Educators believed gardening and Arbor Days instilled in young minds the value of hard work and activity, improved classroom discipline and developed aesthetic tastes. Aesthetically designed gardens were encouraged by regional inspectors. Mature trees currently along the northwest boundary were evident in aerial photographs from 1946", ". Mature trees currently along the northwest boundary were evident in aerial photographs from 1946. Memorials commemorating Anzac Day (2008) and the opening of the Outdoor Learning Centre (2004) have been placed adjacent to one of two pencil pines (Cupressus sempervirens) to the northeast of Block C.", "In 2015, the school continues to operate from its original site. It retains standard timber and purpose-built brick buildings dating from 1929 to the 1950s, set in landscaped grounds. The school is important as a focus for the surrounding community and generations of students from the area have been taught there. Since establishment the school has been a key social focus for the local community", ". Since establishment the school has been a key social focus for the local community. The grounds and buildings have been the location of many social and community events over time, including as a meeting place of the Moorooka Branch of the Australian Red Cross during WWII, and for fetes to raise funds for the school.", "Description", "Moorooka State School occupies a site (Lots 595 SP118822 and 594 SP118821) bounded by Sherley Street to the north, Beaudesert Road to the west, Alexander Park to the south, and residential properties that front Blomfield Street to the east. However, the registered boundary encompasses the northern of the school (Lot 595 SP118822 only), consistent with the 1927 school reserve", ". The main entrance to the school is along Sherley Street, where the timber school buildings (Blocks A, B and C) and mature trees along the boundary contribute to the suburban streetscape. The site slopes downwards from northeast to southwest. The school complex comprises a variety of educational buildings and landscape features of varying eras of design and construction. Of these, significant components are concentrated to the north and include:", "Block B - Sectional School Building (1929)\n Block A - Sectional School Building (1933);\n Block C - Sectional School Building (1946)\n Block D - Brick and Concrete Building (1956)\n Landscape features - Mature trees and retaining walls", "Elements within the registered boundary that are not considered to be of cultural significance include: Blocks E, F, and I; the Library; various modern ancillary structures; modern landscape features such as pathways and paved areas; and the swimming pool. Where the register boundary extends into road reserve, the road and footpath fabric is not considered to be of cultural significance.", "Sectional School buildings - Blocks A, B and C", "The three Sectional School buildings are timber-framed and weatherboard-clad structures on concrete piers, with corrugated metal-clad Dutch-gable roofs and verandahs along the north, east and west sides. The buildings are symmetrically arranged in a U-shaped plan, with Block A and Block C connected to either end of the northern verandah of Block B. The buildings range from lowset to highset, reflecting the slope of the site", ". The buildings range from lowset to highset, reflecting the slope of the site. From east to west: Block A is lowset; Block B is highset; and Block C is highset, though set lower than Block B and connected via verandah stairs.", "The buildings retain extensive early timber joinery. Southern windows comprise large banks of casements with horizontal centre-pivot fanlights. Windows to the northern verandah walls vary, with banks of high-level horizontal centre-pivot windows to Block B, and double-hung sash windows with horizontal centre-pivot fanlights to Blocks A and C. Windows and doors retain early fittings and hardware. The interior walls and ceilings are lined with timber v-jointed (VJ) tongue-and-groove (T&G) boards", ". The ceilings are coved, with exposed metal tie rods and square lattice ceiling vents. Skirtings and architraves are timber of a simple profile.", "Verandah walls are single-skin, lined with VJ, T&G boards with exposed external framing. Verandah floors are timber, and ceilings are raked and lined with VJ, T&G boards. Joinery to the verandahs includes square timber posts and two-rail timber balustrades with battened balusters. Classrooms are accessed from the northern verandahs via flush-panelled doors with fanlights. Hat / bag hooks are attached to the verandah walls of Blocks B and C.", "Teachers rooms are attached to the north and east sides of Block B, and to the north of Block A; they are gable-roofed and weatherboard-clad, and feature skillion window hoods with timber brackets. The north-facing teachers rooms have battened gable infills. The interior walls and flat ceilings are lined with VJ, T&G boards.", "Elements of the Sectional School buildings not considered to be of cultural significance include additions and alterations such as: modern extensions; carpet and linoleum floor linings; sheeted and glazed partitions; ceiling fans and air conditioning units; understorey enclosures; modern joinery, fixtures and fittings; and aluminium framed windows.\n\nBlock B (1929) - Centre", "Block B (1929) - Centre \n\nBlock B contains an open plan classroom space (formerly five classrooms). The lintels and bulkheads of the four original classroom partitions remain, with a modern concertina door inserted into one opening.", "An early hat room enclosure (1946) is retained on the southwestern corner of the verandah, along with a connecting stair to the northwest. The northern verandah is accessed via two sets of external stairs. Additional stairs () have been inserted into the east and west verandahs, providing covered access to the understorey. The east verandah stairs are enclosed with a combination of modern fixed glazing and louvres.", "The eastern teachers room ( - 1950) is lowset on timber stumps; and connected to the 1929 building via a small verandah extension. The door is panelled and the windows to the north, east and south are narrow, double-row casements.\n\nThe northern teachers room is highset on concrete piers. floor. The window on the eastern wall is an original casement, while the fixed northern window and verandah door are modern. There is a lowset weatherboard-clad extension to the west (added -50).", "The understorey of Block B combines open areas for play, and enclosed areas for storage and a workshop (former modern tuckshop). The southern side has been partly enclosed with facebrick, which also formed the tuckshop counter area. Other areas are enclosed by either concrete, corrugated metal or timber battens. The understorey of the northern teachers room is enclosed with weatherboard cladding.", "Block A (1933) - East \nBlock A contains two classrooms, separated by an original partition with part-glazed double-doors. Part-height modern partitions form a small office space within the western classroom. The east and west facing Dutch-gable ends feature battened infills. The lowset understorey is also enclosed by timber battens.", "The verandahs are partially enclosed with modern sheeted and glazed partitions on the northern side between the teachers room and classrooms, and in the southeast corner for a store room (former hat room). The original semi-enclosed hat room is retained in the northwest corner.\n\nTwo sets of timber stairs access the northern verandah either side of the lowset teachers room. The teachers room retains a casement window to the north, while the eastern window has been replaced.", "Block C (1946) - West \nBlock C is primarily highset, with a lowset eastern verandah that is supported by a concrete retaining wall (1946). The building contains an open plan classroom space (formerly two classrooms - larger than those in Block A). The former layout is discernable from partition bulkheads that remain.", "The original semi-enclosed hat rooms are retained in the northwest and northeast corners of the verandah. The western verandah (now enclosed) is clad externally with weatherboard and lined internally with flat sheeting, and has with timber-framed hopper windows. Timber stairs provide external access to the north and east verandahs. The understorey is enclosed with corrugated metal, timber battens and concrete panels, and used as a storage area.\n\nBrick and Concrete Building - Block D (1956)", "Brick and Concrete Building - Block D (1956) \n\nBlock D is a three-storey, brick and reinforced-concrete building with a low-profile hipped roof. The building has rectangular massing and the elongated form comprises three distinct sections: full height facebrick enclosing concrete stairwells and amenities at the east and west ends; and first and second floor classrooms with north-facing verandahs to the centre.", "The north elevation features vertical and horizontal concrete fins forming ten bays to each of the upper floors. The verandahs are painted concrete and the end bays are enclosed with fixed, metal-framed glazing. The south elevation features a continuous, flat reinforced-concrete hood over the lower windows.", "The building retains much of its original timber-framed joinery. Windows to the east-end section are hoppers with rendered projecting jambs, and the west-end section has mostly casement windows. Classrooms have banks of south-facing hopper windows with fixed timber shelves to sill height. Windows to the verandah walls are double-hung sashes with horizontal centre-pivot fanlights. Some verandah windows on the second floor have been replaced with aluminium-framed sliders", ". Some verandah windows on the second floor have been replaced with aluminium-framed sliders. Classroom doors are low-waisted timber with glazed inserts. Classrooms at the western end have sliding doors.", "There are three (formerly four) classrooms on both the first and second floors. The fixed classroom partitions have timber doors at the southern end. Original folding partitions have been removed; however, the fixed partition bulkheads and doorways remain. Walls and ceilings are lined with flat sheeting.", "The west end section has lavatories to ground floor, and open meeting spaces (former cloak rooms) and toilets to the first and second floors. The east end section has a glazed entrance lobby to ground floor, and a combination of offices, storage and toilets to the first and second floors. The stairs in both end sections have metal balustrades with timber handrails. A ramp at the eastern end of the first floor connects with the understorey of Block B to the east.", "Much of the ground floor (formerly open play space supported by concrete piers) has been enclosed with fibrous-cement sheeting to form modern office spaces. Open areas have been retained adjacent to the east and west stairwells. These thoroughfares have fixed timber bench seats.\n\nLandscape Elements / Grounds \nThe established school grounds comprise mature trees and garden beds, as well as various built landscape features.", "The sloping site is terraced with embankments and retaining structures. The school is set slightly below Sherley Street, with earth embankments along part of the northern boundary. There is a flat parade ground to the north of Block B, surrounded by garden beds. A concrete retaining wall (1946) with stairs aligns to the north of Block C, and a similar set of concrete stairs (pre-1950) are located north of Block A", ". A curved retaining wall (), finished with Brisbane Tuff, extends from northwest of Block C around to southeast of Block D. The wall is stepped and incorporates planter boxes.", "Mature trees including figs (Ficus spp.) and camphor laurels (Cinnamomum camphora) are concentrated along the northwest boundary of the school and contribute to the streetscape. Further mature plantings of various Eucalypt species (Eucalyptus spp.) are concentrated near the eastern boundary of the school. Two mature pencil pines (Cupressus Sempervirens) are located adjacent to the entrance on Sherley Street.", "Memorial plaques have been placed adjacent to one of the pencil pines. One memorial is an ANZAC Day commemoration from 2008, the other is in commemoration of the opening of the Outdoor Learning Centre in 2004.\n\nHeritage listing \nMoorooka State School was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 August 2015 having satisfied the following criteria.\n\nThe place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.", "The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.\n\nMoorooka State School (established in 1929) is important in demonstrating the evolution of state education and its associated architecture in Queensland. The place retains excellent, representative examples of a standard government design that was an architectural response to prevailing government educational philosophies, and a non-standard design that reflects the specific needs of the school.", "Three connected Sectional School buildings (1929, 1933 and 1946) demonstrate the culmination of many years of experimental timber school design by the Department of Public Works (DPW), providing equally for educational and climatic needs.", "A three-storey brick and concrete building (1956) demonstrates the post-war construction of larger and more permanent school buildings in areas of established populations. The building reflects mid-20th century architectural and educationalist movements through its modernist, climatically responsive design and materials.\n\nThe grounds retain mature trees and landscaping features, representative of suburban school sites, and demonstrate the importance of play and aesthetics in the education of children.", "The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.", "Moorooka State School is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a Queensland state school with later modifications. The school is a good, intact example of a suburban school complex, comprising: timber-framed teaching buildings constructed to standard designs by the Queensland Government; a non-standard brick and concrete building; and a landscaped site with mature shade trees, retaining walls and assembly / play areas.", "The three connected Sectional School buildings (1929, 1933 and 1946) are fine, intact examples of their type, comprising: timber-framed structure; Dutch-gabled roofs; highset form with play space beneath (1929 and 1946 buildings); blank end walls; northern verandahs", ", with linkages between buildings; large banks of south-facing windows; projecting teachers rooms (1929 and 1933 buildings); hat room enclosures; single-skin verandah walls; coved ceilings with metal tie- rods and latticed vents; and early joinery and internal linings", ".", "The brick and concrete building (1956) is an excellent, intact example of an individually-designed state school building, typically constructed in areas with large urban populations to meet the specific needs of the school. Designed in a mid-20th century modernist style, the building combines rectangular massing, walls with areas of contrasting textures and climatically responsive design elements such as concrete fin sun-shades", ". The efficiently planned and well composed building comprises an elongated form, with facebrick and metal-framed glazing enclosing stairwells at the east and west ends, north-facing concrete verandahs along the first and second floors, and a glazed entrance and lobby to the east.", "The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.\n\nSchools have always played an important part in Queensland communities. They typically retain significant and enduring connections with former pupils, parents, and teachers; provide a venue for social interaction and volunteer work; and are a source of pride, symbolising local progress and aspirations.", "Moorooka State School has a strong and ongoing association with the surrounding community. It was established in 1929 through the efforts of the local community and generations of children have been taught there. The place is important for its contribution to the educational development of its suburban district and is a prominent community focal point and gathering place for social and commemorative events with widespread community support.\n\nReferences\n\nAttribution\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links", "References\n\nAttribution\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\n \n\nQueensland Heritage Register\nMoorooka, Queensland\nPublic schools in Queensland\nArticles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register" ]

[ "In the framework of the Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) the leading activity is the activity, or cooperative human action, which plays the most essential role in child development during a given developmental period", ". Although many activities may play a role in a child's development at any given time, the leading activity is theorized to be the type of social interaction that is most beneficial in terms of producing major developmental accomplishments, and preparing the child for the next period of development", ". Through engaging in leading activities, a child develops a wide range of capabilities, including emotional connection with others, motivation to engage in more complex social activities, the creation of new cognitive abilities, and the restructuring of old ones (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 98).", "The term \"leading activity\" was first used by Lev Vygotsky(1967: 15–17) in describing sociodramatic play as the leading activity and source of development of preschoolers, but it was not systematically incorporated into Vygotsky's theory of child development. Later, however, Alexei Leontiev and other \"neo-Vygotskians\" such as Alexander Zaporozhets and Daniel Elkonin (Zaporozhets 1997; Zaporozhets & Elkonin 1971) made the concept a fundamental element of their activity theory of child development", ". The concept has now been extended to several stages or periods in human development.", "The notion of a", "the leading activity is part of a broader theory of activity that attempts to integrate cognitive, motivational, and social aspects of development. Despite many detailed descriptive accounts of the developmental forms of memory, perception, and cognition in various phases of childhood (e.g. Piaget's work), often missing is an explanation for how or why the child develops these psychological processes (Karpov 2003: 138). The exploration of leading activities seeks to illuminate these questions", ". The exploration of leading activities seeks to illuminate these questions. Rather than biological maturation or stimulus-response learning, specific types of social activity are seen as generating human development. Because of its attention to causal dynamics, the neo-Vygotskian theory has been called \"the most comprehensive approach to the problem of determinants and mechanisms of child development (Karpov 2003: 138).\"", "Nature", "A leading activity is conceptualized as joint, social action with adults and/or peers that is oriented toward the external world. In the course of the leading activity, children develop new mental processes and motivations, which \"outgrow\" their current activity and provide the basis for transition to a new leading activity (Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, & Miller 2003: 7)", ". In most cases, the emergence of an activity can be seen long before it becomes the leading activity in a child's life (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99). Adults and more capable peers who instruct or assist children in engaging in the leading activity are said to be providing mediation of the activity, and creating a zone of proximal development, which allows children to perform activities at a higher level than they could perform independently", ". Mediation of leading activities is theorized to help children develop by acquiring the use of cultural or psychological \"tools,\" which transform children's mental processes.", "Sequence", "The activity considered leading for any given age or period of development depends on the type of society in which a child develops, and on the particular historical and cultural expectations for children of that age (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Neo-Vygotskians have proposed a sequence of children's optimal leading activities in modern industrialized societies (though leading activities may differ in agrarian or hunter-gatherer societies)", ". Of course, not all children within a particular culture will engage equally in leading activities (or in equal \"quality\" of activities), which leads to different developmental trajectories and outcomes", ". For example, children who lack opportunities to engage in rich, well-developed sociodramatic play during their preschool years appear to have greater difficulty with self-regulation and impulse control, characteristics associated with the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99)", "The proposed sequence of leading activities is not strictly determined by biological age, but rather by the typical age-related forms of adult and peer interaction in a given society (Chaiklin 2003: 48). As a result of their historical and cultural specificity, leading activities are subject to change. Different leading activities may develop and be found more beneficial for development within particular societies, leading to a revision or reconceptualization of the most effective leading activities", ". Karpov (2005) reviews recent empirical findings of Western researchers, which are highly consistent with the neo-Vygotskian analysis of child development through engagement in leading activities.", "Infancy: emotional communication with caregivers", "During the first year of life, emotional communication with caregivers is seen as the leading activity and context in which the developmental achievements of infancy occur. Vygotsky saw these interactions as the social foundation that would lead to learning and development in a uniquely human way (Karpov 2005). Primary caregivers establish an emotional dialogue with infants that goes beyond mere diapering and feeding routines", ". Development of this active, two-way emotional relationship results in what Bowlby (1969) called attachment. This shared activity is the blueprint for future relationships the child will develop, and creates motivation for the child to engage in later forms of shared activity (Leontiev 1978).", "Infants' emotional exchanges with caregivers begin with purely emotional exchanges, such as smiling or cooing back and forth, or more physical interactions such as when a baby happily responds to hugging, bouncing, or tickling (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Caregivers generally take the initiative in establishing emotional rapport with infants, and infants move from being relatively passive participants to taking increasingly active roles in these dialogues", ". It has been found that around the beginning of the second month of life, infants begin smiling in response to their caregivers' smile and voice (Zaporozhets & Markova 1983).", "In the third month of life, children begin smiling, gesturing and vocalizing (cooing) when greeting familiar adults. Vygotskians have called this the animation complex and infants soon come to use it proactively to arouse and maintain the attention of a caregiver (Bodrova & Leong 2007)", ". From around three to six months of age, infants use smiles and vocalizations to invite caregivers to engage in emotional exchanges, creating what researchers such as Tronick have called interactional synchrony (Tronick 1989). Parents often use \"baby-talk\" or \"child-directed speech\" in response to their children's prelinguistic vocalization (e.g", ".g. babbling), and it has been shown that infants respond by modifying their babbling in accordance with the phonological structure present in their caregivers' utterances (Goldstein & Schwade 2008). This sort of vocalized emotional interaction, or what John Locke (2001) has referred to as vocal communion, appears to be linked to attachment and later lexical learning, thus playing a formative role in language development.", "During the second half of the first year of life, infant-caregiver interactions expand to include emotional exchanges around objects, and actions on those objects (Bodrova & Leong 2007). For instance, a father may now smile and shake a rattle in response to the baby's smile. Around this time, parents may begin to label objects and talk about the actions they are performing. For infants, these objects become interesting as they are presented through emotional interaction with adults (Karpov 2005)", ". While Piaget believed that infants' sensorimotor manipulation of objects came through spontaneous body movements and exploratory actions, evidence suggests otherwise. Children who were severely deprived of emotional contact did not engage in much object manipulation, even though objects were accessible to them in their cribs (Lisina 1974; Spitz 1946)", ". This supports the Vygotskian assertion of a link between emotional interactions with caregivers and the development of object manipulation and exploratory behavior.", "In this new context of emotional communication around objects, infants develop more sophisticated communication tools of gestures and words. Vygotsky (1988) describes how an infant's unsuccessful grasping for an object is assigned social meaning when an adult hands the object to the child. The grasping motion then transforms into pointing, an instrumental gesture communicating to an adult the baby's desire, and perhaps prompting the adult to act on the infant's behalf (Vygotsky 1988)", ". Like gestures, a child's first words are treated as meaningful by the adults, and only later are used by infants to signify objects, people, and actions (Bodrova 2007: 104). A baby may make a random \"da da\" sound in her father's presence, and happy parents assign these sounds the meaning \"Daddy,\" a meaning which the baby then learns from the parents", ". Language thus emerges in shared form, with adults initially providing most of the verbal interaction, and children eventually beginning to appropriate and use the tool of language themselves (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 104).", "In summary, a positive emotional attitude toward adults is crucial for infants' development, as it leads to a vital interest in what the adult presents to the infant and does in their presence, such as using language and manipulating cultural objects, such as toys (as opposed to mere \"natural\" objects, such as rocks). As Yuri Karpov (2003: 142) put it, \"Figuratively speaking, infants become interested in the external world because it has been presented to them by loved adults", ".\" Infants accept adults as mediators of their relations with the world, and show increasing interest in the actions they can perform with cultural tools and objects (Bodrova & Leong 2007). This leads to infants' transition to a new leading activity.", "Toddlerhood: object-centered joint activity", "Although infants begin to engage in object manipulations during the first year of life, the nature of these manipulations changes qualitatively during the second year of life, when object-centered joint activity with adults becomes toddlers' leading activity", ". Though for much of infancy children have been involved with \"dyadic\" interactions with caregivers, or independent interactions with objects around them, around this time toddlers become centrally engaged in actions that are \"triadic\" in the sense that they involve the child, the adult, and some object or entity to which they share attention (Tomasello 1999)", ". While working with objects toddlers look where their caregivers look (gaze following), use adults as social reference points (social referencing), and act on objects the way adults act on them (imitative learning) (Tomasello 1999). Toddlers tune into the ways adults are using objects, and use communicative gestures to get adults to tune into them, as well as objects in which they are interested.", "Most often in recent Western psychology, the term \"joint attention\" has been used to describe these various triadic social skills and interactions (Moore & Dunham 1995). This concept appears consistent with Russian psychologists' use of the term \"object-centered joint activity\" to describe the leading activity for this age period. Although infants are able to independently manipulate objects according to their physical, surface characteristics (e.g", ".g. banging a spoon to produce a sound), through adult-child joint activity, children can begin to learn to use objects according to their social, or cultural logic (e.g. using a spoon for eating). In addition, toddlers' more advanced motor ability (e.g. transitioning from crawling to walking) allows them to explore new places and objects, and their hands are more free to handle cultural objects in more complex ways", ". Through a series of adult demonstrations and joint activities with objects, toddlers come to learn the uses of those objects, for instance that a fork is used to eat, mittens are to put on hands, and a brush is used to brush hair (Bodrova & Leong 2007).", "Like Piaget (1963), Vygotsky believed that young children develop sensory-motor thinking, in which they solve problems with objects by using motoric actions and perceptions. Unlike Piaget, however, Vygotsky saw sensorimotor thinking as mediated by other people through shared language and object-activity, rather than the mere maturation of sensorimotor schemas, as Piaget maintained (Bodrova & Leong 2007)", ". Toddlers learn the words for objects and actions that are performed with them, and eventually become capable of generalizing from object to object and from one situation to another. For instance, toddlers learn that different objects can serve the same function (e.g. that one can \"drink\" from a cup, mug, or bottle) (Bodrova & Leong 2007). In addition, toddlers begin to restructure their perception of the important characteristics of objects", ". Vygotsky's students Zaporozhet and Venger proposed the concept of \"sensory standards\" to refer to acquired patterns of perception based in objects' socially important characteristics (Venger 1988). Perceiving culturally designated colors, shapes, and basic tastes are early examples of sensory standards that toddlers' learn through object interactions with adults (e.g. \"Hand me the orange block\").", "An important aspect of toddlers' sensorimotor thinking is that, through joint object-activity with adults, it becomes infused with speech. As psychologist Karl Buhler put it, language is a tool or means for \"one to inform the other about the things\" (Bühler 1934, as cited in Müller & Carpendale 2000). Vygotsky thought that in toddlerhood, nonverbal sensorimotor thought begins to merge with spoken language, which ultimately leads to the development of verbal thinking (Vygotsky 1962)", ". This language acquisition, in turn, is thought to restructure and develop children's other mental processes during the second and third years of life, including perception, attention, memory, and thinking. Tamis-LeMonda et al. (1996) found that maternal responsiveness to children's vocalizations at 13 months of age were predictive of later language development as well as children's later expression of symbolic play at 20 months", ". Especially beneficial were those interactions in which the mother directly imitated or expanded on children's verbalizations.", "As adult-child object activity moves into the third year of a child's life, children develop the ability to make \"object substitutions\" (e.g. using a stick to represent a horse, or a banana to represent a telephone); this generally occurs after adults model naming a substitute object after a missing one during joint object activity (Karpov 2005). These object substitutions are theorized to play a role in the development of symbolic thought (Bodrova & Leong 2007)", ". In the course of object-oriented activity with adults, toddlers shift from imitations of actions with objects to imitations of the social roles and relationships behind the actions (e.g. shifting from feeding the doll with a spoon, to imitating the relationship of a mother-daughter, and the care and love associated with it). As adults help toddlers to discover the social roles behind the object actions they engage in (e.g", ". As adults help toddlers to discover the social roles behind the object actions they engage in (e.g. \"You're feeding the baby just like a mommy would\"), toddlers gain an increasing interest in adult social relations, which motivates them to take up the next leading activity (Karpov 2005).", "Early childhood: sociodramatic play", "From approximately age three to six years, sociodramatic play (or role play) is proposed to be children's leading developmental activity. It is essential to note that sociodramatic play is the exact opposite of what is normally thought of as \"free play\" when children do whatever they want, free of any rules or social pressure (Karpov 2003: 146). Because of children's interest in the social world of adults, and their inability to take on these complex roles directly (e.g", ".g. being a doctor or firefighter), they imitate and explore adult social relations through sociodramatic play (Karpov 2003). In some historical or present traditional societies, however, role play may not be the leading activity during this age period, and children may engage more directly in apprenticeship and adult forms of work (Elkonin 2005a)", "Contrary to popular belief, adult mediation is critical in helping to children to achieve what Elkonin (2005b) called \"mature\" sociodramatic play. This type of play provides the maximum developmental benefit for children, and is characterized by: symbolic representation and symbolic actions; language use to create a pretend scenario; complex interwoven themes; rich multifaceted roles; and an extended time frame (often over several days)", ". Bodrova & Leong (2007: 144–153) detail several ways that adults can enrich children's sociodramatic play, including providing ideas and themes, and helping children plan, coordinate, and monitor their play. It is important that children be exposed to various social roles, situations, and institutions in their schooling and life experiences, in order to have rich material for play", ". In addition, the importance of \"sticking to one's role\" in the particular play situation facilitates the play interaction, and allows fertile ground for the development of planning, self-regulation, impulse control, and perspective taking (Bodrova & Leong 2007).", "Researchers have cited numerous important developmental achievements generated by sociodramatic play (see summary in Bodrova & Leong 2007)", ". They include: inhibition of impulses and self-regulation through adhering to playing a sociodramatic role; the overcoming of \"cognitive egocentrism\" by learning to take other points of view through playing various social roles; the development of imagination through voluntarily entering the imaginary situations involved in play; the ability to act on an internal mental plane; the integration of emotions and cognition; further development of object substitutions and symbolic thought; and development of the", "cognition; further development of object substitutions and symbolic thought; and development of the \"learning motive\" to continue to grow toward adulthood", ", which helps to propel children's next leading activity of learning in school (Karpov 2005)", ".", "As one illustration of the benefits of play, dramatic role play encourages children to use language to regulate their own behavior and those of other children (to make sure everyone sticks to their dramatic role), and this use of language generalizes to other non-play tasks (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Children talk to themselves aloud while carrying out a task or activity; this is what Piaget called \"egocentric speech\" (1926), but has more recently come to be known as \"private speech", ".\" To guide themselves, children often use speech or phrases that they have heard during collaborative action with peers or adults, and sometimes even imitate their caregiver's voice (Luria 1961). There is evidence that the proportion of private speech that children use increases when the task they are engaging in is more difficult or novel; in addition, private speech tends to precede action in these cases, thereby playing a planning function for children (Duncan & Pratt 1997)", ". Vygotsky's experimental data supported the idea that children's private speech originates in social interaction, and later becomes internalized as inner (nonvocal) speech, a tool for verbal thinking, planning, and self-regulation. (Vygotsky 1962)", "Middle childhood: learning activity in educational settings", "Learning activity in educational settings is proposed as the leading activity for the period of middle childhood (roughly age 6-12), but authors caution that schooling must be properly organized to have the maximum developmental benefit. For instance, rather than passively waiting for children to reach an appropriate developmental level before teaching certain concepts, as he interpreted Piaget's viewpoint, Vygotsky (1962) proposed that schooling should \"march ahead of development and lead it", ".\" Furthermore, learning activity should promote the development of \"scientific concepts,\" as opposed to the \"spontaneous concepts\" of preschoolers developed in everyday life (ibid.). For Vygotsky, scientific concepts (which include the arts, humanities, and social sciences) represent the most advanced and systematic generalizations of human activity, as opposed to more superficial impressions about the world based merely on everyday personal experience (Karpov 2005)", ". An example of a child's spontaneous concept might be that \"coins sink in water because they are metal.\" The scientific concept would be that coins sink in water because their density (mass/volume) is greater than the density of water.", "Karpov (2005) emphasizes that children should also learn procedures for when and how to apply scientific knowledge to problem solving and everyday situations, and he gives some examples of this. In predicting whether a piece of wood will float, children can learn to measure the density of the wood and compare this to water's density; they can also learn a second problem-solving strategy of calculating the weight of water the wood displaces, and comparing this to the weight of the wood", ". Instead of jumping to the conclusion that a whale is a fish because it has fins and lives in the water (spontaneous concept based on superficial observation), they can learn to apply taxonomic principles of biology to see that below the \"surface,\" whales share the criteria of the class \"mammals\" (air-breathing vertebrates with hair, mammary glands, etc.)", ".). Learning scientific concepts has the effect of restructuring children's way of thinking about the world, and leads to what Piaget called \"formal-logical thought\" (Inhelder & Piaget 1958). This includes the essential developmental ability to solve problems using abstract, theoretical information that goes beyond mere personal experience (Karpov 2003).", "For an overview of different types of instruction and their outcomes, from the point of view of neo-Vygotskians, see Arievitch & Stetsenko (2002). A so-called \"theoretical learning\" approach, based in Vygtosky's cultural-historical theory, has shown promise in promoting formal-logical thought, theoretical reasoning, and other higher mental functions (tool-mediated, intentional, conscious processes) (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2002)", ". These theoretical reasoning capabilities are thought to be crucially important in children's transition to the next leading activity, interaction with peers (Bodrova & Leong 2007; Karpov 2005).", "Adolescence: interaction with peers", "Interaction with peers is suggested as the leading activity for adolescents. Although peer interaction has certainly played an important role in children's development up until this point, in the period of adolescence it is theorized to become the leading activity in terms of its motivational importance, and its power in generating adolescent development", ". Authors point out that adults are still important mediators of adolescents' activity during this period, only less directly than when children were younger (Karpov 2005).", "The activity of peer interaction provides opportunities for adolescents to use adult and societal norms, models, and relations in analyzing the behavior of their peers. As they test, master, internalize, and perhaps challenge these social standards, adolescents also come to use them for reflective self-analysis (Karpov 2005)", ". This leads to self-awareness and the formation of what Erik Erikson (1968) called personal identity, a major developmental accomplishment of adolescence that prepares adolescents for the transition to adulthood. This further contributes to the development of formal-logical thinking in adolescents, making them capable of analysis of their feelings, goals and ambitions, morality, history, and their place in society, the existence of which they have just \"discovered\" (Karpov 2003: 150).", "Although Karpov (2005) reviews the ways in which the neo-Vygotskian view of adolescence is highly consistent with recent findings and ideas of Western researchers, there is some controversy over the motive that propels peer interaction as the leading activity of adolescence", ". This motive has not been clearly defined in the literature, whether it has to do with cognitive advances, a desire to take on more adult roles, or sexual attraction to peers based in the reproductive developments of adolescence (Karpov 2005).", "Extensions", "The concept of leading activity has been extended conceptually and chronologically (into adulthood) by certain authors, such as Anna Stetsenko and Igor Arievitch, who argue that the self can be understood as a leading activity (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004). They emphasize that the self is a process of real-life activity that is connected to, and positioned within ongoing societal activities. Rather than residing in the depths of a human \"soul,\" the self is constantly re-enacted and reconstructed", ". The self engages in practical life tasks and collaborative transformative practices, and contributes to purposefully \"changing something in and about the world (including in oneself as part of the world)\" (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004: 494).", "See also\n Active learning\n Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)\n Aleksei N. Leontiev\n Situated cognition\n Social constructivism (learning theory)\n Lev Vygotsky\n\nReferences", "Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2009). Tools of the mind: A Vygotskian-based early childhood curriculum. Early Childhood Services: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Effectiveness, 3(3), 245–262.\nChaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context., Learning in doing (pp. 39–64). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.", "Duncan, R. M., & Pratt, M. W. (1997). Microgenetic change in the quantity and quality of preschoolers' private speech. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(2), 367–383. \nElkonin, D. B. (2005a). On the Historical Origin of Role Play. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 43(1), 49–89.\nElkonin, D. B. (2005b). The Subject of Our Research: The Developed Form of Play. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 43(1), 22–48.", "Erikson, E. h. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. Identity: youth and crisis. Oxford England: Norton & Co.\nGoldstein, M. H., & Schwade, J. A. (2008). Social feedback to infants' babbling facilitates rapid phonological learning. Psychological Science, 19(5), 515–523. \nInhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). Adolescent thinking. The growth of logical thinking: From childhood to adolescence., An essay on the construction of formal operational structures (pp. 334–350). New York, NY US: Basic Books.", "Karpov, Y. V. (2003). Development through the lifespan: A neo-Vygotskian approach. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context., Learning in doing (pp. 138–155). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.\nKarpov, Y. V. (2005). The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development. The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.", "Kozulin, A., Gindis, B., Ageyev, V. S., & Miller, S. M. (2003). Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. (A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller, Eds.)Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.\nLocke, J. L. (2001). First communication: The emergence of vocal relationships. Social Development, 10(3), 294–308.", "Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. Oxford England: Liveright.\nMüller, U., & Carpendale, J. I. M. (2000). The role of social interaction in Piaget's theory: Language for social cooperation and social cooperation for language. New Ideas in Psychology, 18(2-3), 139–156.", "Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. The language and thought of the child. Oxford England: Harcourt, Brace.\nPiaget, Jean. (1963). The origins of intelligence in children. The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY US: W W Norton & Co.", "Stetsenko, A., & Arievitch, I. (2002). Teaching, learning, and development: A post-Vygotskian perspective. In G. Wells & G. Claxton (Eds.), Learning for life in the 21st century: Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education. (pp. 84–96). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.\nStetsenko, A., & Arievitch, I. M. (2004). The self in cultural-historical activity theory: Reclaiming the unity of social and individual dimensions of human development. Theory & Psychology, 14(4), 475–503.", "Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bornstein, M. H., Baumwell, L., & Damast, A. M. (1996). Responsive parenting in the second year: Specific influences on children's language and play. Early Development & Parenting, 5(4), 173–183. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0917(199612)5:4<173::AID-EDP131>3.0.CO;2-V\nTomasello, M. (1999). The human adaptation for culture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, 509–529. \nTronick, E. Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2), 112–119.", "Venger, L. A. (1988). The origin and development of cognitive abilities in preschool children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 11(2), 147–153.\nVygotsky, L., Hanfmann, E., & Vakar, G. (1962). Thought and language. (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Eds.)Thought and language. Cambridge, MA US: MIT Press.\nVygotsky, L. S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet Psychology, 5(3), 6–18.", "Zaporozhets, A. V. (1997). Principal problems in the ontogeny of the mind. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 35(1), 53–94. \nZaporozhets, A. V., & Elkonin, D. B. (1971). The psychology of preschool children. Trans. by J. Shybut & S. Simon. The psychology of preschool children. Trans. by J. Shybut & S. Simon. Oxford England: Massachusetts Inst. of Technology", "Child development" ]

[ "The Central Artery/Tunnel Project (CA/T Project), commonly known as the Big Dig, was a megaproject in Boston that rerouted the Central Artery of Interstate 93 (I-93), the chief highway through the heart of the city, into the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel. The project also included the construction of the Ted Williams Tunnel (extending I-90 to Logan International Airport), the Leonard P", ". Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge over the Charles River, and the Rose Kennedy Greenway in the space vacated by the previous I-93 elevated roadway. Initially, the plan was also to include a rail connection between Boston's two major train terminals. Planning began in 1982; the construction work was carried out between 1991 and 2006; and the project concluded on December 31, 2007, when the partnership between the program manager and the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority ended.", "The Big Dig was the most expensive highway project in the United States, and was plagued by cost overruns, delays, leaks, design flaws, charges of poor execution and use of substandard materials, criminal charges and arrests, and the death of one motorist. The project was originally scheduled to be completed in 1998 at an estimated cost of $2.8 billion (in 1982 dollars, US$7.4 billion adjusted for inflation ). However, the project was completed in December 2007 at a cost of over $8", ". However, the project was completed in December 2007 at a cost of over $8.08 billion (in 1982 dollars, $21.5 billion adjusted for inflation, meaning a cost overrun of about 190%) . The Boston Globe estimated that the project will ultimately cost $22 billion, including interest, and that it would not be paid off until 2038", ". As a result of a death, leaks, and other design flaws, Bechtel and Parsons Brinckerhoff—the consortium that oversaw the project—agreed to pay $407 million in restitution and several smaller companies agreed to pay a combined sum of approximately $51 million.", "The Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Greenway is a roughly series of parks and public spaces which were the final part of the Big Dig after Interstate 93 was put underground. The Greenway was named in honor of Kennedy family matriarch Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy, and was officially dedicated on July 26, 2004.\n\nOrigin", "This project was developed in response to traffic congestion on Boston's historically tangled streets which were laid out centuries before the advent of the automobile. As early as 1930 the city's Planning Board recommended a raised express highway running north–south through the downtown district in order to draw through traffic off the city streets", ". Commissioner of Public Works William Callahan promoted plans for the Central Artery, an elevated expressway which eventually was constructed between the downtown area and the waterfront. Governor John Volpe interceded in the 1950s to change the design of the last section of the Central Artery, putting it underground through the Dewey Square Tunnel. While traffic moved somewhat better, the other problems remained", ". While traffic moved somewhat better, the other problems remained. There was chronic congestion on the Central Artery (I-93), the elevated six-lane highway through the center of downtown Boston, which was, in the words of Pete Sigmund, \"like a funnel full of slowly-moving, or stopped, cars (and swearing motorists).\" In 1959, the 1.5-mile-long (2.4 km) road section carried approximately 75,000 vehicles a day, but by the 1990s, this had grown to 190,000 vehicles a day", ". Traffic jams of 16 hours were predicted for 2010.", "The expressway had tight turns, an excessive number of entrances and exits, entrance ramps without merge lanes, and as the decades passed and other planned expressways were cancelled, continually escalating vehicular traffic that was well beyond its design capacity", ". Local businesses again wanted relief, city leaders sought a reuniting of the waterfront with the city, and nearby residents desired removal of the matte green-painted elevated road which mayor Thomas Menino called Boston's \"other Green Monster\" (as an unfavorable comparison to Fenway Park's famed left-field wall). MIT engineers Bill Reynolds and (eventual state Secretary of Transportation) Frederick P. Salvucci envisioned moving the whole expressway underground.", "Cancellation of the Inner Belt project", "Another important motivation for the final form of the Big Dig was the abandonment of the Massachusetts Department of Public Works' intended expressway system through and around Boston. The Central Artery, as part of Mass. DPW's Master Plan of 1948, was originally planned to be the downtown Boston stretch of Interstate 95, and was signed as such; a bypass road called the Inner Belt, was subsequently renamed Interstate 695. (The law establishing the Interstate highway system was enacted in 1956", ". (The law establishing the Interstate highway system was enacted in 1956.) The Inner Belt District was to pass to the west of the downtown core, through the neighborhood of Roxbury and the cities of Brookline, Cambridge, and Somerville", ". Earlier controversies over impact of the Boston extension of the Massachusetts Turnpike, particularly on the heavily populated neighborhood of Brighton, and the additional large amount of housing that would have had to be destroyed led to massive community opposition to both the Inner Belt and the Boston section of I-95.", "By 1970, building demolition and land clearances had been completed along the I-95 right of way through the neighborhoods of Roxbury, Jamaica Plain, the South End and Roslindale, which led to secession threats by Hyde Park, Boston's youngest and southernmost neighborhood (which I-95 was also slated to go through)", ". By 1972, with relatively little work done on the Southwest Corridor portion of I-95 and none on the potentially massively disruptive Inner Belt, Governor Francis Sargent put a moratorium on highway construction within the Route 128 corridor, except for the final short stretch of Interstate 93. In 1974, the remainder of the Master Plan was canceled.", "With ever-increasing traffic volumes funneled onto I-93 alone, the Central Artery became chronically gridlocked. The Sargent moratorium led to the rerouting of I-95 away from Boston around the Route 128 beltway and the conversion of the cleared land in the southern part of the city into the Southwest Corridor linear park, as well as a new right-of-way for the Orange Line subway and Amtrak. Parts of the planned I-695 right-of-way remain unused and under consideration for future mass-transit projects.", "The original 1948 Master Plan included a Third Harbor Tunnel plan that was hugely controversial in its own right, because it would have disrupted the Maverick Square area of East Boston. It was never built.", "Mixing of traffic", "A major reason for the all-day congestion was that the Central Artery carried not only north–south traffic, but it also carried east–west traffic. Boston's Logan Airport lies across Boston Harbor in East Boston; and before the Big Dig, the only access to the airport from downtown was through the paired Callahan and Sumner tunnels. Traffic on the major highways from west of Boston—the Massachusetts Turnpike and Storrow Drive—mostly traveled on portions of the Central Artery to reach these tunnels", ". Getting between the Central Artery and the tunnels involved short diversions onto city streets, increasing local congestion.", "Mass transit\nA number of public transportation projects were included as part of an environmental mitigation for the Big Dig. The most expensive was the building of the Phase II Silver Line tunnel under Fort Point Channel, done in coordination with Big Dig construction. Silver Line buses now use this tunnel and the Ted Williams Tunnel to link South Station and Logan Airport.", "Construction of the MBTA Green Line extension beyond Lechmere to Medford/Tufts station opened on December 12, 2022. , promised projects to connect the Red and Blue subway lines, and to restore the Green Line streetcar service to the Arborway in Jamaica Plain have not been completed. The Red and Blue subway line connection underwent initial design, but no funding has been designated for the project. The Arborway Line restoration has been abandoned, following a final court decision in 2011.", "The original Big Dig plan also included the North-South Rail Link, which would have connected North and South Stations (the major passenger train stations in Boston), but this aspect of the project was ultimately dropped by the state transportation administration early in the Dukakis administration", ". Negotiations with the federal government had led to an agreement to widen some of the lanes in the new harbor tunnel, and accommodating these would require the tunnel to be deeper and mechanically vented; this left no room for the rail lines, and having diesel trains (then in use) passing through the tunnel would have substantially increased the cost of the ventilation system.", "Early planning", "The project was conceived in the 1970s by the Boston Transportation Planning Review to replace the rusting elevated six-lane Central Artery. The expressway separated downtown from the waterfront, and was increasingly choked with bumper-to-bumper traffic. Business leaders were more concerned about access to Logan Airport, and pushed instead for a third harbor tunnel", ". In their second terms, Michael Dukakis (governor) and Fred Salvucci (secretary of transportation) came up with the strategy of tying the two projects together—thereby combining the project that the business community supported with the project that they and the City of Boston supported.", "Planning for the Big Dig as a project officially began in 1982, with environmental impact studies starting in 1983. After years of extensive lobbying for federal dollars, a 1987 public works bill appropriating funding for the Big Dig was passed by the US Congress, but it was vetoed by President Ronald Reagan for being too expensive. When Congress overrode the veto, the project had its green light and ground was first broken in 1991.", "In 1997, the state legislature created the Metropolitan Highway System and transferred responsibility for the Central Artery and Tunnel \"CA/T\" Project from the Massachusetts Highway Department and the Massachusetts Governor's Office to the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority (MTA).", "The MTA, which had little experience in managing an undertaking of the scope and magnitude of the CA/T Project, hired a joint venture to provide preliminary designs, manage design consultants and construction contractors, track the project's cost and schedule, advise MTA on project decisions, and (in some instances) act as the MTA's representative. Eventually, MTA combined some of its employees with joint venture employees in an integrated project organization", ". This was intended to make management more efficient, but it hindered MTA's ability to independently oversee project activities because MTA and the joint venture had effectively become partners in the project.", "Obstacles", "In addition to political and financial difficulties, the project received resistance from residents of Boston's historic North End, who in the 1950s had seen 20% of the neighborhood's businesses displaced by development of the Central Artery. In 1993, the North End Waterfront Central Artery Committee (NEWCAC) created, co-founded by Nancy Caruso, representing residents, businesses, and institutions in the North End and Waterfront neighborhoods of Boston", ". The NEWCAC Committee's goal included lessening the impact of the Central Artery/Tunnel Project on the community, representing the neighborhoods to government agencies, keeping the community informed, developing a list of priorities of immediate neighborhood concerns, and promoting responsible and appropriate development of the post-construction artery corridor in the North End and Waterfront neighborhoods.", "The political, financial and residential obstacles were magnified when several environmental and engineering obstacles occurred.", "The downtown area through which the tunnels were to be dug was largely land fill, and included existing Red Line and Blue Line subway tunnels as well as innumerable pipes and utility lines that would have to be replaced or moved. Tunnel workers encountered many unexpected geological and archaeological barriers, ranging from glacial debris to foundations of buried houses and a number of sunken ships lying within the reclaimed land.", "The project received approval from state environmental agencies in 1991, after satisfying concerns including release of toxins by the excavation and the possibility of disrupting the homes of millions of rats, causing them to roam the streets of Boston in search of new housing. By the time the federal environmental clearances were delivered in 1994, the process had taken some seven years, during which time inflation greatly increased the project's original cost estimates.", "Reworking such a busy corridor without seriously restricting traffic flow required a number of state-of-the-art construction techniques. Because the old elevated highway (which remained in operation throughout the construction process) rested on pylons located throughout the designated dig area, engineers first utilized slurry wall techniques to create concrete walls upon which the highway could rest", ". These concrete walls also stabilized the sides of the site, preventing cave-ins during the continued excavation process.", "The multi-lane Interstate highway also had to pass under South Station's seven railroad tracks, which carried over 40,000 commuters and 400 trains per day. To avoid multiple relocations of train lines while the tunneling advanced, as had been initially planned, a specially designed jack was constructed to support the ground and tracks to allow the excavation to take place below", ". Construction crews also used ground freezing (an artificial induction of permafrost) to help stabilize surrounding ground as they excavated the tunnel. This was the largest tunneling project undertaken beneath railroad lines anywhere in the world. The ground freezing enabled safer, more efficient excavation, and also assisted in environmental issues, as less contaminated fill needed to be exported than if a traditional cut-and-cover method had been applied.", "Other challenges included existing subway tunnels crossing the path of the underground highway. To build slurry walls past these tunnels, it was necessary to dig beneath the tunnels and to build an underground concrete bridge to support the tunnels' weight, without interrupting rail service.\n\nConstruction phase", "The project was managed by the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, with the Big Dig and the Turnpike's Boston Extension from the 1960s being financially and legally joined by the legislature as the Metropolitan Highway System. Design and construction was supervised by a joint venture of Bechtel Corporation and Parsons Brinckerhoff", ". Because of the enormous size of the project—too large for any company to undertake alone—the design and construction of the Big Dig was broken up into dozens of smaller subprojects with well-defined interfaces between contractors. Major heavy-construction contractors on the project included Jay Cashman, Modern Continental, Obayashi Corporation, Perini Corporation, Peter Kiewit Sons' Incorporated, J. F. White, and the Slattery division of Skanska USA", ". F. White, and the Slattery division of Skanska USA. (Of those, Modern Continental was awarded the greatest gross value of contracts, joint ventures included.)", "The nature of the Charles River crossing had been a source of major controversy throughout the design phase of the project. Many environmental advocates preferred a river crossing entirely in tunnels, but this, along with 27 other plans, was rejected as too costly. Finally, with a deadline looming to begin construction on a separate project that would connect the Tobin Bridge to the Charles River crossing, Salvucci overrode the objections and chose a variant of the plan known as \"Scheme Z\"", ". This plan was considered to be reasonably cost-effective, but had the drawback of requiring highway ramps stacked up as high as immediately adjacent to the Charles River.", "The city of Cambridge objected to the visual impact of the chosen Charles River crossing design. The city sued to revoke the project's environmental certificate and forced the project planners to redesign the river crossing again.", "Swiss engineer Christian Menn took over the design of the bridge. He suggested a cradle cable-stayed bridge that would carry ten lanes of traffic. The plan was accepted and construction began on the Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge. The bridge employed an asymmetrical design and a hybrid of steel and concrete was used to construct it. The distinctive bridge is supported by two forked towers connected to the span by cables and girders", ". It was the first bridge in the country to employ this method and it was, at the time, the widest cable-stayed bridge in the world, having since been surpassed by the Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge.", "Meanwhile, construction continued on the Tobin Bridge approach. By the time all parties agreed on the I-93 design, construction of the Tobin connector (today known as the \"City Square Tunnel\" for a Charlestown area it bypasses) was far along, significantly adding to the cost of constructing the US Route 1 interchange and retrofitting the tunnel.", "Boston blue clay and other soils extracted from the path of the tunnel were used to cap many local landfills, fill in the Granite Rail Quarry in Quincy, and restore the surface of Spectacle Island in the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area.", "The Storrow Drive Connector, a companion bridge to the Zakim, began carrying traffic from I-93 to Storrow Drive in 1999. The project had been under consideration for years, but was opposed by the wealthy residents of the Beacon Hill neighborhood. However, it finally was accepted because it would funnel traffic bound for Storrow Drive and downtown Boston away from the mainline roadway", ". The Connector ultimately used a pair of ramps that had been constructed for Interstate 695, enabling the mainline I-93 to carry more traffic that would have used I-695 under the original Master Plan.", "When construction began, the project cost, including the Charles River crossing, was estimated at $5.8 billion. Eventual cost overruns were so high that the chairman of the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, James Kerasiotes, was fired in 2000. His replacement had to commit to an $8.55 billion cap on federal contributions. The total expenses eventually passed $15 billion. Interest brought this cost to $21.93 billion.\n\nEngineering methods and details", "Engineering methods and details\n\nSeveral unusual engineering challenges arose during the project, requiring unusual solutions and methods to address them.", "At the beginning of the project, engineers had to figure out the safest way to build the tunnel without endangering the existing elevated highway above. Eventually, they created horizontal braces as wide as the tunnel, then cut away the elevated highway's struts, and lowered it onto the new braces. Three alternative construction methods were studied with their corresponding structural design to address existing conditions, safety measures, and constructability", ". In addition to codified loads, construction loads were computed to support final design and field execution .", "Final phases\n\nOn January 18, 2003, the opening ceremony was held for the I-90 Connector Tunnel, extending the Massachusetts Turnpike (Interstate 90) east into the Ted Williams Tunnel, and onwards to Boston Logan International Airport. The Ted Williams tunnel had been completed and was in limited use for commercial traffic and high-occupancy vehicles since late 1995. The westbound lanes opened on the afternoon of January 18 and the eastbound lanes on January 19.", "The next phase, moving the elevated Interstate 93 underground, was completed in two stages: northbound lanes opened on March 29, 2003, and southbound lanes (in a temporary configuration) on December 20, 2003. A tunnel underneath Leverett Circle connecting eastbound Storrow Drive to I-93 North and the Tobin Bridge opened December 19, 2004, easing congestion at the circle", ". All southbound lanes of I-93 opened to traffic on March 5, 2005, including the left lane of the Zakim Bridge, and all of the refurbished Dewey Square Tunnel.", "By the end of December 2004, 95% of the Big Dig was completed. Major construction remained on the surface, including construction of final ramp configurations in the North End and in the South Bay interchange, and reconstruction of the surface streets.\n\nThe final ramp downtown—exit 16A (formerly 20B) from I-93 south to Albany Street—opened January 13, 2006.", "In 2006, the two Interstate 93 tunnels were dedicated as the Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel, after the former Democratic speaker of the House of Representatives from Massachusetts who pushed to have the Big Dig funded by the federal government.", "Coordinated projects\nThe Commonwealth of Massachusetts was required under the Federal Clean Air Act to mitigate air pollution generated by the highway improvements. Secretary of Transportation Fred Salvucci signed an agreement with the Conservation Law Foundation in 1990 enumerating 14 specific projects the state agreed to build. This list was affirmed in a 1992 lawsuit settlement.", "Projects which have been completed include:\n Restoration of three Old Colony Commuter Rail lines\n Expansion of Framingham Line to serve Worcester full-time\n Restoration of the Newburyport/Rockport Line\n Six-car trains on the MBTA Blue Line, requiring platform lengthening, station modernization, and all new train cars\n MBTA Silver Line service to the South Boston waterfront\n 1,000 new commuter parking spaces\n Fairmount Line improvements", "As of 2023, one mitigation project has been partially completed:\n Green Line Extension (opened to serve Medford in 2022, however required extension of the line to Route 16 is incomplete)\n\nSome projects have been removed or replaced, including:\n\n Design of the Red-Blue Connector at Charles Street (removed)\n Restoration of Green Line \"E\" Arborway service (replaced with other projects with similar air-quality improvements)", "Surface treatments\nSome surface treatments that were part of the original project plan were dropped due to the massive cost overruns on the highway portion of the project.", "$99.1 million was allocated for mitigating improvements to the Charles River Basin, including the construction of North Point Park in Cambridge and Paul Revere Park in Charlestown. The North Bank Bridge, providing pedestrian and bicycle connectivity between the parks, was not funded until the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Nashua Street Park on the Boston side was completed in 2003, by McCourt Construction with $7.9 million in funding from MassDOT. As of 2017, $30", ".9 million in funding from MassDOT. As of 2017, $30.5 million had been transferred to the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation to complete five projects. Another incomplete but required project is the South Bank Bridge over the MBTA Commuter Rail tracks at North Station (connecting Nashua Street Park to the proposed South Bank Park, which is currently a parking lot under the Zakim Bridge at the Charles River locks).", "Improvements in the lower Charles River Basin include the new walkway at Lovejoy Wharf (constructed by the developer of 160 North Washington Street, the new headquarters of Converse), the Lynch Family Skate Park (constructed in 2015 by the Charles River Conservancy), rehabilitation of historic operations buildings for the Charles River Dam and lock, a maintenance facility", ", a maintenance facility, and a planned pedestrian walkway across the Charles River next to the MBTA Commuter Rail drawbridge at North Station (connecting Nashua Street Park and North Point Park)", ". MassDOT is funding the South Bank Park, and replacement of the North Washington Street Bridge (construction Aug 2018–23). EF Education is funding public greenspace improvements as part of its three-phase expansion at North Point. Remaining funding may be used to construct the North Point Inlet pedestrian bridge, and a pedestrian walkway over Leverett Circle", ". Before being replaced with surface access during the reconstruction of the Science Park MBTA Green Line station, Leverett Circle had pedestrian bridges with stairs that provided elevated access between the station, the Charles River Parks, and the sidewalk to the Boston Museum of Science. The replacement ramps would comply with Americans with Disabilities Act requirements and allow easy travel by wheelchair or bicycle over the busy intersection.", "Public art", "While not a legally mandated requirement, public art was part of the urban design planning process (and later design development work) through the Artery Arts Program. The intent of the program was to integrate public art into highway infrastructure (retaining walls, fences, and lighting) and the essential elements of the pedestrian environment (walkways, park landscape elements, and bridges)", ". As overall project costs increased, the Artery Arts Program was seen as a potential liability, even though there was support and interest from the public and professional arts organizations in the area.", "At the beginning of the highway design process, a temporary arts program was initiated, and over 50 proposals were selected. However, development began on only a few projects before funding for the program was cut", ". Permanent public art that was funded includes: super graphic text and facades of former West End houses cast into the concrete elevated highway abutment support walls near North Station by artist Sheila Levrant de Bretteville; Harbor Fog, a sensor-activated mist", ", a sensor-activated mist, light and sound sculptural environment by artist Ross Miller in parcel 17; a historical sculpture celebrating the 18th and 19th century shipbuilding industry and a bust of shipbuilder Donald McKay in East Boston; blue interior lighting of the Zakim Bridge; and the Miller's River Littoral Way walkway and lighting under the loop ramps north of the Charles River", ".", "Extensive landscape planting, as well as a maintenance program to support the plantings, was requested by many community members during public meetings.\n\nImpact on traffic", "The Big Dig separated the co-mingled traffic from the Massachusetts Turnpike and the Sumner and Callahan tunnels. While only one net lane in each direction was added to the north–south I-93, several new east–west lanes became available. East–west traffic on the Massachusetts Turnpike/I-90 now proceeds directly through the Ted Williams Tunnel to Logan Airport and Route 1A beyond", ". Traffic between Storrow Drive and the Callahan and Sumner Tunnels still uses a short portion of I-93, but additional lanes and direct connections are provided for this traffic.", "The result was a 62% reduction in vehicle hours of travel on I-93, the airport tunnels, and the connection from Storrow Drive, from an average 38,200 hours per day before construction (1994–1995) to 14,800 hours per day in 2004–2005, after the project was largely complete. The savings for travelers was estimated at $166 million annually in the same 2004–2005 time frame. Travel times on the Central Artery northbound during the afternoon peak hour were reduced 85.6%.", "A 2008 Boston Globe report asserted that waiting time for the majority of trips actually increased as a result of demand induced by the increased road capacity. Because more drivers were opting to use the new roads, traffic bottlenecks were only pushed outward from the city, not reduced or eliminated (although some trips are now faster). The report states, \"Ultimately, many motorists going to and from the suburbs at peak rush hours are spending more time stuck in traffic, not less", ".\" The Globe also asserted that their analysis provides a fuller picture of the traffic situation than a state-commissioned study done two years earlier, in which the Big Dig was credited with helping to save at least $167 million a year by increasing economic productivity and decreasing motor vehicle operating costs. That study did not look at highways outside the Big Dig construction area and did not take into account new congestion elsewhere.", "Impact on property values", "Towards the end of the Big Dig in 2003, it was estimated that the demolition of the Central Artery highway would cause a $732 million increase in property value in Boston's financial district, with the replacement parks providing an additional $252 million in value. Additionally, as a result of the Big Dig, a large amount of waterfront space was opened up, which is now a high-rent residential and commercial area called the Seaport District", ". The development of Seaport alone was estimated to create $7 billion in private investment and 43,000 jobs.", "Operations Control Center (OCC)", "As part of the project, an elaborate Operations Control Center (OCC) control room was constructed in South Boston. Staffed on a \"24/7/365\" basis, this center monitors and reports on traffic congestion, and responds to emergencies. Continuous video surveillance is provided by hundreds of cameras, and thousands of sensors monitor traffic speed and density, air quality, water levels, temperatures, equipment status, and other conditions inside the tunnel", ". The OCC can activate emergency ventilation fans, change electronic display signs, and dispatch service crews when necessary.", "Problems", "\"Thousands of leaks\"", "As far back as 2001, Turnpike Authority officials and contractors knew of thousands of leaks in ceiling and wall fissures, extensive water damage to steel supports and fireproofing systems, and overloaded drainage systems. Many of the leaks were a result of Modern Continental and other subcontractors failing to remove gravel and other debris before pouring concrete", ". This information was not made public until engineers at MIT (volunteer students and professors) performed several experiments and found serious problems with the tunnel.", "On September 15, 2004, a major leak in the Interstate 93 north tunnel forced the closure of the tunnel while repairs were conducted. This also forced the Turnpike Authority to release information regarding its non-disclosure of prior leaks. A follow-up reported on \"extensive\" leaks that were more severe than state authorities had previously acknowledged. The report went on to state that the $14.6 billion tunnel system was riddled with more than 400 leaks", ".6 billion tunnel system was riddled with more than 400 leaks. A Boston Globe report, however, countered that by stating there were nearly 700 leaks in a single section of tunnel beneath South Station. Turnpike officials also stated that the number of leaks being investigated was down from 1,000 to 500.", "The problem of leaks is further aggravated by the fact that many of them involve corrosive salt water. This is caused by the proximity of Boston Harbor and the Atlantic Ocean, causing a mix of salt and fresh water leaks in the tunnel. The situation is made worse by road salt spread in the tunnel to melt ice during freezing weather, or brought in by vehicles passing through. Salt water and salt spray are well-known issues that must be dealt with in any marine environment", ". Salt water and salt spray are well-known issues that must be dealt with in any marine environment. It has been reported that \"hundreds of thousands of gallons of salt water are pumped out monthly\" in the Big Dig, and a map has been prepared showing \"hot spots\" where water leakage is especially serious", ". Salt-accelerated corrosion has caused ceiling light fixtures to fail (see below), but can also cause rapid deterioration of embedded rebar and other structural steel reinforcements holding the tunnel walls and ceiling in place.", "Substandard materials", "Massachusetts State Police searched the offices of Aggregate Industries, the largest concrete supplier for the underground portions of the project, in June 2005. They seized evidence that Aggregate delivered concrete that did not meet contract specifications. In March 2006 Massachusetts Attorney General Tom Reilly announced plans to sue project contractors and others because of poor work on the project", ". Over 200 complaints were filed by the state of Massachusetts as a result of leaks, cost overruns, quality concerns, and safety violations. In total, the state has sought approximately $100 million from the contractors ($1 for every $141 spent).", "In May 2006, six employees of the company were arrested and charged with conspiracy to defraud the United States. The employees were accused of reusing old concrete and double-billing loads. In July 2007, Aggregate Industries settled the case with an agreement to pay $50 million. $42 million of the settlement went to civil cases and $8 million was paid in criminal fines", ". $42 million of the settlement went to civil cases and $8 million was paid in criminal fines. The company will provide $75 million in insurance for maintenance as well as pay $500,000 toward routine checks on areas suspected to contain substandard concrete. In July 2009, two of the accused, Gerard McNally and Keith Thomas, both managers, pled guilty to charges of conspiracy, mail fraud, and filing false reports", ". The following month, the remaining four, Robert Prosperi, Mark Blais, Gregory Stevenson, and John Farrar, were found guilty on conspiracy and fraud charges. The four were sentenced to probation and home confinement and Blais and Farrar were additionally sentenced to community service.", "Fatal ceiling collapse", "A fatal accident raised safety questions and closed part of the project for most of the summer of 2006. On July 10, 2006, concrete ceiling panels and debris weighing and measuring fell on a car traveling on the two-lane ramp connecting northbound I-93 to eastbound I-90 in South Boston, killing Milena Del Valle, who was a passenger, and injuring her husband, Angel Del Valle, who was driving", ". Immediately following the fatal ceiling collapse, Governor Mitt Romney ordered a \"stem-to-stern\" safety audit conducted by the engineering firm of Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. to look for additional areas of risk. Said Romney: \"We simply cannot live in a setting where a project of this scale has the potential of threatening human life, as has already been seen\". The collapse and closure of the tunnel greatly snarled traffic in the city", ". The collapse and closure of the tunnel greatly snarled traffic in the city. The resulting traffic jams are cited as contributing to the death of another person, a heart attack victim who died en route to Boston Medical Center when his ambulance was caught in one such traffic jam two weeks after the collapse. On September 1, 2006, one eastbound lane of the connector tunnel was re-opened to traffic.", "Following extensive inspections and repairs, Interstate 90 east- and westbound lanes reopened in early January 2007. The final piece of the road network, a high occupancy vehicle lane connecting Interstate 93 north to the Ted Williams Tunnel, reopened on June 1, 2007.", "On July 10, 2007, after a lengthy investigation, the National Transportation Safety Board found that epoxy glue used to hold the roof in place during construction was not appropriate for long-term bonding. This was determined to be the cause of the roof collapse. The Power-Fast Epoxy Adhesive used in the installation was designed for short-term loading, such as wind or earthquake loads, not long-term loading, such as the weight of a panel.", "Powers Fasteners, the makers of the adhesive, revised their product specifications on May 15, 2007, to increase the safety factor from 4 to 10 for all of their epoxy products intended for use in overhead applications. The safety factor on Power-Fast Epoxy was increased from 4 to 16. On December 24, 2007, the Del Valle family announced they had reached a settlement with Powers Fasteners that would pay the family $6 million", ". In December 2008, Powers Fasteners agreed to pay $16 million to the state to settle manslaughter charges.", "\"Ginsu guardrails\"", "Public safety workers have called the walkway safety handrails in the Big Dig tunnels \"ginsu guardrails\", because the squared-off edges of the support posts have caused mutilations and deaths of passengers ejected from crashed vehicles. After an eighth reported death involving the safety handrails, MassDOT officials announced plans to cover or remove the allegedly dangerous fixtures, but only near curves or exit ramps", ". This partial removal of hazards has been criticized by a safety specialist, who suggests that the handrails are just as dangerous in straight sections of the tunnel.", "Lighting fixtures", "In March 2011, it became known that senior MassDOT officials had failed to disclose an issue with the lighting fixtures in the O'Neill tunnel. In early February 2011, a maintenance crew found a fixture lying in the middle travel lane in the northbound tunnel. Assuming it to be simple road debris, the maintenance team picked it up and brought it back to its home facility", ". The next day, a supervisor passing through the yard realized that the fixture was not road debris but was in fact one of the fixtures used to light the tunnel itself. Further investigation revealed that the fixture's mounting apparatus had failed, due to galvanic corrosion of incompatible metals, caused by having aluminum in direct contact with stainless steel, in the presence of salt water. The electrochemical potential difference between stainless steel and aluminum is in the range of 0.5 to 1", ".5 to 1.0V, depending on the exact alloys involved, and can cause considerable corrosion within months under unfavorable conditions.", "After the discovery of the reason why the fixture had failed, a comprehensive inspection of the other fixtures in the tunnel revealed that numerous other fixtures were also in the same state of deterioration. Some of the worst fixtures were temporarily shored up with plastic ties", ". Some of the worst fixtures were temporarily shored up with plastic ties. Moving forward with temporary repairs, members of the MassDOT administration team decided not to let the news of the systemic failure and repair of the fixtures be released to the public or to Governor Deval Patrick's administration.", ", it appeared that all of the 25,000 light fixtures would have to be replaced, at an estimated cost of $54 million. The replacement work was mostly done at night, and required lane closures or occasional closing of the entire tunnel for safety, and was estimated to take up to two years to complete. , replacement of the light fixtures continued.", "See also\n Massachusetts Turnpike\n Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\n Megaproject\n Vincent Zarrilli – critic of the Big Dig who proposed the Boston Bypass\n Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel – similar project in Seattle, Washington\n Carmel Tunnels – similar project in Haifa, Israel\n Central–Wan Chai Bypass – similar project in the areas of Central, Wan Chai and Causeway Bay, within Victoria City, Hong Kong\n Cross City Tunnel – similar project in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia", "Cross City Tunnel – similar project in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia\n Dublin Port Tunnel – similar project on a smaller scale in Dublin, Ireland\n Gardiner Expressway – an elevated freeway in Toronto with similar future plans\n Autopista de Circunvalación M-30, and – similar project along the banks of Manzanares River, Madrid, Spain\n Blanka tunnel complex – similar project in Prague, Czech Republic and the longest city tunnel in Europe (6.4 km / 4.0 mi)", "Yamate Tunnel – similar project on a larger scale in Tokyo, Japan", "References\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial site\nProject map on page vi of Highway to the Past: The Archaeology of Boston's Big Dig (Massachusetts Historical Commission, 2001)\n Map of Central Artery Project on page 21 of report on Climate Change Vulnerability\n List of Massachusetts State Reports on Central Artery Project in Boston\nBoston CA/T Project History at MIT Rotch Library\n YouTube version", "2007 establishments in Massachusetts\n2007 in Boston\nEngineering projects\nInterstate 93\nMegaprojects\nNorth End, Boston\nRoad tunnels in Massachusetts\nTransport infrastructure completed in 2007\nTunnels completed in 2007\nTunnels in Boston\nU.S. Route 1" ]

[ "The Marine Air Terminal (also known as Terminal A) is an airport terminal located at LaGuardia Airport in Queens, New York City. Its main building, designed in the Art Deco style by William Delano of the firm Delano & Aldrich, opened in 1940. The terminal was built to handle Pan Am's fleet of flying boats, the Boeing 314 Clippers, which landed on the nearby Bowery Bay", ". Technological advances after World War II made the Clippers obsolete, and the Marine Air Terminal was renovated in 1946 to serve conventional planes. , the terminal is used by Spirit Airlines and Frontier Airlines for flights to various destinations around the US.", "The Marine Air Terminal was LaGuardia Airport's original terminal for overseas flights. It was highly popular in the 1940s, when LaGuardia was the only major airport in the U.S. which offered regular flights to Europe. Traffic dropped drastically after the larger Idlewild Airport opened in 1948, and Clippers stopped serving the terminal in 1952", ". The terminal then served as the airport's general aviation terminal for more than three decades, except for a short period in the 1950s, when it was used by Northeast Airlines. The Pan Am Shuttle service started operating from Marine Air Terminal in 1986. Delta Air Lines took over the service in 1991, operating Delta Shuttle flights from the terminal until 2017, after which it was used by various carriers. The terminal has been renovated multiple times throughout its history.", "The main terminal building consists of a two-story circular core with a projecting entrance pavilion and a pair of two-story wings. The brick facade is painted buff, with black details, and contains a frieze that depicts flying fish. The three-story rectangular entrance pavilion contains a canopy and a set of doors leading to the terminal's main rotunda. The rotunda contains marble floors and walls, as well as the Flight mural by James Brooks", ". The rotunda contains marble floors and walls, as well as the Flight mural by James Brooks. Both the interior and the exterior of the main building were declared New York City Landmarks in 1980, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. In addition, there was a hangar for seaplanes next to the main building, which has been converted into a garage for snow-removal vehicles.", "History", "Following Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic flight in 1927, commercial air travel in the United States increased during the 1930s. New York City was in dire need of a new airport by 1934, after Fiorello H. La Guardia was elected mayor. Angered that a flight on which he was a passenger landed in Newark, New Jersey, even though his ticket said \"New York\", LaGuardia pushed New Yorkers to support the construction of an airport in New York City itself", ". The city did have a public airport, Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, but it was further from Midtown Manhattan than Newark Airport was. After commencing several studies on the feasibility of a new airport in New York City, the La Guardia administration decided to redevelop the existing North Beach Airport in Queens. The city government leased North Beach Airport in 1934.", "Development", "La Guardia's administration presented plans for a renovation of North Beach Airport (now LaGuardia Airport) in August 1937. The plans included a terminal for seaplanes along Bowery Bay, on the western side of the airport, as well as a terminal for land planes along Flushing Bay, on the eastern side. The seaplane terminal, to be known as the Marine Air Terminal, was to contain four hangars, an administrative building, and a machine shop", ". The administrative building was to be a circular brick-and-steel edifice measuring tall and about across. A baggage check, customs and immigration offices, an air traffic control tower, and various other offices would be centered around a main waiting room, and there would be access ramps for seaplane passengers. The seaplane and land-plane terminals, both designed by the firm of Delano & Aldrich, would operate independently of each other", ". The Works Progress Administration (WPA) would provide federal funding for the project.", "U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt approved plans for the airport on September 3, 1937, and La Guardia participated in a groundbreaking ceremony for the airport six days later. The airport was originally projected to cost $15 million and be completed in time for the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair. By July 1938, the WPA employed 7,800 workers on the project, and workers were expanding the airport site through land reclamation", ". The number of workers had increased to 11,500 by that November, and the cost had increased to $29 million. Prior to the opening of the seaplane terminal, in early 1939, The New York Times reported that flying boats from England, France, Germany, and the United States would be using the terminal. The terminal had been planned with two seaplane hangars, but only one hangar was built at the time; that hangar was nearly complete by April 1939.", "The expanded North Beach Airport opened on October 15, 1939, and was officially renamed the New York Municipal Airport–LaGuardia Field later that year. Covering with nearly of runways, the airport cost $40 million, making it the largest and most expensive in the world at that time. The seaplane terminal comprised $7.5 million of this cost, and the hangar alone cost $2 million", ". The seaplane terminal comprised $7.5 million of this cost, and the hangar alone cost $2 million. The land-plane section of the airport opened for commercial flights on December 2, 1939, but the completion of the marine terminal was delayed until March 1940. This was in part because construction in Bowery Bay had prevented seaplanes from landing there. Seaplanes instead traveled to bases in Port Washington, New York, and in Baltimore, Maryland.", "Pan Am use", "At a hearing before the Civil Aeronautics Board in April 1939, Pan American Airways indicated that it planned to use North Beach Airport as the main U.S. terminal for the transatlantic flights of its Boeing 314 Clippers. Under this plan, Clippers would fly to Baltimore if there was bad weather in New York City. Pan Am leased the Marine Air Terminal from the New York City government the following month. Pan Am also allowed foreign airlines to use the terminal, including Imperial Airways, Air France, and KLM", ".", "Opening and early years", "The Marine Air Terminal officially opened on March 31, 1940, when a Clipper carrying ten crew members, nine passengers, and over 5,000 pounds (2,300 kg) of mail departed from the terminal. This flight landed in Lisbon, Portugal, 18 hours and 35 minutes later, setting a record for an eastbound transatlantic Clipper flight. The first flying boat to arrive at the Marine Air Terminal arrived from Bermuda on April 1, 1940. At the time, the terminal served three transatlantic trips per week", ". At the time, the terminal served three transatlantic trips per week. A brochure distributed on the terminal's opening day proclaimed it as \"an enduring terminal linking the air routes of the old world with those of the new\". Originally, members of the public were allowed to visit the Marine Air Terminal's observation deck, which became a popular place to observe seaplane and airplane landings. The deck was closed for security reasons during World War II.", "In July 1940, American Export Airlines and city officials began discussing the possibility of constructing a second seaplane hangar next to the Marine Air Terminal. American Export wanted to operate a transatlantic passenger route from LaGuardia Airport, but Pan Am did not have any more space in its existing hangar. The New York City Planning Commission approved the proposed hangar in April 1941, allocating $389,000 to the project", ". LaGuardia attended a groundbreaking ceremony for the second hangar on August 4, 1941, and work on the hangar began that December. James Brooks completed his Flight mural inside the main terminal building in September 1942. The following year, in April 1943, an expansion to the original Pan Am hangar was completed. By then, the Marine Air Terminal had more than one transatlantic trip per day. American Export's new hangar opened in July 1943, and the terminal's observation deck reopened in June 1945.", "A New York Herald Tribune article in 1942 noted that Clipper flights came from as far as \"Capetown, Lisbon, New Zealand, the Orient, Alaska and other remote places\". During the Second World War, many soldiers would fly to Europe and Africa from the terminal, and political figures such as U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill also flew from the terminal. Even so, the Marine Air Terminal lasted as a seaplane terminal for less than a decade", ". Even so, the Marine Air Terminal lasted as a seaplane terminal for less than a decade. When the terminal opened, seaplanes were generally more technologically advanced than traditional land planes; the earliest four-engine aircraft, capable of flying long distances, had been seaplanes. However, they were also more prone to disruption, particularly during the winter months and in poor tidal conditions, when they could not operate", ". Land planes were not affected by these issues, and land-plane technology was also improving quickly. With the outbreak of World War II, new four-engine land planes were being developed, making these seaplanes obsolete. Pan Am stopped operating the 314s into the terminal in June 1945 but continued to operate other service into the terminal.", "Use as international terminal", "By the mid-1940s, the small capacity of LaGuardia Airport could not handle the increasing demand for international flights. Despite the obsolescence of seaplanes, LaGuardia Airport was the only major airport in the U.S. which offered regular flights to Europe. To address increasing congestion at the Marine Air Terminal, the city government and representatives of several airlines agreed in June 1946 to spend $50,000 on upgrading the customs facilities at the terminal", ". Although the terminal had begun to serve land planes, it could only fit one plane at a time, and passengers frequently had to wait three to four hours before passing through customs. The Daily Boston Globe wrote that the rotunda often saw as much traffic as a subway station during rush hours, with up to ten overseas flights trying to land nearly simultaneously at the busiest times", ". The Marine Air Terminal served 14 airlines; the overcrowded conditions had prompted one airline owner to purchase an old ferryboat and moor it next to the Marine Air Terminal.", "The improvements included the addition of a covered walkway, three gates for arriving passengers, and two gates for departing passengers. After the terminal reopened on November 7, 1946, it was renamed the International Air Terminal, serving all of LaGuardia's transatlantic flights. Meanwhile, Idlewild (now JFK) Airport was being built in southern Queens to accommodate international and transcontinental flights", ". The Port of New York Authority took over operation of LaGuardia and Idlewild airports in June 1947. That September, Port Authority officials suggested extending one of LaGuardia's runways by infilling an unused plot of land next to the International Air Terminal. The terminal served 314,000 passengers a year in 1948, many more than it had been built to accommodate.", "Air traffic at the terminal started to decline after Idlewild opened in 1948. The terminal was renamed the Overseas Terminal in August 1949 because passengers frequently confused it with Idlewild, which was formally known as New York International Airport. In the years after Idlewild opened, most transatlantic flights at the Overseas Terminal were moved over to Idlewild", ". The terminal had become empty most of the time, and Pan Am, American Overseas Airlines, and Trans World Airlines were the only airlines still operating international flights from the terminal. Pan Am relocated most of its operations from the terminal in early 1951, and the last transatlantic flight from the Overseas Terminal departed on April 28, 1951. Afterward, only flights to Bermuda continued to operate out of Marine Air Terminal", ". Afterward, only flights to Bermuda continued to operate out of Marine Air Terminal. These flights lasted for less than a year, and service from the Overseas Terminal ceased in February 1952. Around that time, the Flight mural in the terminal was painted over for reasons unknown even to James Brooks, the mural's own artist. Brooks did not learn that the mural had been painted over until after the fact.", "1950s to 1970s", "According to The Wall Street Journal, the terminal was \"quickly forgotten\" after Clipper service stopped. The terminal was used mostly by private planes, non-scheduled flights, and military transports for high-ranking government officials. U.S. presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy sometimes used the terminal when they landed at LaGuardia Airport. The terminal also contained the offices of flight simulation company FlightSafety, founded in 1951 by Albert Lee Ueltschi", ". The Port Authority announced its plans to renovate most of LaGuardia Airport in 1957, but Marine Air Terminal was excluded from these plans.", "The terminal reopened for commercial aviation on June 27, 1957, when Northeast Airlines leased the terminal for its shuttle services between New York and Boston. Private, non-scheduled, and military flights continued to use the terminal. That October, Northeast relocated Boston flights to LaGuardia's domestic terminal and started using the Marine Air Terminal for its flights to Florida", ". The swap took place because Gate 11 at the domestic terminal was too small for the four-engine DC-6Bs that were used on the Florida flights. Pan Am moved some of its remaining equipment from the Marine Air Terminal to Idlewild in 1958. By then, the Marine Air Terminal was no longer an important part of LaGuardia's operation; only five percent of the airport's 5.4 million passengers in 1959 came through the terminal", ".4 million passengers in 1959 came through the terminal. The New York Times described the terminal in 1960 as having \"an air of decay and desolation\", with a dirty skylight, broken equipment, peeling paint, and almost no passengers.", "In 1964, American Hydrofoils agreed to operate a shuttle hydrofoil service from the Marine Air Terminal to East 25th Street and Pier 11/Wall Street in Manhattan. After the Federal Aviation Administration banned non-scheduled airlines from operating regular flights and selling tickets in the 1960s, the Marine Air Terminal sat nearly empty for several years", ". The Butler Aviation Company, which managed LaGuardia's general aviation operations, had divided the walkway adjoining the terminal into a waiting room and an office, and there was a pilots' lounge next to the walkway. Butler leased the terminal and spent $200,000 to renovate the eastern portion of the main building. Following the renovation, the Marine Air Terminal reopened in October 1966 as a general aviation terminal", ". At the time, there were 400 daily general aviation flights at LaGuardia, about half of the airport's daily air traffic. The terminal was then known as Butler Marine Air Terminal. The main building's rotunda was repainted in the 1960s and was again supposed to be repainted in the 1970s.", "Aviation historian Geoffrey Arend advocated for the restoration of the Flight mural in the main building's rotunda starting in 1976. A reporter for The Christian Science Monitor wrote in 1979 that some of the main building's original Art Deco details remained, mainly on the exterior. That February, philanthropist Laurance Rockefeller and magazine publisher DeWitt Wallace agreed to partially fund the restoration of the Flight mural, which was projected to cost $75,000. Alan M", ". Alan M. Farancz restored the mural, and it was rededicated on September 19, 1980. During that time, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered protecting the terminal as an official New York City landmark Arend supported the designation, but the Port Authority expressed opposition because such a designation would severely restrict what the agency could do with the terminal", ". The LPC designated the main building's facade and a portion of its interior as landmarks in late 1980, citing it as \"the only active terminal in the United States dating from the first generation of passenger air travel\". The main building was also listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 9, 1982.", "Shuttle use", "Pan Am Shuttle", "Pan Am announced its Pan Am Shuttle service from New York to Boston and Washington in 1986, having purchased the rights to New York Air's shuttle service. The airline initially planned to operate from two gates at the main terminal, but these gates were too small to fit the Boeing 727 and Airbus A300 fleet on the route, so Pan Am built new gates at the terminal. Construction of these gates began at the end of August 1986. Pan Am spent $23 million to build a prefabricated structure next to the main building", ". Pan Am spent $23 million to build a prefabricated structure next to the main building. The structure was completed in 41 days, as Pan Am was contractually obligated to begin shuttle flights by October 1986. Local politicians and preservationists were irate at the changes. Days before the renovations were to be completed, several politicians attempted to halt the project, claiming that the Port Authority had illegally modified the portion of the terminal that had been designated as a landmark", ". Port Authority executives said they were only renovating a portion of the building that was not protected by the landmark designation. Rocco Manniello, who operated a small Italian restaurant at the rear of the main building, renovated his restaurant during this time.", "Pan Am Shuttle flights started operating from the Marine Air Terminal on October 1, 1986. The terminal was relatively remote, being about from the other buildings at LaGuardia Airport. Taxicabs had to take a circuitous route to access the terminal, and taxi drivers were hesitant to pick up passengers at the terminal, prompting Pan Am to sponsor giveaways for taxi drivers who drove there", ". As a result, the shuttle was initially unable to compete with Eastern Air Lines, which carried the majority of passengers who flew between New York and Boston. To attract passengers, Pan Am started operating a ferry line between Wall Street and the terminal in August 1987. This improved ridership to the point that Pan Am Shuttle was one of the airline's only profitable routes. Pan Am also opened a club for business flyers within the terminal. Nonetheless, by 1990, Pan Am sought to sell the shuttle.", "Delta Shuttle", "Delta Air Lines acquired the Pan Am Shuttle from Pan Am in 1991 and started operating the Delta Shuttle from the Marine Air Terminal using Boeing 727-200s. Delta also inherited the ferry route to Manhattan, which was unprofitable despite receiving large subsidies from Delta. By 1995, the Port Authority was considering restoring the facade and interior of the terminal's main building", ". Architectural firm Beyer Blinder Belle was hired to restore the terminal building to its original design, including light fixtures, canopies, and signage, at a cost of $600,000. A bust of Fiorello La Guardia was relocated from the airport's main terminal to the Marine Air Terminal in 1997. Harbor Shuttle, which operated ferry service from the Marine Air Terminal to Manhattan, was sold in 1998 to NY Waterway, which discontinued the service in 2000", ". The Port Authority unsuccessfully attempted to revive the ferry service in subsequent years.", "Delta started renovating the terminal in early 1998 at a cost of $7.5 million. The Marine Air Terminal formally reopened in November 1999 with a new business center and concession stands. At the time, 80 percent of passengers at the terminal were business travelers, and about 6,000 of the airport's 65,000 daily passengers used the terminal. Following this renovation, most passengers were diverted past the main terminal building. The Port Authority spent about $6", ". The Port Authority spent about $6.5 million to restore the terminal in 2004, ahead of the 65th anniversary of the airport's first commercial flight. As part of the project, all of the tiles in the main building's frieze were removed for restoration. LaGuardia's general manager at the time called it the \"crown jewel of the airport\". Delta added a business center to the terminal in 2006", ". Delta added a business center to the terminal in 2006. The Port Authority voted to install vehicular bollards in front of the terminal in 2007 due to security concerns following the September 11 attacks.", "In 2009, it was announced as part of a slot-swap transaction that Delta Air Lines would relocate to LaGuardia's Central Terminal, while US Airways would start operating its US Airways Shuttle out of the Marine Air Terminal. The swap would have allowed Delta to operate hourly flights between LaGuardia and O'Hare International Airport. The proposed swap between US Airways and Delta never took place. Delta Shuttle continued to operate from the Marine Air Terminal until December 8, 2017", ". Delta Shuttle continued to operate from the Marine Air Terminal until December 8, 2017. Meanwhile, in 2010, the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission introduced a pilot program that allowed Delta Shuttle passengers to share a taxicab between the Marine Air Terminal and Manhattan, but this program was unpopular.", "LaGuardia redevelopment", "In 2015, New York governor Andrew Cuomo and then-vice president Joe Biden announced a $4 billion plan to rebuild most of LaGuardia's terminals as one contiguous building. The Marine Air Terminal was preserved as part of the plan because it was an official landmark. On December 9, 2017, as part of the LaGuardia redevelopment, Delta Air Lines ceased shuttle operations out of the Marine Air Terminal, moving back to Terminal C", ". Alaska Airlines and JetBlue relocated their operations from Terminal B to the Marine Air Terminal. Alaska Airlines ended all service from LaGuardia Airport on October 27, 2018. JetBlue used the Marine Air Terminal for flights to Boston, Orlando, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach. The airline renovated the terminal as part of a project completed in early 2019.", "On April 28, 2021, Spirit Airlines started service in the Marine Air Terminal for its flights to Fort Lauderdale, although the airline's other destinations were still located in Terminal C. Spirit moved its remaining LaGuardia services to the Marine Air Terminal the following March. JetBlue moved all operations to Terminal B on July 9, 2022, after having previously split its operations between Terminal B and the Marine Air Terminal", ". In mid-2023, JetBlue announced that it would sell its six gates and 22 landing slots at the Marine Air Terminal to Frontier Group Holdings during 2024.", "Main building \nThe Marine Air Terminal, also known as Terminal A, is at the western end of LaGuardia Airport in Queens, New York City, along the southern shore of Bowery Bay. The terminal was designed in the Art Deco style by William Delano of the firm Delano & Aldrich. It is LaGuardia Airport's only remaining structure from the 1940s; the other buildings from that era had also been designed in the Art Deco style.", "Landside access to the main terminal building is via Marine Terminal Road, which ends at a turnaround directly in front of the building. This turnaround is served by the buses, as well as the LaGuardia Airport shuttle bus. Originally, the terminal was accessed by 85th Street, a boulevard planted with hedges. Parking lot P10 is located next to the terminal.\n\nExterior", "The terminal's main building is a circular two-story structure flanked by a pair of one-story wings facing northwest and northeast toward Bowery Bay. The main building is approached by a triple-height rectangular pavilion facing south. The entrance pavilion and the rear wings were all intended as access points into the central core, which housed the primary functions of the terminal", ". The brick facade was originally painted buff with black details but, by the 1980s, had been repainted beige with brown details. The buff and black color scheme has since been restored. A horizontal band runs across the facade between the first and second stories. The terminal's windows are largely oriented horizontally, rather than vertically as in other Art Deco structures; this may be attributed to the fact that the terminal was completed later than other Art Deco buildings and is also relatively short.", "The circular core measures across. It contains a setback above the ground story, which makes it appear as though it is designed in a wedding-cake style. There are dark brick window frames on the ground and second stories, which surround groups of tripartite windows. Faceted brick panels are placed between each group of windows, and there were originally grilles over the windows themselves. A cornice of stainless steel, as well as a parapet and a rooftop balcony, run above the ground story", ". The rooftop balcony originally contained two observation decks. In addition, the second story is topped by a terracotta frieze, which depicts yellow flying fish against a background of light and dark blue waves. The frieze contains 2,200 individual tiles. A similar motif was also used on several of Delano and Aldrich's other structures. There is an attic with a facade of stainless steel panels, as well as a control tower at the rear of the attic.", "The three-story rectangular entrance pavilion is flanked by two shorter sections. The entrance, at the center of this pavilion, consists of a doorway with four stainless steel doors, which are topped by transom panels depicting a pair of winged globes. A curving stainless-steel canopy extends in front of these doors, and a double-height window is placed above the canopy. The double-height window and the doorway are the same width and are both surrounded by a band of dark bricks", ". Steel mullions divide the window into a grid measuring four panes across and five panes high. The shorter sections of the pavilion contain small windows at ground level. The terracotta frieze around the circular core also runs atop the shorter sections of the entrance.", "The rear wings measure across. They are similar in design to the circular core. Passengers boarded seaplanes from the northwest wing and arrived through the northeast wing. There was a copper canopy above the walkway leading to the northeast wing. A corridor, flanked by waiting rooms, extended from the northeast wing to a landing float in Bowery Bay", ". Originally, flying boats and other seaplanes typically taxied to the landing float, where they were pulled by a small motor boat to allow passengers to disembark into the terminal. Marine aircraft could approach the terminal via six operating channels in the bay, each measuring . The modern Terminal A leads to gates A1 through A8.", "Interior \nThe four stainless-steel doors at the main entrance pavilion lead to a foyer with four doors of identical design, topped by transom panels depicting winged globes. Past the foyer are staircases with stainless-steel railings, as well as another set of five stainless-steel doors. These lead into a two-story rotunda with a skylight at the third story. The staircase around the rotunda could be seen from outside.", "The rotunda contains light-gray marble floors with a circular geometric pattern at the center of the floor. The rotunda contains wooden benches, the ends of which contain stainless-steel arms that depict propeller blades. The lower section of the wall is made of dark-green marble. This wall is divided into 14 bays, which contain ticketing offices, stores, and other functions. These bays are arranged into groups of four or five, with each group being separated by the doors to the west, east, and south", ". A band of stainless steel runs above the wall at the ground story, separating it from the Flight mural on the upper section of the wall. The rotunda's ceiling steps upward from the perimeter of the room to the skylight at the center.", "On the second story, surrounding the rotunda, were various offices for the terminal's staff, including radio technicians, communications workers, and meteorologists. In addition, there were turnstiles on the second and third stories for members of the public who wanted to observe the Clippers. The main building's control tower contained radio equipment for monitoring seaplane landings and takeoffs in Bowery Bay.\n\nMural", "Inside the rotunda hangs Flight, a mural measuring tall and long. Completed by James Brooks in 1942, Flight depicts the history of man's involvement with flight. It was the largest mural created as part of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration (WPA). The mural is roughly divided into two sections", ". The mural is roughly divided into two sections. The first section depicts early history of aviation, including prehistoric humans' inability to fly; the Greek myth of Icarus, who flew too close to the sun and got burned; and the flight-related inventions of Leonardo da Vinci. The second section depicts the modern history of aviation, starting with the Wright brothers' test flights and ending with modern transatlantic flights. The mural hangs on the upper section of the wall, just below the ceiling.", "Flight was completely painted over in 1952. It is unknown why this was done; The Wall Street Journal said it may have been due to anti-communist sentiment, but LaGuardia operations chief Anthony Cycovek said the rotunda had begun to look dingy when the mural was painted over", ". The mural was only rediscovered in 1973, after Cycovek mentioned it to a Port of New York Authority executive who had heard of the National Fine Arts Inventory Project, a program dedicated to finding lost works of government-commissioned art. In the late 1970s, Geoffrey Arend, an aviation historian and author of Great Airports: LaGuardia, mounted a campaign to restore the mural to its original splendor. The mural was rededicated on September 18, 1980", ". The mural was rededicated on September 18, 1980. Grace Glueck of The New York Times described it as \"the most egregious case of mural censorship\" of a WPA mural in New York City. By 2022, Flight had been restored again as part of the LaGuardia redevelopment.", "Seaplane hangar", "When LaGuardia Airport was built in the 1930s, two seaplane hangars adjacent to the main building were planned. Initially, only one hangar was built. The hangar had five sides and resembled a half-octagon from above. The north and south sides of the hangar each measured wide; the northwest and southwest sides were each wide; and the west side was wide. The hangar had four openings through which seaplanes and flying boats could enter. These openings measured high", ". These openings measured high. In addition, the roof of the hangar measured high and was held up by trusses extending from a central pillar. A tunnel connected the hangar to the main building.", "Next to the hangar were ramps with floodlights, as well as taxiways illuminated by lamps. There were also 18 large gasoline tanks next to the hangar, each with a capacity of . Whenever the Clippers needed maintenance, they could be pulled out of the water, moved onto a set of tracks, and towed to the hangar. The tracks were made of concrete and could accommodate aircraft weighing up to , or about five times as heavy as an empty Boeing 314.", "After the Clippers stopped serving the Marine Air Terminal, the hangar was used to store maintenance vehicles, as well as for LaGuardia Airport's executive offices. , the hangar still exists and is known as Hangar 7. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey uses the structure as a garage for the airport's snow-removal vehicles. The roof of the hangar contains Spirit of Flight, a sculpture of a bird whose wingspan measures wide", ". The sculpture was formerly placed atop the roof of LaGuardia's Domestic Terminal, which was razed in 1963.", "See also\n List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Queens\n National Register of Historic Places listings in Queens County, New York\n Art Deco architecture of New York City\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n\n Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary", "1939 establishments in New York City\nAirport terminals\nAirports established in 1939\nArt Deco airports\nArt Deco architecture in Queens, New York\nAviation in New York City\nBuildings and structures completed in 1939\nBuildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City\nDelano & Aldrich buildings\nEast Elmhurst, Queens\nHistoric American Engineering Record in New York City\nLaGuardia Airport\nNational Register of Historic Places in Queens, New York", "LaGuardia Airport\nNational Register of Historic Places in Queens, New York\nNew York City Designated Landmarks in Queens, New York\nNew York City interior landmarks\nStreamline Moderne architecture in New York City\nTransportation buildings and structures in Queens, New York\nWorks Progress Administration in New York City" ]

[ "John Charles Layfield (born November 29, 1966), better known by the ring name Bradshaw or JBL, is an American retired professional wrestler and football player. He is currently signed to WWE, where he is an ambassador for the company. Layfield is currently a financial commentator and is featured regularly on Fox News and Fox Business. He is also employed by Northeast Securities as its senior vice president.", "Layfield rose to prominence in WWE during its Attitude Era under the ring name Bradshaw, during which time he became a three-time WWF Tag Team Champion with Ron Simmons as part of the Acolytes Protection Agency (APA), a feared pair of strong and tough mercenaries who, aside from occasionally wrestling and doing “work” for “clients” spent most of their time sitting around in their “office” playing cards, drinking beer, fighting people backstage and then going out to bars and getting into bar fights", ". In 2004, Simmons retired and the APA separated, and Layfield was rebranded as the heel character JBL— a rough-mannered, brawling, blustering, bad-tempered and bigmouthed Texas elite businessman, driven into the arena by limousine. The gimmick was built off of Layfield's real-life accomplishments as a stock market investor. Later that year, he captured the WWE Championship and held it for 280 days", ". Later that year, he captured the WWE Championship and held it for 280 days. A month before his in-ring retirement at 2009's WrestleMania 25, he became Intercontinental Champion, which made him the 20th Triple Crown Champion and the 10th Grand Slam Champion in WWE history.", "After his retirement, Layfield became an on-air commentator for WWE programming. Layfield was inducted into the 2021 WWE Hall of Fame as a member of the Class of 2020.\n\nEarly life \nLayfield was born on November 29, 1966, in Sweetwater, Texas.", "Football career", "Layfield was a collegiate American football player for Trinity Valley Community College and for Abilene Christian University. At Abilene, Layfield was a two-year starter on the offensive line and was named first-team All-Lone Star Conference as a junior and senior. Layfield signed with the Los Angeles Raiders as an undrafted free agent, but was released before the 1990 season began", ". Layfield did play in the World League of American Football, starting all ten games of the 1991 season at right tackle for the San Antonio Riders, wearing jersey number 61. Former Dallas Cowboys head coach Jason Garrett was the quarterback of that team.", "Professional wrestling career", "Early career (1992–1996) \nLayfield was trained initially by Black Bart and Brad Rheingans. He debuted in September 1992 in the Global Wrestling Federation (GWF) in Texas. His first gimmick was as \"John Hawk\", storyline cousin of the Windham brothers. He formed the tag team \"Texas Mustangs\" with Bobby Duncum Jr.; they quickly won the GWF Tag Team Championship from Rough Riders (Black Bart and Johnny Mantell) on November 27 but dropped the titles to The Bad Breed (Ian and Axl Rotten) on January 29, 1993.", "In January 1993, Layfield went on his first overseas trip to Japan, wrestling for George and Shunji Takano's Network of Wrestling. Later that same year, he would also wrestle in Mexico for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), wrestling under the name \"Vampiro Americano\" and frequently teamed with Vampiro Canadiense. He would also wrestle for Federacion Internacional de Lucha Libre, where he won its Heavyweight Championship", ". Hawk won his second GWF Tag Team Championship with Black Bart on December 25, 1993, from Steve Dane and Chaz Taylor, eventually losing them to The Fabulous Freebirds (Jimmy Garvin and Terry Gordy) on June 3, 1994.", "In June 1994, he went to Europe and toured Austria and Germany for Otto Wanz's Catch Wrestling Association (CWA) for the remainder of the year. In January 1995, Layfield joined NWA Dallas. He won the NWA North American Heavyweight Championship on January 14, 1995, defeating Kevin Von Erich. Two months later, he lost the NWA North American title to Greg Valentine. He wrestled for NWA Dallas until May 1995.", "In June 1995, Layfield returned to Japan, but with NOW recently folded, he went to Genichiro Tenryu's WAR, where he went by the name \"Death Mask\". From June to December 1995, he wrestled in Austria and Germany for the Catch Wrestling Association, where he won its World Tag Team Championship with Cannonball Grizzly in November 1995. He was set to join Smoky Mountain Wrestling in December 1995, to wrestle Buddy Landel, but this did not happen due to the company closing in November", ". From December 1995 to February 1996, he performed for the Confederate Wrestling Alliance in Dallas, Texas.", "World Wrestling Federation", "Early years (1995–1997)", "In December 1995, Layfield (as \"John Hawk\") debuted in the World Wrestling Federation, losing to Savio Vega in a dark match. He made his televised debut on the January 27, 1996, episode of WWF Superstars as \"Justin 'Hawk' Bradshaw\", defeating Bob Holly in his debut match. His initial gimmick was that of a rough and tumble Texas cowboy (similar in terms of appearance and character to Stan Hansen), with Uncle Zebakiah as his manager", ". After victories, he branded his opponents with the symbol \"JB\" in ink, rather than being seared into the flesh. Bradshaw remained undefeated for three months until a loss to The Undertaker via disqualification on the April 1 episode of Raw. He lost a Caribbean Strap Match to Savio Vega on the September 22, 1996, PPV In Your House 10: Mind Games. The character fizzled out by the end of the year, perhaps remembered only for a feud with Savio Vega and a match with Fatu which he won in eight seconds", ". Following a handicap match loss to Jesse James on December 9, Bradshaw attacked Zebekiah, who accidentally cost them the match. Afterwards, Bradshaw would work in house shows until February 1997.", "The New Blackjacks (1997–1998)", "In February 1997, Layfield paired up with his storyline cousin Barry Windham to form The New Blackjacks, Layfield cut off his long hair and completed with the traditional \"Blackjack\" handlebar mustaches and short, dyed black hair. In late 1997 Bradshaw traveled to the United States Wrestling Association (USWA) where he competed as a singles wrestler (without Windham)", ". During his time in the USWA he helped his former manager in the WWF, Dutch Mantel (also known in the WWF as Uncle Zebekiah) defeat Jerry Lawler for the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship.", "Windham's injuries piled up throughout 1997, so the team disbanded, and Layfield wrestled only occasionally on TV as Blackjack Bradshaw, sometimes teaming with fellow Texan Terry Funk. He earned a shot at the NWA North American Heavyweight Championship against Jeff Jarrett at No Way Out of Texas: In Your House and won by disqualification, but Jarrett retained the title because a title cannot change hands by a disqualification", ". In 1998, he wrestled as a mid-carder wrestling the likes of Marc Mero at Mayhem in Manchester, Kaientai (Funaki, Dick Togo, and Men's Teioh) with Taka Michinoku in a handicap match at Over the Edge in which Michinoku was pinned, and Vader in a Falls Count Anywhere Match at Breakdown which was won by Bradshaw.", "Acolytes Protection Agency (1998–2002)", "On Sunday Night Heat right before Survivor Series 1998, Bradshaw teamed alongside former Nation of Domination leader Faarooq to form the tag team of the Acolytes, managed by the Jackyl. Their main gimmick was that of a dark duo known for their unrepentant savagery against their opponents, occult symbols painted on their chest and the Necronomicon \"gate of Yog-Sothoth\" pentagram symbol on their black tights. Bradshaw would grow a goatee and let his hair go long", ". Bradshaw would grow a goatee and let his hair go long. After the Jackyl left the WWF, Faarooq and Bradshaw joined The Undertaker's new Ministry of Darkness. The Ministry went on to feud with the Corporation. As part of the Ministry, Bradshaw feuded with Ken Shamrock. The two stables would soon unite as the Corporate Ministry, but disbanded after Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated the Undertaker at Fully Loaded. When the Undertaker went on hiatus in September, Bradshaw and Faarooq's dark gimmick faded.", "On the May 31, 1999, episode of Raw Is War, the Acolytes (still with the Corporate Ministry) won their first WWF Tag Team Championship by defeating Kane and X-Pac. On the July 5 episode of Raw Is War, they dropped the titles to the Hardy Boyz (Matt and Jeff) before defeating the Hardyz and their manager Michael \"P.S.\" Hayes at Fully Loaded for their second WWF Tag Team Championship. On the August 9 episode of Raw Is War, they lost the titles to Kane and X-Pac.", "The duo became fan favorites and changed their gimmick to that of cigar-smoking bar brawlers for hire. In jeans and T-shirts, Faarooq and Bradshaw became the Acolytes Protection Agency (APA), with a motto of \"because we need beer money.\" The duo was often seen in the backrooms of arenas with a poker table and later a framed doorway comically in the middle of the often large, open aired hallways.", "The Acolytes earned a shot at the WWF Tag Title at the Royal Rumble against the New Age Outlaws (Road Dogg and Billy Gunn), but lost the match. Their next shot at the title was at Fully Loaded when they faced Edge and Christian. The Acolytes won the match by disqualification but did not become champions. After unsuccessfully challenging for the tag title in 2000, APA won their third WWF Tag Team Championship on the July 9, 2001, episode of Raw is War by defeating the Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D-Von)", ". On the August 9 episode of SmackDown!, they lost the tag title to Alliance members Diamond Dallas Page and Chris Kanyon.", "On the October 22 episode of Raw Is War, Bradshaw defeated The Hurricane to win the WWF European Championship, his first singles title in the WWF. He lost the title to Christian on the November 1 episode of SmackDown!. At No Way Out in 2002, APA won a Tag Team Turmoil match and as a result, they challenged for the tag title at WrestleMania X8 along with Hardys and Dudleys, in a Four Corners Elimination match. The champions Billy and Chuck retained their title.\n\nSingles competition (2002–2003)", "Shortly after WrestleMania, Faarooq and Bradshaw split due to the brand extension. Bradshaw was drafted to Raw where his gimmick had an increased emphasis on his Texas roots, which included him carrying a cowbell to the ring and teaming up with fellow Texan Stone Cold Steve Austin. Bradshaw helped Austin in the latter's feud against the nWo, teaming up with him against them and had a brief feud with Scott Hall where he faced Hall at Backlash in a losing effort due to interference by X-Pac", ". Following Austin's walkout on the WWE, Bradshaw joined the hardcore division and won the WWE Hardcore Championship seventeen times, with his first title win coming over Steven Richards on the June 3 episode of Raw. He renamed the title the Texas Hardcore Championship. It was also during this time that his finishing move was briefly renamed from the \"Clothesline From Hell\" to the \"Clothesline From Texas\" or the \"Clothesline From Deep in the Heart of Texas\"", ". Jim Ross often called the move as such during his commentary, although the name eventually reverted to the original \"Clothesline From Hell\".", "In the hardcore division, Bradshaw feuded and exchanged the title with the likes of Richards, Shawn Stasiak, Raven, Christopher Nowinski, Big Show, Justin Credible, Johnny Stamboli, Crash Holly, Jeff Hardy, and Tommy Dreamer, before the title was unified by WWE Intercontinental Champion Rob Van Dam in August 2002. In September 2002, Bradshaw suffered a torn left biceps at a house show", ". In September 2002, Bradshaw suffered a torn left biceps at a house show. He was out of action for six months until returning to Ohio Valley Wrestling and then a few weeks later to the active WWE roster.", "APA reunion (2003–2004)", "Bradshaw returned on the June 19, 2003, episode of SmackDown!, which saw him and Faarooq saving the Undertaker from the hands of Chuck Palumbo and Johnny Stamboli, reuniting the APA in the process. Bradshaw returned with a new look, cutting his long hair, returning it to its natural color blonde, and going clean shaven. On the June 26 episode of SmackDown!, the APA and the Undertaker defeated Stamboli, Palumbo and Nunzio", ". At Vengeance, Bradshaw won a bar room brawl match which featured Faarooq and a variety of mid-card superstars and other WWE employees. The duo lost to The Basham Brothers at No Mercy.", "On the October 30 episode of SmackDown!, the APA defeated Big Show and Brock Lesnar by disqualification after Lesnar attacked Farooq with a steel chair. On the November 13 episode of SmackDown!, Bradshaw defeated A-Train. At Survivor Series, Bradshaw was part of Kurt Angle's team, as they faced Brock Lesnar's team in a five-on-five tag team match. Bradshaw managed to eliminate A-Train, before he himself was eliminated by Big Show. His team eventually won the match", ". His team eventually won the match. Bradshaw was defeated by A-Train on the November 20 episode of SmackDown!, ending their brief feud. At WWE Tribute to the Troops on December 25, the APA defeated The World's Greatest Tag Team.", "Bradshaw entered into the 2004 Royal Rumble match at entry number 5, but quickly was eliminated by Chris Benoit. At No Way Out, the APA faced the World's Greatest Tag Team in a losing effort. At WrestleMania XX in 2004, they unsuccessfully challenged for the WWE Tag Team Championship in a fatal four-way tag team match", ". The gimmick continued on-and-off until the March 18 episode of SmackDown! until losing a tag team \"You're Fired\" match to WWE Tag Team Champions Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty for the tag team title. general manager Paul Heyman, frustrated by an insult by the APA, told Faarooq that if he did not win the aforementioned match, then \"You're Fired\". After the match, Bradshaw led Faarooq back to Heyman's office to state they had not been fired, but had resigned", ". Then Heyman cleared up the misunderstanding and pointed out that he said that if they did not win the titles, then he told Faarooq \"You're fired\". His reason for saying this directly to Faarooq was because it applied only to Faarooq because \"WWE Management\" still saw a lot of potential in Bradshaw. He left them after telling Bradshaw to think about his own future. Faarooq shouted after Heyman that he was not fired because they (Faarooq and Bradshaw) had quit. Bradshaw, however, hesitated", ". Bradshaw, however, hesitated. Faarooq took Bradshaw's hesitation to mean that he would not resign, and so Faarooq promptly disbanded the APA and left. This turned Bradshaw heel. In reality, the WWE had decided to stop using Ron Simmons as an on-air performer due to health issues. He was initially released, but he was later re-hired to work behind the scenes in the WWE under various roles.", "WWE Champion (2004–2005)", "After the on air character of Faarooq disappeared from WWE television, Bradshaw proceeded to take on a J. R. Ewing esque gimmick, complete with a suit, cowboy hat, and tie. He began his first main event push as Kurt Angle and Big Show were injured and Brock Lesnar left the company, with someone needed to face the current WWE Champion Eddie Guerrero. He began referring to himself as John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield, or JBL", ". He began referring to himself as John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield, or JBL. His finishing move's name was part of the overhaul, becoming the Clothesline From Wall Street until he later changed it back to its original name. His first promo was on the border between Texas and Mexico, where he hunted for incoming illegal immigrants in order to win a \"Great American Award\", which granted the winner number one contendership to the WWE Championship", ". He won, thanks to the then-SmackDown! general manager Kurt Angle, and immediately challenged Eddie Guerrero for the title.", "At Judgment Day, he defeated Guerrero via disqualification in a match for the WWE Championship, but since a title cannot change hands by disqualification, Guerrero retained the title. JBL won his sole world championship, the WWE Championship from Guerrero in a Texas Bull Rope match at The Great American Bash. JBL won a rematch in a steel cage two weeks later, again with Angle's assistance.", "After claiming he would not be defending the title at SummerSlam, The Undertaker challenged JBL for the title. Around this time, JBL hired Orlando Jordan to help him in title matches. At SummerSlam, JBL won the match by disqualification after Undertaker hit him with the title belt. After the match, Undertaker chokeslammed JBL through the roof of his limousine. JBL wore a halo complete with his cowboy hat on top for the next few weeks to sell his \"injuries\"", ". JBL wore a halo complete with his cowboy hat on top for the next few weeks to sell his \"injuries\". SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long then booked a Last Ride match for the title at No Mercy. JBL retained the title with some help from Heidenreich.", "Though JBL held the title for many months, most title matches were won controversially. At Survivor Series, JBL defeated Booker T to retain his WWE Championship by hitting Booker in the face with the title belt when the referee was knocked out. JBL defeated Eddie Guerrero, The Undertaker, and Booker T in a Fatal Four-Way at Armageddon after a run-in by Heidenreich, who incapacitated the Undertaker, allowing JBL to take advantage and hit Booker with the Clothesline From Hell to get the pinfall victory.", "During JBL's time as WWE Champion, he employed a stable named \"The Cabinet\". At its peak, the stable contained Orlando Jordan, who was JBL's \"Chief-of-Staff\" and Doug and Danny Basham, who were his \"Co-Secretaries of Defense\" until quitting the Cabinet on the June 16, 2005, episode of SmackDown!. Amy Weber was also a member, being JBL's image consultant, but later left WWE. WWE explained Weber's absence by saying that JBL fired her after an episode of SmackDown! taped in Japan", ". That episode saw Weber accidentally shoot JBL with a tranquilizer gun. Jordan is the only member not announced to have left the group, though mention of the term cabinet went on hiatus after SummerSlam and Orlando was released from WWE in May 2006.", "JBL defended the title at Royal Rumble against Big Show and Kurt Angle in a Triple Threat match when he pinned Angle after the Clothesline From Hell and against Big Show in a Barbed Wire Steel Cage match at No Way Out, when Big Show chokeslammed JBL off the top rope through the ring and JBL later crawled out from under the ring apron, winning the match by escape", ". On the next episode of SmackDown!, JBL had a \"Celebration of Excellence\" in which he and his Cabinet celebrated the fact that he was the longest-reigning WWE Champion in ten years, a party which was broken up and ruined by Big Show and newly crowned number one contender John Cena.", "JBL lost the WWE Championship to John Cena at WrestleMania 21. Layfield's unbroken nine-month reign was billed as the longest in a decade, lasting 280 days. On the April 28 episode of SmackDown!, JBL defeated Big Show, Booker T, and Kurt Angle in a fatal four-way elimination match to earn a rematch for the WWE Championship, but lost to Cena at Judgment Day in an \"I Quit\" match.", "On June 12, JBL appeared at the WWE-promoted ECW One Night Stand pay-per-view as an anti-ECW \"crusader\". In the course of the night, he attacked The Blue Meanie in a shoot. WWE capitalized on the situation by resigning Meanie to a short-term contract", ". WWE capitalized on the situation by resigning Meanie to a short-term contract. On the July 7 episode of SmackDown!, Meanie was reunited with his old The Blue World Order associates Nova and Stevie Richards and he defeated JBL with the help of the World Heavyweight Champion Batista, who was drafted to SmackDown! a few weeks after Cena was drafted to Raw. JBL and Batista then met in a match at The Great American Bash for the World Heavyweight Championship", ". JBL won the match by disqualification, after Batista hit JBL with a steel chair, but since a title does not change hands by disqualification, Batista retained the title. At SummerSlam, Batista defeated JBL in a No Holds Barred match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship. JBL lost another rematch with Batista on the September 9 episode of SmackDown! in a Texas Bullrope match, ending the feud.", "United States Champion (2005–2006)", "On the September 16 episode of SmackDown!, JBL lost to Rey Mysterio. He hired Jillian Hall to \"fix\" his career. At No Mercy, JBL defeated Mysterio in a rematch. In early 2006, JBL started a feud with The Boogeyman who scared him many times in the new year. The two had a match at the Royal Rumble, which the Boogeyman won. His next opponent was Bobby Lashley, whom JBL defeated at No Way Out", ". His next opponent was Bobby Lashley, whom JBL defeated at No Way Out. On the February 24, 2006, episode of SmackDown!, he suffered a broken hand at the hands of Chris Benoit in a six-man tag team match, and WWE.com announced that he underwent successful surgery. JBL returned and feuded with Benoit, defeating him for his United States Championship at WrestleMania 22", ". During this time, Jillian Hall remained at the side of JBL until the April 21 episode of SmackDown! when JBL fired Hall, due to a mistake she made during a steel cage rematch between JBL and Benoit the week before as well as her lack of putting together an \"appropriate\" celebration for him.", "JBL, while still United States Champion, challenged for the World Heavyweight Championship. JBL tried to weaken then champion Rey Mysterio in the weeks leading up to his title match as Mysterio faced off against any opponent of JBL's choosing, capitalizing on Mysterio claiming that he was \"a man of his word,\" and would take on anyone. Mysterio was defeated by Mark Henry and squashed by The Great Khali in non-title singles matches before facing Raw's Kane in a match, that went to a no-contest", ". This was leading to their title match at Judgment Day, which Mysterio won and retained the title by pinning JBL after a frog splash. On the May 26 episode of SmackDown!, Mysterio turned the tables on JBL, making him take on Bobby Lashley with the United States Championship on the line, and JBL lost the title. Infuriated, JBL went to SmackDown! general manager Theodore Long, telling Long that he wanted a rematch with Mysterio for the World Heavyweight Championship and that if JBL lost, he would quit", ". When he lost, the crowd at the arena began to sing \"Na Na, Hey Hey, Goodbye\". JBL later stated that he did not have a formal contract with Long going into the match and that he did not intend to leave SmackDown!. This angle was used to give JBL time off wrestling due to his serious back injury.", "Commentator and part-time wrestler (2006–2008)", "At ECW One Night Stand, JBL announced that he would take Tazz's place as the new color commentator for SmackDown!. He made his debut as a color commentator on the June 16 episode of SmackDown!. JBL noted in a commentary on TheStreet.com that he was retiring from in-ring competition for good. In his final column on the website, JBL wrote, \"I have also come to believe that you can't fight father time", ". A broken back suffered in a match in England, compounded by a herniated and bulged disc, finally made me realize my career as a professional wrestler was over. I since migrated to the color commentary position much in the way that Jesse Ventura did before me.\"", "JBL returned to the ring on November 13, 2006, in the main event of a WWE house show in Dublin, Ireland. JBL teamed with Mr. Kennedy and King Booker against The Brothers of Destruction (Kane and The Undertaker), and Batista. On the December 22 episode of SmackDown!, JBL cut a promo berating Theodore Long and cursing out the fans for cheering during the Inferno match at Armageddon five days earlier (\"Rome didn't fall because of the gladiators in the ring. Rome fell because of the spectators in the stands.\")", "On the October 12, 2007, episode of SmackDown!, JBL was announced as one of the options WWE fans would be able to vote for to be the special guest referee at Cyber Sunday for the World Heavyweight Championship match between Batista and The Undertaker, but he lost the vote to Stone Cold Steve Austin. At Cyber Sunday, he issued a heated altercation towards those running alongside him, ultimately receiving a Stone Cold Stunner from Austin", ". After this, he became physical as a color commentator, attacking both Batista and The Undertaker in the middle of a match as revenge after he was speared by Batista and later chokeslammed by The Undertaker after taunting them consecutively, in events leading up to Cyber Sunday. He justified these actions by explaining, \"I am retired, not dead\" (and that he [Layfield] should be respected).", "In December 2007 at Armageddon, JBL was present at the SmackDown! announcer's table during the WWE Championship match. During this match, Randy Orton whipped a charging Chris Jericho over the announcer table where JBL was situated, and in the heat of the match, Jericho \"pushed\" JBL out of the way. Minutes later, an infuriated JBL kicked Jericho in the head, leading to a disqualification victory for Jericho meaning that Orton retained the title.", "On the December 17, 2007, episode of Raw, JBL announced that he would resume his wrestling career in response to a challenge made by Jericho. On the December 21 episode of SmackDown!, JBL gave his farewell address from SmackDown!, officially marking his return to Raw on December 31. Jericho was disqualified in their match at the Royal Rumble after hitting JBL with a chair. The duo battled in a rematch on the February 11 episode of Raw, which Jericho won.", "On February 18 on Raw, JBL interfered in the scheduled steel cage match between Mr. McMahon and his storyline illegitimate son, Hornswoggle. After Vince whipped Hornswoggle with his belt, JBL attacked Finlay from behind and handcuffed him to the top rope. After Mr. McMahon left the ring, JBL proceeded to beat Hornswoggle throwing him against the sides of the cage. JBL later revealed to McMahon that Hornswoggle was Finlay's storyline son, not McMahon's", ". JBL later revealed to McMahon that Hornswoggle was Finlay's storyline son, not McMahon's. On March 29, JBL inducted the Brisco Brothers into the WWE Hall of Fame. On March 30, JBL defeated Finlay in a Belfast Brawl at WrestleMania XXIV.", "JBL's first championship bid since returning to the ring came by challenging Randy Orton for the WWE Championship and participating in a Fatal Four-Way Elimination match at Backlash that also included John Cena and Triple H. JBL was eliminated first in the match by tapping out to Cena's STFU, thus renewing their feud from 2005. Cena defeated JBL at Judgment Day and then at One Night Stand in a First Blood match. He managed to defeat Cena in a New York City Parking Lot Brawl at The Great American Bash.", "Intercontinental Champion and retirement (2008–2010)", "JBL's next on-screen rivalry was with CM Punk, the reigning World Heavyweight Champion. During the feud, JBL insulted Punk's straight-edge lifestyle, calling it \"boring\". On the August 11 edition of Raw, JBL challenged Punk to a contest he claimed that Punk would not be able to win, which was revealed to be an alcohol drinking contest where he challenged Punk to drink a shot of Jack Daniel's whiskey to prove that he would do anything to remain champion", ". Punk refused, not wanting to risk compromising his beliefs, before throwing the drink in JBL's face. JBL faced Punk for the World Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam, which he would lose after Punk hit him with his finishing move, the Go 2 Sleep. On September 7 at Unforgiven, JBL faced Batista, Kane, Rey Mysterio and Chris Jericho (who replaced Punk in the match after he was attacked by Randy Orton) in a Championship Scramble match for the World Heavyweight Championship", ". Jericho went on to win the match and the World Heavyweight Championship. At No Mercy, JBL was defeated by Batista in a #1 Contender's match for the World Heavyweight Championship.", "Throughout late 2008 and early 2009, JBL had a short rivalry with Shawn Michaels. At Survivor Series in a five on five tag team elimination tag team match in which Michaels' team emerged victorious. Michaels had lost his family's personal savings due to the global financial crisis and would later become JBL's employee at Armageddon", ". After failing to secure JBL for the World Heavyweight Championship against John Cena at the Royal Rumble, Michaels agreed to take part in an \"All or Nothing\" match at No Way Out on February 15, 2009. Michaels won the match at No Way Out, after his wife (who was watching in the audience) punched JBL in the face and Michaels planted the Sweet Chin Music. This ended any employment links between the two with Michaels still receiving the full payment owed to him and end the feud.", "On the March 9 episode of Raw, JBL defeated CM Punk to win the Intercontinental Championship, thus becoming the tenth Grand Slam Champion and twentieth Triple Crown Champion. He held the title for one month, losing the Intercontinental title at WrestleMania 25 against Rey Mysterio in 21 seconds. After the match, he grabbed a microphone and said \"I quit!\"; the next day he announced his retirement on his WWE Universe blog.", "Return to commentating (2011–2017)", "Layfield made his return to WWE on the March 7, 2011, episode of Raw as Michael Cole's choice for special guest referee for his match against Jerry Lawler at WrestleMania XXVII. He cut a promo claiming he was starting his \"journey back to the main event at WrestleMania\", before being interrupted by Stone Cold Steve Austin just as he was about to sign the contract. After a brief argument between the two, Austin hit Layfield with the Stone Cold Stunner and signed the contract to be the special guest referee.", "On March 31, 2012, Layfield inducted his former tag team partner and real life best friend Ron Simmons into the 2012 WWE Hall of Fame. On July 23 Layfield returned with Simmons at Raw 1000 as the APA, after being called for protection by Lita. After a Clothesline from Hell, Lita defeated Heath Slater. thus turning face for the first time since 2004.", "Starting at Night of Champions, Layfield returned to his JBL persona, and sporadically filled in as color commentator, replacing Jerry Lawler, who suffered a legitimate heart attack during the Raw episode preceding Night of Champions. Layfield later re-signed with the promotion and returned to the SmackDown broadcast team on a full-time basis, alongside Josh Mathews and eventually Michael Cole. On April 1, 2013, JBL became the third commentator for Raw alongside Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler", ". On April 1, 2013, JBL became the third commentator for Raw alongside Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler. JBL was also part of the commentary team at WWE pay-per-views and commentated at WrestleMania 29. On September 12, 2013, JBL was named commissioner of NXT, replacing Dusty Rhodes. On January 26, 2014, at the Royal Rumble, JBL wrestled in his first WWE match in nearly five years as a surprise entrant in the Royal Rumble match", ". Having been on commentary the whole broadcast, JBL left the commentator's table when his number (#24) came up. However, JBL was quickly eliminated by Roman Reigns while trying to hand his jacket to Michael Cole and resumed his role as commentator for the rest of the broadcast. In July, JBL was retired as NXT general manager and succeeded by William Regal", ". In July, JBL was retired as NXT general manager and succeeded by William Regal. On the January 19, 2015, episode of Raw, JBL, along with Ron Simmons (a fellow member of The Acolytes Protection Agency), the New World Order and The New Age Outlaws attacked The Ascension and then, JBL would perform a Clothesline from Hell on Viktor", ". On the March 30 episode of Raw, JBL, along with Booker T and Michael Cole, were injured by Brock Lesnar after Seth Rollins refused Lesnar his WWE World Heavyweight Championship rematch.", "Following the 2016 WWE draft on July 19, WWE announced on their website that JBL would move to the SmackDown commentary team, joining Mauro Ranallo and David Otunga. Layfield returned to his alma mater, Abilene Christian University, a color commentator for two radio broadcasts as the ACU football team faced Houston Baptist University and Stephen F. Austin State University in September 2016", ". Austin State University in September 2016. He made his first appearance on the American Sports Network on October 1, 2016, when ACU hosted the University of Central Arkansas. On the January 17 episode of SmackDown Live, JBL saved Jerry Lawler, after Lawler interview with Dolph Ziggler, who took credit for Lawler's real life heart attack in September 2012, before Ziggler viciously kicking Lawler's chest and leaving the ring.", "Sporadic appearances and WWE Hall of Famer (2017–2023)", "On September 1, 2017, JBL announced that he was stepping away from the SmackDown Live commentary team to focus on humanitarian work in and out of WWE, mainly as a Beyond Sport Global Ambassador. The APA made an appearance at the Raw 25 Years show on January 22, 2018, playing poker with other legends and superstars. Layfield occasionally works on commentary during the Tribute to the Troops events with the latest one occurred on December 4, 2018 (aired on December 20) in Fort Hood.", "On March 3, 2020, during WWE Backstage it was officially announced that JBL would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame as part of WrestleMania 36 week however the event was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On November 22, 2020, he made an appearance at Survivor Series during The Undertaker's retirement ceremony", ". During WrestleMania 37 week, JBL was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2020 during the 2021 ceremony following the delay the previous year, he was later a panelist on the WrestleMania 37 kick-off show, and provided commentary in the singles match between Kevin Owens and Sami Zayn.", "From October 2022 until February 2023, Layfield worked as the manager of Baron Corbin.\n\nBusiness career\nWWE describes Layfield as a \"self-made\" millionaire. In 2003, Layfield published a book on financial management titled Have More Money Now. He and his wife, then Oppenheimer Holdings' financial analyst Meredith Whitney, were featured in the August 2008 issue of Fortune magazine.", "Layfield is the founder of Layfield Energy. In 2008, Layfield Energy launched a drink called MamaJuana Energy. In March 2009, Layfield Energy became the main sponsor and advertiser of Ohio Valley Wrestling, a former WWE developmental promotion based in Louisville, Kentucky.", "Layfield has lived full-time in Bermuda since shortly after his retirement from in-ring activity. Feeling confined living in New York City, he spent the summer of 2009 in Bermuda at his wife's encouragement, and the couple soon bought a full-time home there", ". As he acclimated to Bermuda, he noticed what he called \"the almost predominant black-on-black violence that is unfortunately pervasive throughout the local neighborhoods\", and in 2011 created the nonprofit organization Beyond Rugby Bermuda, using rugby union to provide young people with an alternative to gangs", ". The organization is an offshoot of Beyond Sport, a South African nonprofit that uses running for similar purposes; Layfield was introduced to that group's founder when he and his wife visited the country for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He spends much of his time outside of WWE with the organization, filling duties as varied as celebrity fundraising and mowing the rugby field. Beyond Rugby Bermuda began with six boys; as of February 2017, more than 400 boys and girls were involved", ". Layfield is now a global ambassador for Beyond Sport alongside figures such as Tony Blair and Desmond Tutu.", "In the spring of 2018, Major League Rugby announced that they would start an expansion team in New York City. In this announcement, it was announced that the co-founders of the club would be James Kennedy and Layfield.", "Cable news", "In 2004, Layfield was hired by CNBC to be a contributor. During a WWE house show in Munich, Germany, early in June 2004, in an attempt to draw heel heat, he gave the crowd several Nazi salutes while goose-stepping around the ring. Such a display is illegal in Germany, and CNBC fired Layfield as a result of the controversy. In an interview with The Washington Post, Layfield explained \"I'm a bad guy [on WWE TV]. I'm supposed to incite the crowd. I've done it for decades", ". I'm supposed to incite the crowd. I've done it for decades. I really didn't think anything of [the Nazi salute] – I know how bad it is, I've lived [in Germany]. I've been to Dachau, seen those places where they exterminated millions of Jews. I draw the line between me and my character. That's like saying Anthony Hopkins (who portrays Hannibal Lecter) really enjoys cannibalism\".", "Layfield left CNBC and was subsequently hired by Fox News and sister network (and CNBC rival) Fox Business as a business commentator.\n\nOther media\nIn April 2009, following his departure from WWE, Ohio Valley Wrestling owner Danny Davis announced in a press release that Layfield would be color commentator and host for Vyper Fight League, which Layfield would also sponsor with Layfield Energy; however, the company folded the following year.", "In November 2012, Layfield started hosting a new show on WWE's YouTube channel alongside Michael Cole and Renee Young called The JBL and Renee Show (formerly known as The JBL Show and The JBL and Cole Show). The series ended in May 2015.\n\nLayfield used to run the website Layfield Report which highlighted a variety of his views and opinions in numerous articles. The site was ended in September 2014.", "Layfield has appeared as a playable character in a number of WWE video games. His first appearance as a playable character was in WWF Attitude, with his latest appearance in WWE 2K22, as well as being a playable character, in WWF WrestleMania 2000, WWF SmackDown!, WWF No Mercy, WWF SmackDown! 2: Know Your Role, WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It, WWF Road to WrestleMania, WWF Raw, WWE WrestleMania X8, WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth, WWE Crush Hour, WWE Raw 2, WWE SmackDown! vs", ". Raw, WWE WrestleMania 21, WWE Day of Reckoning 2, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2006, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010, WWE '13, WWE 2K14, WWE 2K15 as DLC, WWE 2K16, WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18, WWE 2K22 and WWE 2K23 Layfield also appears as a commentator for several games, including WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2008, WWE 2K16 and WWE 2K17.", "Layfield began broadcasting American football games in 2016, serving as analyst for a pair of Abilene Christian University radio broadcasts and two Southland Conference games televised on American Sports Network. His ASN debut pitted the University of Central Arkansas against Abilene Christian, followed by ACU's matchup at McNeese State University.\n\nIn 2021, Layfield began hosting a podcast series with Gerald Brisco.\n\nFilmography", "In 2021, Layfield began hosting a podcast series with Gerald Brisco.\n\nFilmography\n\nPersonal life \nHis parents are Lavelle Layfield, who is a minister, and Mary Layfield.\n\nLayfield married his second wife, Meredith Whitney, on February 11, 2005, in Key West, Florida. He was previously married to Cindy Womack on June 6, 1994, but divorced in 2003.", "Bullying allegations and hazing", "Sports Illustrated has said that Layfield \"has been accused for years of being a locker room bully\", while Deadspin wrote that \"backstage tales of Layfield's hazing and bullying have long been legend among hardcore wrestling fans.\" Dayton Daily News described that \"YouTube has dozens of interviews where former performers discuss harassment, bullying and taking real blows from Layfield while wrestling him in supposedly choreographed matches", ".\" Le Journal de Montréal listed Mark Henry, Matt Hardy, René Duprée, Daivari, and Ivory, among others, as wrestlers who in interviews described Layfield as a bully. In 2010, The Miz referenced Layfield in an onscreen promo about hazing he faced in the locker room early in his career. Layfield admitted to hazing Miz and said that he did not regret doing so", ". Layfield admitted to hazing Miz and said that he did not regret doing so. On Vice on TV Networks Dark Side of the Ring, Vince Russo states that his main reason for creating the infamous WWF Brawl for All was so that someone would \"beat the heck out of\" Layfield due to his bravado in the locker room.", "One particularly well-known instance of his alleged bullying occurred during the 2005 ECW One Night Stand. During a post-match moment in the event when the WWE's top heels attack the ECW Originals following the bWo interfering with the match, JBL can be seen amongst the performers legitimately attacking bWo member Brian \"The Blue Meanie\" Heffron. Layfield repeatedly hit him in the head so hard it split Heffron's face. Heffron was visibly upset by the incident, and he required stitches", ". Heffron was visibly upset by the incident, and he required stitches. Shortly thereafter, during an episode of SmackDown, bWo teammate Stevie Richards and Batista would interfere in a match between The Blue Meanie and JBL, where Richards would deliver a real chair shot to JBL's head as revenge for the One Night Stand incident. In the years since the legitimate feud, Heffron and Layfield have made amends and become friends.", "In April 2017, WWE commentator Mauro Ranallo took an absence from WWE, which Dave Meltzer reported had been triggered by hostilities with Layfield. The allegations coincided with the release of former WWE ring announcer Justin Roberts' autobiography, in which he alleged that Layfield stole his passport. Layfield denied that he himself stole the passport, but John Morrison subsequently claimed that Layfield encouraged him and Joey Mercury to steal Roberts' passport, which they did not agree to", ". Angered WWE fans subsequently called on WWE to fire Layfield. On April 22, Newsweek reported that Ranallo and WWE \"mutually agreed to part ways\", and Ranallo released a statement in which he said his departure had \"nothing to do with JBL\". Layfield released a statement of his own, stating: \"Admittedly, I took part in locker room pranks that existed within the industry years ago. WWE addressed my behavior and I responded accordingly, yet my past is being brought up because of recent unfounded rumors", ". I apologize if anything I said playing 'the bad guy' on a TV show was misconstrued.\"", "Championships and accomplishments\n\nCollege football \n Abilene Christian University\n 1989 NCAA Division II All–American", "Professional wrestling \n Catch Wrestling Association\n CWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Cannonball Grizzly\n Cauliflower Alley Club\n Iron Mike Mazurki Award (2022)\nFederacion Internacional de Lucha Libre\nFILL Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\n George Tragos/Lou Thesz Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame\n Lou Thesz Award (2012)\n Global Wrestling Federation\n GWF Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Bobby Duncum Jr. (1) and Black Bart (1)\n Memphis Championship Wrestling", "Memphis Championship Wrestling\n MCW Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Faarooq\n NWA Dallas\n NWA North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\n Ohio Valley Wrestling\n OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ron Simmons\n Pro Wrestling Illustrated\n Ranked No. 5 of the 500 best singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2005\n Ranked No. 496 of the best 500 singles wrestlers of all time in the PWI Years in 2003\n United States Wrestling Federation", "United States Wrestling Federation\n USWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with The Equalizer\n World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE\nWWE Championship (1 time)\n WWE Intercontinental Championship (1 time)\n WWE United States Championship (1 time)\n WWE Hardcore Championship (17 times)\n WWF European Championship (1 time)\n WWF Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Faarooq\n WWE Championship #1 Contender's Tournament (April 2005)\n Race To The Rumble Tournament (2009)", "WWE Championship #1 Contender's Tournament (April 2005)\n Race To The Rumble Tournament (2009)\n Slammy Award (1 time)\nFavorite Web Show of the Year (2013) – with Michael Cole and Renee Young for The JBL and Cole Show\n 20th Triple Crown Champion\n 10th Grand Slam Champion\nWWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2020)\n Wrestling Observer Newsletter\n Best Gimmick (2004)\n Worst Television Announcer (2014, 2015)\n Worst Worked Match of the Year (2002) \n Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic (2014)", "References\n\nExternal links", "1966 births\n20th-century professional wrestlers\n21st-century professional wrestlers\nAbilene Christian Wildcats football players\nAmerican business writers\nAmerican color commentators\nAmerican football offensive linemen\nAmerican Internet celebrities\nAmerican male professional wrestlers\nAmerican people of German descent\nBusinesspeople from New York City\nAmerican financial analysts\nFox Business people\nFox News people\nHazing\nMixed martial arts broadcasters\nNew York (state) Republicans", "Fox News people\nHazing\nMixed martial arts broadcasters\nNew York (state) Republicans\nNWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions\nLiving people\nLos Angeles Raiders players\nPeople from Sweetwater, Texas\nPeople from Roscoe, Texas\nProfessional wrestlers from Texas\nProfessional wrestling announcers\nProfessional wrestling podcasters\nRugby New York\nSan Antonio Riders players\nSportspeople from Abilene, Texas\nTexas Republicans\nWWF European Champions\nWWE Champions\nWWE Grand Slam champions", "Texas Republicans\nWWF European Champions\nWWE Champions\nWWE Grand Slam champions\nWWE Hall of Fame inductees\nWWF/WWE Hardcore Champions\nWWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions\nGWF Tag Team Champions\nNWA North American Heavyweight Champions\nWorld Tag Team Champions (WWE)" ]

[ "Populism is a range of political stances that emphasize the idea of \"the people\" and often juxtapose this group with \"the elite\". It is frequently associated with anti-establishment and anti-political sentiment. The term developed in the late 19th century and has been applied to various politicians, parties and movements since that time, often as a pejorative", ". Within political science and other social sciences, several different definitions of populism have been employed, with some scholars proposing that the term be rejected altogether.", "A common framework for interpreting populism is known as the ideational approach: this defines populism as an ideology that presents \"the people\" as a morally good force and contrasts them against \"the elite\", who are portrayed as corrupt and self-serving. Populists differ in how \"the people\" are defined, but it can be based along class, ethnic, or national lines", ". Populists typically present \"the elite\" as comprising the political, economic, cultural, and media establishment, depicted as a homogeneous entity and accused of placing their own interests, and often the interests of other groups—such as large corporations, foreign countries, or immigrants—above the interests of \"the people\". Populist parties and social movements are often led by charismatic or dominant figures who present themselves as \"the voice of the people\"", ". According to the ideational approach, populism is often combined with other ideologies, such as nationalism, liberalism, or socialism. Thus, populists can be found at different locations along the left–right political spectrum, and there exist both left-wing populism and right-wing populism.", "Other scholars of the social sciences have defined the term populism differently. According to the popular agency definition used by some historians of United States history, populism refers to popular engagement of the population in political decision making. An approach associated with the political scientist Ernesto Laclau presents populism as an emancipatory social force through which marginalised groups challenge dominant power structures", ". Some economists have used the term in reference to governments which engage in substantial public spending financed by foreign loans, resulting in hyperinflation and emergency measures", ". In popular discourse—where the term has often been used pejoratively—it has sometimes been used synonymously with demagogy, to describe politicians who present overly simplistic answers to complex questions in a highly emotional manner, or with political opportunism, to characterise politicians who seek to please voters without rational consideration as to the best course of action.", "In the 1960s, the term became increasingly popular among social scientists in Western countries, and later in the 20th century it was applied to various political parties active in liberal democracies. In the 21st century, the struggle over the term intensified in political discourse, particularly in the Americas and Europe, as it has been used to describe a range of left-wing, right-wing, and centrist groups that challenged the established parties.\n\nEtymology and terminology", "Etymology and terminology\n\nThe word populism has been contested, mistranslated and used in reference to a diverse variety of movements and beliefs. The political scientist Will Brett characterised it as \"a classic example of a stretched concept, pulled out of shape by overuse and misuse\", while the political scientist Paul Taggart has said of populism that it is \"one of the most widely used but poorly understood political concepts of our time\".", "The term originated as a form of self-designation, being used by members of the People's Party active in the United States during the late 19th century. In the Russian Empire during the same period, a completely different group referred to itself as the narodniki, which has often been mistranslated into English as populists, adding further confusion over the term. The Russian and American movements differed in various respects, and the fact that they shared a name was coincidental", ". In the 1920s, the term entered the French language, where it was used to describe a group of writers expressing sympathy for ordinary people.", "Although the term began as a self-designation, part of the confusion surrounding it stems from the fact that it has rarely been used in this way, with few political figures openly describing themselves as \"populists\". As noted by the political scientist Margaret Canovan, \"there has been no self-conscious international populist movement which might have attempted to control or limit the term's reference, and as a result those who have used it have been able to attach it a wide variety of meanings", ".\" In this it differs from other political terms, like \"socialism\" or \"conservatism\", which have been widely used as self-designations by individuals who have then presented their own, internal definitions of the word. Instead it shares similarities with terms such as \"far left\", \"far right\", or \"extremist\", which are often used in political discourse but rarely as self-designations.", "In corporate-owned media, the term \"populism\" has often been conflated with other concepts like demagoguery, and generally presented as something to be \"feared and discredited\". It has often been applied to movements that are considered to be outside the political mainstream or a threat to democracy", ". The political scientists Yves Mény and Yves Surel noted that \"populism\" had become \"a catchword, particularly in the media, to designate the newborn political or social movements which challenge the entrenched values, rules and institutions of democratic orthodoxy.\" Typically, the term is used against others, often in a pejorative sense to discredit opponents.", "Some of those who have repeatedly been referred to as \"populists\" in a pejorative sense have subsequently embraced the term while seeking to shed it of negative connotations. The French far-right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen for instance was often accused of populism and eventually responded by stating that \"Populism precisely is taking into account the people's opinion. Have people the right, in a democracy, to hold an opinion? If that is the case, then yes, I am a populist", ".\" Similarly, on being founded in 2003, the centre-left Lithuanian Labour Party declared: \"we are and will be called populists.\"", "Following 2016, the year which saw the election of Donald Trump as president of the United States and the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union—both events linked to populism—the word populism became one of the most widely used terms by international political commentators. In 2017, the Cambridge Dictionary declared it the Word of the Year.\n\nUse in academia", "Until the 1950s, use of the term populism remained restricted largely to historians studying the People's Party, but in 1954 the US sociologist Edward Shils published an article proposing populism as a term to describe anti-elite trends in US society more broadly. Following on from Shils' article, during the 1960s the term \"populism\" became increasingly popular among sociologists and other academics in the social sciences", ". In 1967 a Conference on Populism was held at the London School of Economics, the participants of which failed to agree on a clear, single definition. As a result of this scholarly interest, an academic field known as \"populism studies\" emerged. Interest in the subject grew rapidly: between 1950 and 1960 about 160 publications on populism appeared, while between 1990 and 2000 that number was over 1500", ". From 2000–2015, about 95 papers and books including the term \"populism\" were catalogued each year by Web of Science. In 2016, it grew to 266; in 2017, it was 488, and in 2018, it was 615. Taggart argued that this academic interest was not consistent but appeared in \"bursts\" of research that reflected the political conditions of the time.", "Canovan noted that \"if the notion of populism did not exist, no social scientist would deliberately invent it; the term is far too ambiguous for that\". From examining how the term \"populism\" had been used, she proposed that seven different types of populism could be discerned. Three of these were forms of \"agrarian populism\"; these included farmers' radicalism, peasant movements, and intellectual agrarian socialism", ". The other four were forms of \"political populism\", representing populist dictatorship, populist democracy, reactionary populism, and politicians' populism. She noted that these were \"analytical constructs\" and that \"real-life examples may well overlap several categories\", adding that no single political movement fitted into all seven categories. In this way, Canovan conceived of populism as a family of related concepts rather than as a single concept in itself.", "The confusion surrounding the term has led some scholars to suggest that it should be abandoned by scholarship. In contrast to this view, the political scientists Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser stated that \"while the frustration is understandable, the term populism is too central to debates about politics from Europe to the Americas to simply do away with", ".\" Similarly, Canovan noted that the term \"does have comparatively clear and definite meanings in a number of specialist areas\" and that it \"provides a pointer, however shaky, to an interesting and largely unexplored area of political and social experience\".", "The political scientists Daniele Albertazzi and Duncan McDonnell thought that \"if carefully defined, the term 'populism' can be used profitably to help us understand and explain a wide array of political actors\". The political scientist Ben Stanley noted that \"although the meaning of the term has proven controversial in the literature, the persistence with which it has recurred suggests the existence at least of an ineliminable core: that is, that it refers to a distinct pattern of ideas", ".\" Political scientist David Art argues that the concept of populism brings together disparate phenomena in an unhelpful manner, and ultimately obscures and legitimizes figures who are more comprehensively defined as nativists and authoritarians.", "Although academic definitions of populism have differed, most of them have focused on the idea that it should reference some form of relationship between \"the people\" and \"the elite\", and that it entailed taking an anti-establishment stance. Beyond that, different scholars have emphasised different features that they wish to use to define populism", ". These differences have occurred both within specific scholarly disciplines and among different disciplines, varying for instance among scholars focusing on different regions and different historical periods.", "Author Thomas Frank has criticized the common use of the term Populism to refer to far-right nativism and racism, noting that the original People's Party was relatively liberal on the rights of women and minorities by the standards of the time.\n\nThe V-Party Dataset assesses populism as anti-elitism and people-centrism.\n\nIdeational definition", "Ideational definition\n\nA common approach to defining populism is known as the ideational approach. This emphasises the notion that populism should be defined according to specific ideas which underlie it, as opposed to certain economic policies or leadership styles which populist politicians may display. In this definition, the term populism is applied to political groups and individuals who make appeals to \"the people\" and then contrast this group against \"the elite\".", "Adopting this approach, Albertazzi and McDonnell define populism as an ideology that \"pits a virtuous and homogeneous people against a set of elites and dangerous 'others' who are together depicted as depriving (or attempting to deprive) the sovereign people of their rights, values, prosperity, identity, and voice\"", ". Similarly, the political scientist Carlos de la Torre defined populism as \"a Manichean discourse that divides politics and society as the struggle between two irreconcilable and antagonistic camps: the people and the oligarchy or the power block.\"", "In this understanding, note Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, \"populism always involves a critique of the establishment and an adulation of the common people\", and according to Ben Stanley, populism itself is a product of \"an antagonistic relationship\" between \"the people\" and \"the elite\", and is \"latent wherever the possibility occurs for the emergence of such a dichotomy\"", ". The political scientist Manuel Anselmi proposed that populism be defined as featuring a \"homogenous community-people\" which \"perceives itself as the absolute holder of popular sovereignty\" and \"expresses an anti-establishment attitude.\" This understanding conceives of populism as a discourse, ideology, or worldview. These definitions were initially employed largely in Western Europe, although later became increasingly popular in Eastern Europe and the Americas.", "According to this approach, populism is viewed as a \"thin ideology\" or \"thin-centred ideology\" which on its own is seen as too insubstantial to provide a blueprint for societal change. It thus differs from the \"thick-centred\" or \"full\" ideologies such as fascism, liberalism, and socialism, which provide more far-reaching ideas about social transformation. As a thin-centred ideology, populism is therefore attached to a thick-ideology by populist politicians", ". Thus, populism can be found merged with forms of nationalism, liberalism, socialism, federalism, or conservatism. According to Stanley, \"the thinness of populism ensures that in practice it is a complementary ideology: it does not so much overlap with as diffuse itself throughout full ideologies.\"", "Populism is, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, \"a kind of mental map through which individuals analyse and comprehend political reality\".", "Mudde noted that populism is \"moralistic rather than programmatic\". It encourages a binary world-view in which everyone is divided into \"friends and foes\", with the latter being regarded not just as people who have \"different priorities and values\" but as being fundamentally \"evil\". In emphasising one's purity against the corruption and immorality of \"the elite\", from which \"the people\" must remain pure and untouched, populism prevents compromise between different groups.", "The incredible rise in research and discussion about populism, both academic and social, stems largely from efforts by ideational scholars to place centre stage the significance of appeals to the people beyond ideological differences, and to conceptualise populism as a discursive phenomenon", ". Nevertheless, the ideational school's approach to populism is problematic for the amount of substantive assumptions it im- poses on how populism actually works as a discursive phenomenon, such as the idea that it is of a moral register, that vindications always refer to a homogeneous/pure people, or that it takes shape socially as an ideology. These assumptions can be counter-productive to the study of populism which has arguably become excessively conceptually deductive", ". Still, this does not mean we cannot come to a more minimal, formal definition of what populism is that can consensually group scholars and open up research to a broader scope, as indicated by Stavrakakis and De Cleen in defining populism as a type of discourse ‘characterized by a people/elite distinction and the claim to speak in the name of “the people.”’", "Right and left-wing\n\nAs a result of the various different ideologies with which populism can be paired, the forms that populism can take vary widely. Populism itself cannot be positioned on the left–right political spectrum, and both right and left-wing populisms exist. Populist movements can also mix divisions between left and right, for instance by combining xenophobic attitudes commonly associated with the far-right with redistributive economic policies closer to those of the left.", "The ideologies with which populism can be paired can be contradictory, resulting in different forms of populism that can oppose each other. For instance, in Latin America during the 1990s, populism was often associated with politicians like Peru's Alberto Fujimori who promoted neoliberal economics, while in the 2000s it was instead associated with those like Venezuela's Hugo Chávez who promoted socialist programs", ". As well as populists of the left and right, populist figures like Italy's Beppe Grillo have been characterised as centrist and liberals, while groups like Turkey's Justice and Development Party have been described as combining populism with Islamism, and India's Bharatiya Janata Party has been seen as mixing populism with Hindu nationalism", ". Although populists of different ideological traditions can oppose each other, they can also form coalitions, as was seen in the Greek coalition government which brought together the left-wing populist Syriza and the right-wing populist Independent Greeks in 2015.", "Adherents of the ideational definition have also drawn a distinction between left and right-wing populists. The latter are presented as juxtaposing \"the people\" against both \"the elite\" and an additional group who are also regarded as being separate from \"the people\" and whom \"the elite\" is seen to favour, such as immigrants, homosexuals, travellers, or communists.", "Populist leaders thus \"come in many different shades and sizes\" but, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, share one common element: \"a carefully crafted image of the vox populi\". Stanley expressed the view that although there are \"certain family resemblances\" that can be seen between populist groups and individuals, there was \"no coherent tradition\" unifying all of them.", "While many left-wing parties in the early 20th century presented themselves as the vanguard of the proletariat, by the early 21st century left-wing populists were presenting themselves as the \"voice of the people\" more widely. On the political right, populism is often combined with nationalism, with \"the people\" and \"the nation\" becoming fairly interchangeable categories in their discourse.\nSome political scientists have also argued that populism can be divided into \"inclusionary\" and \"exclusionary\" forms.", "\"The people\"", "For populists, \"the people\" are presented as being homogeneous, and also virtuous. In simplifying the complexities of reality, the concept of \"the people\" is vague and flexible, with this plasticity benefitting populists who are thus able to \"expand or contract\" the concept \"to suit the chosen criteria of inclusion or exclusion\" at any given time", ". In employing the concept of \"the people\", populists can encourage a sense of shared identity among different groups within a society and facilitate their mobilisation toward a common cause. One of the ways that populists employ the understanding of \"the people\" is in the idea that \"the people are sovereign\", that in a democratic state governmental decisions should rest with the population and that if they are ignored then they might mobilise or revolt", ". This is the sense of \"the people\" employed in the late 19th century United States by the People's Party and which has also been used by later populist movements in that country.", "A second way in which \"the people\" is conceived by populists combines a socioeconomic or class based category with one that refers to certain cultural traditions and popular values. The concept seeks to vindicate the dignity of a social group who regard themselves as being oppressed by a dominant \"elite\" who are accused of treating \"the people's\" values, judgements, and tastes with suspicion or contempt", ". A third use of \"the people\" by populists employs it as a synonym for \"the nation\", whether that national community be conceived in either ethnic or civic terms. In such a framework, all individuals regarded as being \"native\" to a particular state, either by birth or by ethnicity, could be considered part of \"the people\".", "Populism typically entails \"celebrating them the people\", in Stanley's words.", "The political scientist Paul Taggart proposed the term \"the heartland\" to better reflect what populists often mean in their rhetoric. According to Taggart, \"the heartland\" was the place \"in which, in the populist imagination, a virtuous and unified population resides\". Who this \"heartland\" is can vary between populists, even within the same country", ". Who this \"heartland\" is can vary between populists, even within the same country. For instance, in Britain, the centre-right Conservative Party conceived of \"Middle England\" as its heartland, while the far-right British National Party conceived of the \"native British people\" as its heartland.", "Mudde noted that for populists, \"the people\" \"are neither real nor all-inclusive, but are in fact a mythical and constructed sub-set of the whole population\". They are an imagined community, much like the imagined communities embraced and promoted by nationalists.", "Populism often entails presenting \"the people\" as the underdog. Populists typically seek to reveal to \"the people\" how they are oppressed. In doing so, they do not seek to change \"the people\", but rather seek to preserve the latter's \"way of life\" as it presently exists, regarding it as a source of good. For populists, the way of life of \"the people\" is presented as being rooted in history and tradition and regarded as being conducive to public good", ". Although populist leaders often present themselves as representatives of \"the people\", they often come from elite strata in society; examples like Berlusconi, Fortuyn, and Haider were all well-connected to their country's political and economic elites.", "Populism can also be subdivided into \"inclusionary\" and \"exclusionary\" forms, which differ in their conceptions of who \"the people\" are. Inclusionary populism tends to define \"the people\" more broadly, accepting and advocating for minority and marginalised groups, while exclusionary populism defines \"the people\" in a much stricter sense, generally being focused on a particular sociocultural group and antagonistic against minority groups", ". However, this is not exactly a pure dichotomy—exclusive populists can still give voice to those who feel marginalised by the political status quo and include minorities if it is advantageous, while inclusive populists can vary significantly in how inclusive they actually are", ". In addition, all populisms are implicitly exclusionary, since they define \"the people\" against \"the elite\", thus some scholars argue that the difference between populisms is not whether a particular populism excludes but whom it excludes from its conception of \"the people\".", "\"The elite\"", "Anti-elitism is widely considered the central characteristic feature of populism, although Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argued that anti-elitism alone was not evidence of populism. Rather, according to Stanley, in populist discourse the \"fundamental distinguishing feature\" of \"the elite\" is that it is in an \"adversarial relationship\" with \"the people\"", ". In defining \"the elite\", populists often condemn not only the political establishment, but also the economic elite, cultural elite, academic elite, and the media elite, which they present as one homogeneous, corrupt group. In early 21st century India, the populist Bharatiya Janata Party for instance accused the dominant Indian National Congress party, the Communist Party of India, NGOs, academia, and the English-language media of all being part of \"the elite\".", "When operating in liberal democracies, populists often condemn dominant political parties as part of \"the elite\" but at the same time do not reject the party political system altogether, instead either calling for or claiming to be a new kind of party different from the others. Although condemning almost all those in positions of power within a given society, populists often exclude both themselves and those sympathetic to their cause even when they too are in positions of power", ". For instance, the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), a right-wing populist group, regularly condemned \"the media\" in Austria for defending \"the elite\", but excluded from that the Kronen Zeitung, a widely read tabloid that supported the FPÖ and its leader Jörg Haider.", "When populists take governmental power, they are faced with a challenge in that they now represent a new elite. In such cases—like Chávez in Venezuela and Vladimír Mečiar in Slovakia—populists retain their anti-establishment rhetoric by making changes to their concept of \"the elite\" to suit their new circumstances, alleging that real power is not held by the government but other powerful forces who continue to undermine the populist government and the will of \"the people\" itself", ". In these instances, populist governments often conceptualise \"the elite\" as those holding economic power. In Venezuela, for example, Chávez blamed the economic elite for frustrating his reforms, while in Greece, the left-wing populist Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras accused \"the lobbyists and oligarchs of Greece\" of undermining his administration. In populist instances like these, the claims made have some basis in reality, as business interests seek to undermine leftist-oriented economic reform.", "Although left-wing populists who combine populist ideas with forms of socialism most commonly present \"the elite\" in economic terms, the same strategy is also employed by some right-wing populists. In the United States during the late 2000s, the Tea Party movement—which presented itself as a defender of the capitalist free market—argued that big business, and its allies in Congress, seeks to undermine the free market and kill competition by stifling small business", ". Among some 21st century right-wing populists, \"the elite\" are presented as being left-wing radicals committed to political correctness. The Dutch right-wing populist leader Pim Fortuyn referred to this as the \"Church of the Left\".", "In some instances, particularly in Latin America and Africa, \"the elites\" are conceived not just in economic but also in ethnic terms, representing what political scientists have termed ethnopopulism. In Bolivia, for example, the left-wing populist leader Evo Morales juxtaposed the mestizo and indigenous \"people\" against an overwhelmingly European \"elite\", declaring that \"We Indians [i.e. indigenous people] are Latin America's moral reserve\"", ".e. indigenous people] are Latin America's moral reserve\". In the Bolivian case, this was not accompanied by a racially exclusionary approach, but with an attempt to build a pan-ethnic coalition which included European Bolivians against the largely European Bolivian elite. In South Africa, the populist Julius Malema has presented black South Africans as the \"people\" whom he claims to represent, calling for the expropriation of land owned by the white minority without compensation", ". In areas like Europe where nation-states are more ethnically homogenous, this ethnopopulist approach is rare given that the \"people\" and \"elite\" are typically of the same ethnicity.", "For some populist leaders and movements, the term \"the elite\" also refers to an academic or intellectual establishment and, as such, entails scholars, intellectuals, experts, or organized science as a whole. Such leaders and movements may criticise scientific knowledge as abstract, useless, and ideologically biased, and instead demand common sense, experiential knowledge, and practical solutions to be \"true knowledge\".", "In various instances, populists claim that \"the elite\" is working against the interests of the country. In the European Union (EU), for instance, various populist groups allege that their national political elites put the interests of the EU itself over those of their own nation-states. Similarly, in Latin America populists often charge political elites with championing the interests of the United States over those of their own countries.", "Another common tactic among populists, particularly in Europe, is the accusation that \"the elites\" place the interests of immigrants above those of the native population. The Zambian populist Michael Sata for instance adopted a xenophobic stance during his campaigns by focusing his criticism on the country's Asian minority, decrying Chinese and Indian ownership of businesses and mines", ". In India, the right-wing populist leader Narendra Modi rallied supporters against Muslim Bangladeshi migrants, promising to deport them. In instances where populists are also antisemitic (such as Jobbik in Hungary and Attack in Bulgaria) the elites are accused of favouring Israeli and wider Jewish interests above those of the national group. Antisemitic populists often accuse \"the elite\" of being made up of many Jews as well", ". Antisemitic populists often accuse \"the elite\" of being made up of many Jews as well. When populists emphasise ethnicity as part of their discourse, \"the elite\" can sometimes be presented as \"ethnic traitors\".", "General will", "A third component of the ideational approach to populism is the idea of the general will, or volonté générale. An example of this populist understanding of the general will can be seen in Chávez's 2007 inaugural address, when he stated that \"All individuals are subject to error and seduction, but not the people, which possesses to an eminent degree of consciousness of its own good and the measure of its independence", ". Because of that its judgement is pure, its will is strong, and none can corrupt or even threaten it.\" For populists, the general will of \"the people\" is something that should take precedence over the preferences of \"the elite\".", "As noted by Stanley, the populist idea of the general will is connected to ideas of majoritarianism and authenticity. Highlighting how populists appeal to the ideals of \"authenticity and ordinariness\", he noted that what was most important to populists was \"to appeal to the of an authentic people\" and to cultivate the idea that they are the \"genuine\" representatives of \"the people\". In doing so they often emphasise their physical proximity to \"the people\" and their distance from \"the elites\".", "Sheri Berman notes that while populists often engage in democratic rhetoric, they frequently ignore or devalue norms of liberal democracy such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, legitimate opposition, separation of powers and constraints on presidential power.", "In emphasising the general will, many populists share the critique of representative democratic government previously espoused by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This approach regards representative governance as an aristocratic and elitist system in which a country's citizens are regarded as passive entities", ". Rather than choosing laws for themselves, these citizens are only mobilised for elections in which their only option is to select their representatives rather than taking a more direct role in legislation and governance. Populists often favour the use of direct democratic measures such as referendums and plebiscites", ". Populists often favour the use of direct democratic measures such as referendums and plebiscites. For this reason, Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that \"it can be argued that an elective affinity exists between populism and direct democracy\", although Stanley cautioned that \"support for direct democracy is not an essential attribute of populism.\" Populist notions of the \"general will\" and its links with populist leaders are usually based on the idea of \"common sense\".", "Versus elitism and pluralism", "Stanley noted that rather than being restricted purely to populists, appeals to \"the people\" had become \"an unavoidable aspect of modern political practice\", with elections and referendums predicated on the notion that \"the people\" decide the outcome. Thus, a critique of the ideational definition of populism is that it becomes too broad and can potentially apply to all political actors and movements", ". Responding to this critique, Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argued that the ideational definition did allow for a \"non-populism\" in the form of both elitism and pluralism.", "Elitists share the populist binary division but reverse the associations. Whereas populists regard the elites as bad and the common people as good, elitists view \"the people\" as being vulgar, immoral, and dangerous and \"the elites\" as being morally, culturally, and intellectually superior", ". Elitists want politics to be largely or entirely an elite affair; some—such as Spain's Francisco Franco and Chile's Augusto Pinochet—reject democracy altogether, while others—like Spain's José Ortega y Gasset and Austria's Joseph Schumpeter—support a limited model of democracy.", "Pluralism differs from both elitism and populism by rejecting any dualist framework, instead viewing society as a broad array of overlapping social groups, each with their own ideas and interests. Pluralists argue that political power should not be held by any single group—whether defined by their gender, ethnicity, economic status, or political party membership—and should instead be distributed", ". Pluralists encourage governance through compromise and consensus in order to reflect the interests of as many of these groups as possible. Unlike populists, pluralists do not believe that such a thing as a \"general will\" exists. Some politicians do not seek to demonise a social elite; for many conservatives for example, the social elite are regarded as the bulwark of the traditional social order, while for some liberals, the social elite are perceived as an enlightened legislative and administrative cadre", ".", "Other definitions\n\nThe popular agency definition to populism uses the term in reference to a democratic way of life that is built on the popular engagement of the population in political activity. In this understanding, populism is usually perceived as a positive factor in the mobilisation of the populace to develop a communitarian form of democracy. This approach to the term is common among historians in the United States and those who have studied the late 19th century People's Party.", "The Laclauan definition of populism, so called after the Argentinian political theorist Ernesto Laclau who developed it, uses the term in reference to what proponents regard as an emancipatory force that is the essence of politics. In this concept of populism, it is believed to mobilise excluded sectors of society against dominant elites and changing the status quo", ". Laclau's initial emphasis was on class antagonisms arising between different classes, although he later altered his perspective to claim that populist discourses could arise from any part of the socio-institutional structure. For Laclau, socialism was \"the highest form of populism\". His understandings of the topic derived in large part from his focus on politics in Latin America", ". His understandings of the topic derived in large part from his focus on politics in Latin America. This definition is popular among critics of liberal democracy and is widely used in critical studies and in studies of West European and Latin American politics. Harry C. Boyte for example defined populism as \"a politics of civic agency\" which \"develops the power of 'the people' to shape their destiny\", as examples citing both the Russian narodniks and the South African Black Consciousness Movement.", "The socioeconomic definition of populism applies the term to what it regards as an irresponsible form of economic policy by which a government engages in a period of massive public spending financed by foreign loans, after which the country falls into hyperinflation and harsh economic adjustments are then imposed. This use of the term was used by economists like Rudiger Dornbusch and Jeffrey Sachs and was particularly popular among scholars of Latin America during the 1980s and 1990s", ". Since that time, this definition continued to be used by some economists and journalists, particularly in the US, but was uncommon among other social sciences. This definition relies on focusing on socialist and other left-wing forms of populism; it does not apply to other groups commonly understood as populist which adopted right-wing stances on economic issues.", "An additional framework has been described as the \"political-strategic\" approach. This applies the term populism to a political strategy in which a charismatic leader seeks to govern based on direct and unmediated connection with their followers. Kurt Weyland defined this conception of populism as \"a political strategy through which a personalist leader seeks or exercises government power based on direct, unmediated, uninstitutionalized support from large numbers of mostly unorganized followers\"", ". This is a definition of the term that is popular among scholars of non-Western societies. By focusing on leadership, this concept of populism does not allow for the existence of populist parties or populist social movements; under this definition, for instance, the US People's Party which first invented the term populism could not be considered populist", ". Mudde suggested that although the idea of a leader having direct access to \"the people\" was a common element among populists, it is best regarded as a feature which facilitates rather than defines populism.", "In popular discourse, populism is sometimes used in a negative sense in reference to politics which involves promoting extremely simple solutions to complex problems in a highly emotional manner. Mudde suggested that this definition \"seems to have instinctive value\" but was difficult to employ empirically because almost all political groups engage in sloganeering and because it can be difficult to differentiate an argument made emotionally from one made rationally", ". Mudde thought that this phenomenon was better termed demagogy rather than populism. Another use of the term in popular discourse is to describe opportunistic policies designed to quickly please voters rather than deciding a more rational course of action. Examples of this would include a governing political party lowering taxes before an election or promising to provide things to the electorate which the state cannot afford to pay for", ". Mudde suggested that this phenomenon is better described as opportunism rather than populism.", "Demand-side factors", "One area of debate in explaining populism is whether its main cause is based in the needs of citizens (demand-side explanations) or in the failures of governments (supply-side explanations). In focusing on the changing grievances or demands of citizens, demand-side explanations can be seen as bottom-up explanations, while supply-side explanations, in focusing on political actors and institutions, can be seen as top-down explanations", ". Various demand-side factors have been claimed to make it more likely that individuals will support populist ideas. Economists and political economists often emphasize the importance of economic concerns while political scientists and sociologists often emphasize sociocultural concerns in their analysis of demand-side factors.", "Economic grievance", "The economic grievance thesis argues that economic factors, such as deindustrialisation, economic liberalisation, and deregulation, are causing the formation of a 'left-behind' precariat with low job security, high inequality, and wage stagnation, who then support populism. Some theories only focus on the effect of economic crises, or inequality. Another objection for economic reasons is due to the globalization that is taking place in the world today", ". In addition to criticism of the widening inequality caused by the elite, the widening inequality among the general public caused by the influx of immigrants and other factors due to globalization is also a target of populist criticism.", "The evidence of increasing economic disparity and volatility of family incomes is clear, particularly in the United States, as shown by the work of Thomas Piketty and others. Commentators such as Martin Wolf emphasize the importance of economics. They warn that such trends increase resentment and make people susceptible to populist rhetoric. Evidence for this is mixed", ". Evidence for this is mixed. At the macro level, political scientists report that xenophobia, anti-immigrant feeling, and resentment towards out-groups tend to be higher during difficult economic times. Economic crises have been associated with gains by far-right political parties. However, there is little evidence at the micro- or individual level to link individual economic grievances and populist support. Populist politicians tend to put pressure on central bank independence.", "Modernisation", "The modernisation losers theory argues that certain aspects of transition to modernity have caused demand for populism. Some arguments rely on the belief that anomie has followed industrialisation and resulted in \"dissolution, fragmentation and differentiation\", weakening the traditional ties of civil society, and increasing individualization. Populism offers a broad identity which gives sovereignty to the previously marginalized masses as \"the people\"", ". However, empirical studies suggest that supporters of radical right-wing populism occur across the social spectrum, and are not more likely to appear in groups defined as \"modernisation losers\".", "Cultural backlash", "Other theories argue that grievances have a primarily sociocultural rather than an economic basis. For example, the cultural backlash thesis argues that right-wing populism is reaction to the rise of postmaterialism in many developed countries, including the spread of feminism, multiculturalism, and environmentalism", ". According to this view, the spread of ideas and values through a society challenges accepted norms until society reaches a 'tipping point', which causes a reaction, in this case support for right-wing populism. Some theories limit this argument to being a reaction to just the increase of ethnic diversity from immigration. Such theories are particularly popular with sociologists and with political scientists studying industrial world and American politics.", "The empiric studies testing this theory have produced highly contradicting results. \nAt the micro- or individual level, there are strong connections between individual positions on sociocultural issues (such as immigration policy and \"racial animus\") and right-wing populist voting. However, at the macro level, studies have not shown clear relationships between measures of populist sentiment in countries and actual right-wing party support.", "However, there is strong evidence from political scientists and political psychologists documenting the influence of group-based identity threats on voters. Those who identify as part of a group and perceive it as being under threat are likely to support political actors who promise to protect the status and identity of their group. While such research often focuses on white identity, results apply broadly to other social groups that perceive themselves to be under threat.", "Recent democratization \nThe length of time since a country has been democratized has also been linked to its potential for populist success. This is claimed to be because younger democracies have less established political parties and weaker liberal democratic norms. For example, populist success in Eastern Europe has been linked to the legacy of communism. However, this explanation suffers from the lack of success of populism in most post-communist countries.", "Supply-side factors", "Supply-side explanations focus on political actors and institutions and the ways in which governments may fail to respond to the changing conditions that affect citizens. Economic, social, and other structural trends are seen as being modified by institutions as they determine political outcomes. In this view, citizens turn to populism when governments do not respond effectively to the challenges they and their citizens face", ". Research supports the idea that populism is more likely to thrive when mainstream parties on the center-left and center-right do not address important contemporary issues and do not offer clear alternatives to voters. Coalitions that blur distinctions on positions are also likely to increase populism.", "In Political Order in Changing Societies (1968), Samuel P. Huntington argues that rapid change (social or economic) in a society will increase the demands of its citizens. Unless political institutions are responsive and effective, they are unlikely to respond to and satisfy such demands. If political systems are weak or have become unresponsive over time, then dissatisfaction, political disorder and even violence become more likely", ". Political institutions that do not respond to social and economic changes are likely to fail. Responsive political systems can adapt to more severe challenges than unresponsive ones. Huntington's ideas grew out of work on Third World countries, but are also applicable to advanced industrial countries.", "In a supply-side view of American politics, populism can be seen as a symptom of institutional decay. It can be suggested that political factors such as gerrymandering, the Electoral College, special-interest lobbying and dark money, are distorting political and economic debate, and decreasing the ability of the government to respond to the concerns of large numbers of citizens. This in turn generates dissatisfaction, which may increase the likelihood that citizens will support populism", ". Scholars studying the European Union have suggested that European integration may have had the undesired effect of decreasing the system's responsiveness to voters, as law and policy-making increasingly became the responsibility of the European Union. This too may have increased support for populism. Institutions such as the European Central Bank may also distance decision-making from electoral power", ". It has been argued that political parties themselves have become disconnected from society, and unable to respond to citizen's concerns.", "Voluntarism \nAnother underlying debate in discussions of populism is the comparison of structural and voluntarist approaches. Voluntarist or agency-based explanations focus on the behaviors of politicians and parties, including populists themselves.", "An important area of research is the examination of how parties develop, and how responses to new parties shape them. Successful politicians and parties shape the formation of agendas, identifying and increasing the salience of issues which they believe will benefit them.", "Established parties may adopt various strategies when a new party appears: dismissive, adversarial, or accommodative. A dismissive strategy such as ignoring a party and its issue(s) can only be effective if the issue involved is unimportant or short-lived. Otherwise, dismissing an issue leaves ownership of the issue with the new party and allows them to attract any voters who see the issue as important", ". In an adversarial response, a mainstream party directly engages over an issue, emphasizing their opposition to the new party's position. This increases the issue's visibility, makes it a focus of ongoing political debate, and can reinforce the new party's ownership of it.", "An adversarial response can be to the benefit of a mainstream party if most voters, or at least the mainstream party's voters, disagree with the new party's position and are unlikely to ally with it as a result.", "An accommodative strategy is to move the mainstream party closer to the position advocated by the new party, in hopes of retaining voters who care about the issue. This works best if adopted early, before a new party is heavily identified with an issue. If an issue is important, long-lived and of strong interest to its supporters, a mainstream party can benefit from quickly shifting its position to one closer to the new party.", "Similarly, a populist party with neo-fascist or antidemocratic roots may be able to increase its support by moderating its views to a milder form of its original position (e.g. from neofascist to xenophobic.) Right-wing populists are more effective in mobilizing voters around issues when mainstream parties ignore the issue or offer alternatives that are not aligned with voter opinions", ". They are also more likely to benefit from emphasizing social and cultural issues such as immigration and race, appealing to voters who are positioned economically towards the left-wing but hold socially conservative views.", "Mobilisation", "There are three forms of political mobilisation which populists have adopted: that of the populist leader, the populist political party, and the populist social movement. The reasons why voters are attracted to populists differ, but common catalysts for the rise of populists include dramatic economic decline or a systematic corruption scandal that damages established political parties", ". For instance, the Great Recession of 2007 and its impact on the economies of southern Europe was a catalyst for the rise of Syriza in Greece and Podemos in Spain, while the Mani pulite corruption scandal of the early 1990s played a significant part in the rise of the Italian populist Silvio Berlusconi.", "Another catalyst for the growth of populism is a widespread perception among voters that the political system is unresponsive to them. This can arise when elected governments introduce policies that are unpopular with their voters but which are implemented because they are considered to be \"responsible\" or imposed by supranational organisations", ". In Latin America, for example, many countries passed unpopular economic reforms under pressure from the International Monetary Fund and World Bank while in Europe, many countries in the European Union were pushed to implement unpopular economic austerity measures by the union's authorities. Decentralisation of political power is a very useful tool for populists to use to their benefit, this is because it allows them to speak more directly to the people of whom they seek to gain attention and votes.", "Leaders", "Populism is often associated with charismatic and dominant leaders, and the populist leader is, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, \"the quintessential form of populist mobilization\". These individuals campaign and attract support on the basis of their own personal appeal. Their supporters then develop a perceived personal connection with the leader", ". Their supporters then develop a perceived personal connection with the leader. For these leaders, populist rhetoric allows them to claim that they have a direct relationship with \"the people\", and in many cases they claim to be a personification of \"the people\" themselves, presenting themselves as the vox populi or \"voice of the people\". Hugo Chávez for instance stated: \"I demand absolute loyalty to me. I am not an individual, I am the people", ". I am not an individual, I am the people.\" Populist leaders can also present themselves as the saviour of the people because of their perceived unique talents and vision, and in doing so can claim to be making personal sacrifices for the good of the people. Because loyalty to the populist leader is thus seen as representing loyalty to the people, those who oppose the leader can be branded \"enemies of the people\".", "The overwhelming majority of populist leaders have been men, although there have been various females occupying this role. Most of these female populist leaders gained positions of seniority through their connections to previously dominant men; Eva Perón was the wife of Juan Perón, Marine Le Pen the daughter of Jean-Marie Le Pen, Keiko Fujimori the daughter of Alberto Fujimori, and Yingluck Shinawatra the sister of Thaksin Shinawatra.\n\nRhetorical styles", "Canovan noted that populists often used \"colourful and undiplomatic language\" to distinguish themselves from the governing elite. In Africa, several populist leaders have distinguished themselves by speaking in indigenous languages rather than either French or English. Populist leaders often present themselves as people of action rather than people of words, talking of the need for \"bold action\" and \"common sense solutions\" to issues which they call \"crises\"", ". Male populist leaders often express themselves using simple and sometimes vulgar language in an attempt to present themselves as \"the common man\" or \"one of the boys\" to add to their populist appeal.", "An example of this is Umberto Bossi, the leader of the right-wing populist Italian Lega Nord, who at rallies would state \"the League has a hard-on\" while putting his middle-finger up as a sign of disrespect to the government in Rome. Another recurring feature of male populist leaders is the emphasis that they place on their own virility. An example of this is the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, who bragged about his bunga bunga sex parties and his ability to seduce young women", ". Among female populist leaders, it is more common for them to emphasise their role as a wife and mother. The US right-wing populist Sarah Palin for instance referred to herself as a \"hockey mom\" and a \"mama grizzly\", while Australian right-wing populist Pauline Hanson stated that \"I care so passionately about this country, it's like I'm its mother. Australia is my home and the Australian people are my children.\"", "Populist leaders typically portray themselves as outsiders who are separate from the \"elite\". Female populist leaders sometimes reference their gender as setting them apart from the dominant \"old boys' club\", while in Latin America a number of populists, such as Evo Morales and Alberto Fujimori, emphasised their non-white ethnic background to set them apart from the white-dominated elite. Other populists have used clothing to set them apart", ". Other populists have used clothing to set them apart. In South Africa, the populist Julius Malema and members of his Economic Freedom Fighters attended parliament dressed as miners and workers to distinguish themselves from the other politicians wearing suits", ". In instances where wealthy business figures promote populist sentiments, such as Ross Perot, Thaksin Shinawatra, or Berlusconi, it can be difficult to present themselves as being outside the elite, however this is achieved by portraying themselves as being apart from the political, if not the economic elite, and portraying themselves as reluctant politicians.", "Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that \"in reality, most populist leaders are very much part of the national elite\", typically being highly educated, upper-middle class, middle-aged males from the majority ethnicity.", "Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that \"true outsiders\" to the political system are rare, although cited instances like Venezuela's Chávez and Peru's Fujimori. More common is that they are \"insider-outsiders\", strongly connected to the inner circles of government but not having ever been part of it", ". The Dutch right-wing populist Geert Wilders had for example been a prominent back-bench MP for many years before launching his populist Party for Freedom, while in South Africa, Malema had been leader of the governing African National Congress (ANC) youth league until he was expelled, at which he launched his own populist movement. Only a few populist leaders are \"insiders\", individuals who have held leading roles in government prior to portraying themselves as populists", ". One example is Thaksin Shinawatra, who was twice deputy prime minister of Thailand before launching his own populist political party; another is Rafael Correa, who served as the Ecuadorean finance minister before launching a left-wing populist challenge.", "Populist leaders are sometimes also characterised as strongmen or—in Latin American countries—as caudillos. In a number of cases, such as Argentina's Perón or Venezuela's Chávez, these leaders have military backgrounds which contribute to their strongman image.\nOther populist leaders have also evoked the strongman image without having a military background; these include Italy's Berlusconi, Slovakia's Mečiar, and Thailand's Thaksin Shinawatra.", "Populism and strongmen are not intrinsically connected, however; as stressed by Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, \"only a minority of strongmen are populists and only a minority of populists is a strongman\". Rather than being populists, many strongmen—such as Spain's Francisco Franco—were elitists who led authoritarian administrations.", "In most cases, these populist leaders built a political organisation around themselves, typically a political party, although in many instances these remain dominated by the leader. These individuals often give a populist movement its political identity, as is seen with movements like Fortuynism in the Netherlands, Peronism in Argentina, Berlusconism in Italy and Chavismo in Venezuela. Populist mobilisation is not however always linked to a charismatic leadership", ". Populist mobilisation is not however always linked to a charismatic leadership. Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that populist personalist leadership was more common in countries with a presidential system rather than a parliamentary one because these allow for the election of a single individual to the role of head of government without the need for an accompanying party", ". Examples where a populist leader has been elected to the presidency without an accompanying political party have included Peron in Argentina, Fujimori in Peru, and Correa in Ecuador.", "Media \n\nA subset of populism which deals with the use of media by politicians is called \"media populism\".", "Populist leaders often use the media in order to mobilize their support. In Latin America, there is a long tradition of using mass media as a way for charismatic leaders to directly communicate with the poorly educated masses, first by radio and then by television", ". The former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez had a weekly show called Aló Presidente, which according to historian Enrique Krauze gave some Venezuelans \"at least the appearance of contact with power, through his verbal and visual presence, which may be welcomed by people who have spent most of their lives being ignored.\"", "The media has also been argued to have helped populists in countries of other regions by giving exposure to the most controversial politicians for commercial reasons. Donald Trump was claimed to have received $5 billion worth of free coverage during his 2016 campaign. Tabloids are often stereotyped as presenting a platform for populist politics due to their tendency toward melodrama, infotainment, and conflict, and thus provide support for populist parties", ". Examples of this have been the support given by Kronen Zeitung to the Austrian Freedom Party and the Berlusconi-owned presses' support for Italy's National Alliance in the mid-1990s. Based on his analysis of Dutch and British media, Tjitske Akkerman however argued that tabloids were no more prone to populism than the quality press.", "In the 21st century, populists have increasingly used social media to bypass the mainstream media and directly approach their target audiences. In earlier periods, before radio, thought \"mass media\" newspapers tended to operate more like social media than modern newspapers, publishing local gossip and with little fact-checking; the expansion of newspapers to rural areas of the United States in the early tweenith century increased support for populist partied and positions", ". It has been claimed that while traditional media, acting as so-called 'gatekeepers', filter the messages that they broadcast through journalistic norms, social media permits a 'direct linkage' from political actors to potential audiences. It has been claimed that the use of Twitter helped Donald Trump win the US presidency, while the same has been claimed regarding the use of YouTube by the Jair Bolsonaro 2018 presidential campaign.", "Electoral systems", "Political systems with low political efficacy or high wasted votes can contribute to populism. Populist leaders have been claimed to be more successful in presidential systems. This is because such systems give advantage to charismatic populist leaders, especially when institutionalized parties are weak", ". This is especially the case in two-round systems, because outsiders who might not win most votes in the first round of voting might be able to do so when faced against a mainstream candidate in the second round. This has been claimed to be evident in the 1990 Peruvian general election won by Alberto Fujimori, who lost on the first round", ". Furthermore, Juan José Linz has argued that the direct relationship between the president and the electorate fosters a populist perception of the president as representing the whole people and their opponents as resisting the popular will.", "Political parties", "Another form of mobilisation is through populist political parties.", "Populists are not generally opposed to political representation, but merely want their own representatives, those of \"the people\", in power. In various cases, non-populist political parties have transitioned into populist ones; the elitist Socialist Unity Party of Germany, a Marxist–Leninist group which governed East Germany, later transitioned after German re-unification into a populist party, The Left", ". In other instances, such as the Austrian FPÖ and Swiss SVP, a non-populist party can have a populist faction which later takes control of the whole party.", "In some examples where a political party has been dominated by a single charismatic leader, the latter's death has served to unite and strengthen the party, as with Argentina's Justicialist Party after Juan Perón's death in 1974, or the United Socialist Party of Venezuela after Chávez's death in 2013", ". In other cases, a populist party has seen one strong centralising leader replace another, as when Marine Le Pen replaced her father Jean-Marie as the leader of the National Front in 2011, or when Heinz-Christian Strache took over from Haider as chair of the Freedom Party of Austria in 2005.", "Many populist parties achieve an electoral breakthrough but then fail to gain electoral persistence, with their success fading away at subsequent elections. In various cases, they are able to secure regional strongholds of support but with little support elsewhere in the country; the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) for instance gained national representation in the Austrian parliament solely because of its strong support in Carinthia", ". Similarly, the Belgian Vlaams Belang party has its stronghold in Antwerp, while the Swiss People's Party has its stronghold in Zurich.", "Social movements", "An additional form is that of the populist social movement. Populist social movements are comparatively rare, as most social movements focus on a more restricted social identity or issue rather than identifying with \"the people\" more broadly. However, after the Great Recession of 2007 a number of populist social movements emerged, expressing public frustrations with national and international economic systems", ". These included the Occupy movement, which originated in the US and used the slogan \"We are the 99%\", and the Spanish Indignados movement, which employed the motto: \"real democracy now—we are not goods in the hands of politicians and bankers\".", "Few populist social movements survive for more than a few years, with most examples, like the Occupy movement, petering out after their initial growth. In some cases, the social movement fades away as a strong leader emerges from within it and moves into electoral politics. An example of this can be seen with the India Against Corruption social movement, from which emerged Arvind Kejriwal, who founded the Aam Aadmi Party (\"Common Man Party\")", ". Another is the Spanish Indignados movement which appeared in 2011 before spawning the Podemos party led by Pablo Iglesias Turrión. These populist social movements can exert a broader societal impact which results in populist politicians emerging to prominence; the Tea Party and Occupy movements that appeared in the US during the late 2000s and early 2010s have been seen as an influence on the rise of Donald Trump and Bernie Sanders as prominent figures in the mid-2010s.", "Some populist leaders have sought to broaden their support by creating supporter groups within the country. Chavez, for instance, ordered the formation of Bolivarian Circles, Communal Councils, Urban Land Committees, and Technical Water Roundtables across Venezuela", ". These could improve political participation among poorer sectors of Venezuelan society, although also served as networks through which the state transferred resources to those neighbourhoods which produced high rates of support for Chavez government.", "Other themes\n\nDemocracy", "Populism is a flexible term as it can be seen to exist in both democracies as well as authoritarian regimes. There have been intense debates about the relationship between populism and democracy. Some regard populism as being an intrinsic danger to democracy; others regard it as the only \"true\" form of democracy. Populists often present themselves as \"true democrats\"", ". Populists often present themselves as \"true democrats\". It could be argued that populism is democratic as it allows voters to remove governments they don't approve via the ballot box because voting is an essential value for a state to be considered a democracy", ". Albertazzi and McDonnell stated that populism and democracy were \"inextricably linked\", the political scientist Manuel Anselmi described populism as being \"deeply connected with democracy\", and March suggested that populism represented a \"critique of democracy, not an alternative to it\". Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser write that \"In a world that is dominated by democracy and liberalism, populism has essentially become an illiberal democratic response to undemocratic liberalism", ".\" Adamidis argues that the effect of populism on democracy can be measured by reference to its impact on the democratic legal systems and, in particular, to the changes it effects on their rule of recognition.", "Populism can serve as a democratic corrective by contributing to the mobilisation of social groups who feel excluded from political decision making. It can also raise awareness among the socio-political elites of popular concerns in society, even if it makes the former uncomfortable. When some populists have taken power—most notably, Chávez in Venezuela—they have enhanced the use of direct democracy through the regular application of referendums", ". For this reason, some democratic politicians have argued that they need to become more populist: René Cuperus of the Dutch Labour Party for instance called for social democracy to become \"more 'populist' in a leftist way\" in order to engage with voters who felt left behind by cultural and technological change.", "Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argued that \"populism is essentially democratic, but at odds with democracy,\" since populism is based on putting into effect \"the will of the people\". It is therefore majoritarian in nature, and opposed to the safeguarding of minority rights, which is a defining feature of liberal democracy", ". Populism also undermines the tenets of liberal democracy by rejecting notions of pluralism and the idea that anything, including constitutional limits, should constrain the \"general will\" of \"the people\". In this, populist governance can lead to what the liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill described as the \"tyranny of the majority\".", "Populists tend to view democratic institutions as alienating, and in practice, populists operating in liberal democracies have often criticised the independent institutions designed to protect the fundamental rights of minorities, particularly the judiciary and the media. Berlusconi for instance criticised the Italian judiciary for defending the rights of communists. In countries like Hungary, Ecuador, and Venezuela, populist governments have curtailed the independent media", ". Minorities have often suffered as a result. In Europe in particular, ethnic minorities have had their rights undermined by populism, while in Latin America it is political opposition groups who have been undermined by populist governments.", "In several instances—such as Orban in Hungary—the populist leader has set the country on a path of de-democratisation by changing the constitution to centralise increasing levels of power in the head of government", ". A December 2018 study of 46 populist leaders argued that populists, regardless of their position on the political spectrum, were more likely to damage democratic institutions, erode checks and balances on the executive branch, cause democratic backsliding and attack individual rights than non-populists.", "In contrast, an analysis of the V-Party Dataset demonstrates moderate levels of populism are not necessarily antidemocratic, only high levels of populism are related to higher autocratization.", "Even when not elected into office, populist parties can have an impact in shaping the national political agenda; in Western Europe, parties like the French National Front and Danish People's Party did not generally get more than 10 or 20% of the national vote, but mainstream parties shifted their own policies to meet the populist challenge.", "Mainstream responses", "Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that to deflate the appeal of populism, those government figures found guilty of corruption need to be seen to face adequate punishment. They also argued that stronger rule of law and the elimination of systemic corruption were also important facets in preventing populist growth", ". They believed that mainstream politicians wishing to reduce the populist challenge should be more open about the restrictions of their power, noting that those who backed populist movements were often frustrated with the dishonesty of established politicians who \"claim full agency when things go well and almost full lack of agency when things go wrong\"", ". They also suggested that the appeal of populism could be reduced by wider civic education in the values of liberal democracy and the relevance of pluralism.", "What Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser believed was ineffective was a full-frontal attack on the populists which presented \"them\" as \"evil\" or \"foolish\", for this strategy plays into the binary division that populists themselves employ", ". In their view, \"the best way to deal with populism is to engage—as difficult as it is—in an open dialogue with populist actors and supporters\" in order to \"better understand the claims and grievances of the populist elites and masses and to develop liberal democratic responses to them\".", "Mainstream politicians have sometimes sought to co-operate or build alliances with populists. In the United States, for example, various Republican Party figures aligned themselves with the Tea Party movement, while in countries such as Finland and Austria populist parties have taken part in governing coalitions. In other instances, mainstream politicians have adopted elements of a populist political style while competing against populist opponents", ". Various mainstream centrist figures, such as Hillary Clinton and Tony Blair, have argued that governments needed to restrict migration to hinder the appeal of right-wing populists utilising anti-immigrant sentiment in elections.", "A more common approach has been for mainstream parties to openly attack the populists and construct a cordon sanitaire to prevent them from gaining political office Once populists are in political office in liberal democracies, the judiciary can play a key role in blocking some of their more illiberal policies, as has been the case in Slovakia and Poland", ". The mainstream media can play an important role in blocking populist growth; in a country like Germany, the mainstream media is for instant resolutely anti-populist, opposing populist groups whether left or right.", "Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that there was an \"odd love-hate relationship between populist media and politicians, sharing a discourse but not a struggle\".", "In certain countries, certain mainstream media outlets have supported populist groups; in Austria, the Kronen Zeitung played a prominent role in endorsing Haider, in the United Kingdom the Daily Express supported the UK Independence Party, while in the United States, Fox News gave much positive coverage and encouragement to the Tea Party movement", ". In some cases, when the populists have taken power, their political rivals have sought to violently overthrow them; this was seen in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, when mainstream groups worked with sectors of the military to unseat Hugo Chávez's government.", "Another discursive strategy of mainstream parties dealing with populist actors is demonization. However, Schwörer and Fernández-García found that this practice is less common in Western Europe as usually assumed and that the center-right even refuses to harshly attack the populist radical right. In a similar vein, mainstream parties use the term \"populism\" to delegitimize populist actors due to its negative connotation among the public but also use the term to attack non-populist competitors.", "Authoritarianism", "Scholars have argued that populist elements have sometimes appeared in authoritarian movements. The scholar Luke March argued that the populist Narodnik movement of late 19th-century Russia influenced the radical rejection on the constitutional limits of the state found in Marxism–Leninism", ". Although the Marxist–Leninist movement often used populist rhetoric—in the 1960s, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union called itself the \"party of the Soviet people\"—in practice its emphasis on an elite vanguard is anti-populist in basis. Some, but not all, populists are authoritarian, emphasizing \"the importance of protecting traditional lifestyles against perceived threats from 'outsiders', even at the expense of civil liberties and minority rights.\"", "The historian Roger Eatwell noted that although fascism and populism \"differ notably ideologically\", fascist politicians have \"borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style\". Some fascists have for instance used the terms \"people\" and \"nation\" synonymously. However, fascism generally distinguishes itself from populism by not recognising the democratic rights of the people or believing that they are capable of governing, instead maintaining that a vanguard should take charge", ". According to Eatwell, \"major ideological differences ... lie at the core\" of fascism and populism, the former being anti-democratic and latter being rooted in democracy, \"albeit not liberal democracy\". The historian Peter Fritzsche nevertheless argued that populist movements active in Weimar Germany helped to facilitate the environment in which the fascist Nazi Party could rise to power. Fritzsche also noted that the Nazis utilised, \"at least rhetorically\", the \"populist ideal of the people's community.", "At the turn of the 21st century, the pink tide spreading over Latin America was \"prone to populism and authoritarianism\". Chavez's Venezuela and Correa's Ecuador have both been characterised as having moved toward authoritarianism. Steven Levitsky and James Loxton, as well as Raúl Madrid, stated that Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez and his regional allies used populism to achieve their dominance and later established authoritarian regimes when they were empowered", ". Such actions, Weyland argues, proves that \"Populism, understood as a strategy for winning and exerting state power, inherently stands in tension with democracy and the value that it places upon pluralism, open debate, and fair competition\".", "A 2018 analysis by political scientists Yascha Mounk and Jordan Kyle links populism to democratic backsliding, showing that since 1990, \"13 right-wing populist governments have been elected; of these, five brought about significant democratic backsliding. Over the same time period, 15 left-wing populist governments were elected; of these, the same number, five, brought about significant democratic backsliding.\"\n\nHistory", "Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argue that populism is a modern phenomenon. However, attempts have been made to identify manifestations of populism in the democracy of classical Athens. Eatwell noted that although the actual term populism parallels that of the Populares who were active in the Roman Republic, these and other pre-modern groups \"did not develop a truly populist ideology", ".\" The origins of populism are often traced to the late nineteenth century, when movements calling themselves populist arose in both the United States and the Russian Empire. Populism has often been linked to the spread of democracy, both as an idea and as a framework for governance.", "Conversely, the historian Barry S. Strauss argued that populism could also be seen in the ancient world, citing the examples of the fifth-century B.C. Athens and Populares, a political faction active in the Roman Republic from the second century BCE. The historian Rachel Foxley argued that the Levellers of 17th-century England could also be labelled \"populists\", meaning that they believed \"equal natural rights ..", "... must shape political life\" while the historian Peter Blickle linked populism to the Protestant Reformation.", "Europe\n\n19th and 20th centuries", "In the Russian Empire during the late 19th century, the narodnichestvo movement emerged, championing the cause of the empire's peasantry against the governing elites. The movement was unable to secure its objectives; however, it inspired other agrarian movements across eastern Europe in the early 20th century", ". Although the Russian movement was primarily a movement of the middle class and intellectuals \"going to the people\", in some respects their agrarian populism was similar to that of the US People's Party, with both presenting small farmers (the peasantry in Europe) as the foundation of society and main source of societal morality. According to Eatwell, the narodniks \"are often seen as the first populist movement\".", "In German-speaking Europe, the völkisch movement has often been characterised as populist, with its exultation of the German people and its anti-elitist attacks on capitalism and Jews. In France, the Boulangist movement also utilised populist rhetoric and themes. In the early 20th century, adherents of both Marxism and fascism flirted with populism, but both movements remained ultimately elitist, emphasising the idea of a small elite who should guide and govern society", ". Among Marxists, the emphasis on class struggle and the idea that the working classes are affected by false consciousness are also antithetical to populist ideas.", "After 1945 populism was largely absent from Europe, in part due to the domination of elitist Marxism–Leninism in Eastern Europe and a desire to emphasise moderation among many West European political parties. However, over the coming decades, a number of right-wing populist parties emerged throughout the continent. These were largely isolated and mostly reflected a conservative agricultural backlash against the centralisation and politicisation of the agricultural sector then occurring", ". These included Guglielmo Giannini's Common Man's Front in 1940s Italy, Pierre Poujade's Union for the Defense of Tradesmen and Artisans in late 1950s France, Hendrik Koekoek's Farmers' Party of the 1960s Netherlands, and Mogens Glistrup's Progress Party of 1970s Denmark. Between the late 1960s and the early 1980s there also came a concerted populist critique of society from Europe's New Left, including from the new social movements and from the early Green parties", ". However it was only in the late 1990s, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, that populism became \"a relevant political force in Europe\", one which could have a significant impact on mainstream politics.", "Following the fall of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc of the early 1990s, there was a rise in populism across much of Central and Eastern Europe. In the first multiparty elections in many of these countries, various parties portrayed themselves as representatives of \"the people\" against the \"elite\", representing the old governing Marxist–Leninist parties. The Czech Civic Forum party for instance campaigned on the slogan \"Parties are for party members, Civic Forum is for everybody\"", ". Many populists in this region claimed that a \"real\" revolution had not occurred during the transition from Marxist–Leninist to liberal democratic governance in the early 1990s and that it was they who were campaigning for such a change.", "The collapse of Marxism–Leninism as a central force in socialist politics also led to a broader growth of left-wing populism across Europe, reflected in groups like the Dutch Socialist Party, Scottish Socialist Party, and German's The Left party", ". Since the late 1980s, populist experiences emerged in Spain around the figures of José María Ruiz Mateos, Jesús Gil and Mario Conde, businessmen who entered politics chiefly to defend their personal economic interests, but by the turn of the millennium their proposals had proved to meet a limited support at the ballots at the national level.", "21st century", "At the turn of the 21st century, populist rhetoric and movements became increasingly apparent in Western Europe. Populist rhetoric was often used by opposition parties. For example, in the 2001 electoral campaign, the Conservative Party leader William Hague accused Tony Blair's governing Labour Party government of representing \"the condescending liberal elite\"", ". Hague repeatedly referring to it as \"metropolitan\", implying that it was out of touch with \"the people\", who in Conservative discourse are represented by \"Middle England\". Blair's government also employed populist rhetoric; in outlining legislation to curtail fox hunting on animal welfare grounds, it presented itself as championing the desires of the majority against the upper-classes who engaged in the sport", ". Blair's rhetoric has been characterised as the adoption of a populist style rather than the expression of an underlying populist ideology.", "By the 21st century, European populism was again associated largely with the political right. The term came to be used in reference both to radical right groups like Jörg Haider's FPÖ in Austria and Jean-Marie Le Pen's FN in France, as well as to non-radical right-wing groups like Silvio Berlusconi's or Pim Fortuyn's LPF in the Netherlands. The populist radical right combined populism with authoritarianism and nativism.", "Conversely, the Great Recession also resulted in the emergence of left-wing populist groups in parts of Europe, most notably the Syriza party which gained political office in Greece and the Podemos party in Spain, displaying similarities with the US-based Occupy movement", ". Like Europe's right-wing populists, these groups also expressed Eurosceptic sentiment towards the European Union, albeit largely from a socialist and anti-austerity perspective rather than the nationalist perspective adopted by their right-wing counterparts. Populists have entered government in many countries across Europe, both in coalitions with other parties as well by themselves, Austria and Poland are examples of these respectively.", "The UK Labour Party under the leadership of Jeremy Corbyn has been called populist, with the slogan \"for the many not the few\" having been used. Corbyn was suspended from Labour following findings on unlawful action from an Equality and Human Rights Commission report. Corbyn's suspension was controversial, and many local Labour Parties passed motions opposing the decision.", "After the 2016 UK referendum on membership of the European Union, in which British citizens voted to leave, some have claimed the \"Brexit\" as a victory for populism, encouraging a flurry of calls for referendums among other EU countries by populist political parties.\n\nNorth America", "In North America, populism has often been characterised by regional mobilisation and loose organisation. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, populist sentiments became widespread, particularly in the western provinces of Canada, and in the southwest and Great Plains regions of the United States. In this instance, populism was combined with agrarianism and often known as \"prairie populism\"", ". In this instance, populism was combined with agrarianism and often known as \"prairie populism\". For these groups, \"the people\" were yeomen—small, independent farmers —while the \"elite\" were the bankers and politicians of the northeast. In some cases, populist activists called for alliances with labor (the first national platform of the National People's Party in 1892 calling for protecting the rights of \"urban workmen\". In the state of Georgia in the early 1890s, Thomas E", ". In the state of Georgia in the early 1890s, Thomas E. Watson led a major effort to unite poor white farmers, and included some African-American farmers.", "The People's Party of the late 19th century United States is considered to be \"one of the defining populist movements\"; its members were often referred to as the Populists at the time. Its radical platform included calling for the nationalisation of railways, the banning of strikebreakers, and the introduction of referendums. The party gained representation in several state legislatures during the 1890s, but was not powerful enough to mount a successful presidential challenge", ". In the 1896 presidential election, the People's Party supported the Democratic Party candidate William Jennings Bryan; after his defeat, the People's Party's support plunged.", "Other early populist political parties in the United States included the Greenback Party, the Progressive Party of 1924 led by Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and the Share Our Wealth movement of Huey P. Long in 1933–1935. In Canada, populist groups adhering to a social credit ideology had various successes at local and regional elections from the 1930s to the 1960s, although the main Social Credit Party of Canada never became a dominant national force.", "By the mid-20th century, US populism had moved from a largely progressive to a largely reactionary stance, being closely intertwined with the anti-communist politics of the period. In this period, the historian Richard Hofstadter and sociologist Daniel Bell compared the anti-elitism of the 1890s Populists with that of Joseph McCarthy", ". Although not all academics accepted the comparison between the left-wing, anti-big business Populists and the right-wing, anti-communist McCarthyites, the term \"populist\" nonetheless came to be applied to both left-wing and right-wing groups that blamed elites for the problems facing the country.", "Some mainstream politicians in the Republican Party recognised the utility of such a tactic and adopted it; Republican President Richard Nixon for instance popularised the term \"silent majority\" when appealing to voters. Right-wing populist rhetoric was also at the base of two of the most successful third-party presidential campaigns in the late 20th century, that of George C. Wallace in 1968 and Ross Perot in 1992", ". Wallace in 1968 and Ross Perot in 1992. These politicians presented a consistent message that a \"liberal elite\" was threatening \"our way of life\" and using the welfare state to placate the poor and thus maintain their own power.", "Former Oklahoma Senator Fred R. Harris, first elected in 1964, ran unsuccessfully for the US presidency in 1972 and 1976. Harris' New Populism embraced egalitarian themes.", "In the first decade of the 21st century, two populist movements appeared in the US, both in response to the Great Recession: the Occupy movement and the Tea Party movement. The populist approach of the Occupy movement was broader, with its \"people\" being what it called \"the 99%\", while the \"elite\" it challenged was presented as both the economic and political elites", ". The Tea Party's populism was Producerism, while \"the elite\" it presented was more party partisan than that of Occupy, being defined largely—although not exclusively—as the Democratic administration of President Barack Obama.", "The 2016 presidential election saw a wave of populist sentiment in the campaigns of Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump, with both candidates running on anti-establishment platforms in the Democratic and Republican parties, respectively. Both campaigns criticised free trade deals such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Trans-Pacific Partnership. Other studies have noted an emergence of populist rhetoric and a decline in the value of prior experience in U.S", ".S. intra-party contests such as congressional primaries. Nativism and hostility toward immigrants (especially Muslims, Hispanics and Asians) were common features.", "Latin America", "Populism has been dominant in Latin American politics since the 1930s and 1940s, being far more prevalent there than in Europe. Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that the region has the world's \"most enduring and prevalent populist tradition\". They suggested that this was the case because it was a region with a long tradition of democratic governance and free elections, but with high rates of socio-economic inequality, generating widespread resentments that politicians can articulate through populism", ". March instead thought that it was the important role of \"catch-all parties and prominent personalities\" in Latin American politics which had made populism more common.", "The first wave of Latin American populism began at the start of the Great Depression in 1929 and last until the end of the 1960s. In various countries, politicians took power while emphasising \"the people\": these included Getúlio Vargas in Brazil, Juan Perón in Argentina, and José María Velasco Ibarra in Ecuador. These relied on the Americanismo ideology, presenting a common identity across Latin America and denouncing any interference from imperialist powers", ". The second wave took place in the early 1990s; de la Torre called it \"neoliberal populism\".", "In the late 1980s, many Latin American states were experiencing economic crisis and several populist figures were elected by blaming the elites for this situation. Examples include Carlos Menem in Argentina, Fernando Collor de Mello in Brazil, and Alberto Fujimori in Peru. Once in power, these individuals pursued neoliberal economic strategies recommended by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Unlike the first wave, the second did not include an emphasis on Americanismo or anti-imperialism.", "The third wave began in the final years of the 1990s and continued into the 21st century. It overlapped in part with the pink tide of left-wing resurgence in Latin America. Like the first wave, the third made heavy use of Americanismo and anti-imperialism, although this time these themes presented alongside an explicitly socialist programme that opposed the free market", ". Prominent examples included Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Cristina de Kirchner in Argentina, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, and Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua. These socialist populist governments have presented themselves as giving sovereignty \"back to the people\", in particular through the formation of constituent assemblies that would draw up new constitutions, which could then be ratified via referendums", ". In this way they claimed to be correcting the problems of social and economic injustice that liberal democracy had failed to deal with, replacing it with superior forms of democracy.", "Oceania \n\nDuring the 1990s, there was a growth in populism in both Australia and New Zealand.", "In New Zealand, Robert Muldoon, the 31st Prime Minister of New Zealand from 1975 to 1984, had been cited as a populist. Populism has become a pervasive trend in New Zealand politics since the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1996. The New Zealand Labour Party's populist appeals in its 1999 election campaign and advertising helped to propel the party to victory in that election", ". New Zealand First has presented a more lasting populist platform; long-time party leader Winston Peters has been characterised by some as a populist who uses anti-establishment rhetoric, though in a uniquely New Zealand style.", "Sub-Saharan Africa", "In much of Africa, populism has been a rare phenomenon. The political scientist Danielle Resnick argued that populism first became apparent in Africa during the 1980s, when a series of coups brought military leaders to power in various countries. In Ghana, for example, Jerry Rawlings took control, professing that he would involve \"the people\" in \"the decision-making process\", something he claimed had previously been denied to them", ". A similar process took place in neighbouring Burkina Faso under the military leader Thomas Sankara, who professed to \"take power out of the hands of our national", "bourgeoisie and their imperialist allies and put it in the hands of the people\". Such military leaders claimed to represent \"the voice of the people\", utilised an anti-establishment discourse, and established participatory organisations through which to maintain links with the broader population.", "In the 21st century, with the establishment of multi-party democratic systems in much of Sub-Saharan Africa, new populist politicians have appeared. These have included Kenya's Raila Odinga, Senegal's Abdoulaye Wade, South Africa's Julius Malema, and Zambia's Michael Sata", ". These populists have arisen in democratic rather than authoritarian states, and have arisen amid dissatisfaction with democratisation, socio-economic grievances, and frustration at the inability of opposition groups to oust incumbent parties.", "Asia and the Arab world", "In North Africa, populism was associated with the approaches of several political leaders active in the 20th century, most notably Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser and Libya's Muammar Gaddafi. However, populist approaches only became more popular in the Middle East during the early 21st century, by which point it became integral to much of the region's politics", ". Here, it became an increasingly common element of mainstream politics in established representative democracies, associated with longstanding leaders like Israel's Benjamin Netanyahu. Although the Arab Spring was not a populist movement itself, populist rhetoric was present among protesters.", "In southeast Asia, populist politicians emerged in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In the region, various populist governments took power but were removed soon after: these include the administrations of Joseph Estrada in the Philippines, Roh Moo-hyun in South Korea, Chen Shui-bian in Taiwan, and Thaksin Shinawatra in Thailand.", "In India, the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) which rose to increasing power in the early 21st century adopted a right-wing populist position. Unlike many other successful populist groups, the BJP was not wholly reliant on the personality of its leader, but survived as a powerful electoral vehicle under several leaders.", "Late 20th- and early 21st-century growth\nSheri Berman reviews various explanations of populism including \"demand- and supply-side explanations of populism, economic grievance–based and sociocultural grievance–based explanations of populism, and structure- and agency-based explanations of populism\". There is now a wide-ranging and interdisciplinary literature in this area.", "In the early 1990s, there was an increasing awareness of populism in established liberal democracies, sometimes referred to as the \"New Populism\". The UK's referendum on European Union membership and the election of Donald Trump, both in 2016, generated a substantial rise in interest in the concept from both academics and the public. By 2016, \"populism\" was regularly used by political commentators.", "A 2017 review of votes for populistic parties in all developed countries discovered them spiking in 2015 and reaching highest levels since WWII.", "Mudde argued that by the early 1990s, populism had become a regular feature in Western democracies. He attributed this to changing perceptions of government that had spread in this period, which in turn he traced to the changing role of the media to focus increasingly on sensationalism and scandals. Since the late 1960s, the emergence of television had allowed for the increasing proliferation of the Western media, with media outlets becoming increasingly independent of political parties", ". As private media companies have had to compete against each other, they have placed an increasing focus on scandals and other sensationalist elements of politics, in doing so promoting anti-governmental sentiments among their readership and cultivating an environment prime for populists.", "At the same time, politicians increasingly faced television interviews, exposing their flaws. News media had also taken to interviewing fewer accredited experts, and instead favouring interviewing individuals found on the street as to their views about current events. At the same time, mass media was giving less attention to the \"high culture\" of elites and more to other sectors of society, as reflected in reality television shows such as Big Brother.", "Mudde argued that another reason for the growth of Western populism in this period was the improved education of the populace; since the 1960s, citizens have expected more from their politicians and felt increasingly competent to judge their actions. This in turn has led to an increasingly sceptical attitude toward mainstream politicians and governing groups. In Mudde's words, \"More and more citizens think they have a good understanding of what politicians do, and think they can do it better.\"", "Another factor is that in the post-Cold War period, liberal democracies no longer had the one-party states of the Eastern Bloc against which to favourably compare themselves; citizens were therefore increasingly able to compare the realities of the liberal democratic system with theoretical models of democracy, and find the former wanting. There is also the impact of globalisation, which is seen as having seriously limited the powers of national elites", ". Such factors undermine citizens' belief in the competency of governing elite, opening up space for charismatic leadership to become increasingly popular; although charismatic leadership is not the same as populist leadership, populists have been the main winners of this shift towards charismatic leadership.", "Peter Wilkins has argued that \"The end of history and the post-Cold War extension and deepening of capitalism are central to understanding the rise of contemporary populist movements.\"", "Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart connect economic and sociocultural theories of the causes of support for the growing populist movements in Western societies. The first theory they examine is the economic insecurity perspective which focuses on the consequences created by a transforming contemporary workforce and society in post-industrial economies", ". Norris suggests that events such as globalisation, China's membership of the World Trade Organisation and cheaper imports have left the unsecured members of society (low-waged unskilled workers, single parents, the long term unemployed and the poorer white populations) seeking populist leaders such as Donald Trump and Nigel Farage.", "The other theory is the cultural backlash thesis, in which Norris and Inglehart suggest that the rise of populism is a reaction from previously dominant sectors of the population, the white, uneducated, elderly men of today, who feel threatened and marginalised by the progressive values of modern society", ". These groups in particular have a growing resentment towards their traditional values being scolded as politically incorrect and are much more likely to become supportive of anti-establishment, xenophobic political parties.", "Norris and Inglehart have analyzed data from the World Values Survey. On this basis, they argue that while the proximate cause of right-wing populist voting may be identified in sociocultural grievances, such grievances are increasingly being driven by economic insecurity and the erosion of traditional values.", "See also \n\n Anti-elitism\n Argumentum ad populum\n Black populism\n Class warfare\n Communitarianism\n Empire of Democracy\n Extremism\n Fanaticism\n Fundamentalism\n List of populists\n Ochlocracy (mob rule)\n Paternalism\n Penal populism\n Politainment\n Political polarization\n Poporanism\n Populism in Latin America\n Radical politics\n Reactionism\n Third party (politics)\n Tyranny of the majority\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography", "Adamidis, Vasileios (2019), Manifestations of populism in late 5th century Athens. In: D.A. FRENKEL and N. VARGA, eds., New studies in law and history. Athens: Athens Institute for Education and Research, pp. 11–28. ISBN 9789605982386\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1", ".\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Mudde, Cas, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. \"Studying populism in comparative perspective: Reflections on the contemporary and future research agenda.\" Comparative political studies 51.13 (2018): 1667–1693. online", "Further reading\n\nGeneral", "Abromeit, John et al., eds. Transformations of Populism in Europe and the Americas: History and Recent Tendencies (Bloomsbury, 2015). xxxii, 354 pp.\n \n Adamidis, Vasileios (2021), Populist Rhetorical Strategies in the Courts of classical Athens. Athens Journal of History 7(1): 21–40. \n Albertazzi, Daniele and Duncan McDonnell. 2008. Twenty-First Century Populism: The Spectre of Western European Democracy Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.", "Berlet, Chip. 2005. \"When Alienation Turns Right: Populist Conspiracism, the Apocalyptic Style, and Neofascist Movements\". In Lauren Langman & Devorah Kalekin Fishman, (eds.), Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium: The Evolution of Alienation. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.\n Boyte, Harry C. 2004. Everyday Politics: Reconnecting Citizens and Public Life. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.", "Brass, Tom. 2000. Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth. London: Frank Cass Publishers.\n Caiani, Manuela. \"Populism/Populist Movements\". in The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements (2013).\n Coles, Rom. 2006. \"Of Tensions and Tricksters: Grassroots Democracy Between Theory and Practice\", Perspectives on Politics Vol. 4:3 (Fall), pp. 547–61", "Denning, Michael. 1997. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso.\n Emibayer, Mustafa and Ann Mishe. 1998. \"What is Agency?\", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 103:4, pp. 962–1023\n Foster, John Bellamy. \"This Is Not Populism \" (June 2017), Monthly Review\n Goodwyn, Lawrence, 1976, Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York: Oxford University Press", "Hogg, Michael A., \"Radical Change: Uncertainty in the world threatens our sense of self. To cope, people embrace populism\", Scientific American, vol. 321, no. 3 (September 2019), pp. 85–87.\n \n Kazin, Michael. \"Trump and American Populism\". Foreign Affairs (Nov/Dec 2016), 95#6 pp. 17–24.\n Khoros, Vladimir. 1984. Populism: Its Past, Present and Future. Moscow: Progress Publishers.\n Kling, Joseph M. and Prudence S. Posner. 1990. Dilemmas of Activism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.", "Kuzminski, Adrian. Fixing the System: A History of Populism, Ancient & Modern. New York: Continuum Books, 2008.\n Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.\n Laclau, Ernesto. 2005. On Populist Reason . London: Verso\n McCoy, Alfred W (2 April 2017). The Bloodstained Rise of Global Populism: A Political Movement’s Violent Pursuit of “Enemies” , TomDispatch", "Morelock, Jeremiah ed. Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism . 2018. London: University of Westminster Press.\n Müller, Jan-Werner. What is Populism? (August 2016), Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. Also by Müller on populism: Capitalism in One Family (December 2016), London Review of Books, Vol. 38, No. 23, pp. 10–14\n Peters, B. Guy and Jon Pierre. 2020. \"A typology of populism: understanding the different forms of populism and their implications.\" Democratization.", "Rupert, Mark. 1997. \"Globalization and the Reconstruction of Common Sense in the US\". In Innovation and Transformation in International Studies, S. Gill and J. Mittelman, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "Europe", "Anselmi, Manuel, 2017. Populism. An Introduction, London: Routledge.\n Betz, Hans-Georg. 1994. Radical Right-wing Populism in Western Europe, New York: St. Martins Press. \n Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. \n De Blasio, Emiliana, Hibberd, Matthew and Sorice, Michele. 2011. Popular politics, populism and the leaders. Access without participation? The cases of Italy and UK. Roma: CMCS-LUISS University.", "Fritzsche, Peter. 1998. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.\n Hartleb, Florian 2011: After their establishment: Right-wing Populist Parties in Europe, Centre for European Studies/Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Brüssel, (download: )\nKriesi, H. (2014), The Populist Challenge, West European Politics, vol. 37, n. 2, pp. 361–378.\n Mudde, Cas. \"The populist radical right: A pathological normalcy.\" West European Politics 33.6 (2010): 1167-1186. online", "Wodak, Ruth, Majid KhosraviNik, and Brigitte Mral. \"Right-wing populism in Europe\". Politics and discourse (2013). online", "Latin America", "Conniff, Michael L., ed. Populism in Latin America (1999) essays by experts\n Demmers, Jolle, et al eds. Miraculous Metamorphoses: The Neoliberalization of Latin American Populism (2001)\n Knight, Alan. \"Populism and neo-populism in Latin America, especially Mexico.\" Journal of Latin American Studies 30.2 (1998): 223-248.", "Stropparo, P. E. (2023). Pueblo desnudo y público movilizado por el poder: Vacancia del Defensor del Pueblo: algunas transformaciones en la democracia y en la opinión pública en Argentina . Revista Mexicana De Opinión Pública, (35). https://doi.org/10.22201/fcpys.24484911e.2023.35.85516", "United States\n Abromeit, John. \"Frankfurt School Critical Theory and the Persistence of Authoritarian Populism in the United States\" In Morelock, Jeremiah Ed. Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism. 2018. London: University of Westminster Press.\n Agarwal, Sheetal D., et al. \"Grassroots organizing in the digital age: considering values and technology in Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street\". Information, Communication & Society (2014) 17#3 pp. 326–41.", "Evans, Sara M. and Harry C. Boyte. 1986. Free Spaces: The Sources of Democratic Change in America. New York: Harper & Row.\n Goodwyn, Lawrence. 1976. Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York and London: Oxford University Press.; abridged as The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America. (Oxford University Press, 1978)", "Hahn, Steven. 1983. Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890. New York and London: Oxford University Press, \n Hofstadter, Richard. 1955. The Age of Reform: from Bryan to F.D.R. New York: Knopf.\n Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics, and Other Essays. New York: Knopf.", "Jeffrey, Julie Roy. 1975. \"Women in the Southern Farmers Alliance: A Reconsideration of the Role and Status of Women in the Late 19th Century South\". Feminist Studies 3.\n Judis, John B. 2016. The Populist Explosion: How the Great Recession Transformed American and European Politics. New York: Columbia Global Reports. \n Kazin, Michael. 1995. The Populist Persuasion: An American History. New York: Basic Books. \n ; 200+ articles in 901 pp", "; 200+ articles in 901 pp\n Lipset, Seymour Martin. \"The radical right: A problem for American democracy.\" British Journal of Sociology 6.2 (1955): 176-209. online\n Maier, Chris. \"The Farmers' Fight for Representation: Third-Party Politics in South Dakota, 1889–1918\". Great Plains Quarterly (2014) 34#2 pp. 143–62.", "Marable, Manning. 1986. \"Black History and the Vision of Democracy\", in Harry Boyte and Frank Riessman, Eds., The New Populism: The Politics of Empowerment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.\n Palmer, Bruce. 1980. Man Over Money: The Southern Populist Critique of American Capitalism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.\n Rasmussen, Scott, and Doug Schoen. (2010) Mad as hell: How the Tea Party movement is fundamentally remaking our two-party system (HarperCollins, 2010)", "Stock, Catherine McNicol. 1996. Rural Radicals: Righteous Rage in the American Grain''. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.", "External links\n \n The PopuList: a database of populist, far-left, and far-right parties in Europe since 1989\n\n \n\nComparative politics\n \nPolitical theories\nPolitical ideologies\nPolitical terminology" ]

[ "Paul Robin Krugman ( ; born February 28, 1953) is an American economist who is the Distinguished Professor of Economics at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and a columnist for The New York Times. In 2008, Krugman was the winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to New Trade Theory and New Economic Geography", ". The Prize Committee cited Krugman's work explaining the patterns of international trade and the geographic distribution of economic activity, by examining the effects of economies of scale and of consumer preferences for diverse goods and services.", "Krugman was previously a professor of economics at MIT, and, later, at Princeton University. He retired from Princeton in June 2015, and holds the title of professor emeritus there. He also holds the title of Centennial Professor at the London School of Economics. Krugman was President of the Eastern Economic Association in 2010, and is among the most influential economists in the world", ". He is known in academia for his work on international economics (including trade theory and international finance), economic geography, liquidity traps, and currency crises.", "Krugman is the author or editor of 27 books, including scholarly works, textbooks, and books for a more general audience, and has published over 200 scholarly articles in professional journals and edited volumes. He has also written several hundred columns on economic and political issues for The New York Times, Fortune and Slate. A 2011 survey of economics professors named him their favorite living economist under the age of 60", ". According to the Open Syllabus Project, Krugman is the second most frequently cited author on college syllabi for economics courses. As a commentator, Krugman has written on a wide range of economic issues including income distribution, taxation, macroeconomics, and international economics. Krugman considers himself a modern liberal, referring to his books, his blog on The New York Times, and his 2007 book The Conscience of a Liberal. His popular commentary has attracted widespread praise and criticism.", "Early life and education", "Krugman was born to a Ukrainian Jewish family, the son of Anita and David Krugman. In 1914, his maternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Ukraine, while in 1920, his paternal grandparents arrived from Belarus. He was born in Albany, New York, spent several years of his childhood in the upstate city of Utica, before growing up from age eight in Merrick, a hamlet in Nassau County, Long Island. He graduated from John F. Kennedy High School in Bellmore", ". He graduated from John F. Kennedy High School in Bellmore. According to Krugman, his interest in economics began with Isaac Asimov's Foundation novels, in which the social scientists of the future use a new science of \"psychohistory\" to try to save civilization. Since present-day science fell far short of \"psychohistory\", Krugman turned to economics as the next best thing.", "In 1974, Krugman earned his BA summa cum laude in economics from Yale University, where he was a National Merit Scholar. He then went on to pursue a PhD in economics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). In 1977, he successfully completed his PhD in three years, with a thesis titled Essays on flexible exchange rates", ". While at MIT, he was part of a small group of MIT students sent to work for the Central Bank of Portugal for three months in the summer of 1976, during the chaotic aftermath of the Carnation Revolution.", "Krugman later praised his PhD thesis advisor, Rudi Dornbusch, as \"one of the great economics teachers of all time\" and said that he \"had the knack of inspiring students to pick up his enthusiasm and technique, but find their own paths\". In 1978, Krugman presented a number of ideas to Dornbusch, who flagged as interesting the idea of a monopolistically competitive trade model. Encouraged, Krugman worked on it and later wrote, \"[I] knew within a few hours that I had the key to my whole career in hand\"", ". In that same year, Krugman wrote \"The Theory of Interstellar Trade\", a tongue-in-cheek essay on computing interest rates on goods in transit near the speed of light. He says he wrote it to cheer himself up when he was \"an oppressed assistant professor\".", "Academic career \n\nKrugman became an assistant professor at Yale University in September 1977. He joined the faculty at MIT in 1979. From 1982 to 1983, Krugman spent a year working at the Reagan White House as a staff member of the Council of Economic Advisers. He rejoined MIT as a full professor in 1984. Krugman has also taught at Stanford, Yale, and the London School of Economics.", "In 2000, Krugman joined Princeton University as Professor of Economics and International Affairs. He is also currently Centenary Professor at the London School of Economics, and a member of the Group of Thirty international economic body. He has been a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research since 1979. Krugman was President of the Eastern Economic Association in 2010", ". Krugman was President of the Eastern Economic Association in 2010. In February 2014, he announced that he would be retiring from Princeton in June 2015 and that he would be joining the faculty at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York.", "Paul Krugman has written extensively on international economics, including international trade, economic geography, and international finance. The Research Papers in Economics project ranks him among the world's most influential economists. Krugman's International Economics: Theory and Policy, co-authored with Maurice Obstfeld, is a standard undergraduate textbook on international economics", ". He is also co-author, with Robin Wells, of an undergraduate economics text which he says was strongly inspired by the first edition of Paul Samuelson's classic textbook. Krugman also writes on economic topics for the general public, sometimes on international economic topics but also on income distribution and public policy.", "The Nobel Prize Committee stated that Krugman's main contribution is his analysis of the effects of economies of scale, combined with the assumption that consumers appreciate diversity, on international trade and on the location of economic activity. The importance of spatial issues in economics has been enhanced by Krugman's ability to popularize this complicated theory with the help of easy-to-read books and state-of-the-art syntheses", ". \"Krugman was beyond doubt the key player in 'placing geographical analysis squarely in the economic mainstream' ... and in conferring it the central role it now assumes.\"", "New trade theory", "Prior to Krugman's work, trade theory (see David Ricardo and Heckscher–Ohlin model) emphasized trade based on the comparative advantage of countries with very different characteristics, such as a country with a high agricultural productivity trading agricultural products for industrial products from a country with a high industrial productivity", ". However, in the 20th century, an ever-larger share of trade occurred between countries with similar characteristics, which is difficult to explain by comparative advantage. Krugman's explanation of trade between similar countries was proposed in a 1979 paper in the Journal of International Economics, and involves two key assumptions: that consumers prefer a diverse choice of brands, and that production favors economies of scale", ". Consumers' preference for diversity explains the survival of different versions of cars like Volvo and BMW. However, because of economies of scale, it is not profitable to spread the production of Volvos all over the world; instead, it is concentrated in a few factories and therefore in a few countries (or maybe just one).", "Krugman modeled a 'preference for diversity' by assuming a CES utility function like that in a 1977 paper by Avinash Dixit and Joseph Stiglitz. Many models of international trade now follow Krugman's lead, incorporating economies of scale in production and a preference for diversity in consumption. This way of modeling trade has come to be called New Trade Theory.", "Krugman's theory also took into account transportation costs, a key feature in producing the \"home market effect\", which would later feature in his work on the new economic geography. The home market effect \"states that, ceteris paribus, the country with the larger demand for a good shall, at equilibrium, produce a more than proportionate share of that good and be a net exporter of it\"", ". The home market effect was an unexpected result, and Krugman initially questioned it, but ultimately concluded that the mathematics of the model were correct.", "When there are economies of scale in production, it is possible that countries may become 'locked into' disadvantageous patterns of trade. Krugman points out that although globalization has been positive on a whole, since the 1980s the process known as hyper-globalization has at least played a part in rising inequality", ". Nonetheless, trade remains beneficial in general, even between similar countries, because it permits firms to save on costs by producing at a larger, more efficient scale, and because it increases the range of brands available and sharpens the competition between firms. Krugman has usually been supportive of free trade and globalization", ". Krugman has usually been supportive of free trade and globalization. He has also been critical of industrial policy, which New Trade Theory suggests might offer nations rent-seeking advantages if \"strategic industries\" can be identified, saying it's not clear that such identification can be done accurately enough to matter.", "New economic geography", "It took an interval of eleven years, but ultimately Krugman's work on New Trade Theory (NTT) converged to what is usually called the \"new economic geography\" (NEG), which Krugman began to develop in a seminal 1991 paper, \"Increasing Returns and Economic Geography\", published in the Journal of Political Economy. In Krugman's own words, the passage from NTT to NEG was \"obvious in retrospect; but it certainly took me a while to see it. ..", ". ... The only good news was that nobody else picked up that $100 bill lying on the sidewalk in the interim.\" This would become Krugman's most-cited academic paper: by early 2009, it had 857 citations, more than double his second-ranked paper. Krugman called the paper \"the love of my life in academic work\".", "The \"home market effect\" that Krugman discovered in NTT also features in NEG, which interprets agglomeration \"as the outcome of the interaction of increasing returns, trade costs and factor price differences\". If trade is largely shaped by economies of scale, as Krugman's trade theory argues, then those economic regions with most production will be more profitable and will therefore attract even more production", ". That is, NTT implies that instead of spreading out evenly around the world, production will tend to concentrate in a few countries, regions, or cities, which will become densely populated but will also have higher levels of income.", "Agglomeration and economies of scale", "Manufacturing is characterized by increasing returns to scale and less restrictive and expansive land qualifications as compared to agricultural uses. So, geographically where can manufacturing be predicted to develop? Krugman states that manufacturing's geographical range is inherently limited by economies of scale, but also that manufacturing will establish and accrue itself in an area of high demand", ". Production that occurs adjacent to demand will result in lower transportation costs, but demand, as a result, will be greater due to concentrated nearby production. These forces act upon one another simultaneously, producing manufacturing and population agglomeration. Population will increase in these areas due to the more highly developed infrastructure and nearby production, therefore lowering the expense of goods, while economies of scale provide varied choices of goods and services", ". These forces will feed into each other until the greater portion of the urban population and manufacturing hubs are concentrated into a relatively insular geographic area.", "International finance", "Krugman has also been influential in the field of international finance. As a graduate student, Krugman visited the Federal Reserve Board where Stephen Salant and Dale Henderson were completing their discussion paper on speculative attacks in the gold market", ". Krugman adapted their model for the foreign exchange market, resulting in a 1979 paper on currency crises in the Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, which showed that misaligned fixed exchange rate regimes are unlikely to end smoothly but instead end in a sudden speculative attack. Krugman's paper is considered one of the main contributions to the 'first generation' of currency crisis models, and it is his second-most-cited paper (457 citations as of early 2009).", "In response to the global financial crisis of 2008, Krugman proposed, in an informal \"mimeo\" style of publication, an \"international finance multiplier\", to help explain the unexpected speed with which the global crisis had occurred. He argued that when, \"highly leveraged financial institutions [HLIs], which do a lot of cross-border investment [. ... ] lose heavily in one market ... they find themselves undercapitalized, and have to sell off assets across the board", "... they find themselves undercapitalized, and have to sell off assets across the board. This drives down prices, putting pressure on the balance sheets of other HLIs, and so on.\" Such a rapid contagion had hitherto been considered unlikely because of \"decoupling\" in a globalized economy. He first announced that he was working on such a model on his blog, on October 5, 2008. Within days of its appearance, it was being discussed on some popular economics-oriented blogs.", "The note was soon being cited in papers (draft and published) by other economists, even though it had not itself been through ordinary peer review processes.", "Macroeconomics and fiscal policy \n\nKrugman has done much to revive discussion of the liquidity trap as a topic in economics. He recommended pursuing aggressive fiscal policy and unconventional monetary policy to counter Japan's lost decade in the 1990s, arguing that the country was mired in a Keynesian liquidity trap. The debate he started at that time over liquidity traps and what policies best address them continues in the economics literature.", "Krugman had argued in The Return of Depression Economics that Japan was in a liquidity trap in the late 1990s, since the central bank could not drop interest rates any lower to escape economic stagnation. The core of Krugman's policy proposal for addressing Japan's liquidity trap was inflation targeting, which, he argued \"most nearly approaches the usual goal of modern stabilization policy, which is to provide adequate demand in a clean, unobtrusive way that does not distort the allocation of resources\"", ". The proposal appeared first in a web posting on his academic site. This mimeo-draft was soon cited, but was also misread by some as repeating his earlier advice that Japan's best hope was in \"turning on the printing presses\", as recommended by Milton Friedman, John Makin, and others.", "Krugman has since drawn parallels between Japan's 'lost decade' and the late 2000s recession, arguing that expansionary fiscal policy is necessary as the major industrialized economies are mired in a liquidity trap. In response to economists who point out that the Japanese economy recovered despite not pursuing his policy prescriptions, Krugman maintains that it was an export-led boom that pulled Japan out of its economic slump in the late-90s, rather than reforms of the financial system.", "Krugman was one of the most prominent advocates of the 2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence, so much so that economics commentator Noah Smith referred to it as the \"Krugman insurgency\".", "His view that most peer-reviewed macroeconomic research since the mid-1960s is wrong, preferring simpler models developed in the 1930s, has been criticized by some modern economists, like John H. Cochrane. In June 2012, Krugman and Richard Layard launched A manifesto for economic sense, where they call for greater use of fiscal stimulus policy to reduce unemployment and foster growth", ". The manifesto received over four thousand signatures within two days of its launch, and has attracted both positive and critical responses.", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "Krugman was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (informally the Nobel Prize in Economics), the sole recipient for 2008. This prize includes an award of about $1.4 million and was given to Krugman for his work associated with New Trade Theory and the New Economic Geography", ". In the words of the prize committee, \"By having integrated economies of scale into explicit general equilibrium models, Paul Krugman has deepened our understanding of the determinants of trade and the location of economic activity.\"", "Awards", "1991, American Economic Association, John Bates Clark Medal. Since it was awarded to only one person, once every two years (prior to 2009), The Economist has described the Clark Medal as 'slightly harder to get than a Nobel prize'.\n 1992, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS).\n 1995, Adam Smith Award of the National Association for Business Economics\n 1998, Doctor honoris causa in Economics awarded by Free University of Berlin Freie Universität Berlin in Germany", "2000, H.C. Recktenwald Prize in Economics, awarded by University of Erlangen-Nuremberg in Germany.\n 2002, Editor and Publisher, Columnist of the Year.\n 2004, Fundación Príncipe de Asturias (Spain), Prince of Asturias Awards in Social Sciences.\n 2004, Doctor of Humane Letters honoris causa, Haverford College\n 2008, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for Krugman's contributions to New Trade Theory. He became the twelfth John Bates Clark Medal winner to be awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize.", "2010, Howland Memorial Prize, awarded by Yale University\n 2011, EPI Distinguished Economist Award.\n 2011 Gerald Loeb Award for Commentary\n 2012, Doctor honoris causa from the Universidade de Lisboa, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa and Universidade Nova de Lisboa\n 2013, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa conferred by the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada", "2013, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa conferred by the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada\n 2014, recipient of the Literary and Historical Society (University College Dublin)'s James Joyce Award in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the economic sciences.", "2014, recipient of the Green Templeton College, Oxford's Sanjaya Lall Visiting Professorship of Business and Development, Trinity Term 2014, in recognition of his outstanding international reputation in scholarship and research in the field of Development Economics and Business.\n 2016, Doctor of Letters, honoris causa conferred by the University of Oxford, Oxford, UK", "A May 2011 Hamilton College analysis of 26 politicians, journalists, and media commentators who made predictions in major newspaper columns or television news shows from September 2007 to December 2008 found that Krugman was the most accurate. Only nine of the prognosticators predicted more accurately than chance, two were significantly less accurate, and the remaining 14 were no better or worse than a coin flip", ". Krugman was correct in 15 out of 17 predictions, compared to 9 out of 11 for the next most accurate media figure, Maureen Dowd.", "Krugman was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2011.\n\nForeign Policy named Krugman one of its 2012 FP Top 100 Global Thinkers \"for wielding his acid pen against austerity\".\n\nAuthor", "Author \n\nIn the 1990s, besides academic books and textbooks, Krugman increasingly began writing books for a general audience on issues he considered important for public policy. In The Age of Diminished Expectations (1990), he wrote in particular about the increasing US income inequality in the \"New Economy\" of the 1990s. He attributes the rise in income inequality in part to changes in technology, but principally to a change in political atmosphere which he attributes to Movement Conservatives.", "In September 2003, Krugman published a collection of his columns under the title, The Great Unraveling, about the Bush administration's economic and foreign policies and the US economy in the early 2000s. His columns argued that the large deficits during that time were generated by the Bush administration as a result of decreasing taxes on the rich, increasing public spending, and fighting the Iraq War", ". Krugman wrote that these policies were unsustainable in the long run and would eventually generate a major economic crisis. The book was a best-seller.", "In 2007, Krugman published The Conscience of a Liberal, whose title refers to Barry Goldwater's Conscience of a Conservative. It details the history of wealth and income gaps in the United States in the 20th century. The book describes how the gap between rich and poor declined greatly during the middle of the century, and then widened in the last two decades to levels higher even than in the 1920s", ". In Conscience, Krugman argues that government policies played a much greater role than commonly thought both in reducing inequality in the 1930s through 1970s and in increasing it in the 1980s through the present, and criticizes the Bush administration for implementing policies that Krugman believes widened the gap between the rich and poor.", "Krugman also argued that Republicans owed their electoral successes to their ability to exploit the race issue to win political dominance of the South. Krugman argues that Ronald Reagan had used the \"Southern Strategy\" to signal sympathy for racism without saying anything overtly racist, citing as an example Reagan's coining of the term \"welfare queen\".", "In his book, Krugman proposed a \"new New Deal\", which included placing more emphasis on social and medical programs and less on national defense. In his review of Conscience of a Liberal, the liberal journalist and author Michael Tomasky credited Krugman with a commitment \"to accurate history even when some fudging might be in order for the sake of political expediency\". In a review for The New York Times, Pulitzer prize-winning historian David M", ". In a review for The New York Times, Pulitzer prize-winning historian David M. Kennedy stated: \"Krugman's chapter on the imperative need for health care reform is the best in this book, a rueful reminder of the kind of skilled and accessible economic analysis of which he is capable\".", "In late 2008, Krugman published a substantial updating of an earlier work, entitled The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008. In the book, he discusses the failure of the United States regulatory system to keep pace with a financial system increasingly out-of-control, and the causes of and possible ways to contain the greatest financial crisis since the 1930s", ". In 2012, Krugman published End This Depression Now!, a book which argues that looking at the available historical economic data, fiscal cuts and austerity measures only deprive the economy of valuable funds that can circulate and further add to a poor economy – people cannot spend, and markets cannot thrive if there is not enough consumption and there cannot be sufficient consumption if there is large unemployment", ". He argues that while it is necessary to cut debt, it is the worst time to do so in an economy that has just suffered the most severe of financial shocks, and must be done instead when an economy is near full-employment when the private sector can withstand the burden of decreased government spending and austerity. Failure to stimulate the economy either by public or private sectors will only unnecessarily lengthen the current economic depression and make it worse.", "Commentator \nMartin Wolf has written that Krugman is both the \"most hated and most admired columnist in the US\".", "Economist J. Peter Neary has noted that Krugman \"has written on a wide range of topics, always combining one of the best prose styles in the profession with an ability to construct elegant, insightful and useful models\". Neary added that \"no discussion of his work could fail to mention his transition from Academic Superstar to Public Intellectual", ". Through his extensive writings, including a regular column for The New York Times, monographs and textbooks at every level, and books on economics and current affairs for the general public ... he has probably done more than any other writer to explain economic principles to a wide audience.\" Krugman has been described as the most controversial economist in his generation and according to Michael Tomasky since 1992 he has moved \"from being a center-left scholar to being a liberal polemicist\".", "From the mid-1990s onwards, Krugman wrote for Fortune (1997–99) and Slate (1996–99), and then for The Harvard Business Review, Foreign Policy, The Economist, Harper's, and Washington Monthly. In this period Krugman critiqued various positions commonly taken on economic issues from across the political spectrum, from protectionism and opposition to the World Trade Organization on the left to supply-side economics on the right.", "During the 1992 presidential campaign, Krugman praised Bill Clinton's economic plan in The New York Times, and Clinton's campaign used some of Krugman's work on income inequality. At the time, it was considered likely that Clinton would offer him a position in the new administration, but allegedly Krugman's volatility and outspokenness caused Clinton to look elsewhere. Krugman later said that he was \"temperamentally unsuited for that kind of role", ". Krugman later said that he was \"temperamentally unsuited for that kind of role. You have to be very good at people skills, biting your tongue when people say silly things.\" In a Fresh Dialogues interview, Krugman added, \"you have to be reasonably organized ... I can move into a pristine office and within three days it will look like a grenade went off.\"", "In 1999, near the height of the dot com boom, The New York Times approached Krugman to write a bi-weekly column on \"the vagaries of business and economics in an age of prosperity\". His first columns in 2000 addressed business and economic issues, but as the 2000 US presidential campaign progressed, Krugman increasingly focused on George W. Bush's policy proposals. According to Krugman, this was partly due to \"the silence of the media – those 'liberal media' conservatives complain about ..", "...\" Krugman accused Bush of repeatedly misrepresenting his proposals, and criticized the proposals themselves. After Bush's election, and his perseverance with his proposed tax cut in the midst of the slump (which Krugman argued would do little to help the economy but substantially raise the fiscal deficit), Krugman's columns grew angrier and more focused on the administration. As Alan Blinder put it in 2002, \"There's been a kind of missionary quality to his writing since then ..", "... He's trying to stop something now, using the power of the pen.\" Partly as a result, Krugman's twice-weekly column on the Op-Ed page of The New York Times has made him, according to Nicholas Confessore, \"the most important political columnist in America ... he is almost alone in analyzing the most important story in politics in recent years – the seamless melding of corporate, class, and political party interests at which the Bush administration excels", ".\" In an interview in late 2009, Krugman said his missionary zeal had changed in the post-Bush era and he described the Obama administration as \"good guys but not as forceful as I'd like ... When I argue with them in my column this is a serious discussion. We really are in effect speaking across the transom here.\" Krugman says he's more effective at driving change outside the administration than inside it, \"now, I'm trying to make this progressive moment in American history a success", ". So that's where I'm pushing.\"", "Krugman's columns have drawn criticism as well as praise. A 2003 article in The Economist questioned Krugman's \"growing tendency to attribute all the world's ills to George Bush\", citing critics who felt that \"his relentless partisanship is getting in the way of his argument\" and claiming errors of economic and political reasoning in his columns", ". Daniel Okrent, a former The New York Times ombudsman, in his farewell column, criticized Krugman for what he said was \"the disturbing habit of shaping, slicing and selectively citing numbers in a fashion that pleases his acolytes but leaves him open to substantive assaults\".", "Krugman's New York Times blog is \"The Conscience of a Liberal\", devoted largely to economics and politics.", "Five days after 9/11 terrorist attacks, Krugman argued in his column that the calamity was \"partly self-inflicted\", citing poor pay and training for airport security driven by the transfer of responsibility for airport security from government to airlines. His column provoked an angry response and The New York Times was flooded with complaints", ". His column provoked an angry response and The New York Times was flooded with complaints. According to Larissa MacFarquhar of The New Yorker, while some people thought that he was too partisan to be a columnist for The New York Times, he was revered on the left. Similarly, on the 10th anniversary of the 9/11 on the United States Krugman again provoked a controversy by accusing on his New York Times blog former U.S. President George W", ".S. President George W. Bush and former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani of rushing \"to cash in on the horror\" after the attacks and describing the anniversary as \"an occasion for shame\".", "Krugman was noteworthy for his fierce opposition to the 2016 presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders. On January 19, 2016, he wrote an article which criticized Bernie Sanders for his perceived lack of political realism, compared Sanders' plans for healthcare and financial reform unfavorably to those of Hillary Clinton, and cited criticisms of Sanders from other liberal policy wonks like Mike Konczal and Ezra Klein", ". Later, Krugman wrote an article which accused Sanders of \"[going] for easy slogans over hard thinking\" and attacking Hillary Clinton in a way that was \"just plain dishonest\".", "On the 12 July 2016, Krugman tweeted \"leprechaun economics\", in response to Central Statistics Office (Ireland) data that 2015 GDP grew 26.3% and 2015 GNP grew 18.7%. The leprechaun economics affair (proved in 2018 to be Apple restructuring its double Irish subsidiaries), led to the Central Bank of Ireland introducing a new economic statistic, Modified gross national income (or GNI*) to better measure the Irish economy (2016 Irish GDP is 143% of 2016 Irish GNI*)", ". The term leprechaun economics has since been used by Krugman, and others, to describe distorted/unsound economic data.", "Krugman's use of the term leprechaun to refer to Ireland and its people has raised rebuke. In June 2021, Krugman wrote an article titled, \"Yellen's New Alliance Against Leprechauns\". Following the article, the Irish Ambassador to the US, Daniel Mulhall, wrote a letter to his publisher saying, \"This is not the first time your columnist has used the word 'leprechaun' when referring to Ireland, and I see it as my duty to point out that this represents an unacceptable slur.\"", "Krugman harshly criticized the Trump administration. He has also remarked several times on how Trump tempts him to assume the worst, such that he has to be careful to check his personal beliefs against the weight of evidence.", "East Asian growth", "In a 1994 Foreign Affairs article, Paul Krugman argued that it was a myth that the economic successes of the East Asian 'tigers' constituted an economic miracle. He argued that their rise was fueled by mobilizing resources and that their growth rates would inevitably slow", ". His article helped popularize the argument made by Lawrence Lau and Alwyn Young, among others, that the growth of economies in East Asia was not the result of new and original economic models, but rather from high capital investment and increasing labor force participation, and that total factor productivity had not increased. Krugman argued that in the long term, only increasing total factor productivity can lead to sustained economic growth", ". Krugman's article was highly criticized in many Asian countries when it first appeared, and subsequent studies disputed some of Krugman's conclusions. However, it also stimulated a great deal of research, and may have caused the Singapore government to provide incentives for technological progress.", "During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Krugman advocated currency controls as a way to mitigate the crisis. Writing in a Fortune magazine article, he suggested exchange controls as \"a solution so unfashionable, so stigmatized, that hardly anyone has dared suggest it\". Malaysia was the only country that adopted such controls, and although the Malaysian government credited its rapid economic recovery on currency controls, the relationship is disputed", ". An empirical study found that the Malaysian policies produced faster economic recovery and smaller declines in employment and real wages. Krugman later stated that the controls might not have been necessary at the time they were applied, but that nevertheless \"Malaysia has proved a point – namely, that controlling capital in a crisis is at least feasible.\" Krugman more recently pointed out that emergency capital controls have even been endorsed by the IMF, and are no longer considered radical policy.", "U.S. economic policies", "In the early 2000s, Krugman repeatedly criticized the Bush tax cuts, both before and after they were enacted. Krugman argued that the tax cuts enlarged the budget deficit without improving the economy, and that they enriched the wealthy – worsening income distribution in the US", ". Krugman advocated lower interest rates (to promote investment and spending on housing and other durable goods), and increased government spending on infrastructure, military, and unemployment benefits, arguing that these policies would have a larger stimulus effect, and unlike permanent tax cuts, would only temporarily increase the budget deficit. In addition, he was against Bush's proposal to privatize social security.", "In August 2005, after Alan Greenspan expressed concern over housing markets, Krugman criticized Greenspan's earlier reluctance to regulate the mortgage and related financial markets, arguing that \"[he's] like a man who suggests leaving the barn door ajar, and then – after the horse is gone – delivers a lecture on the importance of keeping your animals properly locked up", ".\" Krugman has repeatedly expressed his view that Greenspan and Phil Gramm are the two individuals most responsible for causing the subprime crisis. Krugman points to Greenspan and Gramm for the key roles they played in keeping derivatives, financial markets, and investment banks unregulated, and to the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which repealed Great Depression era safeguards that prevented commercial banks, investment banks and insurance companies from merging.", "Krugman has also been critical of some of the Obama administration's economic policies. He has criticized the Obama stimulus plan as being too small and inadequate given the size of the economy and the banking rescue plan as misdirected; Krugman wrote in The New York Times: \"an overwhelming majority [of the American public] believes that the government is spending too much to help large financial institutions", ". This suggests that the administration's money-for-nothing financial policy will eventually deplete its political capital.\" In particular, he considered the Obama administration's actions to prop up the US financial system in 2009 to be impractical and unduly favorable to Wall Street bankers. In anticipation of President Obama's Job Summit in December 2009, Krugman said in a Fresh Dialogues interview, \"This jobs summit can't be an empty exercise ..", "... he can't come out with a proposal for $10 or $20 Billion of stuff because people will view that as a joke. There has to be a significant job proposal ... I have in mind something like $300 Billion.\"", "Krugman has criticized China's exchange rate policy, which he believes to be a significant drag on global economic recovery from the Late-2000s recession, and he has advocated a \"surcharge\" on Chinese imports to the US in response. Jeremy Warner of The Daily Telegraph accused Krugman of advocating a return to self-destructive protectionism.", "In April 2010, as the Senate began considering new financial regulations, Krugman argued that the regulations should not only regulate financial innovation, but also tax financial-industry profits and remuneration", ". He cited a paper by Andrei Shleifer and Robert Vishny released the previous week, which concludes that most innovation was in fact about \"providing investors with false substitutes for [traditional] assets like bank deposits\", and once investors realize the sheer number of securities that are unsafe a \"flight to safety\" occurs which necessarily leads to \"financial fragility\".", "In his June 28, 2010, column in The New York Times, in light of the recent G-20 Toronto Summit, Krugman criticized world leaders for agreeing to halve deficits by 2013. Krugman claimed that these efforts could lead the global economy into the early stages of a \"third depression\" and leave \"millions of lives blighted by the absence of jobs\". He advocated instead the continued stimulus of economies to foster greater growth.", "In a 2014 review of Thomas Piketty's Capital in the Twenty-First Century he stated we are in a Second Gilded Age.\n\nEconomic views", "Keynesian economics", "Krugman identifies as a Keynesian and a saltwater economist, and he has criticized the freshwater school on macroeconomics. Although he has used New Keynesian theory in his work, he has also criticized it for lacking predictive power and for hewing to ideas like the efficient-market hypothesis and rational expectations", ". Since the 1990s, he has promoted the practical use of the IS-LM model of the neoclassical synthesis, pointing out its relative simplicity compared to New Keynesian models, and its continued currency in economic policy analysis.", "In the wake of the 2007–2009 financial crisis he has remarked that he is \"gravitating towards a Keynes-Fisher-Minsky view of macroeconomics\"", ". Post-Keynesian observers cite commonalities between Krugman's views and those of the Post-Keynesian school, although Krugman has been critical of some Post-Keynesian economists such as John Kenneth Galbraith – whose works The New Industrial State (1967) and Economics in Perspective (1987) Krugman has referred to as not \"real economic theory\" and \"remarkably ill-informed\" respectively", ". In recent academic work, he has collaborated with Gauti Eggertsson on a New Keynesian model of debt-overhang and debt-driven slumps, inspired by the writings of Irving Fisher, Hyman Minsky, and Richard Koo. Their work argues that during a debt-driven slump, the \"paradox of toil\", together with the paradox of flexibility, can exacerbate a liquidity trap, reducing demand and employment.", "Free trade", "Krugman's support for free trade in the 1980s–1990s provoked some ire from the anti-globalization movement. In 1987 he quipped that, \"If there were an Economist's Creed, it would surely contain the affirmations 'I understand the Principle of Comparative Advantage' and 'I advocate Free Trade'.\" However, Krugman argues in the same article that, given the findings of New Trade Theory, \"[free trade] has shifted from optimum to reasonable rule of thumb ..", "... it can never again be asserted as the policy that economic theory tells us is always right.\" In the article, Krugman comes out in favor of free trade given the enormous political costs of actively engaging in strategic trade policy and because there is no clear method for a government to discover which industries will ultimately yield positive returns. He also notes that increasing returns and strategic trade theory do not disprove the underlying truth of comparative advantage.", "In the midst of the 2009 Great Recession, Krugman made a significant departure from his general support for free trade, entertaining the idea of a 25% tariff on Chinese imports as a retaliation for China's policy of maintaining a low value for the renminbi, which many saw as hostile currency manipulation, artificially making their exports more competitive.", "In 2015, Krugman noted his ambivalence about the proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership, as the agreement was not mainly about trade and, \"whatever you may say about the benefits of free trade, most of those benefits have already been realized\" [by existing agreements].", "After the 2016 elections, and Trump's moves towards protectionism, he wrote that while protectionism can make economies less efficient and reduce long-term growth, it would not directly cause recessions. He noted that if there is a trade war, imports would decrease as much as exports, so employment should not be strongly impacted, at least in the medium to long run", ". He believes that the US should not repeat Reagan's 1981 policy on taxes and quotas on imported products, as even if it does not produce a recession, protectionism would shock \"value chains\" and disrupt jobs and communities in the same way as free trade in the past. In addition, other countries would take retaliatory measures against US exports. Krugman recommended against the abandonment of NAFTA, because it could cause economic losses and disruptions to businesses, jobs, and communities.", "In the late 2010s, Krugman admitted that the models that scholars used to measure the impact of globalization in the 1990s underestimated the effect on jobs and inequality in developed countries such as the US", ". He noted that although free trade has harmed some industries, communities, and some workers, it remains a win-win system overall, enriching both parties to the agreement at the national level; a trade war is equivalently negative for the nations involved, even while it may benefit some individuals or industries within each nation.", "Immigration \nKrugman wrote in March 2006: \"Immigration reduces the wages of domestic workers who compete with immigrants. That's just supply and demand: we're talking about large increases in the number of low-skill workers relative to other inputs into production, so it's inevitable that this means a fall in wages ... the fiscal burden of low-wage immigrants is also pretty clear.\"", "Green economy", "Krugman has called for a transition to a green economy. He supported the Green New Deal., asserting \"I believe progressives should enthusiastically embrace the G.N.D.\". He said that a \"Green New Deal stuff is investment. On that stuff, don't worry about paying for it. Debt as an issue is vastly overstated, and a lot of these things pay for themselves. Go ahead and just deficit finance it.\" In 2021, he wrote that \"we will almost surely have to put a price\" on greenhouse gas emissions", ".\" In 2021, he wrote that \"we will almost surely have to put a price\" on greenhouse gas emissions. He criticized Democratic \"moderates\" and corporations \"torpedoing efforts to avoid a civilization-threatening crisis because you want to hold down your tax bill\".", "Political views", "Krugman describes himself as liberal and has explained that he views the term \"liberal\" in the American context to mean \"more or less what social democratic means in Europe\". In a 2009 Newsweek article, Evan Thomas described Krugman as having \"all the credentials of a ranking member of the East coast liberal establishment\" but also as someone who is anti-establishment, a \"scourge of the Bush administration\", and a critic of the Obama administration", ". In 1996, Newsweek Michael Hirsh remarked, \"Say this for Krugman: though an unabashed liberal ... he's ideologically colorblind. He savages the supply-siders of the Reagan–Bush era with the same glee as he does the 'strategic traders' of the Clinton administration.\"", "Krugman has at times advocated free markets in contexts where they are often viewed as controversial", ". He has written against rent control and land-use restrictions in favor of market supply and demand, likened the opposition against free trade and globalization to the opposition against evolution via natural selection (1996), opposed farm subsidies, argued that sweatshops are preferable to unemployment, dismissed the case for living wages (1998), and argued against mandates, subsidies, and tax breaks for ethanol (2000)", ". In 2003, he questioned the usefulness of NASA's manned space flights given the available technology and their high financial cost compared to their general benefits. Krugman has also criticized U.S. zoning laws and European labor market regulation.", "Krugman endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up to the 2016 U.S. presidential election.\n\nU.S. race relations \nKrugman has criticized the Republican Party leadership for what he sees as a strategic (but largely tacit) reliance on racial divisions. In his Conscience of a Liberal, he wrote:", "On working in the Reagan administration", "Krugman worked for Martin Feldstein when the latter was appointed chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers and chief economic advisor to President Ronald Reagan. He later wrote in an autobiographical essay, \"It was, in a way, strange for me to be part of the Reagan Administration. I was then and still am an unabashed defender of the welfare state, which I regard as the most decent social arrangement yet devised.\" Krugman found the time \"thrilling, then disillusioning\"", ".\" Krugman found the time \"thrilling, then disillusioning\". He did not fit into the Washington political environment and was not tempted to stay on.", "On Gordon Brown vs. David Cameron", "According to Krugman, Gordon Brown and his party were unfairly blamed for the late-2000s financial crisis. He has also praised the former British prime minister, whom he described as \"more impressive than any US politician\" after a three-hour conversation with him", ". Krugman asserted that Brown \"defined the character of the worldwide financial rescue effort\" and urged British voters not to support the opposition Conservative Party in the 2010 general election, arguing their Party Leader David Cameron \"has had little to offer other than to raise the red flag of fiscal panic\".", "On the Iraq War \nKrugman opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq. He wrote in his New York Times column: \"What we should have learned from the Iraq debacle was that you should always be skeptical and that you should never rely on supposed authority. If you hear that 'everyone' supports a policy, whether it's a war of choice or fiscal austerity, you should ask whether 'everyone' has been defined to exclude anyone expressing a different opinion.\"", "On Donald Trump", "Krugman has been a vocal critic of Donald Trump and his administration. His criticisms have included the president's climate change proposals, economic policy, the Republican tax plan and Trump's foreign policy initiatives. Krugman has often used his op-ed column in The New York Times to set out arguments against the president's policies", ". On election night in 2016, Krugman wrongly predicted in a New York Times op-ed that the markets would never recover under Trump and stated \"first-pass answer is never\" but retracted the call in the same publication three days later. Trump gave him a 'Fake News Award'. Krugman stated \"I get a 'fake news award' for a bad market call, retracted 3 days later, from 2000-lie man, who still won't admit he lost the popular vote. Sad!\"", "On Russia under Vladimir Putin", "In his New York Times column, Krugman described Russia as a \"Potemkin superpower\" in reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. He stated that \"Russia is even weaker than most people, myself included, seem to have realized\", that the military performance of Russia \"has been less effective than advertised\" in a stalemate at the beginning of the invasion, and that Russia encountered serious logistical problems", ". Krugman observed that the country's total gross domestic product is only a bit more than half as large as those of countries such as Britain and France, despite Russia's greater landmass, total population and natural resource endowment. He also noted that Russia's economy was further weakened by international sanctions as a result of the war. He concluded that Russia had \"far less real strength than meets the eye.\"", "Views on technology", "In 1998 during the dot-com bubble, Krugman wrote a commentary for Red Herring that urged skepticism of optimistic predictions for technology-driven progress. He followed it with several pessimistic predictions of his own, including that \"[b]y 2005 or so, it will become clear that the Internet's impact on the economy has been no greater than the fax machine's\" and that the number of jobs for IT specialists would decelerate and turn down", ". In a 2013 interview, Krugman stated that the predictions were meant to be \"fun and provocative, not to engage in careful forecasting\".", "Krugman is a vocal critic of Bitcoin, arguing against its economic soundness since 2011. In 2017, he predicted that Bitcoin is a more obvious bubble than housing and stated that \"[t]here's been no demonstration yet that it actually is helpful in conducting economic transactions\".", "In December 2022 Krugman predicted that, because of generative AI such as ChatGPT, \"quite a few knowledge jobs may be eminently replaceable\". He suggested that such technology would likely prove beneficial \"in the long run\", but that \"in the long run, we are all dead, and even before that, some of us may find ourselves either unemployed or earning far less than we expected\".", "Personal life", "Krugman has been married twice. His first wife, Robin L. Bergman, is a designer. He is currently married to Robin Wells, an academic economist who received her BA from the University of Chicago and her PhD from the University of California, Berkeley. She, as did Krugman, taught at MIT. Together, Krugman and his wife have collaborated on several economics textbooks", ". Together, Krugman and his wife have collaborated on several economics textbooks. Although rumors began to circulate in early 2007 that Krugman's \"son\" was working for Hillary Clinton's campaign, Krugman reiterated in his New York Times op-ed column that he and his wife are childless.", "Krugman currently lives in New York City. Upon retiring from Princeton after fifteen years of teaching in June 2015, he addressed the issue in his column, stating that while he retains the utmost praise and respect for Princeton, he wishes to reside in New York City and hopes to focus more on public policy issues. He subsequently became a professor at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and a distinguished scholar at the Graduate Center's Luxembourg Income Study Center.", "Krugman reports that he is a distant relative of conservative journalist David Frum. He has described himself as a \"Loner. Ordinarily shy. Shy with individuals.\"\n\nPublished works", "Academic books (authored or coauthored) \n The Spatial Economy – Cities, Regions and International Trade (July 1999), with Masahisa Fujita and Anthony Venables. MIT Press, \n The Self Organizing Economy (February 1996), \n EMU and the Regions (December 1995), with Guillermo de la Dehesa. \n Development, Geography, and Economic Theory (Ohlin Lectures) (September 1995), \n Foreign Direct Investment in the United States (3rd Edition) (February 1995), with Edward M. Graham.", "World Savings Shortage (September 1994), \n What Do We Need to Know About the International Monetary System? (Essays in International Finance, No 190 July 1993) \n Currencies and Crises (June 1992), \n Geography and Trade (Gaston Eyskens Lecture Series) (August 1991), \n The Risks Facing the World Economy (July 1991), with Guillermo de la Dehesa and Charles Taylor. \n Has the Adjustment Process Worked? (Policy Analyses in International Economics, 34) (June 1991), \n Rethinking International Trade (April 1990),", "Rethinking International Trade (April 1990), \n Trade Policy and Market Structure (March 1989), with Elhanan Helpman. \n Exchange-Rate Instability (Lionel Robbins Lectures) (November 1988), \n Adjustment in the World Economy (August 1987) \n Market Structure and Foreign Trade: Increasing Returns, Imperfect Competition, and the International Economy (May 1985), with Elhanan Helpman.", "Academic books (edited or coedited) \n Currency Crises (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report) (September 2000), \n Trade with Japan: Has the Door Opened Wider? (National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report) (March 1995), \n Empirical Studies of Strategic Trade Policy (National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report) (April 1994), co-edited with Alasdair Smith. \n Exchange Rate Targets and Currency Bands (October 1991), co-edited with Marcus Miller.", "Exchange Rate Targets and Currency Bands (October 1991), co-edited with Marcus Miller. \n Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics (January 1986),", "Economics textbooks \n Economics: European Edition (Spring 2007), with Robin Wells and Kathryn Graddy. \n Macroeconomics (February 2006), with Robin Wells. \n Economics, first edition (December 2005), with Robin Wells. \n Economics, second edition (2009), with Robin Wells. \n Economics, third edition (2013), with Robin Wells. \n Economics, fourth edition (2017), with Robin Wells. \n Economics, fifth edition (2018), with Robin Wells. \n Economics, sixth edition (2021), with Robin Wells.", "Economics, sixth edition (2021), with Robin Wells. \n Microeconomics (March 2004), with Robin Wells. \n International Economics: Theory and Policy, with Maurice Obstfeld. 7th Edition (2006), ; 1st Edition (1998),", "Books for a general audience \n Arguing with Zombies: Economics, Politics, and the Fight for a Better Future (January 2020) \n End This Depression Now! (April 2012) \n A call for stimulative expansionary policy and an end to austerity\n The Conscience of a Liberal (October 2007) \n The Great Unraveling: Losing Our Way in the New Century (September 2003) \n A book of his The New York Times columns, many deal with the economic policies of the Bush administration or the economy in general.", "Fuzzy Math: The Essential Guide to the Bush Tax Plan (May 4, 2001) \n The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 (December 2008) \n An updated version of his previous work.\n The Return of Depression Economics (May 1999) \n Considers the long economic stagnation of Japan through the 1990s, the Asian financial crisis, and problems in Latin America.\n The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 (December 2008)", "The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 (December 2008) \n The Accidental Theorist and Other Dispatches from the Dismal Science (May 1998) \n Essay collection, primarily from Krugman's writing for Slate.\n Pop Internationalism (March 1996) \n Essay collection, covering largely the same ground as Peddling Prosperity.\n Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in an Age of Diminished Expectations (April 1995)", "History of economic thought from the first rumblings of revolt against Keynesian economics to the present, for the layman.\n The Age of Diminished Expectations: U.S. Economic Policy in the 1990s (1990) \n A \"briefing book\" on the major policy issues around the economy.\n Revised and Updated, January 1994, \n Third Edition, August 1997,", "Selected academic articles \n (2012) \"Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap: A Fisher-Minsky-Koo Approach\". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 127 (3), pp. 1469–513.\n (2009) \"The Increasing Returns Revolution in Trade and Geography\". The American Economic Review 99(3), pp. 561–71.\n (1998) \"It's Baaack: Japan's Slump and the Return of the Liquidity Trap\". Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1998, pp. 137–205.\n (1996) \"Are currency crises self-fulfilling?\". NBER Macroeconomics Annual 11, pp. 345–78.", "(1996) \"Are currency crises self-fulfilling?\". NBER Macroeconomics Annual 11, pp. 345–78.\n (1995) \n (1991) \"Increasing returns and economic geography\". Journal of Political Economy 99, pp. 483–99.\n (1991) \n (1991) \"History versus expectations\". Quarterly Journal of Economics 106 (2), pp. 651–67.\n (1981) \"Intra-industry specialization and the gains from trade\". Journal of Political Economy 89, pp. 959–73.", "(1980) \"Scale economies, product differentiation, and the pattern of trade\". American Economic Review 70, pp. 950–59.\n (1979) \"A model of balance-of-payments crises\". Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 11, pp. 311–25.\n (1979) \"Increasing returns, monopolistic competition, and international trade\". Journal of International Economics 9, pp. 469–79.", "See also \n\n Capitol Hill Baby-Sitting Co-op, popularized in Krugman's book, Peddling Prosperity\n List of economists\n List of Jewish Nobel laureates\n List of newspaper columnists\n New Yorkers in journalism\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "Profile and column archive at The New York Times\n KrugmanOnline.com features books by Krugman, a custom search engine, and aggregated content from the web.\n The Unofficial Krugman Archive contains nearly all his pre-TimesSelect articles\n Paul Krugman (MIT): archives of his Slate and Fortune columns plus other writings 1996–2000\n Krugman Publications at the National Bureau of Economic Research\n Contra Krugman – articles by economist Robert P. Murphy and historian Thomas Woods seeking to refute Krugman", "\"Paul Krugman: Commencement Speaker, Bard College at Simon's Rock\" (YouTube)\n \n Paul Krugman at nobelprize.org", "20th-century American male writers\n20th-century American essayists\n21st-century American essayists\nNobel laureates in Economics\nAmerican Nobel laureates\n20th-century American economists\n21st-century American economists\n1953 births\nAcademics of the London School of Economics\nAmerican male bloggers\nAmerican bloggers\nAmerican columnists\nEconomists from New York (state)\nAmerican foreign policy writers\nAmerican male non-fiction writers\nJewish American journalists\nAmerican people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent", "Jewish American journalists\nAmerican people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent\nAmerican people of Belarusian-Jewish descent\nFellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\nFellows of the Econometric Society\nGroup of Thirty\nJewish American social scientists\nJewish American economists\nKeynesians\nLiving people\nAmerican male essayists\nMIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences alumni\nNew Keynesian economists\nWriters from Albany, New York\nPeople from Bellmore, New York\nPrinceton University faculty", "Writers from Albany, New York\nPeople from Bellmore, New York\nPrinceton University faculty\nCUNY Graduate Center faculty\nRegional economists\nThe New York Times columnists\nTrade economists\nUnited States Council of Economic Advisers\nWriters about globalization\nYale University alumni\nNational Bureau of Economic Research\nRecipients of the Four Freedoms Award\nGerald Loeb Award winners for Columns, Commentary, and Editorials\nJohn F. Kennedy High School (Bellmore, New York) alumni", "John F. Kennedy High School (Bellmore, New York) alumni\nFellows of the American Academy of Political and Social Science\nCarnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs\nMIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty" ]

[ "A bulletproof vest, also known as a ballistic vest or a bullet-resistant vest, is an item of body armour that helps absorb the impact and reduce or stop penetration to the torso by firearm-fired projectiles and fragmentation from explosions. The vest may come in a soft form, as worn by many police officers, prison officers, security guards, and some private citizens, used to protect against stabbing attacks or light projectiles, or hard form, using metallic or para-aramid components", ". Soldiers and police tactical units wear hard armour, either in conjunction with soft armour or alone, to protect against rifle ammunition or fragmentation.", "History\n\nEarly modern era\nIn 1538, Francesco Maria della Rovere commissioned Filippo Negroli to create a bulletproof vest. In 1561, Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor is recorded as testing his armor against gun-fire. Similarly, in 1590 Sir Henry Lee expected his Greenwich armour to be \"pistol proof\". Its actual effectiveness was controversial at the time.", "During the English Civil War Oliver Cromwell's Ironside cavalry were equipped with Capeline helmets and musket-proof cuirasses which consisted of two layers of armor plate. The outer layer was designed to absorb the bullet's energy and the thicker inner layer stopped further penetration. The armor would be left badly dented but still serviceable.", "Industrial era\nOne of the first examples of commercially sold bulletproof armour was produced by a tailor in Dublin, Ireland, in the 1840s. The Cork Examiner reported on his line of business in December 1847:", "Another soft ballistic vest, Myeonje baegab, was invented in Joseon, Korea in the 1860s shortly after the French campaign against Korea. The Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bullet-proof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-Doo and Gang Yoon found that cotton could protect against bullets if 10 layers of cotton fabric were used. The vests were used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea, when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa Island in 1871", ". The US Navy captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the Smithsonian Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.", "Simple ballistic armor was sometimes constructed by criminals. During the 1880s, a gang of Australian bushrangers led by Ned Kelly made basic armour from plough blades. By this time the Victorian Government had a reward for the capture of a member of the Kelly Gang at £8,000 (equivalent to $2 million Australian in 2005). One of the stated aims of Kelly was the establishment of a Republic in North East Victoria", ". One of the stated aims of Kelly was the establishment of a Republic in North East Victoria. Each of the four Kelly gang members had fought a siege at a hotel clad in suits of armour made from the mouldboards of ploughs. The maker's stamp (Lennon Number 2 Type) was found inside several of the plates. The armour covered the men's torsos, upper arms, and upper legs, and was worn with a helmet. The suits were roughly made on a creek bed using a makeshift forge and a stringy-bark log as a muffled anvil", ". The suits had a mass of around 44 kg (96 lb) but eventually were of no use as the suits lacked protection for the legs and hands.", "American outlaw and gunfighter Jim Miller was infamous for wearing a steel breastplate over his frock coat as a form of body armor. This plate saved Miller on two occasions, and it proved to be highly resistant to pistol bullets and shotguns. One example can be seen in his gun battle with a sheriff named George A. \"Bud\" Frazer, where the plate managed to deflect all bullets from the lawman's revolver.", "In 1881, Tombstone physician George E. Goodfellow noticed that a faro dealer Charlie Storms who was shot twice by Luke Short had one bullet stopped by a silk handkerchief in his breast pocket that prevented that bullet from penetrating. In 1887, he wrote an article titled Impenetrability of Silk to Bullets for the Southern California Practitioner documenting the first known instance of bulletproof fabric", ". He experimented with silk vests resembling medieval gambesons, which used 18 to 30 layers of silk fabric to protect the wearers from penetration.", "Fr. Kazimierz Żegleń used Goodfellow's findings to develop a bulletproof vest made of silk fabric at the end of the 19th century, which could stop the relatively slow rounds from black powder handguns. The vests cost US$800 each in 1914, a small fortune given the $20.67/1oz-Au exchange-rate back then, equivalent to ~$50,000 (c.2016), exceeding mean annual income.", "A similar vest, made by Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik in 1901, saved the life of Alfonso XIII of Spain when he was shot by an attacker. By 1900, US gangsters were wearing $800 silk vests to protect themselves.", "On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was fatally shot, triggering World War I; despite owning a silk bulletproof vest, which tests by Britain's Royal Armouries indicate would likely have stopped a bullet of that era, and despite being aware of potential threats to his life including an attempted assassination of his uncle a few years earlier, Ferdinand was not wearing his on that fateful day.", "However, the point is mostly moot, due to the Archduke having been shot in the throat.", "First World War\n\nThe combatants of World War I started the war without any attempt at providing the soldiers with body armor. Various private companies advertised body protection suits such as the Birmingham Chemico Body Shield, although these products were generally far too expensive for an average soldier.", "The first official attempts at commissioning body armor were made in 1915 by the British Army Design Committee, in particular a 'Bomber's Shield' for the use of bomber pilots who were notoriously under-protected in the air from anti-aircraft bullets and fragmentation. The Experimental Ordnance Board also reviewed potential materials for bullet and fragment proof armor, such as steel plate", ". A 'necklet' was successfully issued on a small scale (due to cost considerations), which protected the neck and shoulders from bullets traveling at with interwoven layers of silk and cotton stiffened with resin. The Dayfield body shield entered service in 1916 and a hardened breastplate was introduced the following year.", "The British army medical services calculated towards the end of the War that three quarters of all battle injuries could have been prevented if an effective armor had been issued.", "The French experimented with steel visors attached to the Adrian helmet and 'abdominal armor' designed by General Adrian, in addition to shoulder \"epaulets\" to protect from falling debris and darts. These failed to be practical, because they severely impeded the soldier's mobility. The Germans officially issued body armor in the shape of nickel and silicon armor plates that was called sappenpanzer (nicknamed 'Lobster armor') from late 1916", ". These were similarly too heavy to be practical for the rank-and-file, but were used by static units, such as sentries and occasionally machine-gunners. An improved version, the Infanterie-Panzer, was introduced in 1918, with hooks for equipment.", "The United States developed several types of body armor, including the chrome nickel steel Brewster Body Shield, which consisted of a breastplate and a headpiece and could withstand Lewis Gun bullets at , but was clumsy and heavy at . A scaled waistcoat of overlapping steel scales fixed to a leather lining was also designed; this armor weighed , fit close to the body, and was considered more comfortable.", "During the late 1920s through the early 1930s, gunmen from criminal gangs in the United States began wearing less-expensive vests made from thick layers of cotton padding and cloth. These early vests could absorb the impact of handgun rounds such as .22 Long Rifle, .25 ACP, .32 S&W Long, .32 S&W, .380 ACP, .38 Special and .45 ACP traveling at speeds of up to . To overcome these vests, law enforcement agents began using the newer and more powerful .38 Super, and later the .357 Magnum cartridge.", "Second World War", "In 1940, the Medical Research Council in Britain proposed the use of a lightweight suit of armor for general use by infantry, and a heavier suit for troops in more dangerous positions, such as anti-aircraft and naval gun crews. By February 1941, trials had begun on body armor made of manganese steel plates. Two plates covered the front area and one plate on the lower back protected the kidneys and other vital organs", ". Five thousand sets were made and evaluated to almost unanimous approval – as well as providing adequate protection, the armor didn't severely impede the mobility of the soldier and were reasonably comfortable to wear. The armor was introduced in 1942 although the demand for it was later scaled down. The Canadian Army in northwestern Europe also adopted this armor for the medical personnel of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division.", "The British company Wilkinson Sword began to produce flak jackets for bomber crew in 1943 under contract with the Royal Air Force. It was realised that the majority of pilot deaths in the air was due to low velocity fragments rather than bullets. Surgeon of the United States Army Air Forces, Colonel M. C. Grow, stationed in Britain, thought that many wounds he was treating could have been prevented by some kind of light armor. Two types of armor were issued for different specifications", ". Two types of armor were issued for different specifications. These jackets were made of nylon fabric and capable of stopping flak and fragmentation, but were not designed to stop bullets. Although they were considered too bulky for pilots using the Avro Lancaster bombers, they were adopted by United States Army Air Forces.", "In the early stages of World War II, the United States also designed body armor for infantrymen, but most models were too heavy and mobility-restricting to be useful in the field and incompatible with existing required equipment. Near the middle of 1944, development of infantry body armor in the United States restarted. Several vests were produced for the US military, including but not limited to the T34, the T39, the T62E1, and the M12", ". The United States developed a vest using Doron Plate, a fiberglass-based laminate. These vests were first used in the Battle of Okinawa in 1945.", "The Soviet Armed Forces used several types of body armor, including the SN-42 (\"Stalnoi Nagrudnik\" is Russian for \"steel breastplate\", and the number denotes the design year). All were tested, but only the SN-42 was put in production. It consisted of two pressed steel plates that protected the front torso and groin. The plates were 2 mm thick and weighed 3.5 kg (7.7 lb). This armor was generally supplied to SHISBr (assault engineers) and Tankodesantniki", ".5 kg (7.7 lb). This armor was generally supplied to SHISBr (assault engineers) and Tankodesantniki. The SN armor protected wearers from 9×19mm bullets fired by an MP 40 at around 100 meters, and sometimes it was able to deflect 7.92 Mauser bullets (and bayonet blades), but only at very low angle. This made it useful in urban battles such as the Battle of Stalingrad. However, the SN's weight made it impractical for infantry in the open", ". However, the SN's weight made it impractical for infantry in the open. Some apocryphal accounts note point blank deflection of 9mm bullets, and testing of similar armour supports this theory.", "Postwar", "During the Korean War several new vests were produced for the United States military, including the M-1951, which made use of fibre-reinforced plastic or aluminium segments woven into a nylon vest. These vests represented \"a vast improvement on weight, but the armor failed to stop bullets and fragments very successfully,\" although officially they were claimed to be able to stop 7.62×25mm Tokarev pistol rounds at the muzzle. Such vests equipped with Doron Plate have, in informal testing, defeated", ". Such vests equipped with Doron Plate have, in informal testing, defeated .45 ACP handgun ammunition. Developed by Natick Laboratories and introduced in 1967, T65-2 plate carriers were the first vests designed to hold hard ceramic plates, making them capable of stopping 7 mm rifle rounds.", "These \"Chicken Plates\" were made of either boron carbide, silicon carbide, or aluminium oxide. They were issued to the crew of low-flying aircraft, such as the UH-1 and UC-123, during the Vietnam War.", "In 1969, American Body Armor was founded and began to produce a patented combination of quilted nylon faced with multiple steel plates. This armor configuration was marketed to American law enforcement agencies by Smith & Wesson under the trade name \"Barrier Vest.\" The Barrier Vest was the first police vest to gain wide use during high threat police operations.", "In 1971, research chemist Stephanie Kwolek discovered a liquid crystalline polymer solution. Its exceptional strength and stiffness led to the invention of Kevlar, a synthetic fibre, woven into a fabric and layered, that, by weight, has five times the tensile strength of steel. In the mid-1970s, DuPont, the company which employed Kwolek, introduced Kevlar", ". In the mid-1970s, DuPont, the company which employed Kwolek, introduced Kevlar. Immediately Kevlar was incorporated into a National Institute of Justice (NIJ) evaluation program to provide lightweight, able body armor to a test pool of American law enforcement officers to ascertain if everyday able wearing was possible", ". Lester Shubin, a program manager at the NIJ, managed this law enforcement feasibility study within a few selected large police agencies, and quickly determined that Kevlar body armor could be comfortably worn by police daily, and would save lives.", "In 1975 Richard A. Armellino, the founder of American Body Armor, marketed an all Kevlar vest called the K-15, consisting of 15 layers of Kevlar that also included a 5\" × 8\" ballistic steel \"Shok Plate\" positioned vertically over the heart and was issued US Patent #3,971,072 for this innovation. Similarly sized and positioned \"trauma plates\" are still used today on most vests, reducing blunt trauma and increasing ballistic protection in the center-mass heart/sternum area.", "In 1976, Richard Davis, founder of Second Chance Body Armor, designed the company's first all-Kevlar vest, the Model Y. The lightweight, able vest industry was launched and a new form of daily protection for the modern police officer was quickly adopted. By the mid-to-late 1980s, an estimated 1/3 to 1/2 of police patrol officers wore able vests daily", ". By the mid-to-late 1980s, an estimated 1/3 to 1/2 of police patrol officers wore able vests daily. By 2006, more than 2,000 documented police vest \"saves\" were recorded, validating the success and efficiency of lightweight able body armor as a standard piece of everyday police equipment.", "Recent years\n\nDuring the 1980s, the US military issued the PASGT kevlar vest, tested privately at NIJ level IIA by several sources, able to stop pistol rounds (including 9 mm FMJ), but intended and approved only for fragmentation. West Germany issued a similar rated vest called the Splitterschutzweste.", "Kevlar soft armor had its shortcomings because if \"large fragments or high velocity bullets hit the vest, the energy could cause life-threatening, blunt trauma injuries\" in selected, vital areas. Ranger Body Armor was developed for the American military in 1991", ". Ranger Body Armor was developed for the American military in 1991. Although it was the second modern US body armor that was able to stop rifle caliber rounds and still be light enough to be worn by infantry soldiers in the field, (first being the ISAPO, or Interim Small Arms Protective Overvest,) it still had its flaws: \"it was still heavier than the concurrently issued PASGT (Personal Armor System for Ground Troops) anti-fragmentation armor worn by regular infantry and ..", "... did not have the same degree of ballistic protection around the neck and shoulders.\" The format of Ranger Body Armor (and more recent body armor issued to US special operations units) highlights the trade-offs between force protection and mobility that modern body armor forces organizations to address.", "Newer armor issued by the United States armed forces to large numbers of troops includes the United States Army's Improved Outer Tactical Vest and the United States Marine Corps Modular Tactical Vest. All of these systems are designed with the vest intended to provide protection from fragments and pistol rounds. Hard ceramic plates, such as the Small Arms Protective Insert, as used with Interceptor Body Armor, are worn to protect the vital organs from higher level threats", ". These threats mostly take the form of high velocity and armor-piercing rifle rounds. Similar types of protective equipment have been adopted by modern armed forces over the world.", "Since the 1970s, several new fibers and construction methods for bulletproof fabric have been developed besides woven Kevlar, such as DSM's Dyneema, Honeywell's Gold Flex and Spectra, Teijin Aramid's Twaron, Pinnacle Armor's Dragon Skin, and Toyobo's Zylon. The US military has developed body armor for the working dogs who aid soldiers in battle.\n\nPerformance standards", "Due to the various types of projectile, it is often inaccurate to refer to a particular product as \"bulletproof\" because this implies that it will protect against any and all threats. Instead, the term bullet resistant is generally preferred. Vest specifications will typically include both penetration resistance requirements and limits on the amount of impact force that is delivered to the body. Even without penetration, heavy bullets can deal enough force to cause blunt force trauma under the impact point", ". On the other hand, some bullets can penetrate the vest, but deal low damage to its wearer due to the loss of speed or small/reduced mass/form. Armour piercing ammunition tends to have poor terminal ballistics due to it being specifically not intended to fragment or expand.", "Body armor standards are regional. Around the world ammunition varies and as a result the armor testing must reflect the threats found locally. Law enforcement statistics show that many shootings where officers are injured or killed involve the officer's own weapon. As a result, each law enforcement agency or para-military organization will have their own standard for armor performance if only to ensure that their armor protects them from their own weapons.", "While many standards exist, a few standards are widely used as models. The US National Institute of Justice ballistic and stab documents are examples of broadly accepted standards. In addition to the NIJ, the UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB – formerly the Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB)) and VPAM (German acronym for the Association of Laboratories for Bullet Resistant Materials And Constructions), originally from Germany, are other widely accepted standards", ". In the Russian area, the GOST standard is dominant.", "Soft and hard armor\n\nModern body armor is generally split into one of two categories: soft armor and hard armor. Soft armor is typically made of woven fabrics, like Dyneema or Kevlar, and usually provides protection against fragmentation and handgun threats. Hard armor usually refers to ballistic plates; these hardened plates are designed to defend against rifle threats, in addition to the threats covered by soft armor.", "Soft armor\nSoft armour is usually made of woven fabrics (synthetic or natural) and protects up to NIJ level IIIA. Soft armour can be worn stand-alone or can be combined with hard armor as part of an \"In-Conjunction\" armor system. In these in-conjunction systems, a soft armor \"plate backer\" is usually placed behind the ballistic plate and the combination of soft and hard armor provides the designated level of protection.\n\nHard armor", "Hard armor \n\nBroadly, there are three basic types of hard armor ballistic plates: ceramic plate-based systems, steel plate with spall fragmentation protective coating (or backer), and hard fiber-based laminate systems. These hard armor plates may be designed to be used stand-alone or \"In-Conjunction\" with soft armor backers, also called \"plate backers\".", "Many systems contain both hard ceramic components and laminated textile materials used together. Various ceramic materials types are in use, however: aluminum oxide, boron carbide and silicon carbide are the most common. The fibers used in these systems are the same as found in soft textile armor. However, for rifle protection, high pressure lamination of ultra high molecular weight polyethylene with a Kraton matrix is the most common.", "The Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI) and the enhanced SAPI plate for the United States Department of Defense generally has this form. Because of the use of ceramic plates for rifle protection, these vests are 5–8 times as heavy on an area basis as handgun protection. The weight and stiffness of rifle armor is a major technical challenge. Density, hardness and impact toughness are among the materials properties that are balanced to design these systems", ". While ceramic materials have some outstanding properties for ballistics, they have poor fracture toughness. Failure of ceramic plates by cracking must also be controlled. For this reason many ceramic rifle plates are a composite. The strike face is ceramic with the backface formed of laminated fiber and resin materials. The hardness of the ceramic prevents the penetration of the bullet while the tensile strength of the fiber backing helps prevent tensile failure. The U.S", ". The U.S. military's Small Arms Protective Insert family is a well-known example of these plates.", "When a ceramic plate is shot, it cracks in the vicinity of the impact, which reduces the protection in this area. Although NIJ 0101.06 requires a Level III plate to stop six rounds of 7.62x51mm M80 ball ammunition, it imposes a minimum distance between shots of 2.0 inches (51mm); if two rounds impact the plate closer than this requirement permits, it may result in a penetration", ". To counter this, some plates, such as the Ceradyne Model AA4 and IMP/ACT (Improved Multi-hit Performance/Advanced Composite Technology) series, use a stainless steel crack arrestor embedded between the strike face and backer. This layer contains cracks in the strike face to the immediate area around an impact, resulting in markedly improved multi-hit ability; in conjunction with NIJ IIIA soft armor, a 3.9 lb IMP/ACT plate can stop eight rounds of 5.56x45mm M995, and a 4", ".9 lb IMP/ACT plate can stop eight rounds of 5.56x45mm M995, and a 4.2 lb plate such as the MH3 CQB can stop either ten rounds of 5.56x45mm M995 or six rounds of 7.62x39mm BZ API.", "The standards for armor-piercing rifle bullets are not clear-cut, because the penetration of a bullet depends on the hardness of the target armor, and the armor type. However, there are a few general rules. For example, bullets with a soft lead-core and copper jacket are too easily deformed to penetrate hard materials, whereas rifle bullets intended for maximum penetration into hard armor are nearly always manufactured with high-hardness core materials such as tungsten carbide", ". Most other core materials would have effects between lead and tungsten carbide. Many common bullets, such as the 7.62×39mm M43 standard cartridge for the AK-47/AKM rifle, have a steel core with hardness rating ranging from Rc35 mild steel up to Rc45 medium hard steel. However, there is a caveat to this rule: with regards to penetration, the hardness of a bullet's core is significantly less important than the sectional density of that bullet", ". This is why there are many more bullets made with tungsten instead of tungsten carbide.", "Additionally, as the hardness of the bullet core increases, so must the amount of ceramic plating used to stop penetration. Like in soft ballistics, a minimum ceramic material hardness of the bullet core is required to damage their respective hard core materials, however in armor-piercing rounds the bullet core is eroded rather than deformed.", "The US Department of Defense uses several hard armor plates. The first, the Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI), called for ceramic composite plates with a mass of 20–30 kg/m2 (4–5 lb/ft2). SAPI plates have a black fabric cover with the text \"7.62mm M80 Ball Protection\"; as expected, they are required to stop three rounds of 7.62x51mm M80 ball, with the plate tilted thirty degrees towards the shooter for the third shot; this practice is common for all three-hit-protective plates in the SAPI series", ". Later, the Enhanced SAPI (ESAPI) specification was developed to protect from more penetrative ammunition. ESAPI ceramic plates have a green fabric cover with the text \"7.62mm APM2 Protection\" on the back and a density of 35–45 kg/m2 (7–9 lb/ft2); they are designed to stop bullets like the .30-06 AP (M2) with a hardened steel core. Depending on revision, the plate may stop more than one. Since the issuance of CO/PD 04-19D on January 14, 2007, ESAPI plates are required to stop three rounds of M2AP", ". The plates may be differentiated by the text \"REV.\" on the back, followed by a letter. A few years after the fielding of the ESAPI, the Department of Defense began to issue XSAPI plates in response to a perceived threat of AP projectiles in Iraq and Afghanistan. Over 120,000 inserts were procured; however, the AP threats they were meant to stop never materialized, and the plates were put into storage. XSAPI plates are required to stop three rounds of either the 7.62x51mm M993 or 5", ". XSAPI plates are required to stop three rounds of either the 7.62x51mm M993 or 5.56x45mm M995 tungsten-carbide armor-piercing projectiles (like newer ESAPIs, the third shot occurs with the plate tilted towards the shooter), and are distinguished by a tan cover with the text \"7.62mm AP/WC Protection\" on the back.", "Cercom (now BAE Systems), CoorsTek, Ceradyne, TenCate Advanced Composites, Honeywell, DSM, Pinnacle Armor and a number of other engineering companies develop and manufacture the materials for composite ceramic rifle armor.", "Body armor standards in the Russian Federation, as established in GOST R 50744-95, differ significantly from American standards, on account of a different security situation. The 7.62×25mm Tokarev round is a relatively common threat in Russia and is known to be able to penetrate NIJ IIIA soft armor. Armor protection in the face of the large numbers of these rounds, therefore, necessitates higher standards", ". GOST armor standards are more stringent than those of the NIJ with regards to protection and blunt impact.", "For example, one of the highest protection level, GOST 6A, requires the armor to withstand 3 7.62x54mmR B32 API hits fired from 5.10m away with 16mm of back-face deformation (BFD). NIJ Level IV-rated armor is only required to stop 1 hit of .30-06, or 7.62x63mm, M2AP with 44mm BFD.", "Trauma plates", "Trauma plates, also called trauma pads, are inserts or pads which are placed behind ballistic armour plates/panels and serve to reduce the blunt force trauma absorbed by the body; they do not necessarily have any ballistic protective properties. While an armour system (hard or soft) may stop a projectile from penetrating, the projectile may still cause significant indentation and deformation of the armour, also called backface deformation", ". Trauma plates help protect against damage to the body from this backface deformation. Trauma plates should not be confused with soft armor or with ballistic plates, both of which do inherently provide ballistic protection.", "Explosive protection", "Bomb disposal officers often wear heavy armor designed to protect against most effects of a moderate sized explosion, such as bombs encountered in terror threats. Full head helmet, covering the face and some degree of protection for limbs is mandatory in addition to very strong armor for the torso. An insert to protect the spine is usually applied to the back, in case an explosion throws the wearer", ". Visibility and mobility of the wearer is severely limited, as is the time that can be spent working on the device. Armor designed primarily to counter explosives is often somewhat less effective against bullets than armor designed for that purpose. The sheer mass of most bomb disposal armor usually provides some protection, and bullet-specific armor plates are compatible with some bomb disposal suits. Bomb disposal technicians try to accomplish their task if possible using remote methods (e.g", ". Bomb disposal technicians try to accomplish their task if possible using remote methods (e.g., robots, line and pulleys). Actually laying hands on a bomb is only done in an extremely life-threatening situation, where the hazards to people and critical structures cannot be lessened by using wheeled robots or other techniques.", "It is notable that despite the protection offered, much of it is in fragmentation. According to some sources, overpressure from ordnance beyond the charge of a typical hand grenade can overwhelm a bomb suit.\n\nIn some media, an EOD suit is portrayed as a heavily armoured bulletproof suit capable of ignoring explosions and gunfire; in real life, this is not the case, as much of a bomb suit is made up of only soft armor.\n\nStab and stab-ballistic armor", "Early \"ice pick\" test", "In the mid-1980s the state of California Department of Corrections issued a requirement for a body armor using a commercial ice pick as the test penetrator. The test method attempted to simulate the capacity of a human attacker to deliver impact energy with their upper body. As was later shown by the work of the former British PSDB, this test overstated the capacity of human attackers. The test used a drop mass or sabot that carried the ice pick", ". The test used a drop mass or sabot that carried the ice pick. Using gravitational force, the height of the drop mass above the vest was proportional to the impact energy. This test specified 109 joules (81 ft·lb) of energy and a 7.3 kg (16 lb) drop mass with a drop height of 153 cm (60 in).", "The ice pick has a 4 mm (0.16 in) diameter with a sharp tip with a 5.4 m/s (17 ft/s) terminal velocity in the test. The California standard did not include knife or cutting-edge weapons in the test protocol. The test method used the oil/clay (Roma Plastilena) tissue simulant as a test backing. In this early phase only titanium and steel plate offerings were successful in addressing this requirement", ". Point Blank developed the first ice pick certified offerings for CA Department of Corrections in shaped titanium sheet metal. Vests of this type are still in service in US corrections facilities as of 2008.", "Beginning in the early 1990s, an optional test method was approved by California which permitted the use of 10% ballistic gelatin as a replacement for Roma clay. The transition from hard, dense clay-based Roma to soft low-density gelatin allowed all textile solutions to meet this attack energy requirement. Soon all textile \"ice pick\" vests began to be adopted by California and other US states as a result of this migration in the test methods", ". It is important for users to understand that the smooth, round tip of the ice pick does not cut fiber on impact and this permits the use of textile based vests for this application.", "The earliest of these \"all\" fabric vests designed to address this ice pick test was Warwick Mills's TurtleSkin ultra tightly woven para-aramid fabric with a patent filed in 1993. Shortly after the TurtleSkin work, in 1995 DuPont patented a medium density fabric that was designated as Kevlar Correctional. These textile materials do not have equal performance with cutting-edge threats and these certifications were only with ice pick and were not tested with knives.", "HOSDB-Stab and Slash standards", "Parallel to the US development of \"ice pick\" vests, the British police, PSDB, was working on standards for knife-resistant body armor. Their program adopted a rigorous scientific approach and collected data on human attack capacity. Their ergonomic study suggested three levels of threat: 25, 35 and 45 joules of impact energy. In addition to impact energy attack, velocities were measured and were found to be 10–20 m/s (much faster than the California test)", ". Two commercial knives were selected for use in this PSDB test method. In order to test at a representative velocity, an air cannon method was developed to propel the knife and sabot at the vest target using compressed air. In this first version, the PSDB ’93 test also used oil/clay materials as the tissue simulant backing", ". The introduction of knives which cut fiber and a hard-dense test backing required stab vest manufacturers to use metallic components in their vest designs to address this more rigorous standard. The current standard HOSDB Body Armour Standards for UK Police (2007) Part 3: Knife and Spike Resistance is harmonized with the US NIJ OO15 standard, use a drop test method and use a composite foam backing as a tissue simulant", ". Both the HOSDB and the NIJ test now specify engineered blades, double-edged S1 and single-edge P1 as well as the spike.", "In addition to the stab standards, HOSDB has developed a standard for slash resistance (2006). This standard, like the stab standards, is based on drop testing with a test knife in a mounting of controlled mass. The slash test uses the Stanley Utility knife or box cutter blades. The slash standard tests the cut resistance of the armor panel parallel to the direction of blade travel. The test equipment measures the force at the instant the blade tip produces a sustained slash through the vest", ". The criteria require that slash failure of the armor be greater than 80 newtons of force.", "Combination stab and ballistic vests", "Vests that combined stab and ballistic protection were a significant innovation in the 1990s period of vest development. The starting point for this development were the ballistic-only offerings of that time using NIJ Level 2A, 2, and 3A or HOSDB HG 1 and 2, with compliant ballistic vest products being manufactured with areal densities of between 5.5 and 6 kg/m2 (1.1 and 1.2 lb/ft2 or 18 and 20 oz/ft2)", ".5 and 6 kg/m2 (1.1 and 1.2 lb/ft2 or 18 and 20 oz/ft2). However police forces were evaluating their \"street threats\" and requiring vests with both knife and ballistic protection. This multi-threat approach is common in the United Kingdom and other European countries and is less popular in the USA. Unfortunately for multi-threat users, the metallic array and chainmail systems that were necessary to defeat the test blades offered little ballistic performance", ". The multi-threat vests have areal densities close to the sum of the two solutions separately. These vests have mass values in the 7.5–8.5 kg/m2 (1.55–1.75 lb/ft2) range. Ref (NIJ and HOSDB certification listings). Rolls-Royce Composites -Megit and Highmark produced metallic array systems to address this HOSDB standard. These designs were used extensively by the London Metropolitan Police Service and other agencies in the United Kingdom.", "Standards update US and UK", "As vest manufacturers and the specifying authorities worked with these standards, the UK and US Standards teams began a collaboration on test methods. A number of issues with the first versions of the tests needed to be addressed. The use of commercial knives with inconsistent sharpness and tip shape created problems with test consistency. As a result, two new \"engineered blades\" were designed that could be manufactured to have reproducible penetrating behavior", ". The tissue simulants, Roma clay and gelatin, were either unrepresentative of tissue or not practical for the test operators. A composite-foam and hard-rubber test backing was developed as an alternative to address these issues. The drop test method was selected as the baseline for the updated standard over the air cannon option. The drop mass was reduced from the \"ice pick test\" and a wrist-like soft linkage was engineered into the penetrator-sabot to create a more realistic test impact", ". These closely related standards were first issued in 2003 as HOSDB 2003 and NIJ 0015. (The Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB) was renamed the Home Office Scientific Development Branch in 2004.)", "Stab and spike vests", "These new standards created a focus on Level 1 at , Level 2 at , Level 3 at protection as tested with the new engineered knives defined in these test documents. The lowest level of this requirement at 25 joules was addressed by a series of textile products of both wovens, coated wovens and laminated woven materials. All of these materials were based on Para-aramid fiber. The co-efficient of friction for ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) prevented its use in this application", ". The TurtleSkin DiamondCoat and Twaron SRM products addressed this requirement using a combination of Para-Aramid wovens and bonded ceramic grain. These ceramic-coated products do not have the flexibility and softness of un-coated textile materials.", "For the higher levels of protection L2 and L3, the very aggressive penetration of the small, thin P1 blade has resulted in the continued use of metallic components in stab armor. In Germany, Mehler Vario Systems developed hybrid vests of woven para-aramid and chainmail, and their solution was selected by London's Metropolitan Police Service", ". Another German company BSST, in cooperation with Warwick Mills, has developed a system to meet the ballistic-stab requirement using Dyneema laminate and an advanced metallic-array system, TurtleSkin MFA. This system is currently implemented in the Netherlands. The trend in multi threat armor continues with requirements for needle protection in the Draft ISO prEN ISO 14876 norm", ". In many countries there is also an interest to combine military style explosive fragmentation protection with bullet-ballistics and stab requirements.", "Armour carriers\nIn order for ballistic protection to be wearable, the ballistic panels and/or hard rifle-resistant plates are placed within a carrier. The term \"plate carrier\" is used specifically to refer to armour carriers which can hold ballistic plates. Broadly, there are two major types of carriers: overt carriers, and low-profile carriers which are meant to be concealed:\n\nOvert/Tactical carriers", "Overt/Tactical carriers\n\nOvert/Tactical armour carriers typically include pouches and/or mounting systems, like MOLLE, for carrying gear and are usually designed to provide higher amounts of protection. The Improved Outer Tactical Vest and Soldier Plate Carrier Systems are examples of military carriers design to be used with ballistic plate inserts.", "In addition to load carriage, this type of carrier may include pockets for neck protection, side plates, groin plates, and backside protection. Because this style of carrier is not close fitting, sizing in this system is straightforward for both men and women, making custom fabrication unnecessary.\n\nLow-Profile/Concealable carriers", "Low profile/concealable carriers holds the ballistic panels and/or ballistic plates close to the wearer's body and a uniform shirt may be worn over the carrier. This type of carrier must be designed to conform closely to the officer's body shape. For concealable armor to conform to the body it must be correctly fitted to a particular individual. Many programs specify full custom measurement and manufacturing of armor panels and carriers to ensure good fit and comfortable armor", ". Officers who are either female or significantly overweight have more difficulty in getting accurately measured and having comfortable armor fabricated.", "Vest slips", "A third textile layer is often found between the carrier and the ballistic components. The ballistic panels are covered in a coated pouch or slip. This slip provides the encapsulation of the ballistic materials. Slips are manufactured in two types: heat sealed hermetic slips and simple sewn slips. For some ballistic fibers such as Kevlar the slip is a critical part of the system. The slip prevents moisture from the user's body from saturating the ballistic materials", ". The slip prevents moisture from the user's body from saturating the ballistic materials. This protection from moisture cycling increases the useful life of the armor.", "Research", "Non-standard designs of hard armour", "The vast majority of hard body armor plates, including the U.S. military's Small Arms Protective Insert family, are monolithic; their strike faces consist of a single ceramic tile. Monolithic plates are lighter than their non-monolithic counterparts, but suffer from reduced effectiveness when shot multiple times in a close area (i.e., shots spaced less than two inches/5.1 cm apart). However, several non-monolithic armor systems have emerged, the most well-known being the controversial Dragon Skin system", ". Dragon Skin, composed of dozens of overlapping ceramic scales, promised superior multi-hit performance and flexibility compared to the then-current ESAPI plate; however, it failed to deliver. When the U.S", ". Army tested the system against the same requirements as the ESAPI, Dragon Skin showed major issues with environmental damage; the scales would come apart when subjected to temperatures above 120 °F (49 °C) - not uncommon in Middle Eastern climates - when exposed to diesel vehicle fuel, or after the two four-foot drop tests (after these drops, ESAPI plates are put in an X-ray machine to determine the location of cracks, and then shot directly on said cracks)", ", and then shot directly on said cracks), leaving the plate unable to reach its stated threat level and suffering 13 first- or second-shot complete penetrations by", ".30-06 M2 AP (the ESAPI test threat) out of 48 shots.", "Perhaps less-well known is LIBA (Light Improved Body Armor), manufactured by Royal TenCate, ARES Protection, and Mofet Etzion in the early 2000s. LIBA uses an innovative array of ceramic pellets embedded in a polyethylene backer; although this layout lacks the flexibility of Dragon Skin, it provides impressive multi-hit ability as well as the unique ability to repair the armor by replacing damaged pellets and epoxying them over", ". In addition, there are variants of LIBA with multi-hit capacity against threats analogous to 7.62×51mm NATO M993 AP/WC, a tungsten-cored armor-piercing round. Field tests of LIBA have yielded successful results, with 15 AKM hits producing only minor bruises.", "Progress in material science\nBallistic vests use layers of very strong fibers to \"catch\" and deform a bullet, mushrooming it into a dish shape, and spreading its force over a larger portion of the vest fiber. The vest absorbs the energy from the deforming bullet, bringing it to a stop before it can completely penetrate the textile matrix. Some layers may be penetrated but as the bullet deforms, the energy is absorbed by a larger and larger fiber area.", "In recent years, advances in material science have opened the door to the idea of a literal \"bulletproof vest\" able to stop handgun and rifle bullets with a soft textile vest, without the assistance of additional metal or ceramic plating. However, progress is moving at a slower rate compared to other technical disciplines. The most recent offering from Kevlar, Protera, was released in 1996", ". The most recent offering from Kevlar, Protera, was released in 1996. Current soft body armor can stop most handgun rounds (which has been the case for roughly 15 years ), but armor plates are needed to stop rifle rounds and steel-core handgun rounds such as 7.62×25mm. The para-aramids have not progressed beyond the limit of 23 grams per denier in fiber tenacity.", "Modest ballistic performance improvements have been made by new producers of this fiber type. Much the same can be said for the UHMWPE material; the basic fiber properties have only advanced to the 30–35 g/d range. Improvements in this material have been seen in the development of cross-plied non-woven laminate, e.g. Spectra Shield. The major ballistic performance advance of fiber PBO is known as a \"cautionary tale\" in materials science", ". This fiber permitted the design of handgun soft armor that was 30–50% lower in mass as compared to the aramid and UHMWPE materials. However this higher tenacity was delivered with a well-publicized weakness in environmental durability.", "Akzo-Magellan (now DuPont) teams have been working on fiber called M5 fiber; however, its announced startup of its pilot plant has been delayed more than 2 years. Data suggests if the M5 material can be brought to market, its performance will be roughly equivalent to PBO. In May 2008, the Teijin Aramid group announced a \"super-fibers\" development program. The Teijin emphasis appears to be on computational chemistry to define a solution to high tenacity without environmental weakness.", "The materials science of second generation \"super\" fibers is complex, requires large investments, and represent significant technical challenges. Research aims to develop artificial spider silk which could be super strong, yet light and flexible. Other research has been done to harness nanotechnology to help create super-strong fibers that could be used in future bulletproof vests", ". In 2018, the US military began conducting research into the feasibility of using artificial silk as body armor, which has the advantages of its light weight and its cooling capability.", "Textile wovens and laminates research", "Finer yarns and lighter woven fabrics have been a key factor in improving ballistic results. The cost of ballistic fibers increases dramatically as the yarn size decreases, so it's unclear how long this trend can continue. The current practical limit of fiber size is 200 denier with most wovens limited at the 400 denier level. Three-dimensional weaving with fibers connecting flat wovens together into a 3D system are being considered for both hard and soft ballistics", ". Team Engineering Inc is designing and weaving these multi layer materials. Dyneema DSM has developed higher performance laminates using a new, higher strength fiber designated SB61, and HB51. DSM feels this advanced material provides some improved performance, however the SB61 \"soft ballistic\" version has been recalled. At the Shot Show in 2008, a unique composite of interlocking steel plates and soft UHWMPE plate was exhibited by TurtleSkin", ". In combination with more traditional woven fabrics and laminates a number of research efforts are working with ballistic felts. Tex Tech has been working on these materials. Like the 3D weaving, Tex Tech sees the advantage in the 3-axis fiber orientation.", "Fibers used\nBallistic nylon (until the 1970s) or Kevlar, Twaron or Spectra (a competitor for Kevlar) or polyethylene fiber could be used to manufacture bullet proof vests. The vests of the time were made of ballistic nylon & supplemented by plates of fiber-glass, steel, ceramic, titanium, Doron & composites of ceramic and fiberglass, the last being the most effective.", "Developments in ceramic armor", "Ceramic materials, materials processing and progress in ceramic penetration mechanics are significant areas of academic and industrial activity. This combined field of ceramics armor research is broad and is perhaps summarized best by The American Ceramics Society. ACerS has run an annual armor conference for a number of years and compiled a proceedings 2004–2007. An area of special activity pertaining to vests is the emerging use of small ceramic components", ". An area of special activity pertaining to vests is the emerging use of small ceramic components. Large torso sized ceramic plates are complex to manufacture and are subject to cracking in use. Monolithic plates also have limited multi hit capacity as a result of their large impact fracture zone. These are the motivations for new types of armor plate. These new designs use two- and three-dimensional arrays of ceramic elements that can be rigid, flexible, or semi-flexible", ". Dragon Skin body armor is one of these systems. European developments in spherical and hexagonal arrays have resulted in products that have some flex and multi hit performance. The manufacture of array type systems with flex, consistent ballistic performance at edges of ceramic elements is an active area of research. In addition advanced ceramic processing techniques arrays require adhesive assembly methods. One novel approach is use of hook and loop fasteners to assemble the ceramic arrays.", "Nanomaterials in ballistics", "Currently, there are a number of methods by which nanomaterials are being implemented into body armor production. The first, developed at University of Delaware is based on nanoparticles within the suit that become rigid enough to protect the wearer as soon as a kinetic energy threshold is surpassed. These coatings have been described as shear thickening fluids. These nano-infused fabrics have been licensed by BAE systems, but as of mid-2008, no products have been released based on this technology.", "In 2005 an Israeli company, ApNano, developed a material that was always rigid. It was announced that this nanocomposite based on tungsten disulfide nanotubes was able to withstand shocks generated by a steel projectile traveling at velocities of up to 1.5 km/s. The material was also reportedly able to withstand shock pressures generated by other impacts of up to 250 metric tons-force per square centimeter (24.5 gigapascals; 3,550,000 psi)", ".5 gigapascals; 3,550,000 psi). During the tests, the material proved to be so strong that after the impact the samples remained essentially unmarred. Additionally, a study in France tested the material under isostatic pressure and found it to be stable up to at least 350 tf/cm2 (34 GPa; 5,000,000 psi).", "As of mid-2008, spider silk bulletproof vests and nano-based armors are being developed for potential market release. Both the British and American militaries have expressed interest in a carbon fiber woven from carbon nanotubes that was developed at University of Cambridge and has the potential to be used as body armor. In 2008, large format carbon nanotube sheets began being produced at Nanocomp.", "Graphene composite", "In late 2014, researchers began studying and testing graphene as a material for use in body armor. Graphene is manufactured from carbon and is the thinnest, strongest, and most conductive material on the planet. Taking the form of hexagonally arranged atoms, its tensile strength is known to be 200 times greater than steel, but studies from Rice University have revealed it is also 10 times better than steel at dissipating energy, an ability that had previously not been thoroughly explored", ". To test its properties, the University of Massachusetts stacked together graphene sheets only a single carbon atom thick, creating layers ranging in thickness from 10 nanometers to 100 nanometers from 300 layers. Microscopic spherical silica \"bullets\" were fired at the sheets at speeds of up to 3 km (1.9 mi) per second, almost nine times the speed of sound. Upon impact, the projectiles deformed into a cone shape around the graphene before ultimately breaking through", ". In the three nanoseconds it held together however, the transferred energy traveled through the material at a speed of 22.2 km (13.8 mi) per second, faster than any other known material. If the impact stress can be spread out over a large enough area that the cone moves out at an appreciable velocity compared with the velocity of the projectile, stress will not be localized under where it hit", ". Although a wide impact hole opened up, a composite mixture of graphene and other materials could be made to create a new, revolutionary armor solution.", "Legality\n\nAustralia\nIn Australia, it is illegal to import body armour without prior authorisation from Australian Customs and Border Protection Service. It is also illegal to possess body armour without authorization in South Australia, Victoria, Northern Territory, ACT, Queensland, New South Wales, and Tasmania.\n\nUnited States", "United States\n\nUnited States law restricts possession of body armor for convicted violent felons. Many U.S. states also have penalties for possession or use of body armor by felons. In other states, such as Kentucky, possession is not prohibited, but probation or parole is denied to a person convicted of committing certain violent crimes while wearing body armor and carrying a deadly weapon. Most states do not have restrictions for non-felons.", "Canada\nIn all Canadian provinces except for Alberta, British Columbia and Manitoba, it is legal to wear and to purchase body armour such as ballistic vests. Under the laws of these provinces, it is illegal to possess body armour without a license (unless exempted) issued by the provincial government.\n\nAs of February 2019, Nova Scotia only allows”only those who require such armour due to their employment” to own body armor, such as police and corrections officers, citing the use of body armor by criminals.", "According to the Body Armour Control Act of Alberta which came into force on June 15, 2012, any individual in possession of a valid firearms licence under the Firearms Act of Canada can legally purchase, possess and wear body armour.\n\nHong Kong\nUnder Schedule C (item ML13) of Cap. 60G Import and Export (Strategic Commodities) Regulations, \"armoured or protective equipment, constructions and components\" are not regulated \"when accompanying their user for the user's own personal protection\".\n\nEuropean Union", "European Union\n\nIn the European Union, the import and sale of ballistic vests and body armor is allowed. There is an exception for vests that are developed under strict military specifications and/or for main military usage; shield above the level of protection NIJ 4 are considered by the law as \"armament materials\" and forbidden for civilian use. There are many shops in the EU that sell ballistic vests and body armor, used or new.", "In Italy, the purchase, ownership and wear of ballistic vests and body armor is not subject to any restriction, except for those ballistic protections that are developed under strict military specifications and/or for main military usage, thus considered by the law as \"armament materials\" and forbidden to civilians", ". Furthermore, a number of laws and court rulings during the years have rehearsed the concept of a ballistic vest being mandatory to wear for those individuals who work in the private security sector.", "In the Netherlands the civilian ownership of body armour is subject to the European Union regulations. Body armour in various ballistic grades is sold by a range of different vendors, mainly aimed at providing to security guards and VIP's. The use of body armour while committing a crime is not an additional offence in itself, but may be interpreted as so under different laws such as resisting arrest.\n\nSee also\n Brigandine\n Buff coat\n Flak jacket\n Hauberk\n Jack of plate\n Mail (armour)\n Terminal ballistics", "References\n\nExternal links\n\n NIJ Ballistic Resistance of Body Armor\n Body Armor News and Knowledge Website\n NIJ body armor standard overview\n\nBallistics\nBody armor\nLaw enforcement uniforms\nRiot control weapons\nWeapons countermeasures" ]

[ "\"Days Gone Bye\", titled \"Pilot\" on DVD and Blu-Ray releases, is the pilot episode of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on October 31, 2010. The episode's teleplay was written and directed by Frank Darabont, the series creator.", "Robert Kirkman, the creator of the eponymous series of comic books, considered the idea of creating a television show based on the comic series, but did not move forward. Frank Darabont expressed interest in developing the series for television. In January 2010, AMC formally announced that it had ordered a pilot for a possible series adapted from The Walking Dead comic book", ". In the announcement, the executives stated that Darabont would serve as writer, director, and an executive producer alongside Gale Anne Hurd.", "Principal photography for the pilot commenced in May 2010 in Atlanta, Georgia. It was wholly shot on 16 mm film, and was edited using computer-generated imagery. \"Days Gone Bye\" was heavily promoted in the months preceding its release; as part of an expansive advertising campaign, zombie invasion events were coordinated in selected locations including New York City, Washington, D.C., London, and Madrid. The episode premiered in 120 countries worldwide.", "\"Days Gone Bye\" was critically well received, praising Andrew Lincoln's performance and Darabont's direction. Several critics compared it to Lost. In the United States, the series premiere achieved a viewership of 5.35 million, making it the most-watched series premiere in AMC history. The episode garnered a Nielsen rating of 2.7 in the 18–49 demographic, translating to 3.6 million viewers.", "Plot \nThe episode opens in medias res as former Sheriff's Deputy Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) scavenges for gas and supplies at an abandoned convenience store on a deserted highway in rural Georgia. He spots a little girl (Addy Miller), but she turns out to be a zombie. When she shambles towards him, Rick shoots her in the head.", "Returning to several weeks prior, Rick is seriously injured while chasing down criminals alongside his partner and childhood friend Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal); he is shot in the shoulder and goes into a coma. Hospitalized after the injury, Rick experiences a series of dreamlike encounters with friends and family.", "When he regains consciousness, he finds the hospital abandoned and horrifically ransacked: the walls are sprayed with blood, destroyed equipment is everywhere, and dead bodies litter the hallway. He walks past a set of double doors secured with heavy chains and spray-painted with the ominous warning \"Don't Open Dead Inside\". From the far side of the secured doors, Rick hears growling while an unknown menace pushes against the locked doors", ". Outside, he finds scores of dead bodies, some covered in makeshift body bags, others strewn about randomly. As he makes his way home, he sees a zombified woman dragging her legless body towards him. He ignores her and returns home, but his family has fled.", "Rick encounters Morgan Jones (Lennie James) and his son Duane (Adrian Kali Turner), and they explain the zombie apocalypse that occurred while Rick was in a coma. Morgan warns that the only way to stop the zombies is to destroy the brain, and cautions that the zombies are attracted to noise. Rick decides to head to Atlanta where a refugee camp is rumored to exist, though Morgan would rather stay behind", ". Rick, Morgan, and Duane go to the Sheriff's Department headquarters where Rick was assigned and take weapons, radios, ammunition and a patrol car. While there, Rick encounters a zombified former colleague whom he shoots in the head. Rick splits the stash of weapons and supplies from the police station with Morgan and promises to stay in touch with a walkie-talkie", ". Morgan and Duane return to their home where Morgan, armed with a sniper rifle and perched in a second-story window, shoots at the zombies wandering in the street below. While Duane sits nervously downstairs, unsure why Morgan is shooting out the window, it becomes clear that Morgan is trying to attract his zombified wife. When she appears, Morgan gets her head in sight but is unable to shoot her.", "On his way out of town, Rick stops by the legless zombie. He apologizes for what had happened to her then shoots her. Continuing toward Atlanta in the police car, Rick radios for help on an emergency channel; his signal is picked up at the survivors' camp where Shane, Rick's wife Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies), and their son Carl (Chandler Riggs) are safe. Unaware that it is Rick on the radio, the survivors lose the signal and can't warn him of the dangers in Atlanta", ". Shane and Lori kiss, but are interrupted by Carl. Later, Rick abandons his car when it runs out of gas, then finds a nearby farmhouse and its dead owners. He takes their horse and continues toward Atlanta on horseback. In the seemingly empty city, Rick follows a helicopter flying overhead right into a horde of zombies", ". They attack, killing his horse and forcing him to drop his bag of weapons and crawl under a tank, and as they follow him under it Rick contemplates suicide before noticing a trapdoor in the bottom of the vehicle. After he shoots a walker inside, he hears a voice from the tank's radio sarcastically ask if he is comfortable, before the scene exits with a top-down view of Atlanta overrun by walkers.", "Production", "Conception", "Robert Kirkman claimed that he had considered the idea of a television series, but never actively pursued it. When Frank Darabont became interested, Kirkman called it \"extremely flattering\" and went on to say that \"he definitely cares about the original source material, and you can tell that in the way he's adapting it", ".\" In his interview, Kirkman exclaimed that it was \"an extreme validation of the work\", and continued by expressing that \"never in a million years could [he] have thought that if Walking Dead were to ever be adapted that everything would be going this well.\"", "The Walking Dead institutes elements from George A. Romero's horror film Night of the Living Dead (1968). Darabont admitted to becoming a fan of the film at age fourteen. He insisted that the film has a \"weird vibe\", comparing it to that of pornography. He continued: \"It had this marvelously attractive, disreputable draw [...] I loved it immediately.\" Darabont recalled walking into a comic book store in Burbank, California and seeing The Walking Dead on the shelf in 2005.", "Frank Darabont described the process of developing the series and setting it up at a network as \"four years of frustration\". He first initiated a deal with NBC to own copyrights to The Walking Dead, but was later declined. \"They were very excited about the idea of doing a zombie show until I handed them a zombie script where zombies were actually doing zombie shit,\" he stated. Darabont credited Gale Anne Hurd with finally getting the series on AMC", ". Darabont credited Gale Anne Hurd with finally getting the series on AMC. \"Gale was tremendously instrumental in jump-starting it at a point where it felt like it was languishing, \"he asserted. \"I'd gotten turned down enough times, which is no reflection on the material, but no matter what you're trying to sell in Hollywood, you're Willy Loman and it's Death of a Salesman. You're out there trying to sell shit that nobody wants. Even if it's good shit.\"", "Hurd recalled that she had heard of the comic before, and upon reading it, felt that it would be great for film. She stated: \"When I first read the book, I thought, 'This would be a great film,' and boy was I wrong. It's a much better TV series. Fast forward, I knew that Frank had initially developed it for NBC, which to me seemed like an odd pairing for this. Then I heard it wasn't going forward at NBC so I talked to Frank", ". Then I heard it wasn't going forward at NBC so I talked to Frank.\" On January 20, 2010, AMC officially announced that it had ordered a pilot with Darabont and Hurd acting as executive producers; the former wrote the script and directed the episode. The entire series was pre-ordered based on the strength of the source material, the television scripts, and Darabont's involvement.", "Writing", "Frank Darabont wrote a 60-page pilot script for \"Days Gone Bye\". His initial script for the episode was split in half and embellished. Darabont explained that he did this to \"slow the narrative down and dig into the characters more deeply, so it's not just plot-driven, event-driven stuff. You really want to drag these characters into the equation.\" Darabont felt that instituting visual maneuvers would increase the surreal atmosphere of a scene", ".\" Darabont felt that instituting visual maneuvers would increase the surreal atmosphere of a scene. Upon reading the script, Robert Kirkman thought that producers were consistent with his comic, adding that they could possibly improve his initial work. \"Reading that pilot was just a revelation. It's extremely faithful. There are things that are so much like the comic, I can't really remember the nuance of what's different and what's not from the comic", ". He's definitely being more faithful than I expected, and everything that he's changing is brilliant. I couldn't be happier. I think the fans of the book are going to just love it.\" The episode shares its name with volume one of the comic book series.", "The principal photography produced a high demand for extras as zombies. In an interview with MTV News, special effects artist Greg Nicotero stated that while anyone was welcome to audition, the producers of the show were looking specifically for people who possessed exceptional height and thin features. Casting for extras took approximately three days. Once accepted, the extras would be sent to \"zombie school\" for training and preparing for filming", ". Once accepted, the extras would be sent to \"zombie school\" for training and preparing for filming. Nicotero stated that \"it was interesting because I initially thought my experience with zombie movies is you just let them do whatever they want to do. George [Romero] always said, 'You show 50 people one movement, then you have 50 people doing all the same thing", ".' So we sort of just lined them up and said, 'Let's see what your zombie walk would look like,' and then they would do it and we would say, 'Try this or try that.' You know, sort of fine tuning everybody.\" Alongside with Frank Darabont, Nicotero had previously collaborated with Romero on several occasions, and looked at the structure of the zombies in his films for inspiration. \"It's not that I'm against [fast zombies]. It's just not what I grew up with", ". \"It's not that I'm against [fast zombies]. It's just not what I grew up with. It's interesting, too, because a couple takes we did, where a couple of the zombies kind of broke into a run, and after one take Frank's like, 'Did they run too fast? They shouldn't be running. Slow them down.' This is trying to be creepy and moody and, you know, you're building up all this kind of scary tension.\"", "In April 2010, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Jon Bernthal and Andrew Lincoln were chosen by producers for the main cast of the series. Bernthal was to portray Shane Walsh, while Lincoln provided the role of Rick Grimes, the central character of The Walking Dead. While Gale Anne Hurd didn't expect to cast Lincoln, Robert Kirkman was ecstatic with his acting, evaluating him as an \"amazing find\"", ". In his interview with Dread Central, Kirkman added that \"writing Rick Grimes month after month in the comic series, I had no idea he was an actual living, breathing human being, and yet, here he is. I couldn't be more thrilled with how this show is coming together.\" Although he was initially shocked upon hearing of The Walking Dead, Lincoln thought the episode's script was well written. \"I read it and thought it was well written, and I put myself on tape just for one scene", ". \"I read it and thought it was well written, and I put myself on tape just for one scene. I didn't know who was involved at this point.\" The succeeding day, his agent called him about the development of the pilot. Lincoln described the moment as \"kind of like a dream list\". He later communicated with Darabont via Skype; \"We spoke for about 40 minutes about his ideas for the project, about what I liked about Episode One and then he asked would I fly over to come and test", ".\" Lincoln flew to Darabont's home, where he viewed \"Days Gone Bye\" in his garage. He opined that was \"brilliant\" and \"very intimate\".", "Bernthal was extremely comfortable with his character on set. \"The second he opened his mouth and started reading the scene, I knew it was him,\" he said. \"There was no question. I saw Frank and I knew it. He's the guy. He's a wonderful actor, and he's going to kill it in this role.\" Bernthal admitted that he had no prior knowledge of The Walking Dead. He reminisced that he reacted so \"organically\" to the script that he \"didn't want to be colored by anything else. When I did read the comic, I was shocked", ". When I did read the comic, I was shocked. Look, I'm not going to sit here and regret. One of the great things about doing TV versus film is to be surprised yourself, to not let where you're going color where you are.\" The pilot episode's script was amongst several other scripts for proposed television pilots that Bernthal skimmed through; He felt that this script overshadowed the others. \"[It was] pilot season, and I read everything that was out there. I still remember the day that I got this script", ". I still remember the day that I got this script. I told my agent that I'd be thrilled to be an extra in this, it's so good. It just blew the rest of them right out of the water.\"", "Shortly after the announcement, Sarah Wayne Callies was approached to play the role of Rick's wife Lori Grimes, the lead female. Other actors garnering roles in the main cast include Steven Yeun, Chandler Riggs, and Jeffrey DeMunn. \"Days Gone Bye\" featured guest appearances from actors and actresses such as Emma Bell (Amy), Andrea's younger sister. Bell would later become part of the main cast as a recurring character. Lennie James played Morgan Jones and Jim Coleman guest performed Lam Kendal", ". Lennie James played Morgan Jones and Jim Coleman guest performed Lam Kendal. Linds Edwards played Leon Bassett, Rick's co-worker. Keisha Tillis played Jenny Jones, Morgan's wife; and Adrian Kali Turner played Duane Jones, Jenny's son. Melissa Cowan played the bicycle girl walker; Sam Witwer, who had collaborated with Darabont in The Mist (2007), appeared as a dying soldier; Addy Miller played the teddy bear girl walker; and Joe Giles played an Atlanta walker who followed Rick", ". Frances Cobb played a camp survivor.", "Filming", "The producers chose to film in Atlanta because of its proximity to Cynthiana, Kentucky, Robert Kirkman's hometown and the setting of his comic's first issue. \"At the beginning they talk about how some of the people in neighboring states would have gone to larger cities so they could fortify them and protect the population.\" Kirkman had considered other cities, particularly New York City, Miami, and Chicago. Gale Anne Hurd had previously filmed in the city for Lifetime", ". Gale Anne Hurd had previously filmed in the city for Lifetime. Frank Darabont felt that Atlanta offered the essentials; \"Atlanta and Georgia all-told is proving to be brilliant for us in terms of what it has to offer, in terms of what the story needed, in terms of the variety of locations—it really is a fantastic place to shoot.\" Prior to filming, Kirkman toured with Darabont around the central business district", ".\" Prior to filming, Kirkman toured with Darabont around the central business district. He stated, \"I tagged along on a location-scouting expedition, and that was pretty fun—watching Frank Darabont walking through the streets of Atlanta as if he owned the entire city, daring cars to hit him. That was a lot of fun.\" Darabont ventured onto the middle of a street to grasp a perfect shot, oblivious to oncoming traffic.", "Atlanta's climate was cited as a potential issue that would hinder production. Darabont recalled that he found it difficult to adjust to the sweltering heat, adding that he \"never had clothes stick to me like this in my life\". Andrew Lincoln retorted that it was \"becoming a running joke that people arrive on set ready for the day and then they are battered and beaten up by the weather.\" Despite such assertions, he opined that it added to the episode's overall emotion", ".\" Despite such assertions, he opined that it added to the episode's overall emotion. \"There's a lot of hard-earned sweat on camera. It's not comfortable and it's not pleasant, but it's as you would imagine it would be trying to survive in this world.\"", "Principal photography took place in the city on May 15, 2010, after AMC had officially ordered the production of six episodes for the series. Filming took place over two months, ending in early July. Locations were set up in various spots within the central business district, particularly in the Fairlie–Poplar District. The season premiere was shot completely in anamorphic format on 16 mm film", ". The season premiere was shot completely in anamorphic format on 16 mm film. David Tattersall was the director of photography, while production design was headed by Greg Melton and Alex Hajdu. The special effects team included veteran makeup designer Greg Nicotero, special effects coordinator Darrell Pritchett, and visual effects supervisors Sam Nicholson and Jason Sperling.", "Computer-generated imagery was used in much of \"Days Gone Bye\", particularly when Rick encounters a legless walker. \"The woman was wearing basically blue stockings and then everything was cleaned out. There is an alarming amount of CGI in the pilot episode and in the whole show, and you would never know it,\" said Robert Kirkman. Kirkman felt that Stargate Studios, which was chosen by producers to edit the pilot episode, did a splendid job", ". He stated: \"There's a shot where Rick is riding off on the horse and his hat actually blew off, and they really liked that shot, and so they had Stargate go in and digitally put the hat back on his head.\"", "Marketing", "The show's website released a motion comic based on the first issue of the original comic and voiced by Phil LaMarr. The site also posted a making-of documentary, and other behind-the-scenes videos and interviews. In the documentary, Kirkman as well as artist Charlie Adlard expressed pleasure that the show is faithful to the comic and remark on the similarities between the actors and the comic's original character drawings", ". Several scenes were screened July 23, 2010 as part of the San Diego Comic-Con in 2010. Hurd asserted that \"[they] really are doing six one-hour movies\", and Frank Darabont insisted that the series would closely reflect the development in the comics. \"The path is a very strong template. But we're going to take every interesting detour we feel like taking. As long as were staying on the path of what Robert has done, I don't see any reason not to", ". As long as were staying on the path of what Robert has done, I don't see any reason not to. If they have patience we'll eventually catch up to what Robert is doing.\"", "The Walking Dead debuted during the same week in 120 countries. \"Days Gone Bye\" premiered in Hong Kong on TVB Pearl on August 30, 2011, while it expanded in international markets during the first week of November. Two weeks prior to its official US premiere, the contents of the episode leaked online. As part of an expansive campaign to advertise and heighten anticipation for the premiere, international broadcasting affiliates of AMC and Fox coordinated a worldwide zombie invasion event days prior to the U", ".S. premiere. The event occurred in twenty six cities worldwide, in select locations including the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City, Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., Palace of Westminster in London, Bosphorus Bridge in Istanbul, Acropolis of Athens in Athens, and the Museo del Prado in Madrid. The campaign events commenced in Hong Kong and Taipei, and culminated in Los Angeles.", "Themes \n\nRomance is an underlying theme in \"Days Gone Bye\". After returning from the hospital, Rick Grimes unsuccessfully looks for signs of his family. Determined to find them, he travels to Atlanta, which is imagined to be a haven because of its proximity to the CDC. Kirkman said of the developing storyline:", "Well, I didn’t know how long the comic book series was going to last. I hoped that it would become a success and survive for years and years. But at that time in my career, it was very early, I had had a lot of books canceled, just because of poor sales. So early on in the book I would move past storylines very quickly. I set up this love triangle and I resolved that story and moved along within the first [few] issues. But there's a lot of story potential to mine there", ". But there's a lot of story potential to mine there. One of the things that the TV show is able to do is to look at the comic book series with hindsight and go, 'This would probably be something that we could explore more.' And that's what we're going to be doing. So we'll be seeing a lot more of the Lori-Shane-Rick love triangle.", "The scene in which Grimes regains consciousness and investigates his situation is reminiscent of the British horror films The Day of the Triffids (1962) and 28 Days Later (2002). Kirkman insisted that the similarities especially with 28 Days Later was coincidental. \"I saw 28 Days Later shortly before the first issue of Walking Dead was released,\" he stated. \"That first issue came out in October of 2003 and 28 Days Later was released in the States in June of 2003", ". So we were working on our second issue by the time I saw it. It was going to be a matter of somehow trying to restage the entire first issue, because it was a very similar coma opening. I made a decision—which I pretty much regret at this point—I said, 'You know what? It's so different [from that point on], I will probably never hear anything about this.' And I was wrong.\"", "Reception", "Ratings", "The episode attained 5.35 million viewers, making it the most-viewed series premiere in AMC history. It garnered a 2.7 rating in the 18–49 demographic, translating to 3.6 million viewers according to Nielsen ratings. It subsequently attained the highest rating in the 18–49 demographic among cable television programs that year. Following two encore presentations, total viewership reached 8.1 million", ". Following two encore presentations, total viewership reached 8.1 million. \"Days Gone Bye\" became the highest-rated cable telecast ever, hitting significantly higher numbers than predecessors Swamp People and Ice Road Truckers on the History Channel.", "It obtained 2.1 million viewers from the 18–34 demographic and 3.1 million from the 25–54 demographic. It became the highest-rated non-sport cable program of the week, as well as the third highest-rated overall program of the week dated October 30; \"Days Gone Bye\" was outperformed by a game between the Miami Heat and the Boston Celtics as part of the 2010–11 NBA season and a match between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys as part of the 2010 NFL season", ". It is the third most-watched installment of The Walking Dead first season, scoring less than \"Wildfire\" (5.56 million), and \"TS-19\" (5.97 million). \"Days Gone Bye\" garnered the highest total viewership for a season premiere out of any cable program up until the airing of its successor, \"What Lies Ahead\", which attracted 7.3 million viewers.", "\"Days Gone Bye\" achieved similar success in European markets. It debuted in 120 countries in 33 languages. In the United Kingdom, the episode acquired 579,000 viewers, with an estimated 315,000 from the 18–49 demographic. It became the most-watched FX telecast of the week dated November 5. The terrestrial premiere (including Ireland and Scotland) aired on Channel 5 on April 10, 2011, garnering 1.5 million viewers", ".5 million viewers. In Italy, \"Days Gone Bye\" became the highest-rated telecast of the night on pay television, delivering 360,000 spectators. In Spain, the pilot episode attained a 10.2% share in the television market amongst pay television programs, ultimately obtaining 105,000 viewers. It became the highest-rated series premiere on Fox that year.", "The episode performed strongly in Asian markets. In South Korea, \"Days Gone Bye\" secured 57,000 spectators, subsequently becoming the highest-rated program on Fox that year. In Southeast Asia, total viewership hit 380,000, beating out all Western television programs. \"Days Gone Bye\" saw its strongest figures in Singapore and the Philippines, where its ratings exceeded the time slot average by 425% and 1,700%, respectively.", "\"Days Gone Bye\" achieved substantial ratings in the 18–49 demographic in several Latin American countries. In Argentina, the pilot episode attained a 3.5 rating in the 18–49 demographic, thereby outperforming the time slot average by 341% and becoming the highest-rated program in its time slot on pay television. It acquired a 2.1 rating in Colombia and Peru, where it exceeded time slot averages by 176% and 970%, respectively", ".1 rating in Colombia and Peru, where it exceeded time slot averages by 176% and 970%, respectively. It became the highest-rated program in its time slot on pay television in both countries. \"Days Gone Bye\" garnered a 1.2 rating in the 18–49 demographic in Venezuela, becoming the highest-rated television program of the day on pay television.", "Reaction", "Charlie Collier, the president of AMC, stated that it was \"a good day to be dead. We are so proud of this series, its depth of storytelling and the remarkable talent attached. As the network dedicated to bringing viewers the best stories on television, we are so pleased to have the opportunity with The Walking Dead to raise the bar within this popular genre and continue our commitment to being the home of premium television on basic cable", ".\" Senior Vice President Joel Stillerman ascribed that much of its success came from the storytelling presented in the episode; \"The Walking Dead is that rare piece of programming that works on so many levels. It is legitimately great storytelling that is not only highly entertaining, but incredibly thought provoking as well. People who are familiar with the comic books know what's coming, but suffice it to say, this is only the beginning of a long, intense, and powerful ride. Long live The Walking Dead.\"", "Critical response", "{{quote box |quoted=true |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |salign=center |width=33% |align=right |quote=And there's no underplaying the role of AMC, too, which is creating a distinctive brand out of very different series such as Mad Men, Breaking Bad, Rubicon, and now The Walking Dead. AMC makes sure that all of its shows breathe and move at a deliberate and challenging pace that is anathema to the networks. Also, AMC seems to require the kind of arresting visuals most often associated with the big screen", ". Also, AMC seems to require the kind of arresting visuals most often associated with the big screen.|source='Matthew Gilbert The Boston Globe'}}", "\"Days Gone Bye\" received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 100% with an average rating of 8.08 out of 10, based on 12 reviews. The site's consensus reads: The Walking Deads debut delivers intense horror set apart by its focus on tragedy and the human condition—not to mention awesome zombie kills.", "Sebastian Liver of Der Tagesspiegel insisted that the episode was setting new standards, and elaborated that it illuminates even during its timid moments. Mike Ryan of Vanity Fair reflected parallel sentiments, calling it the \"best new television show of the year.\" Ryan felt that the series would broaden the audience of the horror genre, as well as attract new fans. \"Finally, a horror show on television for people who hate horror", ". \"Finally, a horror show on television for people who hate horror. It's not that The Walking Dead isn't scary or doesn't contain gratuitous amounts of gore [...] but, where other horror projects opt for camp, The Walking Dead grounds itself in reality.\" Writing for The Atlantic, Scott Meslow affirmed that The Walking Dead was \"as dark, intelligent, and uncompromising as any of AMC's other dramas.\"St", ".\"St. Louis Post-Dispatch Gail Pennington appraised \"Days Gone Bye\" as \"genuinely terrifying\", adding that despite being too gruesome for her tastes, it was \"too engrossing not to watch.\" Pennington commended the character development in the episode, stating that Frank Darabont \"finds time for the human tragedy of the situation", ".\" In an A− grade review, Boston Herald journalist Mark Perigard said that the pilot episode was a \"suspenseful thriller\", while Robert Bianco of USA Today avouched that it was \"one killer of a zombie show.\" The Wall Street Journal writer Nancy deWolf Smith felt that \"Days Gone Bye\" contained a cinematic quality to it; \"The pilot episode [is] so good that it has hooked even a zombie hater like me", ".\" Steve West of CinemaBlend praised the episode, calling it \"the best pilot since Losts introduction\" and \"a brilliant examination of what makes us human.\" Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club gave the episode an 'A−' grade, and described it as a \"stunning debut\".", "Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said that the installment was \"fully dynamic and engaging\". \"The Walking Dead is a promising human story built over a sea of grunting corpses. It's a scare-fest at points [...] and it's definitely extremely bloody, as zombie guts splatter all over the place like chunky borscht. The 90-minute premiere is a gory Halloween horror event, for sure", ". The 90-minute premiere is a gory Halloween horror event, for sure.\" Liz Kelly and Jen Chaney of The Washington Post reacted positively to the series premiere, deeming it as a \"chilling show\", and exclaiming that it had a \"very real sense that the world can go completely mad, and stay that way for good.\" Kris King of Starpulse said that it was \"a welcome reprieve from the camp-laden world of zombie culture.\" Josh Jackson of Paste gave the episode an 8.8 out of 10", ".\" Josh Jackson of Paste gave the episode an 8.8 out of 10. Jackson praised the final moments of the episode, describing it as \"epic\". IGN's Eric Goldman issued \"Days Gone Bye\" a nine out of ten, signifying an \"amazing\" rating. Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly evaluated the pilot episode as intense, and felt that it delivered above expectations. He added that it was an \"instant classic\". Fellow journalist Dan Snierson agreed with Jensen's opinion, complimenting the show for its unpredictability.", "James Poniewozik of Time reacted positively to the episode, exclaiming that it \"paints a thoroughly convincing postapocalyptic world, both visually and emotionally.\" Variety Brian Lowry avouched that \"Days Gone Bye\" was \"surprisingly fresh\", despite having initial thoughts of a stale premise. He wrote: \"The Walking Dead draws the audience in almost instantly with its cinematic 90-minute pilot, then incorporates tasty soap-like elements meant to animate the ensuing episodes", ". Although we've seen no shortage of zombies and post-apocalyptic stories, producer-writer-director Frank Darabont has deftly tackled the seemingly perilous task of adapting a comic book about zombies into a viable episodic series.\" In a three out of four star review, Linda Stasi of New York Post summarized, \"The zombies are truly scary and disgusting. The survivors are terrific characters, and the gore is enough for any lunatic to love.\"", "Critics were polarized over Andrew Lincoln's performance. Despite citing that his accent was \"dodgy\", Pierce lauded Lincoln's acting. \"his body language and expression here is totally different now than when we saw him before,\" he opined. \"He's a fast learner.\" Gilbert referred to his accent as \"spotty\", while Goldman professed that Lincoln fit into character very well; \"For much of the pilot, he's on his own and exudes a lot of believable, shocked emotion, as Rick tries to process what he is seeing", ". Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter felt that Lincoln's performance was one of the episode's drawbacks. He wrote: \"One drawback in [The Walking Dead''] is that Lincoln plays his emotion a little too close to his deputy's badge. We're told – by him – that all he wants to do is find his wife and kid. His belief that they still are alive is the emotional drive of the story, but there's not enough deep pain that seeps up to coat the dialogue Lincoln delivers.\"", "Accolades", "At the 63rd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, \"Days Gone Bye\" received nominations for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series; and won Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie, or Special", ". The episode was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Sound Effects and Foley for Episodic Long Form Broadcast Media and Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Dialogue and ADR for Episodic Long Form Broadcast Media at the 2011 Golden Reel Awards. Its editor Hunter M", ". Its editor Hunter M. Via won the American Cinema Editors Award for Best Edited One Hour Series for Commercial Television, while its director Frank Darabont was nominated for Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series.", "Legacy", "For the show's 100th episode, \"Mercy\", which aired on October 22, 2017, executive producers Greg Nicotero and Scott M. Gimple wanted to create callbacks to this episode. Specifically, the episode included a near shot-for-shot remake of Rick Grimes searching for supplies among abandoned cars, though in this case, with Carl in his shoes. For this, they recast Addy Miller, now a teenager, as a walker that threatens Rick and Carl", ". For this, they recast Addy Miller, now a teenager, as a walker that threatens Rick and Carl. They also recast Joe Giles, who plays one of the walkers that followed Rick off the bus in Atlanta, as a walker in \"Mercy\". Additional scenes from \"Mercy\", apparently set in the future, were done to mirror the shots of Rick waking up from his coma in the hospital.", "References\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links \n\n\"Days Gone Bye\" at AMC\n\n2010 American television episodes\nAmerican television series premieres\nTelevision episodes written by Frank Darabont\nThe Walking Dead (season 1) episodes" ]

[ "The Second Bulgarian Empire (; ) was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1396. A successor to the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Tsars Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II before gradually being conquered by the Ottomans in the late 14th century.", "Until 1256, the Second Bulgarian Empire was the dominant power in the Balkans, defeating the Byzantine Empire in several major battles. In 1205, Emperor Kaloyan defeated the newly established Latin Empire in the Battle of Adrianople. His nephew Ivan Asen II defeated the Despotate of Epiros and made Bulgaria a regional power again. During his reign, Bulgaria spread from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and the economy flourished", ". During his reign, Bulgaria spread from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and the economy flourished. In the late 13th century, however, the Empire declined under constant invasions by Mongols, Byzantines, Hungarians, and Serbs, as well as internal unrest and revolts. The 14th century saw a temporary recovery and stability, but also the peak of Balkan feudalism as central authorities gradually lost power in many regions. Bulgaria was divided into three parts on the eve of the Ottoman invasion.", "Despite strong Byzantine influence, Bulgarian artists and architects created their own distinctive style. In the 14th century, during the period known as the Second Golden Age of Bulgarian culture, literature, art and architecture flourished. The capital city Tarnovo, which was considered a \"New Constantinople\", became the country's main cultural hub and the centre of the Eastern Orthodox world for contemporary Bulgarians", ". After the Ottoman conquest, many Bulgarian clerics and scholars emigrated to Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Russian principalities, where they introduced Bulgarian culture, books, and hesychastic ideas.", "Nomenclature\n\nThe name most frequently used for the empire by contemporaries was Bulgaria, as the state called itself. During Kaloyan's reign, the state was sometimes known as being of both Bulgarians and Vlachs. Pope Innocent III and other foreigners such as the Latin Emperor Henry mentioned the state as Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Empire in official letters.", "In modern historiography, the state is called the Second Bulgarian Empire, Second Bulgarian Tsardom, or the Second Bulgarian Kingdom to distinguish it from the First Bulgarian Empire. An alternative name used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period is the Empire of Vlachs and Bulgarians; variant names include the Vlach–Bulgarian Empire, the Bulgarian–Wallachian Empire, or the Romanian–Bulgarian Empire; the latter name was used exclusively in Romanian historiography.", "However, Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used only the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria and gave the Arabic coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Walachia was named \"al-Awalak\" and the dwellers \"ulaqut\" or \"ulagh\".\n\nBackground", "In 1018, when the Byzantine emperor Basil II ( 976–1025) conquered the First Bulgarian Empire, he ruled it cautiously. The existing tax system, laws, and the power of low-ranking nobility remained unchanged until his death in 1025. The autocephalous Bulgarian Patriarchate was subordinated to the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople and downgraded to an archbishopric centred in Ohrid, while retaining its autonomy and dioceses", ". Basil appointed the Bulgarian John I Debranin as its first archbishop, but his successors were Byzantines. The Bulgarian aristocracy and tsar's relatives were given various Byzantine titles and transferred to the Asian parts of the Empire. Despite hardships, the Bulgarian language, literature, and culture survived; surviving period texts refer to and idealize the Bulgarian Empire. Most of the newly conquered territories were included in the themes Bulgaria, Sirmium, and Paristrion.", "As the Byzantine Empire declined under Basil's successors, invasions of Pechenegs and rising taxes contributed to increasing discontent, which resulted in several major uprisings in 1040–41, the 1070s, and the 1080s. The initial centre of the resistance was the theme of Bulgaria, in what is now Macedonia, where the massive Uprising of Peter Delyan (1040–41) and the Uprising of Georgi Voiteh (1072) took place. Both were quelled with great difficulty by Byzantine authorities", ". Both were quelled with great difficulty by Byzantine authorities. These were followed by rebellions in Paristrion and Thrace. During the Komnenian Restoration and the temporary stabilisation of the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 12th century, the Bulgarians were pacified and no major rebellions took place until later in the century.", "History\n\nRebellion", "The disastrous rule of the last Komnenian emperor Andronikos I (r. 1183–85) worsened the situation of the Bulgarian peasantry and nobility. The first act of his successor Isaac II Angelos was to impose an extra tax to finance his wedding. In 1185, two aristocrat brothers from Tarnovo, Theodore and Asen, asked the emperor to enlist them into the army and grant them land, but Isaac II declined and slapped Asen across the face", ". Upon their return to Tarnovo, the brothers commissioned the construction of a church dedicated to Saint Demetrius of Salonica. They showed the populace a celebrated icon of the saint, who they claimed had left Thessalonica to support the Bulgarian cause and called for a rebellion. That act had the desired effect on the religious population, who enthusiastically engaged in a rebellion against the Byzantines", ". Theodore, the elder brother, was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter IV, after the sainted Peter I (r.927–969). Almost all of Bulgaria to the north of the Balkan Mountains—the region known as Moesia—immediately joined the rebels, who also secured the assistance of the Cumans, a Turkic tribe inhabiting lands north of the Danube river. The Cumans soon became an important part of the Bulgarian army, playing a major role in the successes that followed", ". As soon as the rebellion broke out, Peter IV attempted to seize the old capital of Preslav but failed; he declared Tarnovo the capital of Bulgaria.", "From Moesia, the Bulgarians launched attacks in northern Thrace while the Byzantine army was fighting with the Normans, who had attacked Byzantine possessions in the Western Balkans and sacked Thessalonica, the Empire's second largest city. The Byzantines reacted in mid-1186, when Isaac II organized a campaign to crush the rebellion before it spread further. The Bulgarians had secured the passes but the Byzantine army found its way across the mountains due to a solar eclipse", ". Once the Byzantines reached the plains, the rebels did not risk a confrontation with the larger, better-organized force. Peter IV pretended he was willing to submit, while Asen travelled to the north of the Danube to raise an army. Contented, the Byzantine emperor burned the Bulgarians' crops and returned to Constantinople. Soon after, Asen crossed back over the Danube with Cuman reinforcements, declaring he would continue the struggle until all Bulgarian lands were liberated", ". A new Byzantine army was assembled under the command of the emperor's uncle John Doukas Angelos, but as Isaac II feared he would be overthrown, Doukas was replaced by John Kantakouzenos, a blind man ineligible for the throne. The Bulgarians attacked Kantakouzenos' camp during the night, killing a large number of soldiers. In mid-1186, another army under the general Alexios Branas was sent in", ". In mid-1186, another army under the general Alexios Branas was sent in. However, instead of fighting the rebels, Branas turned to Constantinople to claim the throne for himself; he was murdered shortly afterwards. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Bulgarians raided northern Thrace, looting the countryside before Byzantine forces could counterattack", ". On one occasion, the two armies confronted each other near the fortress of Lardea in an indecisive battle; the Bulgarians kept their plunder and retreated untroubled to the north of the Balkan mountains.", "In the late 1186, Isaac II launched his second campaign against Bulgaria. His army was forced to spend the winter in Sofia, giving the Bulgarians time to prepare for the invasion. Early the following year, the Byzantines besieged Lovech but could not seize it; they signed an armistice that de facto recognized Bulgarian independence", ". In 1189, when the leader of the Third Crusade, emperor Frederick I Barbarossa was at the brink of war with the Byzantines, Asen and Peter IV offered him an army of 40,000 in return for official recognition, but relations between the Crusaders and the Byzantines eventually improved. In 1190, Isaac II led another anti-Bulgarian campaign that ended in a catastrophic defeat at the Tryavna Pass", ". The emperor barely escaped with his life; the Imperial treasury, including the crown and the cross, were captured by the victorious Bulgarians. After their success, Asen was crowned emperor and became known as Ivan Asen I. Peter IV voluntarily stepped down to make way for his more energetic brother; Peter IV retained his title but Ivan Asen assumed authority.", "In the next four years, the focus of the war shifted to the south of the Balkan mountains. Ivan Asen's strategy of swiftly striking in different locations paid off, and he soon took control of the important cities Sofia and Niš to the south-west, clearing the way to Macedonia. In 1194, the Byzantines gathered a huge force composed of the eastern and western armies, but were defeated at the Battle of Arcadiopolis", ". Unable to resist, Isaac II tried to ally with the Hungarian king Béla III and make a joint attack against Bulgaria, but was deposed and blinded by his brother Alexios III Angelos. The Byzantines tried to negotiate peace but Ivan Asen demanded the return of all Bulgarian lands and the war continued. In 1196, the Byzantine army was again defeated at Serres, far to the south. Upon his return to Tarnovo, Ivan Asen was murdered by his cousin Ivanko allegedly in a plot inspired by Constantinople", ". Peter IV besieged Tarnovo and Ivanko fled to the Byzantine Empire, where he was made governor of Philippopolis. Peter IV was murdered less than a year after his brother's death.", "Rise", "The throne was succeeded by Kaloyan, Asen's and Peter IV's youngest brother. An ambitious and ruthless ruler, he wanted to gain international recognition and to complete the liberation of Bulgaria. Kaloyan also wanted revenge the Byzantines for blinding 14,000 of emperor Samuel's soldiers. Kaloyan called himself Romanoktonos (Roman-slayer) after Basil II, who was called Bulgaroktonos (Bulgar-slayer). He quickly allied himself with his brother's murderer, Ivanko", ". He quickly allied himself with his brother's murderer, Ivanko. The Byzantines killed Ivanko, but the Bulgarians took the city of Constantia. In 1201, Kaloyan captured Varna, the last Byzantine stronghold in Moesia, which was defended by a large garrison. Despite capturing the city at Easter, Kaloyan ordered every Byzantine to be thrown in the moat. He then negotiated peace with Byzantines, securing Bulgarian gains in early 1202", ". He then negotiated peace with Byzantines, securing Bulgarian gains in early 1202. While the Bulgarians were occupied in the south, the Hungarian king Andrew II and his Serbian vassal Vukan had annexed Belgrade, Braničevo, and Niš, but after negotiating peace, Kaloyan turned his attention to the north-west. In 1203, the Bulgarians pushed the Serbs out of Niš, defeated the Hungarian army in several battles along the valley of the Morava river, and recaptured their former territory.", "Kaloyan knew the Byzantines would never recognize his imperial title; he began negotiations with Pope Innocent III. He based the claims on his predecessors in the First Bulgarian Empire; Simeon I, Peter I, and Samuel. The Pope was willing to recognize Kaloyan as king on the condition the Bulgarian Church would submit to Rome. After lengthy negotiations in which both acted diplomatically but without changing their positions, Kaloyan was crowned king in late 1204. Archbishop Basil was proclaimed Primate", ". Archbishop Basil was proclaimed Primate. Kaloyan had no intention of submitting to that decision; he sent the Pope a letter expressing his gratitude for the Imperial title he had received and the elevation of the Bulgarian Church to a Patriarchate. Eventually the Papacy tacitly accepted the Bulgarian position regarding the Imperial title. The union between Bulgaria and Rome remained strictly official; the Bulgarians did not change their Orthodox rites and traditions.", "Several months before Kaloyan's coronation, the leaders of the Fourth Crusade turned on the Byzantine Empire and captured Constantinople, creating the Latin Empire. The Bulgarians tried to establish friendly relations with the Latins but were rebuffed and the Latins claimed their lands despite Papal recognition. Facing a common enemy, Kaloyan and the Byzantine aristocracy in Thrace made an alliance and the latter promised they would accept Kaloyan as their emperor", ". The decisive battle between the Bulgarian army and the Crusaders took place on 14 April 1205, at Adrianople, at which the Latins were defeated and their emperor Baldwin I was captured. The battle was a blow to the newly founded Latin Empire, which descended into chaos. After their victory, the Bulgarians retook most of Thrace, including the important city of Philippopolis. The unexpected Bulgarian successes caused the Byzantine nobility to plot against Kaloyan and ally themselves with the Latins", ". The plot in Tarnovo was quickly discovered; Kaloyan made brutal reprisals against the Byzantines in Thrace. The campaign against the Latins also continued; in 1206, the Bulgarians were victorious at the battle of Rusion and conquered a number of towns in Eastern Thrace. The following year, Boniface I, the King of Salonica, was killed in battle, but Kaloyan was murdered before he could begin the assault on the capital.", "Kaloyan was succeeded by his cousin Boril, who tried to pursue his predecessor's policies but did not have his capability. His army was defeated by the Latins at Philippopolis, reversing most of Kaloyan's gains. Boril failed to maintain the integrity of the empire; his brother Strez took most of Macedonia for himself, Alexius Slav seceded his territory in the Rhodopes; in return for help suppressing a major rebellion in 1211, Boril was forced to cede Belgrade and Braničevo to Hungary", ". A campaign against Serbia in 1214 also ended in defeat.", "As a result of the growing discontent with his policy, Boril was overthrown in 1218 by Ivan Asen II, son of Ivan Asen I, who had lived in exile after Kaloyan's death. After his coronation, Ivan Asen II arranged a wedding with Anna Maria, daughter of the Hungarian king Andrew II, and received the captured cities Belgrade and Braničevo as a dowry. He then signed an alliance with Theodore Komnenos, ruler of the most powerful Byzantine successor state, the Despotate of Epirus", ". With his northern border secured by the treaty, Theodore Komnenos conquered Salonica, greatly reducing the size of the Latin Empire. In 1225, Theodore proclaimed himself emperor. By 1228, the situation for the Latins became desperate; they entered into negotiations with Bulgaria, promising a marriage between the under-age emperor Baldwin II and Ivan Asen II's daughter Helena", ". This marriage would have made the Bulgarian emperor a regent in Constantinople, but in the meantime the Latins offered the regency to the French nobleman John of Brienne. Concerned with the actions of the Bulgarians, while marching on Constantinople in 1230, Theodore Komnenos invaded Bulgaria with a huge army. Surprised, Ivan Asen II gathered a small force and moved to the south to engage them", ". Surprised, Ivan Asen II gathered a small force and moved to the south to engage them. Instead of a banner, he used the peace treaty with Theodore's oath and seal stuck on his spear and won a major victory in the Battle of Klokotnitsa. Theodore Komnenos was captured along with his whole court and most of the surviving troops", ". Theodore Komnenos was captured along with his whole court and most of the surviving troops. Ivan Asen II released all ordinary soldiers and marched on the Epirote–controlled territories, where all cities and towns from Adrianople to Durazzo on the Adriatic Sea surrendered and recognized his rule. Theodore's brother Michael II Komnenos Doukas was allowed to rule in Salonica over the southern areas of the despotate as a Bulgarian vassal", ". It is possible Serbia accepted Bulgarian suzerainty at that time to counter the threat from Catholic Hungary.", "In 1231, when John of Brienne arrived in Constantinople, Ivan Asen II allied with the Nicaean Empire against the Latins. After the Nicaeans recognized the Bulgarian Patriarchate in 1235, Ivan Asen II broke his union with the Papacy. The joint campaign against the Latins was successful, but they failed to capture Constantinople. With John of Brienne's death two years later, Ivan Asen II—who could have again become a regent of Baldwin II—decided to end his cooperation with Nicaea", ". His decision was further based on the assumption that after an allied success, Constantinople would again have become the centre of a restored Byzantine Empire, with the Nicaean dynasty as a ruling house. The Bulgarian–Latin cooperation was short-lived; Ivan Asen II remained at peace with his southern neighbours until the end of his reign. Shortly before his death in 1241, Ivan Asen II defeated part of the Mongol army returning to the east after a devastating attack on Poland and Hungary.", "Decline", "Ivan Asen II was succeeded by his infant son Kaliman I. Despite the initial success against the Mongols, the regency of the new emperor decided to avoid further raids and chose to pay them tribute instead. The lack of a strong monarch and increasing rivalries among the nobility caused Bulgaria to rapidly decline. Its main rival Nicaea avoided Mongol raids and gained power in the Balkans. After the death of 12-year-old Kaliman I in 1246, the throne was succeeded by several short-reigned rulers", ". The weakness of the new government was exposed when the Nicaean army conquered large areas in southern Thrace, the Rhodopes, and Macedonia—including Adrianople, Tsepina, Stanimaka, Melnik, Serres, Skopje, and Ohrid—meeting little resistance. The Hungarians also exploited Bulgarian weakness, occupying Belgrade and Braničevo. The Bulgarians reacted as late as 1253, invading Serbia and regaining the Rhodopes the following year", ". However, Michael II Asen's indecisiveness allowed the Nicaeans to regain all of their lost territory, with the exception of Tsepina. In 1255, the Bulgarians quickly regained Macedonia, whose Bulgarian population preferred the rule of Tarnovo to that of the Nicaeans. All gains were lost in 1256, after the Bulgarian representative Rostislav Mikhailovich betrayed his cause and reaffirmed Nicaean control over the disputed areas", ". This major setback cost the emperor's life and led to a period of instability and civil war between several claimants to the throne until 1257, when the boyar of Skopje Constantine Tikh emerged as a victor.", "The new emperor had to deal with multiple foreign threats. In 1257, the Latins attacked and seized Messembria but could not hold the town. More serious was the situation to the north-west, where the Hungarians supported Rostislav, the self-proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria in Vidin. In 1260, Constantine Tikh recovered Vidin and occupied the Severin Banat, but the next year a Hungarian counterattack forced the Bulgarians to retreat to Tarnovo, restoring Vidin to Rostislav", ". The city was soon controlled by the Bulgarian noble Jacob Svetoslav, but by 1266 he also styled himself emperor. The restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the ambitious Michael VIII Palaiologos further worsened Bulgaria's situation. A major Byzantine invasion in 1263 led to the loss of the coastal towns Messembria and Anchialus, and several cities in Thrace—including Philippopolis", ". Unable to effectively resist, Constantine Tikh organized a joint Bulgarian–Mongol campaign, but after ravaging Thrace the Mongols returned north of the Danube. The emperor became crippled after a hunting accident in the early 1260s, and fell under the influence of his wife Maria Palaiologina, whose constant intrigues fueled divisions among the nobility.", "Constant Mongol raids, economic difficulties, and the emperor's illness led to a massive popular uprising in the north-east in 1277. The rebel army, led by the swineherd Ivaylo, defeated the Mongols twice, greatly boosting Ivaylo's popularity. Ivaylo then turned on and defeated the regular army under the command of Constantine Tikh. He personally killed the emperor, claiming the latter did nothing to defend his honour", ". He personally killed the emperor, claiming the latter did nothing to defend his honour. Fearing a revolt in Byzantium, and willing to exploit the situation, the emperor Michael VIII sent an army led by Ivan Asen III, a Bulgarian pretender to the throne, but the rebels reached Tarnovo first. Constantine Tikh's widow Maria married Ivaylo and he was proclaimed emperor", ". Constantine Tikh's widow Maria married Ivaylo and he was proclaimed emperor. After the Byzantines failed, Michael VIII turned to the Mongols, who invaded Dobrudzha and defeated Ivaylo's army, forcing him to retreat to Drastar, where he withstood a three-month siege. After his defeat, Ivaylo was betrayed by the Bulgarian nobility, who opened the gates of Tarnovo to Ivan Asen III. In early 1279, Ivaylo broke off the siege at Drastar and besieged the capital", ". In early 1279, Ivaylo broke off the siege at Drastar and besieged the capital. The Byzantines sent a 10,000-strong army to relieve Ivan Asen III, but suffered defeat by Ivaylo at the battle of Devina. Another army of 5,000 had a similar fate, forcing Ivan Asen III to flee. Ivaylo's situation did not improve, however—after two years of constant warfare his support was diminished, the Mongols were not decisively defeated, and the nobility remained hostile", ". By the end of 1280, Ivaylo sought refuge with his former enemies the Mongols, who under Byzantine influence killed him. The nobility chose the powerful noble and ruler of Cherven, George I Terter, as emperor. He reigned for twelve years, bringing even stronger Mongol influence and the loss of most of the remaining lands in Thrace to the Byzantines. This period of instability and uncertainty continued until 1300, when for a few months the Mongol Chaka ruled in Tarnovo.", "Temporary stabilization", "In 1300, Theodore Svetoslav, George I's eldest son, took advantage of a civil war in the Golden Horde, overthrew Chaka, and presented his head to the Mongol khan Toqta. This brought an end to Mongol interference in Bulgarian domestic affairs and secured Southern Bessarabia as far as Bolgrad to Bulgaria", ". The new emperor began to rebuild the country's economy, subdued many of the semi-independent nobles, and executed as traitors those he held responsible for assisting the Mongols, including Patriarch Joachim III. The Byzantines, interested in Bulgaria's continuous instability, supported pretenders Michael and Radoslav with their armies, but were defeated by Theodore Svetoslav's uncle Aldimir, the despot of Kran", ". Between 1303 and 1304, the Bulgarians launched several campaigns and retook many towns in north-eastern Thrace. The Byzantines tried to counter the Bulgarian advance but suffered a major defeat in the battle of Skafida. Unable to change the status quo, they were forced to make peace with Bulgaria in 1307, acknowledging Bulgarian gains. Theodore Svetoslav spent the rest of his reign in peace with his neighbors", ". Theodore Svetoslav spent the rest of his reign in peace with his neighbors. He maintained cordial relations with Serbia and in 1318, its king Stephen Milutin, paid a visit to Tarnovo. The years of peace brought economic prosperity and boosted commerce; Bulgaria became a major exporter of agricultural commodities, especially wheat.", "During the early 1320s, tensions between Bulgaria and the Byzantines rose as the latter descended into a civil war and the new emperor George II Terter seized Philippopolis. In the confusion following George II's unexpected death in 1322 without leaving a successor, the Byzantines recaptured the city and other Bulgarian-seized towns in northern Thrace", ". The energetic despot of Vidin, Michael Shishman, was elected emperor the next year; he immediately turned on the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, regaining the lost lands. In late 1324, the two monarchs signed a peace treaty, strengthened by a marriage between the Bulgarian ruler and Theodora Palaiologina. Michael Shishman divorced his Serbian wife Anna Neda, causing a deterioration of relations with Serbia", ". This change of political course is explained by the rapid growth of Serbian power and its penetration into Macedonia.", "The Bulgarians and the Byzantines agreed to a joint campaign against Serbia, but it took five years until the differences and tensions between Bulgaria and Byzantium were overcome. Michael Shishman gathered 15,000 troops and invaded Serbia. He engaged the Serbian king Stephen Dečanski, who commanded an approximately equal force, near the border town of Velbazhd", ". The two rulers, both expecting reinforcements, agreed to a one-day truce but when a Catalan detachment under the king's son Stephen Dušan arrived, the Serbs broke their word. The Bulgarians were defeated in the ensuing Battle of Velbazhd and their emperor perished. Despite their victory, the Serbs did not risk an invasion of Bulgaria and the two sides agreed to peace", ". As a result, Ivan Stephen, the eldest son of the dead emperor by his Serbian wife, succeeded him in Tarnovo and was deposed after a brief rule. Bulgaria did not lose territory but could not stop the Serbian expansion in Macedonia.", "After the disaster at Velbazhd, the Byzantines attacked Bulgaria and seized a number of towns and castles in northern Thrace. Their success ended in 1332, when the new Bulgarian emperor Ivan Alexander defeated them in the battle of Rusokastro, recovering the captured territories. In 1344, the Bulgarians entered the Byzantine civil war of 1341–47 on the side of John V Palaiologos against John VI Kantakouzenos, capturing nine towns along the Maritsa river and in the Rhodope Mountains, including Philippopolis", ". That acquisition marked the last significant territorial expansion of medieval Bulgaria, but also led to the first attacks on Bulgarian soil by the Ottoman Turks, who were allied with Kantakouzenos.", "Fall", "The attempts of Ivan Alexander to fight off the Ottomans in the late 1340s and early 1350s failed after two defeats in which his eldest son and successor Michael Asen IV and his second son Ivan Asen IV may have been killed. The emperor's relations with his other son Ivan Sratsimir, who had been installed as the ruler of Vidin, deteriorated after 1349, when Ivan Alexander divorced his wife to marry Sarah-Theodora, a converted Jew", ". When their child Ivan Shishman was designated an heir to the throne, Ivan Sratsimir proclaimed independence.", "In 1366, Ivan Alexander refused to grant passage to the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos, and the troops of the Savoyard crusade attacked the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. They seized Sozopolis, Messembria, Anchialus, and Emona, causing heavy casualties and unsuccessfully laying siege to Varna. The Bulgarians eventually granted passage to John V, but the lost towns were handed over to the Byzantines. To the north-west, the Hungarians attacked and occupied Vidin in 1365", ". To the north-west, the Hungarians attacked and occupied Vidin in 1365. Ivan Alexander reconquered his province four years later, allied with his de jure vassals Vladislav I of Wallachia and Dobrotitsa. The death of Ivan Alexander in 1371 left the country irrevocably divided between Ivan Shishman in Tarnovo, Ivan Sratsimir in Vidin, and Dobrotitsa in Karvuna. The 14th century German traveler Johann Schiltberger described these lands as follows:", "On 26 September 1371, the Ottomans defeated a large Christian army led by the Serbian brothers Vukašin Mrnjavčević and Jovan Uglješa in the Battle of Chernomen. They immediately turned on Bulgaria and conquered northern Thrace, the Rhodopes, Kostenets, Ihtiman, and Samokov, effectively limiting the authority of Ivan Shishman in the lands to the north of the Balkan mountains and the Valley of Sofia", ". Unable to resist, the Bulgarian monarch was forced to become an Ottoman vassal, and in return he recovered some of the lost towns and secured ten years of uneasy peace.", "The Ottoman raids renewed in the early 1380s, culminating in the fall of Sofia. Simultaneously, Ivan Shishman had been engaged in war against Wallachia since 1384. According to the Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle, he killed the Wallachian voivode Dan I of Wallachia in September 1386. He also maintained uneasy relations with Ivan Sratsimir, who had broken his last ties with Tarnovo in 1371 and had separated the dioceses of Vidin from the Tarnovo Patriarchate", ". The two brothers did not cooperate to repel the Ottoman invasion. According to historian Konstantin Jireček, the brothers were engaged in a bitter conflict over Sofia. Ivan Shishman reneged on his vassal obligation to support the Ottomans with troops during their campaigns. Instead, he used every opportunity to participate in Christian coalitions with the Serbs and the Hungarians, provoking massive Ottoman invasions in 1388 and 1393.", "Despite strong resistance, the Ottomans seized a number of important towns and fortresses in 1388, and five years later they captured Tarnovo after a three-month siege. Ivan Shishman died in 1395 when the Ottomans, led by Bayezid I, took his last fortress Nikopol", ". Ivan Shishman died in 1395 when the Ottomans, led by Bayezid I, took his last fortress Nikopol. In 1396, Ivan Sratsimir joined the Crusade of the Hungarian king Sigismund, but after the Christian army was defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis the Ottomans immediately marched on Vidin and seized it, bringing an end to the medieval Bulgarian state. Resistance continued under Constantine and Fruzhin until 1422", ". Resistance continued under Constantine and Fruzhin until 1422. The former was referred to by king Sigismund as the \"distinguished Constantine, glorious Emperor of Bulgaria\".", "Administration, territorial division, society", "The Second Bulgarian Empire was a hereditary monarchy ruled by a Tsar—the Bulgarian word for Emperor that originated in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. The monarchs of Bulgaria styled themselves, \"In Christ the Lord Faithful Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians\" or variations, sometimes including \"...and Romans, Greeks, or Vlachs\"", "...and Romans, Greeks, or Vlachs\". The term all Bulgarians was added in the 14th century following the loss of many Bulgarian-populated territories and signified that the monarch in Tarnovo was the emperor of all Bulgarian people, even those who lived beyond the country's political borders.", "The Emperor held supreme power over secular and religious affairs in an autocracy; his personal abilities played an important role in the country's well-being. When the monarch was an infant, the government was headed by a regency that included the mother-empress, the Patriarch, and senior members of the ruling dynasty", ". As the processes of feudal fragmentation accelerated in the 14th century, it became customary for the monarch's sons to receive imperial titles during their father's lifetime; sons were styled co-rulers or junior emperors.", "Unlike the First Empire, the administration during the Second Bulgarian Empire was heavily influenced by the Byzantine system of administration. Most of the titles of the nobility, the court, and the administration were directly adopted from their Byzantine counterparts in Byzantine Greek, or were translated into Bulgarian", ". There were some differences in the ranking systems between the two countries—there are few surviving sources about the precise obligations, insignia, or ceremonial affairs of the medieval Bulgarian administration. The Bolyar Council included the greater bolyars and the Patriarch; it discussed issues about external and internal policies, such as declarations of war, formations of alliances, or the signing of peace treaties", ". The highest-ranking administrative officials were the great logothete, who had the functions of a first minister, and the protovestiarios, who was responsible for the treasury and finance. High court titles such as despot and sebastokrator were awarded to the Emperor's relatives but were not strictly concerned with administrative functions.", "The capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire was Tarnovo, which was also the centre of its own administrative unit under the direct authority of the emperor. Bulgaria was divided into provinces, whose numbers varied with the territorial evolution of the country. In surviving primary sources, the provinces were named with the Byzantine term hora or the Bulgarian terms zemya (), strana (), and oblast (), usually named after its main city", ". The provincial governors were titled \"duke\" or kefalia — both from Byzantine dux and kephale—and were directly appointed by the emperor. The provinces were subdivided into katepanika (sing. katepanikon, from the Byzantine katepanikion), which were ruled by katepans who were subordinated to the dukes. During the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218–41), the provinces included Belgrade, Braničevo, Boruy, Adrianople, Dimotika, Skopje, Prilep, Devol, and Albania.", "During the Second Empire, Bulgarian society was divided into three social classes: clergy, nobility, and peasantry. The nobility included the aristocracy: the bolyars, whose origin was the older Bulgarian boilas from the First Empire, the judges, and the \"whole army\". The bolyars were subdivided into greater and lesser bolyars. The former possessed large estates, which at times included tens and even hundreds of villages, and held high administrative and military posts", ". The peasants formed the bulk of the third class and were subordinated either under the central authorities or under local feudal lords. With time, the number of the latter increased as a result of the process of feudalization of Bulgaria. The main groups of peasants were paritsi and otrotsi. Both could own land but only the paritsi could inherit property; the latter could not, since it was provided by the feudal lords.", "Military", "The emperor of the Second Bulgarian Empire was commander-in-chief of its army; the second-in-command was the velik (great) voivoda. The detachments of the army were led by a voivoda. The protostrator was responsible for the defence of certain regions and the recruitment of soldiers. In the late 12th century, the army numbered 40,000 men-at-arms", ". In the late 12th century, the army numbered 40,000 men-at-arms. The country could mobilize around 100,000 men in the first decade of the 13th century; Kaloyan reportedly offered Baldwin I, the leader of the Fourth Crusade, 100,000 soldiers to help him take Constantinople. By the end of the 13th century, the military declined and the army was reduced to fewer than 10,000 men—it was recorded that Ivaylo defeated two Byzantine armies of 5,000 and 10,000 men, and that his troops were outnumbered in both cases", ". Military strength increased with the political stabilization of Bulgaria in the first half of the 14th century; the army numbered 11,000–15,000 troops in the 1330s. The military was well supplied with siege equipment, including battering rams, siege towers, and catapults.", "The Bulgarian army used various military tactics, relying on the experience of the soldiers and the peculiarities of the terrain. The Balkan mountains played a significant role in the military strategy and facilitated the country's defence against the strong Byzantine army. During wartime, the Bulgarians would send light cavalry to devastate the enemy lands on a broad front, pillaging villages and small towns, burning the crops, and taking people and cattle", ". The Bulgarian army was very mobile—for instance for four days before the Battle of Klokotnitsa, it covered a distance three times longer than the Epirote army covered in a week; in 1332, it travelled in five days.", "Bulgaria maintained extensive lines of fortresses to protect the country, with the capital Tarnovo in the centre. To the north were lines along both banks of the Danube river. To the south were three lines; the first along the Balkan mountains, the second along Vitosha, northern Rhodope mountains and Sakar mountain, the third along the valley of the river Arda. To the west, a line ran along the valley of the river South Morava.", "During the Second Empire, foreign and mercenary soldiers became an important part of the Bulgarian army and its tactics. Since the beginning of the rebellion of Asen and Peter, the light, mobile Cuman cavalry was used effectively against the Byzantines and later the Crusaders. Kaloyan used 14,000 cavalrymen in the Battle of Adrianople. The Cuman leaders entered the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility; some of them received high military or administrative posts in the state", ". In the 14th century, the Bulgarian army increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries, which included Western knights, Mongols, Ossetians, or Wallachians. Both Michael III Shishman and Ivan Alexander had a 3,000-strong Mongol cavalry detachment in their armies. In the 1350s, emperor Ivan Alexander hired Ottoman bands, as did the Byzantine Emperor. Russians were also hired as mercenaries.", "Economy", "The economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire was based on agriculture, mining, traditional crafts, and trade. Agriculture and livestock breeding remained the mainstays of the Bulgarian economy between the 12th and 14th centuries. Moesia, Zagore, and Dobrudzha were known for rich harvests of grain, including high quality wheat. Production of wheat, barley, and millet was also developed in most regions of Thrace", ". Production of wheat, barley, and millet was also developed in most regions of Thrace. The main wine-producing areas were Thrace, the Black Sea coast, and the valleys of the Struma and Vardar rivers in Macedonia. Production of vegetables, orchards, and grapes became increasingly important since the beginning of the 13th century. The existence of large forests and pastures was favorable for livestock breeding, mainly in the mountainous and semi-mountainous regions of the country", ". Sericulture and especially apiculture were well developed. Honey and wax from Zagore were the best-quality bee products in the Byzantine markets and were highly praised. The forests produced wood for cutting (бранища); there were also fenced forests (забели), in which wood-cutting was banned.", "The increase in the number of towns gave strong impetus to handicrafts, metallurgy, and mining. Processing of crops was traditional; products included bread, cheese, butter, and wine. Salt was extracted from the lagoon near Anchialus. Leathermaking, shoemaking, carpentry, and weaving were prominent crafts. Varna was renowned for the processing of fox fur, which was used for production of luxurious clothes. According to Western European sources, there was an abundance of silk in Bulgaria", ". According to Western European sources, there was an abundance of silk in Bulgaria. The Picardian knight Robert de Clari said that in the dowry of the Bulgarian princess Maria, \" ... there was not a single horse that was not covered in red silk fabric, which was so long that dragged for seven or eight steps after each horse. And despite they travelled through mud and bad roads, none of the silk fabrics was torn—everything was preserved in grace and nobility", ".\" There were blacksmiths, ironmongers, and engineers who developed catapults, battering rams, and other siege equipment, which was extensively used in the beginning of the 13th century. Metalworking was developed in western Bulgaria—Chiprovtsi, Velbazhd, and Sofia, as well in Tarnovo and Messembria to the east.", "Monetary circulation and minting steadily increased throughout the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire, reaching their climax during the reign of Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria (reigned 1331–1371). Along with his recognition by the Pope, emperor Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) acquired the right to mint coins. Well-organized mints and engraving workshops were set up in the mid-13th century, producing copper, billon, and silver coinage. The reform was initiated by Constantine Tikh Asen (r", ". The reform was initiated by Constantine Tikh Asen (r. 1257–1277) and led to a stabilization of the monetary market in Bulgaria. The Uprising of Ivaylo and the pillage raids of the Mongols in the late 13th century destabilized the coinage, resulting in a tenfold decrease of minting activities. With the stabilization of the empire since 1300, Bulgarian monarchs issued an increased number of coins, including silver ones, but were able to secure the market with domestic coins after the 1330s", ". The erosion of the central authorities on the eve of the Ottoman invasion gave rise to primitive, anonymous, and crudely-forged counterfeit coins. Along with the Bulgarian coinage, coins from the Byzantine Empire, Latin Empire, Venice, Serbia, the Golden Horde, and the small Balkan principalities were widely used. Due to the increase of production, there was a tendency to limit the circulation of foreign coins by the second half of the 14th century", ". Coins were minted by some independent or semi-independent Bulgarian lords, such as Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa.", "Religion\n\nReligious policy", "Following the refoundation of Bulgaria, the recognition of the imperial title of the monarch and the restoration of the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the priority of the Bulgarian foreign policy. The continuous state of war against the Byzantine empire urged Bulgarian rulers to turn to the Papacy. In his correspondence with Pope Innocent III, Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) demanded imperial title and a Patriarchate, basing his claims on the heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire", ". In return, Kaloyan promised to accept Papal suzerainty over the Bulgarian Church. The union between Bulgaria and Rome was formalized on 7 October 1205, when Kaloyan was crowned King by a papal legate and the Archbishop Basil of Tarnovo was proclaimed Primate. In a letter to the Pope, Basil styled himself Patriarch, against which Innocent III did not argue. Just like Boris I (r", ". Just like Boris I (r. 852–889) three centuries earlier, Kaloyan pursued a strictly political agenda in his negotiations with the Papacy, without sincere intentions to convert to Roman Catholicism. The union with Rome lasted until 1235 and did not affect the Bulgarian church, which continued its practices of Eastern Orthodox canons and rites.", "The ambition of Bulgaria to become the religious centre of the Orthodox world had a prominent place in the Second Empire's state doctrine. After the fall of Constantinople to the knights of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Tarnovo became for a time the main centre of Orthodoxy. The Bulgarian emperors were zealously collecting relics of Christian saints to boost the prestige of their capital", ". The official recognition of the restored Bulgarian Patriarchate at the Council of Lampsacus in 1235 was a major step in that direction and gave rise to the concept of Tarnovo as a \"Second Constantinople\". The Patriarchate vigorously opposed the papal initiative to reunite the Orthodox Church with Rome; he criticized the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Byzantine emperor for their apparent willingness to make concessions at the Second Council of Lyon in 1272–74", ". Patriarch Ignatius was called \"pillar of Orthodoxy\". Envoys were sent to the Patriarch of Jerusalem to negotiate an anti-Byzantine alliance, which included the other two Eastern Patriarchs, but the mission achieved nothing.", "Disputes with the Patriarchate of Constantinople over the legitimacy of the Bulgarian Patriarchate intensified in the 14th century. In 1355, the Ecumenical patriarch Callistus I tried to assert his supremacy over the Bulgarian church and claimed that under the provisions of the Council of Lampsacus it remained subordinated and had to pay annual tribute to Constantinople. These claims were not supported by authentic documents and the Bulgarian religious authorities ignored them.", "The structure of the Bulgarian Patriarchate followed the traditions of the First Empire. The head of the Church was the Patriarch of Bulgaria, who was a member of the State Council (Sinklit) and was at times a regent. The patriarch was assisted by a Synod comprising bishops, high-ranking clerics, and sometimes representatives of secular authorities. The Bulgarian Church strictly followed official state policy—Patriarch Joachim III was executed for treason because of suspected links with the Mongols", ". The territorial extent of the Bulgarian Patriarchate varied according to territorial changes. At its height under the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), it consisted of 14 dioceses; Preslav, Cherven, Lovech, Sofia, Ovech, Drastar, Vidin, Serres, Philippi, Messembria, Braničevo, Belgrade, Niš, and Velbazhd; and the sees of Tarnovo and Ohrid.", "Hesychasm", "Hesychasm (from Greek \"stillness, rest, quiet, silence\") is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church that flourished in the Balkans during the 14th century. A mystical movement, Hesychasm preached a technique of mental prayer that, when repeated with proper breathing, might enable one to see the divine light. Emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71) was impressed by the practice of Hesychasm; he became a patron of Hesychastic monks", ". 1331–71) was impressed by the practice of Hesychasm; he became a patron of Hesychastic monks. In 1335, he gave refuge to Gregory of Sinai and provided funds for the construction of a monastery near Paroria in the Strandzha Mountains in the southeast of the country; it attracted clerics from Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Serbia. Hesychasm established itself as the dominant ideology of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the work of the disciple of Gregory of Sinai", ". Gregory's disciple Theodosius of Tarnovo translated his writing into Bulgarian and reached his peak during the tenure of the last medieval Bulgarian patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovo (1375–94). Theodosius founded the Kilifarevo Monastery near Tarnovo, which became the new Hesychastic and literary centre of the country. Hesychastic intellectuals maintained regular connections with each other regardless of their nationalities, which significantly affected the cultural and religious exchange in the Balkans.", "Bogomilism and other heresies\n\nBogomilism, a Gnostic, dualistic sect, was founded in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. It later spread throughout the Balkans and flourished after the fall of Bulgaria under Byzantine rule. The Eastern Orthodox Church considered the Bogomils, who preached civil disobedience that was particularly alarming for the state authorities, heretics.", "Bogomilism saw a major resurge in Bulgaria as a result of the military and political setbacks during the reign of Boril (r. 1207–18). The emperor took swift, decisive measures to suppress the Bogomils; on 11 February 1211 he presided over the first anti-Bogomil synod in Bulgaria, which was held in Tarnovo. During the discussions, the Bogomils were exposed; those who did not return to Orthodoxy were exiled", ". Despite the extant union with the Roman Catholic Church, the synod followed strictly the canons of the Orthodox Church. In the specially dedicated Book of Boril, the monarch was described as \"Orthodox emperor\" and the Synod of Tarnovo was added to the list of Orthodox synods. As a result of Boril's actions, the influence of the Bogomils was greatly reduced but was not eradicated.", "Many heretical movements, including Adamites and Barlaamism that arrived with exiles from the Byzantine Empire, established themselves in Bulgaria in the 14th century. These movements, along with the Bogomilism and Judaism, were condemned by the Council of Tarnovo in 1360, which was attended by the imperial family, the patriarch, nobles, and clerics. There are no sources about the existence of Bogomils in Bulgaria after 1360, implying the sect had already been weakened and had few followers", ". Persecution of the remaining Adamites and Barlaamists continued on a smaller scale, headed by Theodosius of Tarnovo and patriarch Euthymius.", "Culture", "The Second Bulgarian Empire was a centre of a thriving culture that reached its peak in the mid-to-late 14th century during the reign of Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). Bulgarian architecture, arts, and literature spread beyond the borders of Bulgaria into Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities and affected Slavic culture. Bulgaria was influenced by the contemporaneous Byzantine cultural trends", ". Bulgaria was influenced by the contemporaneous Byzantine cultural trends. The main cultural and spiritual centre was Tarnovo, which grew into a \"Second Constantinople\" or \"Third Rome\". Bulgarian contemporaries called the city \"Tsarevgrad Tarnov\", the Imperial city of Tarnovo, after the Bulgarian name for Constantinople—Tsarigrad. Other important cultural hubs included Vidin, Sofia, Messembria, and a large number of monasteries throughout the country.", "Architecture", "The network of cities in the Second Bulgarian Empire grew in the 13th and 14th centuries; numerous new urban centres rose to prominence. The cities were usually constructed in difficult-to-access locations and generally consisted of an inner and outer town. The nobility lived in the inner town, which included the citadel, while most citizens inhabited the outer town. There were separate neighbourhoods for the nobility, craftsmen, merchants, and foreigners", ". There were separate neighbourhoods for the nobility, craftsmen, merchants, and foreigners. The capital Tarnovo had three fortified hills—Tsarevets, Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost, built along the meanders of the Yantra river. Several neighbourhoods along the river's banks including separate quarters for Western Europeans and Jews.", "Fortresses were built on hills and plateaus—the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates said the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains were situated \"at heights above the clouds\". They were built with crushed stones welded together with plaster, in contrast to the monumental ensembles in the north-east of the country dating from the period of the First Empire", ". The gates and the more vulnerable sections were secured with pinnacled towers; these were usually rectangular but there were also irregular, circular, oval, triangular, or horseshoe-shaped towers.", "Religious architecture was very prestigious; churches were among the most decorated and solid edifices in the country. Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, basilicas were replaced with cruciform, domed churches with one or three naves. The church's exteriors had rich, decorative ornamentation with alternating belts of stone and brickwork. They were further decorated with green, yellow, and brown ceramic pieces", ". They were further decorated with green, yellow, and brown ceramic pieces. This feature is seen in several churches in Messembria, including the Church of St John Aliturgetos and the 14th century Church of Christ Pantocrator—which had rows of blind arches, four-leaved floral motifs, triangular ornaments, circular turquoise ceramics, and brick swastika friezes running along the external walls. Every church in Tsarevets—over 20—and many of the 17 churches in Trapezitsa were decorated with similar techniques", ". A rectangular belfry above the narthex is a typical characteristic of the architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Some churches, such as Holy Mother of God in Asen's Fortress built during the Byzantine rule, were reconstructed with belfries.", "The Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica in the western part of the Bulgarian Empire (in modern Serbia) is notable for its unusual architectural style. Its twin towers are topped off by sharp-pointed pyramidal elements, with additional sharp-pointed details in each of the pyramids' four corners. The towers and their design were entirely unusual and unprecedented in medieval Bulgarian church architecture and were an influence from Hungary or Transylvania.", "The Imperial Palace in Tarnovo was initially a bolyar castle; it underwent two major reconstructions under Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41) and Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). The palace had the shape of an irregular ellipse and a built-up area of . The walls were up to thick. The entrance gates were guarded by round and rectangular towers; the main entrance was located in the round tower of the northern façade. The edifices were built around an inner yard with a richly decorated royal church in the middle", ". The edifices were built around an inner yard with a richly decorated royal church in the middle. The Patriarch Palace was situated on the highest point of Tsarevets and dominated the city. Its plan resembled that of the Imperial Palace and occupied . A four-cornered bell tower adjoined the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God. The residential and office sections were located in the southern part of the edifice.", "Few examples of nobility houses have survived. To the north of the Imperial Palace, the foundations of a bolyar house from the beginning of the 13th century have been excavated. It had a Г-shaped plan and consisted of a residential area and a small, one-nave church. There were two types of mass dwellings; semi-dug houses and overground houses", ". There were two types of mass dwellings; semi-dug houses and overground houses. The latter were constructed in cities and usually had two stories; the lower floor was built with crushed stones soldered with mud or plaster and the second was built with timber.", "Art", "The mainstream of Bulgarian fine arts in the 13th and 14th centuries is known as the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Despite being influenced by some tendencies of the Palaeogan Renaissance in the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian painting had unique features; it was first classified as a separate artistic school by the French art historian André Grabar. The school's works had some degree of realism, individualized portraits, and psychological insight", ". The school's works had some degree of realism, individualized portraits, and psychological insight. Very little secular art of the Second Empire has survived. Fragments of murals depicting a richly decorated figure were uncovered during excavations in the throne room of the Imperial palace in Tarnovo. The walls of the throne room were probably decorated with images of Bulgarian emperors and empresses.", "The frescoes in the Boyana Church near Sofia are an early example of the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School, dating from 1259; they are among the most complete and best-preserved monuments of Eastern European medieval art. The portraits of the church's ktitors, Kaloyan and Desislava, and of the ruling monarch Constantine Tikh and his wife Irene dressed with ceremonial garments, are especially realistic", ". The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo in the north-east of the country contain several churches and chapels that represent the evolution of the Bulgarian art in the 13th and 14th centuries. In paintings in churches of the first period, painted during the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), human figures are depicted in realistic style, with oval faces and fleshy lips. The colours of the clothing are bright, while the 14th century frescoes are in the classical style of the Palaeogan period", ". Both Boyana Church and the Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.", "In Tarnovo, no complete painting ensemble has survived. The thirty-five scenes preserved in Holy Forty Martyrs Church feature the mild tones and sense of realism characteristic of the school. Fragments of frescoes were excavated in the ruins of the seventeen churches in Tarnovo's second fortified hill, Trapezitsa; among them were depictions of military figures wearing richly decorated garments. The palace chapel was decorated with mosaics", ". The palace chapel was decorated with mosaics. In western Bulgaria, local characteristics of the remnant art include archaism in the composition and unshaded tones, examples of which are found in locations including Zemen Monastery, the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica, and the Church of St Peter in Berende.", "Many books of the Second Bulgarian Empire contained beautifully crafted miniatures, the most notable examples being the Bulgarian translation of the Manasses Chronicle, the Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander, and the Tomić Psalter, which together have 554 miniatures. The style of the miniatures, which depict a variety of theological and secular events and have significant aesthetic value, was influenced by contemporaneous Byzantine works.", "The Tarnovo school continued; it enriched the traditions and icon designs of the First Bulgarian Empire. Some notable icons include St Eleusa (1342) from Messembria, which is currently kept in Alexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia, and St John of Rila (14th century), which is kept in Rila Monastery. Like the Boyana Church frescoes, St John of Rila uses realism and non-canonical design. Some of the preserved icons feature silver platings with enamel images of saints.\n\nLiterature", "The main centres of literary activity were churches and monasteries, which provided primary education in basic literacy throughout the country. Some monasteries rose to prominence by providing a more advanced education, which included study of advanced grammar; biblical, theological, and ancient texts; and Greek language. Education was available to laymen; it was not restricted to the clergy. Those who completed the advanced studies were called gramatik (граматик)", ". Those who completed the advanced studies were called gramatik (граматик). Books were initially written on parchment, but paper, imported via the port of Varna, was introduced at the beginning of the 14th century. At first, paper was more expensive than parchment, but by the end of the century its cost had fallen, resulting in the production of larger numbers of books.", "Few texts from the 12th and 13th centuries have survived. Notable examples from that period include the \"Book of Boril\", an important source for the history of the Bulgarian Empire, and the Dragan Menaion, which includes the earliest known Bulgarian hymnology and hymn tunes, as well as liturgies for Bulgarian saints John of Rila, Cyril and Methodius, and emperor Peter I", ". Two poems, written by a Byzantine poet in the court in Tarnovo and dedicated to the wedding of emperor Ivan Asen II and Irene Komnene Doukaina, have survived. The poet compared the emperor to the sun and described him as \"more lovely than the day, the most pleasant in appearance\".", "During the 14th century, literary activities in the Second Empire were supported by the court, and in particular by emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71), which combined with a number of prolific scholars and clergymen, led to a remarkable literary revival known as the Tarnovo Literary School. Literature was also patronized by some nobles and wealthy citizens. Literature included translation of Greek texts and the creation of original compositions, both religious and secular", ". The religious books included praising epistles, passionals, hagiographies, and hymns. Secular literature included chronicles, poetry, novels and novellas, apocryphical tales, popular tales, such as The Story of Troy and Alexandria, legal works, and works on medicine and natural science.", "The first notable 14th century Bulgarian scholar was Theodosius of Tarnovo (d. 1363), who was influenced by Hesychasm and spread hesyachastic ideas in Bulgaria. His most prominent disciple was Euthymius of Tarnovo (c. 1325 – c. 1403), who was Patriarch of Bulgaria between 1375 and 1393 and founder of the Tarnovo Literary School. A prolific writer, Euthymius oversaw a major linguistic reform that standardized the spelling and grammar of the Bulgarian language", ". Until the reform, texts often had variations of spelling and grammar use. The model of the reform was not the contemporaneous language but that of the first golden age of Bulgarian culture in the late 9th and early 10th centuries during the First Bulgarian Empire.", "The Ottoman conquest of Bulgaria forced many scholars and disciples of Euthymius to emigrate, taking their texts, ideas, and talents to other Orthodox countries—Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities. So many texts were taken to the Russian lands that scholars speak about a second South Slavonic influence on Russia. The close friend and associate of Euthymius, Cyprian, became Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus' and took Bulgarian literary models and techniques", ". Gregory Tsamblak worked in Serbia and Moldavia before assuming a position at Metropolitan of Kiev. He wrote a number of sermons, liturgies, and hagiographies, including a \"Praising epistle for Euthymius\". Another important Bulgarian émigré was Constantine of Kostenets, who worked in Serbia and whose biography of despot Stefan Lazarević is described by George Ostrogorsky as \"the most important historical work of old Serbian literature\".", "Apocryphal literature thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries, often concentrating on issues that were avoided in the official religious works. There were also many fortune-telling books that predicted events based on astrology and dreams. Some of them included political elements, such as a prophecy that an earthquake that occurred at night would confuse people, who would then treat the emperor with disdain. The authorities condemned apocryphal literature and included such titles in an index of banned books", ". Nonetheless, apocryphs spread in Russia; the 16th century Russian noble Andrey Kurbsky called them \"Bulgarian fables\".", "See also\n\nByzantine–Bulgarian wars\nBulgarian–Latin wars\nBulgarian–Ottoman wars\nBulgarian–Hungarian wars\nBulgarian-Serbian Wars\nMedieval Bulgarian royal charters\nMedieval Bulgarian army\nMedieval Bulgarian navy\nMedieval Bulgarian coinage\nWhite Wallachia\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n\n \n.02\nBulgarian Empire 02\nBulgarian 02\n12th century in Bulgaria\n.\n.\nBulgarian Empire 02\nBulgarian Empire 02\nBulgarian Empire 02\nBulgarian Empire 02\nBulgarian Empire 02\nTributary states of the Ottoman Empire\nChristian states\nVassal and tributary states of the Golden Horde\nMedieval Romania\nFormer empires" ]

[ "The following are historic points of labor history in the state of Illinois:\n\nDownstate labor history sites\n\nBeckemeyer Coal Miners Monument\nMonument dedicated to Joseph Koch, who along with eight other local miners died in the 1947 Centralia mine disaster. Plaque Reads: Centralia Coal Company Mine No 5 Disaster", "On March 25, 1947, a violent explosion struck Centralia coal company mine number 5 located in Wamac, Illinois. By March 29, it was confirmed that the explosion, combined with the subsequent release of poisonous gas, had taken the lives of 111 of the 142 men working in the mine at the time of the accident.", "This statue is dedicated to the memory of Joseph Koch Sr. and the other Beckemeyer miners who lost their lives in the explosion. Other victims include: Rodrigo Alvarez, Andrew Farley, Luther Frazier, John Mazeka, Joseph Peiler, John Placek, Anton Skrobul, Alfred Stevens.", "Belleville Labor and Industry Museum\nThe museum is located in 160-year-old former cigar factory at 123 North Church Street in Belleville, Illinois. It contains a collection of photographs, documents and patents relating to labor and industry in the city. The museum is open on Saturdays from 10-4 or by appointment.", "George Franklin Bilyeu Monument\nLocated in Taylorville, Illinois, and erected in memory of George Franklin Bilyeu (1854–1898) who was killed in Virden, Illinois in 1898 during a United Mine Workers of America confrontation with armed guards who were bringing strike breakers into the Virden mine.\nThe monument is located at the Oak Hill Cemetery, 820 S. Cherokee St., Taylorville, Illinois.\n\nBloomington Workers' Memorial Monument", "This monument is located in White Oak Park. The park, built around a quarry, has 100 trees that were donated by labor unions, to honor local asbestos workers and others who died of work-related accidents and disabilities. It also includes a large flag pole, built from steam locomotive bearings, that was moved to the site by local unions in 1996. The flag pole was fabricated in 1942 by Chicago & Alton Railroad Shops employees, as a symbol of war-time patriotism", ". The Bloomington Normal Trades & Labor Assembly, AFL–CIO, hosts a ceremony each Workers' Memorial Day April 28.", "Bloomington labor history mural", "A 12-foot-tall by 18-foot-wide labor history mural adorns the inside of Laborers Local 362's old hall, 2005 Cabintown Road, Bloomington, Illinois. The mural depicts local labor history, including the Chicago & Alton Railroad shops and the 1922 Shops workers' strike; a 1917 visit by Mary Harris \"Mother\" Jones in supporting of striking streetcar workers; a 1937 strike at the Beich Candy Company and the 1978 Normal Fire Fighters' strike. The mural was painted by Kari Sandhaas from 1984 to 1986.", "Bloomington & Normal bike trails", "Bloomington and Normal have an extensive bike trail system, mostly on former railroad right of way. On these trails are historic markers, some concerning local industries and neighborhoods. On the \"Constitution Trail,\" which runs from East Jefferson and Robinson Streets in Bloomington north through Normal, are ten historic markers. This trail is on the former 1850s Illinois Central right-of-way", ". This trail is on the former 1850s Illinois Central right-of-way. On this trail are markers detailing the railroad's construction, noting a restored wooden bridge carrying Virginia Street in Normal over the trail, plus 19th century horse breeding and nursery businesses in Normal. Another east–west trail in Bloomington, built along the Peoria & Eastern (New York Central system) right of way, runs from East Lincoln and South Clayton Streets in Bloomington north and then west", ". It follows the currently operative Norfolk Southern Railway right of way. This trail has markers noting the local meat packing industry (Oakland Avenue), warehouse district (under South Madison Street overpass), the 1917 Streetcar strike , which featured Mary Harris \"Mother\" Jones (South Roosevelt Street), a German immigrant neighborhood (Mason Street) and the Union Depot (west of Alton Depot Park at South Western and West Front Street).", "Bloomington Labor leaders", "Patrick H. Morrissey (1862–1916) headed the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen from 1895 to 1909. The son of Chicago & Alton Railroad section foreman John Morrissey and his wife Mary, Morrissey grew up on Bloomington's west side near the railroad yards. He completed a rare event for a 19th-century working class child – he was one of 27 graduates from Bloomington High School in 1879. Morrissey worked through his schooling as a \"call boy,\" summoning railroaders from their homes when it was time for their run", ". After graduation he followed his dad to the railroad, working as a clerk, brakeman and conductor.", "In 1883, trainmen on the Delaware & Hudson Railroad formed the Brotherhood of Railroad Brakeman, the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen after 1890. In 1885 Bloomington workers organized a lodge and Morrissey was a charter member. That year his fellow workers elected young Morrissey to represent them at the union's Burlington, Iowa convention. He caught the eye of S.E. Wilkinson, the new organization's Grand Master, and Morrissey became the BRT's clerk, editing the union's \"Journal.\"", "In 1889, Morrissey was elected Vice-Grand Master, traveling the country helping establish new lodges. The financial downturn of the 1890s and the Pullman strike defeat left the BRT penniless and dwindling. Wilkinson retired and in 1895 Morrissey was elected BRT Grand Master. The organization had less than 10,000 members and was $105,000 in debt. Morrissey saved the organization, strategically uniting with the Order of Railway Conductors", ". Morrissey saved the organization, strategically uniting with the Order of Railway Conductors. Following the Pullman strike all the operating brotherhoods attempted cooperative efforts, but this fell apart within three years. In 1902 the Conductors and Trainmen confronted the western railroads together, winning a contract which they replicated in other regions", ". The key strategic move the two organizations made was confronting railroads regionally, rather than individually, thus thwarting the companies' attempts to play workers on one line against another. Although the railway brotherhoods tended to be conservative and often aloof from other unions, Samuel Gompers noted Morrissey as one of 20 \"outstanding fellows\" who answered his pleas for support for West Virginia coal miners in 1902.", "When Morrissey left the BRT in 1909, it had 120,000 members, held $2 million in insurance funds and had a $1.5 million strike fund. The union also opened a home for disabled and aged trainmen in Highland Park, Illinois in 1910. He was noted for his education and as a public spokesman for the rail brotherhoods", ". He was noted for his education and as a public spokesman for the rail brotherhoods. With a varied training in railroading, in insurance, and in labor organization work, Morrissey was in many ways the antithesis of his predecessors who had, in a powerful and brusque way, prepared the way for his analytical and judicious leadership. He was unusually well informed...", ". He was unusually well informed.... This knowledge, together with his forcefulness, tact, parliamentary ability, and rare good judgment, soon made him the spokesman of all the railway Brotherhoods in their joint conferences and their leader before the public.", "For the next five years, Morrissey worked in Chicago for the American Association of Railway Employees and Investors, which invested union funds in rail companies. In 1914, he became a special assistant to the president of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. Two years later he was diagnosed with a \"nervous breakdown,\" which was actually a brain tumor. He died at age 54 on November 25, 1916 and is buried in Galesburg, Illinois.", "Morrissey's brothers all were politically active in local affairs and moved beyond their working-class background and the railroad. Brother Michael was elected Bloomington Police Magistrate, learned law, and served as a successful labor arbitrator and lawyer, becoming Bloomington postmaster during Democratic administrations. James Morrissey joined the Bloomington Fire Department, retiring as an assistant chief. John was on the Bloomington Election Commission", ". John was on the Bloomington Election Commission. The one brother to leave town was William, who went to Denver, was active in the labor movement, wrote for the Denver Post and served on the Colorado Boxing Commission.", "Daniel W. Tracy (1886–1954) was another west-side Bloomington Irish rail worker's son who achieved national leadership, as president of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. New electric technology provided Tracy's road to success. After 1893 his father worked for the local street railway. Tracy completed grade school, worked briefly at the C&A shops and then began working for the street railways, occasionally listed as a laborer and later as an electrician.", "Tracy last listed Bloomington as his address in 1913, migrating to the southwest. That year he joined IBEW Local 716 in Houston, working as a lineman in Texas and Oklahoma. Within three years he was business agent for two Houston locals and by 1920 was an International Vice-President for the union, representing the southwest. In 1933, with the union's membership at a record low because of the Depression, Tracy assumed the national organization's leadership, when there were 50,000 members.", "By 1940, under Tracy's leadership and thanks to new legislation favorable to union organization, the IBEW had 200,000 members. A strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Tracy left the union in 1940 to serve as assistant Secretary of Labor under Frances Perkins. He returned to the union's presidency in 1947, served on the AFL's executive council, and led the IBEW as it grew to 360,000 members. He helped strengthen the union's apprenticeship programs and established a pension fund in 1946", ". He helped strengthen the union's apprenticeship programs and established a pension fund in 1946. A fierce anti-communist, Tracy's post-war reign was marked by tension with unions accused of being communist-led. He resigned his union presidency in 1954 and died in 1955. He's buried in Bloomington's St. Mary's Cemetery.", "John Brown Lennon (1850–1923) is perhaps the most fascinating labor leader to impact Bloomington labor. Born in Lafayette County, Wisconsin on October 12, 1850, Lennon's family moved to Hannibal, Missouri within two years, where he learned the tailor's trade from his father. After some education, including seven months at Oberlin College in Ohio, Lennon moved to Denver, where he worked farming and mining before returning to the tailor's trade. He married June Allen in 1871 and they had one son", ". He married June Allen in 1871 and they had one son. Lennon also dates his union membership from that year. He quickly became active in Colorado activities, helping organize the city's central labor council and running for mayor on a labor-socialist ticket. In August 1884 the Journeyman Tailors Union (JTU) reorganized and Lennon represented the Denver tailors. The next year 23 local unions, representing 2,481 tailors, met in convention again. Lennon was elected vice-president.", "In 1886, the JTU elected Lennon general secretary, responsible for the union's affairs and editor of \"The Tailor.\" He relocated to New York, where half the union's membership lived. The union's income that first year was $300. By 1907, the union had grown to 22,000 members in 400 local unions. Lennon also moved forward in the larger labor movement, becoming AFL treasurer in 1890", ". Lennon also moved forward in the larger labor movement, becoming AFL treasurer in 1890. AFL President Samuel Gompers and Lennon became friends and in 1894 when the AFL president lost his post for one year to a socialist opponent, he operated from Lennon's office.", "1894 almost destroyed the JTU after a disastrous New York strike. With the union's membership centered now in the Midwest, Lennon decided to relocate its national headquarters to Bloomington, setting up shop on January 1, 1896 in the Eddy Building, 427 N. Main Street. The family residence was at 614 East Mulberry Street.", "Lennon quickly became active in local union affairs and helped lead the Trades & Labor Assembly, assisting and promoting local unions. Gompers came to Bloomington on June 23, 1899 to visit Lennon and addressed a labor rally that evening. Lennon took his AFL treasurer position seriously and warned the organization against over-expenditure. He also strongly supported Gompers' stances, drawing criticism from Gompers' opponents", ". He also strongly supported Gompers' stances, drawing criticism from Gompers' opponents. In 1909 Lennon was the first president of the AFL's Union Label Department and helped form a Labor Press Association.", "Lennon lost power in 1910, when he was defeated as JTU general secretary by Eugene Brais, a Canadian socialist. Brais publicly advocated socialism, but another pressing issue of the early 20th-century might account for Lennon's defeat—alcohol. Unlike many trade unionists, who often met and organized in neighborhood taverns, Lennon was a strict prohibitionist and temperance advocate", ". In a national union movement dominated by Irish Catholic surnames, Lennon was a traditional White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, active in the Masons. He wrote strident articles for national Protestant and temperance magazines, condemning strong drink.", "Although no longer a national union officer, Gompers insisted on retaining Lennon as AFL treasurer, referring to him as \"my minister without portfolio.\" In 1912 Congress established an industrial relations study to hold national hearings. Gompers appointed, to the protest of progressive groups, Lennon as his personal representative.", "In 1917, Daniel Tobin of the Teamsters replaced Lennon as AFL treasurer. Although he had taken an anti-war stance in 1916, Lennon was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson to the new U.S. Department of Labor's board of mediators, a position he served on through the war years. In 1919, when Lennon was one year short of 70, his wife died. Lennon quickly remarried Barbara Eggers, a Bloomington school teacher with whom he had developed a friendship after her graduation from Bloomington High School in 1900", ". Barbara Lennon was an early advocate for teacher unionization in Bloomington schools.", "1919 was also a politically auspicious year for Lennon. He took a stance Gompers frowned on, actively participating in forming an Illinois Labor Party. He ran for Bloomington mayor that year on a Labor Party ticket and narrowly lost election. He died in 1923 and is buried in Bloomington's Park View Cemetery, 1001 South Morris Avenue, Lot D-41, between his two wives.\n\nCentralia Fairview Park", "Located in Centralia's Fairview Park are two memorials to the area's railroad heritage. Locomotive 2500 is an Illinois Central Railroad 4-8-2 \"Mountain\" locomotive, one of 76 built within the railroad's Paducah, Kentucky shops between 1937 and 1943. Centralia had large car repair and building shops for the Illinois Central and a large roundhouse. Adjoining the locomotive is a tablet honoring railroad engineer Robert I. \"Polecat\" McMillan", ". Adjoining the locomotive is a tablet honoring railroad engineer Robert I. \"Polecat\" McMillan. McMillan retired in 1956 after 67 years of railroad service, at age 83. At that time, he was the \"oldest locomotive engineer\" in the United States. The tablet was erected in 1960.", "Chicago & Alton Railroad Shops site\nNow closed and demolished, Bloomington once was a center for railroad repair and construction by the Chicago and Alton Railroad. Located half-way between Chicago and St. Louis, with a secondary line from Bloomington to Kansas City, this central point on the railroad is where the railroad located its main shops. Here locomotives, passenger and freight cars were renovated. Once McLean County's largest employer, this railroad reached Bloomington from Springfield in 1853.", "It began business in 1847 as the Alton & Sangamon Railroad, beginning construction in 1850 and reaching Springfield in 1853. In 1852 the railroad became the Chicago and Mississippi. In 1855 they located their main repair shops on Bloomington's west side, building locomotives, freight and passenger cars. Local merchants and lawyers donated land to the railroad to induce them to locate their construction and repair facilities here", ". The Shops eventually extended along the Railroad from Locust Street on the south to Seminary Street on the north. By 1857 the Shops had 185 employees. George Pullman came here in 1858 to build his first sleeping car. The line from Bloomington to Joliet was completed in 1856 and to Chicago in 1858. In 1861 the line became the Chicago & Alton. On November 1, 1867 a fire destroyed the Shops; Bloomington citizens again donated funds to rebuild them", ". A branch from Bloomington to Kansas City was completed in 1879. It terminated in Bloomington because local citizens again raised $75,000 to have the line end in Bloomington, rather than curving northward toward Washington to meet up with an existing eastern branch of the company.", "These repair shops necessitated skilled craft workers: boilermakers, machinists, woodworkers, pipefitters, sheet metal workers, blacksmiths and others, employing almost 1,200 at its peak in the early 20th century. The C&A's payroll in 1905 locally was $1.2 million. In 1882 the Shops burned and the community raised $55,000 to expand and rebuild them, after the company threatened to move them to Springfield. A major fire again struck the Shops in 1908", ". A major fire again struck the Shops in 1908. In 1910-12 the community raised $650,000 to buy land to allow for construction of a new locomotive backshop.", "In 1917, 1,200 workers from the repair shops sympathy striked in support of the workers of the Bloomington Streetcar Strike. On July 1, 1922 the workers, organized in AFL craft unions, participated in the national rail shop workers strike and the Illinois National Guard was brought in and encamped around the Shops complex. The workers returned to work in October 1922 on company terms.", "In 1936, the company had 1,500 workers in Bloomington, both shop employees and operating crews, who brought in an annual payroll of almost $2 million. The C&A was absorbed by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1931, released by that company in 1942, bankrupt in 1946 and then absorbed by the Gulf, Mobile & Ohio Railroad, which quickly switched from steam to diesel power, greatly cutting employment at the Bloomington Shops. Today the former C&A line is operated by the Union Pacific Railroad.", "What was the Shops complex can be viewed northward from the West Locust Street bridge or southward from the West Seminary Street bridge in Bloomington. At one time, 31 buildings were part of this complex, stretching on the west side of the railroad yards between these two bridges. Only two buildings remain. On the west side of the former complex, at the east end of Perry Street, is a brick building from the 1910 era", ". On the east side of the complex, at West Chestnut and North Allin Street, is the 19th Chicago & Alton freight house, built of dolomite stone quarried in the Joliet area. This structure is typical of the 19th century buildings which once filled the site. It is now used by a local printing company.", "Champaign County Workers' Memorial Monument\n\nLocated in Dodds Park, on Parkland Way just west of Mattis Avenue in Champaign, Illinois, near the Olympic tribute. It consists of a circular concrete pad with three large black standing tablets, two engraved with the names of those who have died on the job in Champaign County since 1950. The memorial was dedicated on September 2, 2002.", "Decatur Workers' Memorial Monument\nLocated at the northwest corner of the Macon County Courthouse lawn on the corner of Wood and Water streets in Decatur, Illinois. This monument is dedicated to workers who have perished due to occupational death or illness on the job. It serves as a reminder for all workers to continue the fight for safe and healthy workplaces. It was erected by Decatur Trades & Labor Assembly, AFL–CIO, and was dedicated in 2000. A ceremony is held each Workers' Memorial Day April 28.", "Chatham Railroad Museum\nThis museum is located in the old Chicago & Alton Railroad Depot at 100 N. State Street in Chatham, Illinois. The permanent collection includes a library of railroad-related books, photographs, memorabilia, and examples of railroad equipment. The museum is open from 2-4 PM on the second and fourth Sundays of each month. Admission is free.\n\nCherry Mine Disaster Site", "A historical marker is located in the Cherry Village Park on Illinois Route 89. Just north of Cherry are the remnants of the Cherry Coal Mine where 259 miners lost their lives in the 1909 Cherry Mine disaster, one of the worst mine disasters in United States history. The fire was apparently caused by the ignition of a load of hay intended for mule stables in the mine and it spread rapidly. The disaster led to the passage of stricter mine safety regulations and of the Illinois Workmen's Compensation Act", ". The cemetery at the south end of Cherry has a memorial erected in 1914 by the United Mine Workers of America; next to the Public Library & Town Hall is a new memorial, listing the names of the miners killed, erected to mark the centennial of the disaster in 2009. An exhibit of items relating to the disaster is in the Cherry Public Library.", "The Coal Miner", "This statue is located on the northeast grounds of the state capitol in Springfield. Sculpted by John Szaton, this figure honors miners killed on the job in over a century of mining in Illinois. At the urging of Vachel Davis, a Southern Illinois coal miner, poet and artist, the state Representative Paul Powell introduced a bill to appropriate $15,000 for the creation of a monument honoring the Illinois coal miner", ". Davis worked with Tinley Park sculptor John Szaton to transform Davis' famous painting into a 7-foot bronze statue. Dedicated on October 16, 1964. The plaque identifying the sculptor and dedication date was added on December 7, 1981.", "Coal Miners' Memorial", "The memorial located at 100 E. Main Street, in West Frankfort, Illinois, adjacent to the Depot Veterans Museum. The granite pyramid is a symbol of Little Egypt and honors all coal miners. On December 21, 1951, around 8:30 PM, a methane gas explosion caused a fire in the New Orient Mine No. 2 at West Frankfort, killing 119 miners. The blast was so strong it knocked cars weighing several tons off tracks and brought down overhead timbers", ". The explosion blew out the ventilating equipment in the mine, which had to be repaired before rescue operations could begin.", "Coal Miners' Memorial Monument", "This monument is located in Union Cemetery in Panama, Illinois, which is about 60 miles south of Springfield. The 10-foot tall monument is made of black marble and bears an etching of an early coalminer and a quotation from John L. Lewis, former president of the United Mine Workers, who lived in Panama and served as president of the local union in 1910", ". It is especially dedicated to the 6 miners who lost their lives in a 1915 gas explosion in the Panama mine and who are buried in unmarked graves in the cemetery. A total of 144 engraved memorial bricks, which were sold to raise funds for the monument, are laid at the site. This monument was dedicated on May 25, 2003.", "Diamond Mine Disaster Site", "This historical marker is located in Diamond Park in Diamond, Illinois, near Braidwood on the Grundy-Will County line. On February 16, 1883, part of the mine collapsed from the weight of melting snow, ice and heavy rains, trapping miners below. Numerous men and boys were killed, some as young as 13 years old. Steam pumps pumped water out of the mine for 38 days and recover efforts did not begin until March 25. Shortly after, the mine was sealed with the remaining 46 miners entombed.", "First Coal Mine\nAn historical marker (since vanished) located on the north side of Illinois Route 127 at the east end of the bridge over the Big Muddy River east of Murphysboro, Illinois, commemorates the first commercial coal mining operations in Illinois. These were located in the Big Muddy River bluffs about 100 yards west of the highway bridge. These outcroppings not only supplied local needs, but perhaps as early as 1810, coal from them was sent by flatboat to market in New Orleans.", "Zeigler Coal Miners' Memorial\n\nIn the main square in Zeigler, Illinois is the Miners Memorial of Zeigler, with a statue erected in 1974.", "Granite City Steel Mill\nThis mill is probably the longest operating flat roll carbon steel integrated steel mill in the Western Hemisphere. The parent company, Granite Iron", "Rolling Mills started operations in 1878. It may also be the longest continuously unionized steel mill. When five local unions (United Steelworkers 16, 30, 67, 4063 & 9325) merged in 2003, the new became Local 1899. The number was chosen because historical documents verified that a labor agreement between owners and workers existed continuously since 1899.", "The United Steelworkers currently represent most of the 2000+ workforce as Locals 50, 68 and 1899. Other than a brief shutdown from December 2008 to June 2009, during the national financial crisis, the plant has operated continuously since 1878.", "In the late 1960s, financial pressures forced the closely held corporation to be sold to National Steel Corporation which operated the facility until sold in bankruptcy to United States Steel. US Steel currently owns and operated the 130+ year old facility which has been modernized and updated many times in the last forty years.", "Illinois Department of Corrections Memorial\nA memorial wall at the Pontiac Correctional Center in Pontiac, Illinois, honors the memory of Illinois Department of Corrections workers who died on the job. Dedicated May 9, 2002.", "Illinois Firefighters' Memorial", "Located at the lawn of the State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois, near Monroe Street, the memorial was dedicated on May 13, 1999, \"to the firefighters of Illinois who have given their lives in the line of duty and to those who heroically serve with courage, pride and honor.\" The memorial of four life-size, bronze firefighters and a rescued child on a 14-foot-tall stone cairn is surrounded by 2,400 red paver bricks and enclosed by a 2-foot wall", ". It was built through public contributions and the sale of Firefighter Memorial license plates. A ceremony is held at the memorial each May honoring Illinois' fallen Firefighters.", "Illinois Workers' Memorial", "Located on the lawn of the State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois near Monroe street. Paid for by donations from union members, this 3,000 pound memorial \"is dedicated to the memory of the thousands of Illinois workers killed and injured on the job.\" The bronze sculpture of three workers on top of a polished granite base was dedicated on April 28, 1992, with about 800 people in attendance", ". Illinois AFL–CIO President Richard Walsh and Chicago Federation of Labor President Robert Healey moderated the ceremony, with National AFL–CIO President Lane Kirkland giving the keynote speech.", "Irish Railroad Workers' Monument\n\nThe memorial, which consists of a 6-foot marble Celtic cross with an inscription in English and Gaelic on a bronze plaque, is at the site of a mass grave of 50 Irish immigrant railroad workers anonymously buried in Funk's Grove cemetery, 8 miles south of Bloomington, Illinois. The laborers laid a rail line from Springfield, Illinois to Bloomington in 1852. It is presumed they were the victims of a cholera epidemic. Dedicated on Workers' Memorial Day, April 28, 2000.", "Ironworkers' Memorial", "The polished granite memorial is located along Lorentz Avenue, just off of Route 29 in Peoria, Illinois, and honors three members of Ironworkers Local 112 killed when a portion of the scaffolding they were standing on while repairing the McClugage Bridge in Peoria gave way, plunging them 60 feet into the Illinois River. The 4 by 5 foot granite slab has a picture of the McClugage Bridge and the names of the workers etched in it", ". It includes a granite bench and landscaping and was dedicated on April 24, 2001.", "Jacksonville Labor Temple", "The Labor Temple in Jacksonville, Illinois, is perhaps the oldest standing structure associated with organized labor in the United States and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C. It was built by pioneering members of the Jacksonville Trades and Labor Assembly in 1904 in downtown Jacksonville and was used for many decades as a headquarters for Labor", ". In recent years, the building had fallen into disrepair and was deemed unsafe and was in danger of being demolished by the City. The Springfield and Central Illinois Central Labor Council, assisted by the Illinois AFL–CIO and concerned union members, formed the Central Illinois Labor Temple Trust committee and established a trust to purchase the building and restore it to its original beauty. In June 2004 a check for $10,000 was presented to the City of Jacksonville from the state to help with restoration", ".", "John L. Lewis Grave\nThe grave is located in Oak Ridge Cemetery on Monument Avenue in Springfield, Illinois. John L. Lewis (1880–1969), was president of the United Mine Workers of America from 1920 to 1960. He founded the Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1935 and served as its president until 1940. Lewis was born in Iowa and worked as a coal miner in Illinois and Iowa.", "Madison County Workers' Memorial\n Located at the entrance to Gordon F. Moore Park in Alton, Illinois. This memorial is a life-size sculpture of a worker carrying his hard hat and lunch pail on a red granite base and with winged memorials of granite containing the names of men and women of Madison who died on the job.", "John Mitchell Marker", "Historical markers are located in three places in Spring Valley, Illinois. These locations include: the intersection of May Street and East Dakota Street (US Route 6), the intersection of Strong Avenue and West Dakota Street, and the intersection of Caroline Street and County Spaulding Street (Illinois Route 89). John Mitchell was born in Braidwood, Illinois, on February 4, 1870 and began work as a breaker boy in the Braidwood coal mines at the age of 12. From 1890 to 1910 he lived at 210 E", ". From 1890 to 1910 he lived at 210 E. Dakota Street in Spring Valley. He joined the United Mine Workers of America in 1890 and its founding, rising through the ranks, and he served as president of the union from 1899 to 1908. He achieved national prominence in the settlement of the Pennsylvania anthracite miners strike in 1902. During World War I, he served on several city, state and regional agencies, including as chairman of the New York State Industrial Commission", ". Mitchell died September 9, 1919, in New York City and was buried at Scranton, Pennsylvania.", "Mother Jones Monument\nThe monument was erected in 1936 and marks the grave of Mary Harris Jones (\"Mother Jones\", 1830–1930) in the Union Miners' Cemetery in Mount Olive, Illinois. The monument consists of a granite obelisk with a medallion bearing Mother Jones' likeness flanked by two bronze statues of coal miners. The monument is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "Moweaqua Coal Mine Museum", "The museum is located on Route 51 in Moweaqua, Illinois. It was opened in 1985 to commemorate the 1932 Moweaqua Coal Mine disaster, in which a gas explosion killed 54 miners. Methane gas escaped into the mine and was ignited by open flame carbide lights. Such lights were subsequently no longer used. Exhibits include coal mining tools and equipment, contemporary accounts of the disaster, and related artifacts", ". Each Christmas and Memorial Day, a ceremony is held during which 54 flags, each containing an image of a coal miner and his lamp, are displayed.", "Normal Fire Fighters strike", "In the spring of 1978, fire fighters in Normal struck for 56 days to win a first contract. Illinois had no public employee collective bargaining law until the 1980s. Seeking union recognition, Normal Fire Fighters Local 2442 struck in March 1978. The fire fighters maintained fire service from the picket line, refusing to enter the fire station", ". The Town quickly won a court injunction; the fire fighters were sentenced, en masse, to jail, becoming \"Local 24/42\"—24 fire fighters who were sentenced to 42 days in jail. They were broken into two shifts, one shift in the county jail, the second sentenced to work release at the fire station at 604 N. Adelaide Street in Normal. This brought national attention to the strike and frequent demonstrations were mounted outside the fire station and at Town council meetings", ". After serving their 42 days in jail, negotiations resumed between the Town and Local 2442, resulting in a May 1978 contract between the union and the Town of Normal.", "Ottawa Radium Girls Monument\n\nThis 2011 statue at Clinton and West Jefferson Streets memorializes the \"radium girls,\" young women who died of radiation poisoning while painting clock dials in the 1920s and 1930s. The resulting publicity over their court case led to stricter industrial exposure laws.", "Peoria Workers' Memorial\nThe memorial is located in front of the Peoria city hall in Peoria, Illinois, and was erected by the West Central Illinois Labor Council to honor union members who have died on the job.\n\nPeoria Rocky Glen Park\nIn late 2012 the City of Peoria purchased the Rocky Glen area, a wooded, rugged area off Farmington Road. On the limestone outcroppings are carvings that point to this area as a secret organizing and meeting point for early mine workers' union efforts.", "Railroad Workers' Monument", "The monument, dedicated in 1982, is located in Miller Park in Bloomington, Illinois, and commemorates the railroad car building and repair shop workers in the former Chicago & Alton Railroad Company shops in the city, which opened in 1854 and ceased operations in the late 1970s. It is composed of a 6-foot tall whistle, which was blown for beginning and ending work and for lunch breaks at the old shops, mounted on limestone blocks salvaged from the steel car shop walls", ". A plaque dedicates the monument to the thousands who worked in the shops. The monument was built as a Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) project, giving unemployed youth experience at the construction trades, under the leadership of retired union construction workers. Adjoining the monument is Nickel Plate Road steam locomotive 639, which was moved to the park in 1959, also with help from donated union labor", ". This 1923 product from Lima, Ohio's Lima Locomotive Works is a typical 20th century freight steam locomotive, a 2-8-2 wheel arrangement, known as a \"Mikado\" type. Behind the locomotive is a Southern Pacific Railroad baywindow caboose, which was moved to the park by donated union labor in 1996.", "Seneca Shipyard Monument", "Located in Crotty Park in Seneca, Illinois, is a monument to the Landing Ship, Tank (LST), a World War II naval landing vessel. LSTs were built in inland shipyards like Seneca, and then floated down the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans, for use throughout the war. Between 1942 and 1945, 157 LSTs were launched from Seneca, Illinois, which had a workforce of 11,000. The monument includes a reproduction of an LST and panels that reflect the various tasks involved in ship building.", "Refinery History Museum\nThe museum is located at Illinois Route 111 and Madison Avenue in Roxana, Illinois, in a former diagnostic center used for testing cars and engines to produce more efficient fuel. It was founded by retirees from the Shell Wood River Refining Company in 1993 and contains artifacts and memorabilia from the company. The museum is open from 10 AM to 4 PM on Wednesdays and Thursdays.\n\nReuben Soderstrom statue", "Reuben Soderstrom statue\n\nAt the northwest corner of Kent & Park Streets in City Park in downtown Streator, Illinois is a statue to Reuben Soderstrom (1888–1970), erected and dedicated on Labor Day 2012. Soderstrom, born in Minnesota to immigrant Swedish parents, was an Illinois state representative, elected as a Republican, from 1918 to 1936. He became President of the Illinois AFL in 1930 and then the combined Illinois AFL–CIO from 1958 until 1970.", "Southern Illinois Coal Miners' Memorial\nThe monument consists of a stone slab with the figure of a coal miner etched in it. It is located in the city park in Marissa, Illinois, and honors the coal miners of Southern Illinois. It was dedicated August 1, 1921.", "Union Miners' Cemetery\nLocated in Mount Olive, Illinois. The cemetery was founded in 1899 originally to house the graves of Mt. Olive miners killed in the Battle of Virden, October 12, 1898. It contains the graves of Mary Harris \"Mother\" Jones and coal miners. The cemetery is on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\nChicago labor history sites", "Chicago labor history sites\n\nChicago Labor Mural – Teamster Power\nThis huge mural celebrates the 1997 United Parcel Service strike victory and includes images of Albert Parsons, Haymarket martyr and his labor activist wife Lucy Parsons. Created in 1998 by Mike Alewitz, located at 300 S. Ashland Teamster City. The building has since been replaced and the mural is gone. Few at Teamster City remember it.", "Chicago Labor Mural – The Worker", "Presents the 20th century history of labor-management struggle in the meatpacking industry of Chicago. Located at 4859 S. Wabash (south exterior), the former headquarters building of District 1, United Packinghouse Workers of America, CIO. The building is now the Charles Hayes Family Investment Center operated by the Chicago Housing Authority", ". The mural was created in 1974 by William Walker,\"father of the Chicago mural movement\" and commissioned by the Illinois Labor History Society with funding from the Illinois Arts Council. The mural was restored in 1998 by Bernard Williams.", "Chicago Labor Mural – Fabric of our Lives\nCeramic and glass tile mosaic, 12 × 14 foot depicting the life, labor and culture of Jewish immigrants in Chicago. Located at 3003 W. Touhy Avenue and created in 1980 by Miriam Socoloff & Cynthia Weiss.\n\nCigar Makers' Union Monument\nHonors the surrounding graves of Chicago cigar makers. Located in Forest Home Cemetery (Waldheim); DesPlaines Avenue in Forest Park, Illinois.", "Gompers Park, Chicago", "Located at the corner of Foster and Pulaski Avenues in the North Park community, Gompers Park covers nearly 39 acres. The park straddles the Chicago River and features rehabilitated wetlands and a lagoon with pier access that lends itself to many environmental activities. A bronze statue by Susan Clinard memorializes Samuel Gompers (1850–1924), an important figure in the American labor movement", ". Born in London to a poor family of Jewish immigrants from the Netherlands, Gompers began working with his father as a cigar maker at the age of ten. He continued this work after he and his family settled on New York's Lower East Side in 1863. The following year, Gompers joined the United Cigar Makers and became increasingly concerned about conditions for workers and for relations between labor organizations", ". He was elected as the president of the Cigar Makers' International Union in 1875 and went on to help found the Federation of Trade and Labor Unions, which was later reorganized as the American Federation of Labor. Gompers served as the organization's first and longest–serving president.", "Graceland Cemetery\nThe cemetery is located at 4001 N. Clark Street in Chicago, with the main entrance near Clark Street and Irving Park Road. Among those buried here are company founders George Pullman, Philip D. Armour, and Cyrus Hall McCormick; Governor John Peter Altgeld, who pardoned the remaining men convicted of the Haymarket bombing; and Allan Pinkerton, founder of the detective agency. The cemetery is open from 8 am to 4:30 pm.", "Margaret A. Haley Plaque\nA plaque honoring Margaret Haley is located in the headquarters of the Chicago Teachers' Union in the Merchandise Mart in Chicago. Margaret Haley was a pioneer of teacher unionism in the city. She was the first business representative of the Chicago Teachers Federation and a founder of and the first national organizer of the American Federation of Teachers.\n\nHaymarket affair memorials", "On May 4, 1886, hundreds of workers gathered at Haymarket Square to demand an eight-hour day and to protest police action of the previous day against strikers at the McCormick Reaper plant. A bomb was thrown into the crowd by an unknown person, killing one police officer and wounding about 100 other people. Police started shooting, killing and injuring other police and workers. Eight anarchist leaders who were involved in organizing the meeting were found guilty of murder, and four were hanged.", "Haymarket Martyrs' Monument, by sculptor Albert Weinert, is located in Forest Home (Waldheim) Cemetery, in the 900 block of S. Des Plaines Avenue, just south of the Eisenhower Expressway in Forest Park, Illinois. It marks the graves of seven of the eight Haymarket martyrs and is dedicated to the four men hanged for the Haymarket bombing on May 4, 1886. This monument takes its inspiration from \"La Marseillaise\", the national anthem of France", ". This monument takes its inspiration from \"La Marseillaise\", the national anthem of France. It depicts a laurel wreath being placed on the brow of the fallen hero, as the figure of Justice, the Goddess of Liberty represented by Marianne, advances resolutely toward the future. The Pioneer Aid and Support Society erected the monument and dedicated it on June 25, 1893. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997.", "Haymarket Square Memorial, dedicated to the struggles leading to the Haymarket riot, was dedicated on Labor Day 2004 on the corners of Randolph and Des Plaines streets in Chicago.", "Hull House Museum\nTwo restored original buildings from Chicago's first settlement house, founded by Jane Addams in 1889, are located at 800 S. Halsted Street in Chicago. Addams devoted her life to social improvement, the abolishment of sweatshops and securing the passage of legislation to improve working conditions. Hull House is a National Historic Landmark and is operated by the University of Illinois at Chicago. Hours are weekdays 10 am-4 pm, Sunday noon-5. Admission is free.", "Joliet Labor Murals – Preparing the World\nMural in 1996 by Kathleen Scarboro and Kathleen Farrell is located on the northwest corner of Michigan and Cass Streets in Joliet, Illinois. Features workers on the job in Joliet's important wallpaper industry.\n\nJoliet Labor Murals – City of Steel\nMural in 1997 by Javier Chavira is located on the northeast side of Michigan Street at East Washington Street in Joliet, Illinois. Honors the workers, both women and men, of Joliet's former steel industry.", "Memorial Day Massacre", "A memorial to the persons who died in the Memorial Day massacre of 1937 is located at the union hall of United Steelworkers of America Local 1033 at 11731 Avenue O, Chicago. When Republic Steel refused to recognize the Steelworkers Organizing Committee, supporters from around Chicago gathered at the union's headquarters on Memorial Day 1937 and marched toward the Republic Steel mill. Police tried to stop the march and fired into the crowd killing 10 people and pursuing fleeing demonstrators.", "Lucy Parsons Park\nLocated at 4712 W. Belmont Avenue in the Portage Park neighborhood of Chicago, the pocket park is named for Lucy Ella Gonzales Parsons (1853–1942), organizer, feminist, and anarchist, the wife of Albert Parsons, who was hanged in 1887 for participation in the Haymarket Riot. Lucy Parsons was a noted public speaker and writer. She attended the founding convention in Chicago of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1905 and led a march of Chicago unemployed in 1915.", "Pullman Historic District", "centering on 111th Street and Cottage Grove Avenue in Chicago, the district extends east to I-94. The first planned industrial town in the nation, Pullman was founded in 1880 by George Pullman, inventor of the railroad sleeping car, for his workers. In 1894 violence connected with a strike over wage cuts caused President Cleveland to send federal troops to restore order. In 1907 the town was annexed to Chicago. A visitor's center is located at the Florence Hotel, 11111 S. Forrestville.", "A. Philip Randolph Pullman Porter Museum\nThis privately run museum was founded in 1995 as a tribute to Pullman porters, whose union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, was the first black labor union to negotiate a collective bargaining agreement with a major corporation. The museum is located at 10406 S. Maryland Avenue in Chicago.", "Workers' Memorial Mural\nA mural dedicated to workers who died on the job is located in the lobby of International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW) Local 134, 600 W. Washington Blvd. in Chicago. The memorial was dedicated in 1998.\n\nSee also\n Illinois Labor History Society\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Barbara Egger Lennon Collection, McLean County Museum of History\n\nHistory of Illinois\nIllinois-related lists\nUnited States history-related lists\nIllinois Historical Sites\nLabor monuments and memorials" ]

[ "The Massachusetts Provincial Congress (1774–1780) was a provisional government created in the Province of Massachusetts Bay early in the American Revolution. Based on the terms of the colonial charter, it exercised de facto control over the rebellious portions of the province, and after the British withdrawal from Boston in March 1776, the entire province. When Massachusetts Bay declared its independence in 1776, the Congress continued to govern under this arrangement for several years", ". Increasing calls for constitutional change led to a failed proposal for a constitution produced by the Congress in 1778, and then a successful constitutional convention that produced a constitution for the state in 1780. The Provincial Congress came to an end with elections in October 1780.", "Termination of the provincial assembly\n\nOn May 20, 1774, the Parliament of Great Britain passed the Massachusetts Government Act in an attempt to better assert its authority in the often troublesome colony. In addition to annulling the provincial charter of Massachusetts, the act prescribed that, effective August 1, the members of the Massachusetts Governor's Council would no longer be elected by the provincial assembly, and would instead be appointed by the King and hold office at his pleasure.", "In October 1774, Governor Thomas Gage dissolved the provincial assembly, then meeting in Salem, under the terms of the Government Act. The members of the assembly met anyway, adjourning to Concord and organizing themselves as a Provincial Congress on October 7, 1774. With John Hancock as its president, this extralegal body became the de facto government of Massachusetts outside of Boston. It assumed all powers to rule the province, collect taxes, buy supplies, and raise a militia", ". It assumed all powers to rule the province, collect taxes, buy supplies, and raise a militia. Hancock sent Paul Revere to the First Continental Congress with the news that Massachusetts had established the first autonomous government of the Thirteen Colonies (The North Carolina Provincial Congress met earlier than the Massachusetts Congress, although it could be argued that North Carolina's body did not establish an actual government until 1775).", "Until the advent of the American Revolutionary War the congress frequently moved its meeting site, because a number of its leaders (John Hancock and Samuel Adams among them) were liable to be arrested by British authorities.", "War years", "After the war began, the provincial congress established a number of committees to manage the rebel activity in the province, starting with the need to supply and arm the nascent Continental Army that besieged Boston after the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord", ". Pursuant to recommendations of the Second Continental Congress, it in 1775 declared that a quorum of the council (which under the colonial charter acted as governor in the absence of both the governor and lieutenant governor) would be sufficient to make executive decisions. Although the assembly adjourned from time to time, the council remained in continuous session until the new state constitution was introduced in 1780.", "This arrangement was only marginally satisfactory, and led to calls for a proper constitution as early as 1776. By 1778, these calls had widened, particularly in Berkshire County, where a protest in May of that year prevented the Superior Court from sitting.", "These calls for change led to a failed proposal for a constitution produced by the congress in 1778, and then a successful constitutional convention that produced a constitution for the state in 1780. The provisional government came to an end with elections in October 1780.\n\nConventions of the People", "In 1774 there were conventions held in the counties of Massachusetts in order to deal with the political crisis at the time. With the dismissal of the Provincial Assembly by the Royal Governor Thomas Gage the people of Massachusetts with patriot sympathies desired to form their own provisional government", ". Much like the Massachusetts Convention of Towns which met in Boston in 1768, these conventions were extralegal assemblies designed to address the concerns of the people of the Province of Massachusetts Bay These meetings drafted their political causes for their convening and other grievances. These conventions, later styled \"Conventions of the People\", set the stage for the Provincial Congress and acted as its precursors.", "Suffolk Convention\n\nThe Suffolk County convention took place in private homes in Dedham and Milton. Joseph Warren served as Chairman. The convention condemned the unconstitutional acts of the royal government (Massachusetts Government Act) and the presence of the British military in Boston.", "There were nineteen resolutions passed at the convention. Firstly the convention acknowledged King George III is the rightful monarch of the British Realm and that the colonists were the lawful subjects of the Crown. That the rights and liberties afforded to them were hard fought and that it was their duty to defend, maintain, and hand down those rights. The recent acts of the British Parliament are subverting the rights of the people", ". The recent acts of the British Parliament are subverting the rights of the people. This includes the dissolution of the Provincial Assembly, the blockade of Boston Harbor, the subversion of legal protection, and presence of British troops in Boston. The rights of the colonists are natural, constitutional, and guaranteed by the charter of the province", ". The convention stated the Province is not required to follow or abide by these recent laws because they are the result of a \"wicked administration\" seeking to \"enslave America.\" Any justices, magistrates, or officials in general which were appointed by the current government were illegitimate and unconstitutional. Anyone who cooperates with the said government will be acting and collaborating with an enemy force", ". All officers whose duty it is to make payment to the state ought not to make it to the civil government until there is a constitutional replacement. That any person who has accepted a position in the civil government, not by constitutional means but by \"virtue of a mandamus from the king\" has affronted the people of Massachusetts and become the enemies of the people of the colony. Therefore, the convention gave until September for all officials to resign their position.", "The convention stated the fortifications that were built on Boston Neck were acts of aggression against the people. The commander-in-chief of the British forces has also acted unjustly by seizing gunpowder from the Charlestown magazine, as it is not the property of the government. The convention also condemned an act in Canada which enacted French laws and established the Roman Catholic religion", ". The convention said that these laws are hostile to the Protestant people of all America, and dangerous to their civil liberties. The convention also declared that all officers should be stripped of their commission, and that new officers shall be selected by their respective towns based on ability. They went on to declare that the colonists will continue to act in the defensive to protect themselves, and show they were to the hostile party.", "It was further stated at the convention through resolution that as long as those who are fighting for the rights of their countrymen are being apprehended that officials of the government will be seized and held until the release of such persons. There was also a call to further boycott any and all merchandise that is the result of commerce with Great Britain, or any of its crown territories in the West Indies and Ireland", ". The convention form a local committee whose purpose was to organize local manufacturers and artisans in order to promote their goods.", "The Suffolk Convention called for a Provincial Congress to be called and that such a congress would align with the Continental Congress in Philadelphia until all rights are restored. There was further call to abstain from any violent acts which might damage private property in the province. The convention further went on to state that the committees of correspondence shall be dispatched in the event of invasion or emergency.\n\nMiddlesex Convention", "The Middlesex County Convention took place in Concord in August 1774, with James Prescott serving as Chairman and Ebenezer Bridge serving as Clerk. The delegates resolved to say that the recent acts of the British Parliament are tyrannical and go against any notion of jurisprudence. The delegates reiterated their loyalty to the Crown, however they maintained their duty to protect their rights that had been granted through the Massachusetts Charter", ". The charter, said the convention, equally binds the colonists and the Crown, and that the acts of Parliament have broken that trust. The convention stated that their existed an unequal relationship between the colonists in New England and the government in Great Britain due to the severing of privileges without the colonists having the ability to respond politically", ". They also stated that because of this unequal relationship, and the subverting of the civil government through the Massachusetts Government Act that there can be no freedom for the people of Massachusetts as there is no true representative governmental body. This is further exacerbated, the convention claimed, by the removal of a just system of law with fair and independent jury trials. The delegates went on to express their view that this new order was a form of despotism which strips them of all liberty", ".", "The convention called into question the legality of a sworn official serving in the colonial civil government calling them unconstitutional, therefore no person was obliged to follow their authority. The courts and all the motions and cases which are products of them were also deemed to be unconstitutional and therefore were not legitimate in any way. The convention declared their support for the establishment of a Provincial Assembly in which delegates from each town would go and be represented.", "Essex Convention", "The Essex County convention was held in on September 6 and September 7 in Ipswich with Jeremiah Lee serving as Chairman and John Pickering Jr. as Clerk. The delegates resolved that the Parliament of Great Britain has passed acts detrimental to all the colonies in North America but to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in particular. The convention described these acts and the actions of the local Royal civil government as being overzealous, unconstitutional, and threatening to the peace of the colony", ". The delegates declared that their inalienable rights which are granted to them as Englishmen were under threat. The convention declared the courts and local officials serving under the Royal administration as unlawful and unconstitutional. The delegates called for the formation of a local assembly to be called so as to have their guaranteed rights restored", ". The delegates declared their loyalty to the Crown however said they would act to ensure that their rights and liberties would not go on being tarnished.", "Hampshire Convention", "In Northampton on September 22 and 23 in 1774, the delegates from towns of Hampshire county gathered in assembly. Ebenezer Hunt was selected as Clerk and Timothy Danielson as the Chairman. At the end of the convention the delegates had drafted nine resolutions. The delegates first reaffirmed their allegiance to the King as long as he sought to defend their rights guaranteed them by the colonial charter", ". They went on to declare that the colonial charter is a sacred document and agreement shared between two parties: the King and the people. It is unjust and unlawful, they declared, for one party to withdraw from the charter without the input from the other, affirming that nothing done in the colony could be described as the desire to sever this agreement. Thomas Gage was declared to be an unconstitutional governor of Massachusetts Bay", ". Thomas Gage was declared to be an unconstitutional governor of Massachusetts Bay. According to the delegates by undermining the authority of the constitutionally elected assembly and by enforcing acts of Parliament that are detrimental to the liberty of the inhabitants of Massachusetts Bay.", "The Convention echoed and supported the calls from the Middlesex Convention for the establishment of a Provincial Congress with each town sending delegates. It is only when there is a constitutionally beholden assembly that the civil officials throughout Massachusetts Bay could be seen as legitimate. Furthering these sentiments the convention asserted to role of the town meeting in the passage and management of laws", ". The final resolution of the assembly was to urge all the inhabitants of Hampshire County to \"acquaint themselves with the military art\" and to furnish all the lawful weaponry at their disposal.", "Plymouth Convention\n\nThe convention for Plymouth County was held on its first day in Plympton, Massachusetts and in the Town of Plymouth for its second meeting. The dates of the convention were September 26 and 27, with Thomas Lothrop serving as Clerk and James Warren as Chairman.", "The conventions first resolution was to declare that all the inhabitants of the American colonies are entitled to their natural rights and are to not to be governed by any entity that they do not consent to. The delegates went to say that their only connection to Great Britain was through their inheritance of the colonial charter. They accused the Parliament of Britain of operating in a severe and unjust way, and curtailing their civil and religious liberties", ". The convention expressed that it was the duty of everyone in the Province to oppose entirely and to not in any way submit to this unjust government. The delegates said that the current Royal government is a \"barrier of liberty, and security of life and property...\" Because these officials are members of an unjust system, by accepting their positions they have marked themselves as enemies to the people they are supposed to be serving and living with", ". Therefore, the convention charges, these people who have neglected their own society have lost all virtue.", "The delegates called for the creation of a Provincial Congress in order to properly represent the people of Massachusetts Bay. They further called for the people of Plymouth County to arm themselves and to become accustomed with military discipline", ". Declaring that any money paid to the Royal civil government may be misappropriated to causes that may be a detriment to the people, the convention asked all people to stop making any payments until the government, or a government, exists with a constitutional foundation. The construction of fortifications on Boston Neck and the seizing of the gunpowder in Charlestown were also described as overtly hostile acts", ". Similar to the Suffolk Convention, the convention in Plymouth said that due to the violation of rights of those in Massachusetts Bay, Crown officials should be seized and not returned until all patriots are returned unharmed. The convention also reaffirmed the importance of the town meeting in these towns and declared that the local government should go on uninterrupted", ". Another resolution passed urged the people to interrupt and impede an attempt at the civil government to any business that runs counter to the constitutional order of society, even though the convention was ended with a plea to avoid any riots or any acts that would greatly disturb the Province.", "Bristol Convention", "The convention in Bristol County took place on September 28 and 29 at the courthouse in Taunton with Zephaniah Leonard as Chairman. The delegates in Bristol declared that King George III was their rightful monarch and that their relationship to the British Crown went back to the reign of King William III and Queen Mary II who granted them the Province's colonial charter", ". And according to the colonial charter, the delegates argued, they had the right to organize their own governance and decide their own laws and practices. The convention passed a resolution which stated that they were opposed to disorder and acts of mob violence, however would ensure that the rights of the people of Bristol County would not be subverted, finally stating that they reserve the right to call their county convention into assembly whenever they saw fit.", "Worcester Convention\n\nAssembly of the County of Worcester Committee of Correspondence", "Worcester County's committee of correspondence held a convention of its members in September and August 1774 in Worcester. Chosen as Chairman and Clerk were William Young and William Henshaw, respectively. The delegation selected a committee which drafted resolutions for the greater convention to vote on. Much like the other conventions held in Massachusetts Bay the convention reasserted their loyalty and constitutional connection to the British Crown in the person of King George III", ". They outlined the connection they have to their land is through the Massachusetts Charter which guarantees not only their allegiance to the Monarchy but also guarantees them certain rights and privileges. They went on to add that the destruction of this relationship, i.e. the cancelling of the agreement by one party without the consent of the other, ensures not only the severing of the union between the province and Royal Government politically but also destroys the allegiance of the people to the Crown", ". Delegates pointed to the acts of Parliament, which they beloved violated their chartered agreement, as being hostile. Adding that not only through political power had the Parliament shown hostility but through egregious taxation and the blocking of the port of Boston.", "As a result of these actions the assembly called on every American to do what was in their power to oppose these acts. They resolved to say that Americans by boycotting British goods would hurt the people and commerce of Great Britain than it would to the people of the American colonies.\n\nAt the same time, on September 6, militiamen in Worcester prevented court officials appointed by the governor to take office in an episode that become known as the Worcester Revolt.\n\nCounty-wide Convention", "At the county meeting the convention elected William Young as their President. The convention voted on and passed all the resolutions which had been drawn up by the assembly of the Committee of Correspondence. The convention then added resolutions of its own. Firstly that all people must do what they could to disrupt and prevent the sitting of the Courts which were a part of the Royal civil government", ". Instead of relying on the civil government, which they saw as unjust, the delegates resolved that every community ought to organize itself in a matter of security and order. Adding that these communities are charged with selecting amongst themselves representatives to represent them at the wider Provincial Congress.", "For military resolutions the convention determined that every member of the committee should obtain a full stock of gunpowder and that the town of the county should be properly armed in the event on an invasion. The delegates went on to say that the local militia should be administered in a manner which is respectful of the local population and it should abstain from destroying any property", ". They added that each town ought to select officers for its militia and that one third of the men in each town from ages 16 to 60 years old be available at a minute's notice.", "The convention called for printing offices to be set up in order to adequately inform the population as to the resolves and motions being undertaken at the convention and any future assembly.\n\nFirst Congress", "Following the proclamation from Governor Thomas Gage which dissolved the General Court of Massachusetts, members of the assembly and other Patriots convened on October 5, 1774 in Salem, Massachusetts. This first meeting took place at the Salem Court House and during which the list of delegates was formulated and officers of the assembly were chosen. John Hancock was selected as Chair and Benjamin Lincoln was selected to be the Clerk", ". John Hancock was selected as Chair and Benjamin Lincoln was selected to be the Clerk. The Congress then drafted a letter of declaration to be circulated in local papers declaring the assembly to be formed in response to the dissolution of the colonial government.", "The subsequent meetings in Concord, Massachusetts dealt with the political crisis and the congress formed various committees in order to deal with territory still under Colonial occupation. The congress declared that all provincial officers, whether they be sheriffs, tax collectors, constables, and so on, were to no longer pay money over to any royal officer and instead pay to the Provincial Congress", ". Delegates were chosen into a committee whose job it was to gather information as to the state and strength of the British Army in Massachusetts. The congress directed that a militia company which had not yet elected their officer were to do so as soon as possible. These officers were then to be directed to organize units of 50 minutemen to stand by at the ready. A \"Committee of Safety\" was then formed in order to provide leadership in military matters and in matters related to security", ". There were to be three delegates chosen from Boston and six delegates from the \"country\". The congress also elected three men to be general officers charged with command of the militia. The Governor's Council, which was elected in the colonial government in May 1774, was invited to form again and serve as an advisory council to the Congress", ". Also selected was a standing committee, also likened as a \"committee of safety\" yet distinct from the one chosen for security, which was to serve while congress was not in session to provide continuity in government.", "The Congress voted on December 1 five members to be delegates to the Continental Congress in the following April. The five members chosen were, John Hancock, John Adams, Thomas Cushing, Robert Treat Paine, and Samuel Adams.", "The first congress drafted letters and proclamations to then colonial Governor Thomas Gage with their grievances and opinions concerning his decisions and the decisions of the Royal government in general. These communications denounced Gage's actions as \"warlike\" and accused him of acting in a hostile manner to those who he was charged with ruling", ". The congress also called into question the constitutionality of the decisions made by the royal government in regards to the dismissal of the province's assemblymen and councilors. It is in this pretext that the Provincial Congress asserted its legal and ethical authority and justification. The first congress adjourned on December 10, 1774.", "Officers\n\nDeputies in Congress\n\nSecond Congress", "The Provincial Congress met again in Cambridge on February 1, 1775. John Hancock was unanimously reelected to be Congress President and Benjamin Lincoln was reappointed as Clerk, now styled Secretary. Delegates responding to meetings of Committees of Correspondence voted and argued on resolutions concerning the management of supplies and information for the militia and their encampment in and around Boston", ". Congress also reaffirmed that tax and revenue are to be paid to the then Receiver-General Henry Gardner instead of any Royal Officers who remained in an official post.", "Samuel Adams, John Adams, John Hancock, Thomas Cushing, and Robert Treat Paine were also chosen to remain as the delegates to the Continental Congress and were to attend its next session in May. In the absence of the President of the Congress (then Hancock who was charged with the duty of representing Massachusetts in Philadelphia) the Secretary was given the authority to manage and adjourn the Provincial Congress", ". Congress also reestablished its authority by stating that Committees of Correspondence must adhere to the rulings of the assembly until another constitutional assembly comes into being.", "A new Committee of Safety was chosen by delegates. The new members were to be John Hancock, Benjamin Church, Joseph Warren, Benjamin White, Richard Devens, Joseph Palmer, Abraham Watson, Azor Orne, John Pigeon, Jabez Fisher, and William Heath. The Committee of Safety was given new powers to determine on their own a Commissariat and its members. The Committee was also given full authority of the militia and all business which pertains to its upkeep and maintenance.", "With the escalating military conflict with Great Britain the Congress adopted measures as to safeguard and preserve supplies in the event of the confiscation of materials by Royal authorities or further hardship brought on by war. This included the stockpiling of straw as well as linen. The delegates further resolves that any person who did business with the Royal Army would mark themselves as an enemy of the people of Massachusetts Bay", ". Delegates dealt with the issue of securing funds for its delegates and to estimate the commercial and economic cost that has been incurred due to the Boston Port Bill. Delegates then decided that an agent ought to be sent to the Province of Quebec in order to determine what the political atmosphere was and where public opinion regarding the Intolerable Acts resided", ". Congress also sent correspondence to the Board of Selectmen of each town to organize and train the militia due to the immediate military threat from Great Britain. Additionally the Congress prioritized the manufacture and purchasing of as many weapons as needed for defense. A committee was then formed in order to better communicate with the other revolutionary New England governments, as well as colonial governments in Canada.", "March 16 was designated by Congress to be a public day of fasting and or prayer, and was to be done in respect to the current political crisis but also as continuation of custom from their forebears.", "The Second Congress attempted to further regulate and centralize the armed forces in the Province. This included the institution of an oath of allegiance for the head of the Provincial militia/army to the President of the Congress, the regulation of the Committee of Safety, and the forced disarmament of all persons in the Province who were suspected of not having a willingness to join in the militia", ". In terms of martial matters the Congress also wished to expand the size of the standing army and expand its artillery and officer corps. The Congress also drafted a latter to the Penobscot tribe in attempt to elicit their support in the fight against Great Britain. The letter offers supplies and equipment to the tribe in hopes of the Penobscot enlisting other northern Tribes in war.", "Committee of Safety", "The Committee of Safety was the parallel military and executive organization of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress. While at first the Committee existed as a legislative committee that existed under the authority of a standing committee of delegates and the Provincial Congress, the Committee of Safety at one point evolved into the de facto executive of the provisional state as well as the Commander-in-Chief of Massachusetts' armed forces (Massachusetts Militia and the Massachusetts Naval Militia)", ". First organized in the first congress of the provisional government in 1774, the committee was at first a technocratic organization tasked with oversight of the military situation in Massachusetts Bay, with the meetings of the second and third congress the committee was given increased power and authority to govern Massachusetts while the Congress was not in session", ". The Committee of Safety was given the authority to name its own members of the Commissariat and to procure and administer all military supplies in the province.", "With the conflict with the Kingdom of Great Britain expanding and the military of Massachusetts existing as a militia to be ready at a moments notice, the Congress saw a need for a permanent committee to oversee the martial affairs. The Congress only met occasionally and it was impractical to have the militia only answer to the Congress alone with the situation being so fluid.", "The first Congress in 1774 rested supreme authority in the legislature. The executive was to be an Executive Standing Committee that served jointly with the Massachusetts Governor's Council. The Committee of Safety received order from the congress and was tasked with carrying them out as well as maintaining reports of the military situation in Massachusetts Bay for the delegates of Congress", ". The Commissariat was at first separate and distinct from the Committee of Safety and there was also another committee formed to deal with the militia and Selectmen of the towns of Massachusetts Bay. This Committee had nine members, three limited to the Boston and five for the country.", "The Second Congress expanded the powers of the committee. When delegates gathered in 1775 the Committee of Safety was given more authority and expanded powers. The Committee would be selected from delegates at the congress however they could now select their own Commissaires and were given control of the militia. This meant the committee had the authority to muster the militia whenever it saw fit, determine the number of men it saw as necessary, as well as naming officers it desired for commission", ". All matters of high importance were still subject to Congressional approval in order to make sure it did not have too much independent power. The Council of War was created in the Congress while it was in session to serve as the \"oversight committee\" of the group as well as give it official orders. Fearful of overstepping its own authority the Committee made constant recommendations to the Provincial Congress in matters it believed were outside its control.", "The Third Congress stripped many of the powers given to the committee by the Second Congress. The Committee of Safety was to no longer administer the military alone and instead was subject to the authority of the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Forces. Further, its powers were limited to oversight of provisions and goods for the military, caring for prisoners of war and Tory prisoners, caring for the poor, and administrate concerns of public health.", "See also\n Massachusetts Convention of Towns (1768), a precursor to the Provincial Congress.\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources \n\n \n \n (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century; volume 3 deals with the provisional period and post-independence history until 1820)\n \n https://www.nps.gov/mima/learn/historyculture/thewaysidewhitney.htm", "Massachusetts in the American Revolution\n1774 in the Thirteen Colonies\n1774 establishments in the Province of Massachusetts Bay\n1780 disestablishments in the United States\n1774 in the Province of Massachusetts Bay" ]

[ "Major Charles Livingston Kelly (10 April 1925 – 1 July 1964) was a United States Army helicopter pilot and medical evacuation unit commander during the Vietnam War. Because of the central role he played in the development of early battlefield evacuation techniques during the war—and the central role his death on the battlefield played in cementing those techniques in Army doctrine at a time they were being questioned by line commanders—he earned the sobriquet \"The Father of Dustoff\".", "Early life\nCharles Livingston Kelly was born on 10 April 1925 in Wadley, Georgia, the eldest of three sons born to Charlton L. Kelly and Ruth Amelia Moore Kelly. His father died when he was six years old, and his mother never remarried. He was raised in Sylvania, Georgia. Kelly was of Irish descent.\n\nWorld War II", "Kelly dropped out of high school and lied about his age in order to enlist in the Army at the age of 15. He used a birth date of 22 December 1922 and enlisted under the name \"Charles L. Kelley\". He reported for active duty at Fort Screven, Georgia, on 25 February 1941 for 1 year of service as an army medic. As enlistment contracts at that time included an \"or duration plus six months\" clause, Kelly left the service as a corporal on 3 August 1945", ". He served overseas with the 30th Infantry Division and, although he was listed as a medic as late as May 1944, he was serving as an infantryman when he was wounded by an artillery shell fragment during the battle for Aachen, Germany. Kelly's injury was a severe one, a compound fracture of the fibula which kept him hospitalized for treatment and recovery from the time he was wounded in October 1944 until June 1945", ". Patrick Henry Brady, who served under Kelly in South Vietnam, said that Kelly's experience as a wounded infantryman was what would later drive him as a medical evacuation pilot.", "Post-war activities", "After his discharge from the Army, Kelly returned to Sylvania, Georgia. He completed his education at the Sylvania High School, participating in the senior play and graduating in 1947 as the class President. He was also active in the Sylvania Junior Chamber of Commerce, where he served as Secretary-Treasurer, and in the George Alexander Post of the American Legion. It was also during this time that he courted, and married, Jessie Hillis of Sylvania. They had a son, Charles Kelly Jr", ". They had a son, Charles Kelly Jr., and two daughters, Carol and Barbara.", "Following his graduation from high school, Kelly enrolled in the Georgia Teachers College in Statesboro, Georgia, graduating with a Bachelor of Science in 1950. He then followed that by obtaining a Master of Arts in geology from the George Peabody College in Nashville, Tennessee.", "After obtaining his master's degree, Kelly taught for a short time in Warm Springs, Georgia, before applying for a commission in the Army. He accepted a commission as a second lieutenant in the United States Army Reserve on 25 October 1951 and was ordered to active duty—the customary career path for a Medical Service Corps Officer at the time. He accepted a Regular Army commission in the Medical Service Corps on 16 June 1954.", "Assignments\nThe table below lists Kelly's assignments with details where available. His service as commander of the 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance) in South Vietnam is covered in greater detail in subsequent sections.\n\nThe 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance) in Vietnam\nKelly is often erroneously credited with being the first commander of the 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance) in South Vietnam, or of selecting the callsign \"Dustoff\" for the 57th. Neither is true.", "The 57th Medical Detachment was activated at Fort Sam Houston on 6 April 1953. The detachment departed Fort Sam Houston on a permanent Change of station move on 5 November 1957, arriving at Fort George G. Meade, Maryland on 20 November 1957. The detachment, under the command of Captain John P. Temperilli Jr", ". The detachment, under the command of Captain John P. Temperilli Jr., MSC, was alerted for overseas movement on 15 February 1962 and departed the Continental United States aboard the on 8 March 1962 and arrived in South Vietnam on 26 April 1962, bringing with it the first five UH-1s to deploy to Vietnam", ". Upon arrival the detachment, among the very first units of the Army Medical Department to arrive in Vietnam, was placed under the command and control of the 8th Field Hospital, whose commander was also assigned the role of Surgeon, United States Army Support Command, Vietnam.", "Temperelli was replaced on 26 February 1963 by Major Lloyd E. Spencer. It was Spencer who would select the callsign \"Dustoff\" for the 57th.", "During its first year in country, the 57th worked without a tactical call sign, simply using \"Army\" and the tail number of the aircraft. For example, if a pilot were flying a helicopter with the serial number 62-12345, his call sign would be \"Army 12345\". The 57th communicated internally on any vacant frequency it could find. Major Spencer decided that this improvised system needed to be replaced by something more formal", ". Major Spencer decided that this improvised system needed to be replaced by something more formal. He visited the Navy Support Activity, Saigon, which controlled all the call signs in South Vietnam. He received a Signal Operations Instructions book that listed all the unused call signs. Most, like \"Bandit\", were more suitable for assault units than for medical evacuation units. But one entry, \"Dust Off\", epitomized the 57th's medical evacuation missions", ". But one entry, \"Dust Off\", epitomized the 57th's medical evacuation missions. Since the countryside then was dry and dusty, helicopter pickups in the fields often blew dust, dirt, blankets, and shelter halves all over the men on the ground. By adopting \"Dust Off\", Spencer found for Army aeromedical evacuation in Vietnam a name that lasted the rest of the war.", "Although unit callsigns at the time were rotated periodically to preserve operations security, it was determined that having a fixed callsign for medical evacuation—and a fixed frequency—would be more advantageous for medical evacuation operations, and so the 57th's callsign was not changed as it normally would have been at the end of the period for the Signal Operations Instructions.", "One of the earliest arriving Army Medical Department units in theater, the 57th was also the longest serving, leaving theater on 9 March 1973, less than three weeks before the final exit of US troops, for its new home at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, where it would remain until it was inactivated in the mid-2000s", ". Its service qualified it for 17 of the 18 campaigns of the Vietnam Service Medal, and the detachment was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation, five Meritorious Unit Citations, and the Gallantry Cross with Palm.", "Command of the 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance)\nKelly logged his first flight hours in Vietnam on 6 January 1964 and assumed command of the 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance) at Tan Son Nhut Air Base on 11 January 1964.", "Although the number of Vietnamese casualties rose in 1963, the South Vietnamese military refused to set up its own aeromedical evacuation unit. The VNAF response to requests for medical evacuation depended on aircraft availability, the security of the landing zone, and the mood and temperament of the VNAF pilots. If the South Vietnamese had no on-duty or standby aircraft ready to fly a medical evacuation mission, they passed the request on to the 57th", ". Even when they accepted the mission themselves, their response usually suffered from a lack of leadership and poor organization. Since South Vietnamese air mission commanders rarely flew with their flights, the persons responsible for deciding whether to abort a mission often lacked the requisite experience. As a MACV summary said: \"Usually the decision was made to abort, and the air mission commander could do nothing about it", ". When an aggressive pilot was in the lead ship, the aircraft came through despite the firing. American advisers reported that on two occasions only the first one or two helicopters landed; the rest hovered out of reach of the wounded who needed to get aboard.\"", "An example of the poor quality of VNAF medical evacuation occurred in late October 1963, when the ARVN 2d Battalion, 14th Regiment, conducted Operation LONG HUU II near O Lac in the Delta. At dawn the battalion began its advance. Shortly after they moved out, the Viet Cong ambushed them, opening fire from three sides with automatic weapons and 81 -mm. mortars. At 0700 casualty reports started coming into the battalion command post", ". mortars. At 0700 casualty reports started coming into the battalion command post. The battalion commander sent his first casualty report to the regimental headquarters at 0800: one ARVN soldier dead and twelve wounded, with more casualties in the paddies. He then requested medical evacuation helicopters. By 0845 the casualty count had risen to seventeen lightly wounded, fourteen seriously wounded, and four dead. He sent out another urgent call for helicopters", ". He sent out another urgent call for helicopters. The battalion executive officer and the American adviser prepared two landing zones, one marked by green smoke for the seriously wounded and a second by yellow smoke for the less seriously wounded. Not until 1215 did three VNAF H-34's arrive over O Lac to carry out the wounded and dead. During the delay the ARVN battalion stayed in place to protect their casualties rather than pursue the retreating enemy", ". The American adviser wrote later: \"It is common that, when casualties are sustained, the advance halts while awaiting evacuation. Either the reaction time for helicopter evacuation must be improved, or some plan must be made for troops in the battalion rear to provide security for the evacuation and care of casualties.\"", "The ARVN medical services also proved inadequate to handle the large numbers of casualties. In the Delta, ARVN patients were usually taken to the Vietnamese Provincial Hospital at Can Tho. As the main treatment center for the Delta, it often had a backlog of patients. At night only one doctor was on duty, for the ARVN medical service lacked physicians. If Dustoff flew in many casualties, that doctor normally treated as many as he could; but he rarely called in any of his fellow doctors to help", ". In return they would not call him on his night off. Many times at night Dustoff pilots would have to make several flights into Can Tho. On return flights the pilots often found loads of injured ARVN soldiers lying on the landing pad where they had been left some hours earlier. After several such flights few pilots could sustain any enthusiasm for night missions.", "Another problem was that the ARVN officers sometimes bowed to the sentiments of their soldiers, many of whom believed that the soul lingers between this world and the next if the body is not properly buried. They insisted that Dustoff ships fly out dead bodies, especially if there were no seriously wounded waiting for treatment. Once, after landing at a pickup site north of Saigon, a Dustoff crew saw many ARVN wounded lying on the ground", ". But the other ARVN soldiers brought bodies to the helicopter to be evacuated first. As the soldiers loaded the dead in one side of the ship, a Dustoff medical corpsman pulled the bodies out the other side. The pilot stepped out of the helicopter to explain in halting French to the ARVN commander that his orders were to carry out only the wounded. But an ARVN soldier manning a .50-caliber machine gun on a nearby armored personnel carrier suddenly pointed his weapon at the Huey", ". This convinced the Dustoff crew to fly out the bodies. They carried out one load but did not return for another.", "Early in 1964 the growing burden of aeromedical evacuation fell on the 57th's third group of new pilots, crews, and maintenance personnel. The helicopters were still the 1963 UH-1B models, but most of the new pilots were fresh from flight school. Kelly was described as \"a gruff, stubborn, dedicated soldier who let few obstacles prevent him from finishing a task.\" Within six months he set an example of courage and hard work that Dustoff pilots emulated for the rest of the war, and into the 21st Century.", "Kelly quickly took advantage of the 57th's belated move to the fighting in the south. On 1 March 1964 the U.S. Army Support Group, Vietnam ordered the aircraft at Pleiku and Qui Nhon to move to the Delta. Two helicopters and five pilots, now called Detachment A, 57th Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance), Provisional, flew to the U.S. base at Soc Trang. Once a fighter base for both the French and the Japanese, Soc Trang was a compound roughly 1,000 by 3,000 feet, surrounded by rice paddies.", "Unit statistics soon proved the wisdom of the move south: the number of Vietnamese evacuees climbed from 193 in February to 416 in March. Detachment A continued its coverage of combat in the Delta until October 1964, when the 82nd Medical Detachment (Helicopter Ambulance) from the States took over that area. Major Kelly, who had taken command of the 57th on 11 January, moved south with Detachment A, preferring the field and flying to ground duty in Saigon.", "Detachment A in Soc Trang lived in crude \"Southeast Asia\" huts with sandbags and bunkers for protection against enemy mortar and ground attack. The rest of the 57th in Saigon struggled along with air conditioning, private baths, a mess hall, and a bar in their living quarters. In spite of the contrast, most pilots preferred Soc Trang. It was there that Major Kelly and his pilots forged the Dustoff tradition of valorous and dedicated service.", "Kelly and his teams also benefited from two years of growing American involvement in Vietnam. By the spring of 1964 the United States had 16,000 military personnel in South Vietnam (3,700 officers and 12,300 enlisted men). The Army, which accounted for 10,100 of these, had increased its aircraft in South Vietnam from 40 in December 1961 to 370 in December 1963. For the first time since its arrival two years ago the 57th was receiving enough Dustoff requests to keep all its pilots busy.", "Kelly faced one big problem when he arrived: the helicopters that the 57th had received the year before were showing signs of age and use, and Brigadier General Joseph Stilwell Jr., the Support Group commander, could find no new aircraft for the detachment. Average flight time on the old UH-1Bs was 800 hours. But this did not deter the new pilots from each flying more than 100 hours a month in medical evacuations", ". Some of them stopped logging their flight time at 140 hours, so that the flight surgeon would not ground them for exceeding the monthly ceiling.", "The new team continued and even stepped-up night operations. In April 1964, the detachment flew 110 hours at night while evacuating ninety-nine patients. To aid their night missions in the Delta the pilots made a few special plotting flights, during which they sketched charts of the possible landing zones, outlined any readily identifiable terrain features, and noted whether radio navigational aid could be received", ". During one such flight Major Kelly and his copilot heard on their radio that a VNAF T-28, a fixed-wing plane, had gone down. After joining the search, Kelly soon located the plane. While he and his crew circled the area trying to decide how to approach the landing zone, the Viet Cong below opened fire on the helicopter. One round passed up through the open cargo door and slammed into the ceiling. Unfazed, Kelly shot a landing to the T-28, taking fire from all sides", ". Unfazed, Kelly shot a landing to the T-28, taking fire from all sides. Once down, he, his crew chief, and his medic jumped out and sprayed submachine gun fire at the Viet Cong while helping the VNAF pilot destroy his radios and pull the M60 machine guns from his plane. Kelly left the area without further damage and returned the VNAF pilot to his unit. Kelly and his Dustoff crew flew more than 500 miles that day.", "On 2 April one of the Detachment A crews flying to Saigon from Soc Trang received a radio call that a village northwest of them had been overrun. Flying up to the area where the Mekong River flows into South Vietnam from Cambodia, they landed at the village of Cai Cai, where during the night Viet Cong had killed or wounded all the people. Soldiers lay at their fighting positions where they had fallen, women and children where they had been shot", ". The Dustoff teams worked the rest of the day flying out the dead and wounded, putting two or three children on each litter.", "One night that spring Detachment A pilots Capt. Patrick Henry Brady] and 2d Lt. Ernest J. Sylvester were on duty when a call came in that an A1-E Skyraider, a fixed-wing plane, had gone down near the town of Rach Gia. Flying west to the site, they radioed the Air Force radar controller, who guided them to the landing zone and warned them of Viet Cong antiaircraft guns", ". As the Dustoff ship drew near the landing zone, which was plainly marked by the burning A1-E, the pilot of another nearby Al-E radioed that he had already knocked out the Viet Cong machine guns. But when Brady and Sylvester approached the zone the Viet Cong opened fire. Bullets crashed into the cockpit and the pilots lost control of the aircraft. Neither was seriously wounded and they managed to regain control and hurry out of the area. Viet Cong fire then brought down the second Al-E", ". Viet Cong fire then brought down the second Al-E. A third arrived shortly and finally suppressed the enemy fire, allowing a second Dustoff ship from Soc Trang to land in the zone. The crew chief and medical corpsman found what they guessed was the dead pilot of the downed aircraft, then found the pilot of the second, who had bailed out, and flew him back to Soc Trang.", "A short time later Brady accompanied an ARVN combat assault mission near Phan Thiet, northeast of Saigon. While Brady's Dustoff ship circled out of range of enemy ground fire, the transport helicopters landed and the troops moved out into a wooded area heavily defended by the Viet Cong. The ARVN soldiers immediately suffered several casualties and called for Dustoff. Brady's aircraft took hits going into and leaving the landing zone, but he managed to fly out the wounded", ". In Phan Thiet, while he was assessing the damage to his aircraft, an American adviser asked him if he would take ammunition back to the embattled ARVN unit when he returned for the next load of wounded. After discussing the propriety of carrying ammunition in an aircraft marked with red crosses, Brady and his pilots decided to consider the ammunition as \"preventive medicine\" and fly it into the LZ for the ARVN troops", ". Back at the landing zone Brady found that Viet Cong fire had downed an L-19 observation plane. Brady ran to the crash site, but both the American pilot and the observer had been killed. The medical corpsman and crew chief pulled the bodies from the wreckage and loaded them on the helicopter. Brady left the ammunition and flew out with the dead.", "By the time the helicopter had finished its mission and returned to Tan Son Nhut, most of the 57th were waiting. News of an American death traveled quickly in those early days of the war. Later, reflecting on the incident, Kelly praised his pilots for bringing the bodies back even though the 57th's mission statement said nothing about moving the dead. But he voiced renewed doubts about the ferrying of ammunition.", "Brady later explained what actually happened behind the scenes. Upon landing, Brady was met by Kelly and called aside. Expecting to be sternly counseled, Brady was surprised when Kelly simply asked why he had carried in ammunition and carried out the dead. Brady replied that the ammunition was \"preventive medicine\" and that the dead \"were angels\", and he couldn't refuse them", ". Kelly simply walked back to the group involved in that day's missions and told them that it was the type of mission he wanted the 57th to be flying. Brady realized the significance of Kelly's statement, as Kelly would be responsible for any fallout from Brady's actions.", "In fact, the Dustoff mission was again under attack. When Support Command began to pressure the 57th to place removable red crosses on the aircraft and begin accepting general purpose missions, Kelly stepped up unit operations. Knowing that removable red crosses had already been placed on transport and assault helicopters in the north, Kelly told his men that the 57th must prove its worth-and by implication the value of dedicated medical helicopters-beyond any shadow of doubt.", "While before the 57th had flown missions only in response to a request, it now began to seek missions. Kelly himself flew almost every night. As dusk came, he and his crew would depart Soc Trang and head southwest for the marshes and Bac Lieu, home of a team from the 73d Aviation Company and detachments from two signal units, then further south to Ca Mau, an old haunt of the Viet Minh, whom the French had never been able to dislodge from its forested swamps", ". Next, they would fly south almost to the tip of Ca Mau Peninsula, then at Nam Can reverse their course toward the Seven Canals area. After a check for casualties there at Vi Thanh, they turned northwest up to Rach Gia on the Gulf of Siam, then on to the Seven Mountains region on the Cambodian border. From there they came back to Can Tho, the home of fourteen small American units, then up to Vinh Long on the Mekong River, home of the 114th Aviation Company (Airmobile Light)", ". Finally, they flew due east to Truc Giang, south to the few American advisers at Phu Vinh, then home to Soc Trang. The entire circuit was 720 kilometers.", "If any of the stops had patients to be evacuated, Kelly's crew loaded them on the aircraft and continued on course, unless a patient's condition warranted returning immediately to Soc Trang. After delivering the patients, they would sometimes resume the circuit. Many nights they carried ten to fifteen patients who otherwise would have had to wait until daylight to receive the care they needed", ". In March, this flying from outpost to outpost, known as \"scarfing\", resulted in seventy-four hours of night flying that evacuated nearly one-fourth of that month's 448 evacuees. The stratagem worked; General Stilwell dropped the idea of having the 57th use removable red crosses.", "Although most of Dustoff's work in the Delta was over flat, marshy land, Detachment A sometimes had to work the difficult mountainous areas near the Cambodian border. Late on the afternoon of 11 April Kelly received a mission request to evacuate two wounded ARVN soldiers from Phnom Kto Mountain of the Seven Mountains of An Giang Province. When he arrived he found that the only landing zone near the ground troops was a small area surrounded by high trees below some higher ground held by the Viet Cong", ". Despite the updrafts common to mountain flying, the mists, and the approaching darkness, Kelly shot an approach to the area. The enemy opened fire and kept firing until Kelly's ship dropped below the treetops into the landing zone. Kelly could set the aircraft down on only one skid; the slope was too steep. Since only one of the wounded was at the landing zone, Kelly and his crew had to balance the ship precariously while waiting for the ARVN troops to carry the other casualty up the mountain", ". With both patients finally on board, Kelly took off and again flew through enemy fire. The medical corpsman promptly began working on the Vietnamese, one of whom had been wounded in five places. Both casualties survived.", "When Kelly flew such a mission he rarely let bad weather darkness, or the enemy stop him from completing it. He fought his way to the casualties and brought them out. On one mission the enemy forced him away from the landing zone before he could place the patients on board. An hour later he tried to land exactly the same way, through enemy fire, and this time he managed to load the patients safely", ". The Viet Cong showed their indifference to the red crosses on the aircraft by trying to destroy it with small arms, automatic weapons, and mortars, even while the medical corpsman and crew chief loaded the patients. One round hit the main fuel drain valve and JP-4 fuel started spewing. Kelly elected to fly out anyway, practicing what he had preached since he arrived in Vietnam by putting the patients above all else and hurrying them off the battlefield", ". He radioed the Soc Trang tower that his ship was leaking fuel and did not have much left, and that he wanted priority on landing. The tower operator answered that Kelly had priority and asked whether he needed anything else. Kelly said, \"Yes, bring me some ice cream.\" just after he landed on the runway the engine quit, fuel tanks empty. Crash trucks surrounded the helicopter. The base commander drove up, walked over to Kelly, and handed him a quart of ice cream.", "Apart from the Viet Cong, the 57th's greatest problem at that time was a lack of pilots. After Kelly reached Vietnam he succeeded in having the other nine Medical Service Corps pilots who followed him assigned to the 57th. He needed more, but the Surgeon General's Aviation Branch seemed to have little understanding of the rigors of Dustoff flying", ". In the spring of 1964 the Aviation Branch tried to have new Medical Service Corps pilots assigned to nonmedical helicopter units in Vietnam, assuming that they would benefit more from combat training than from Dustoff flying.", "On 15 June 1964, Kelly gave his response:", "\"As for combat experience, the pilots in this unit are getting as much or more combat-support flying experience than any unit over here. You must understand that everybody wants to get into the Aeromedical Evacuation business. To send pilots to U.T.T. [the Utility Tactical Transport Helicopter Company, a nonmedical unit] or anywhere else is playing right into their hands. I fully realize that I do not know much about the big program, but our job is evacuation of casualties from the battlefield", ". This we are doing day and night, without escort aircraft, and with only one ship for each mission. Since I have been here we have evacuated 1800 casualties and in the last three months we have flown 242.7 hours at night. No other unit can match this. The other [nonmedical] units fly in groups, rarely at night, and always heavily armed.\"", "He continued:\n\n\"If you want the MSC Pilots to gain experience that will be worthwhile, send them to this unit. It is a Medical Unit and I don't want to see combat arms officers in this unit. I will not mention this again. However, for the good of the Medical Service Corps Pilots and the future of medical aviation I urge you to do all that you can to keep this unit full of MSC Pilots.\"", "In other words, Kelly thought that his unit had a unique job to do and that the only effective training for it could be found in the cockpit of a Dustoff helicopter.\n\nPerhaps presciently, Kelly closed his letter as follows:\n\n\"Don't go to the trouble of answering this letter for I know that you are very busy. Anyhow, everything has been said. I will do my best, and please remember 'Army Medical Evacuation FIRST'.\"", "With more and more fighting occurring in the Delta and around Saigon, the 57th could not always honor every evacuation request. U.S. Army helicopter assault companies were forced to keep some of their aircraft on evacuation standby, but without a medical corpsman or medical equipment. Because of the shortage of Army aviators and the priority of armed combat support, the Medical Service Corps did not have enough pilots to staff another Dustoff unit in Vietnam", ". Most Army aeromedical evacuation units elsewhere already worked with less than their permitted number of pilots. Although Army aviation in Vietnam had grown considerably since 1961, by the summer of 1964 its resources fell short of what it needed to perform its missions, especially medical evacuation.", "Army commanders, however, seldom have all the men and material they can use, and Major Kelly knew that he had to do his best with what he had.", "Kelly had begun to realize that, although he preferred flying and being in the field to Saigon, he could better influence things by returning to Tan Son Nhut. After repeated requests from Brady, Kelly told him that he would relinquish command of Detachment A of the 57th at Soc Trang to Brady on 1 July and return to Saigon—although he then later told Brady he was extending his stay in the Delta for at least another month.", "1 July 1964\nKelly was killed in action on July 1, 1964, when, after being warned out of a \"hot\" landing zone, he replied, \"When I have your wounded.\" A bullet entered through an open cargo door and pierced his heart. Major Kelly became the 149th American to die in Vietnam.", "Immediate aftermath\nThe following day, an officer tossed the bullet on his desk in front of Kelly's successor, Captain Patrick Henry Brady, and asked if they were going to stop flying so aggressively. Brady picked up the bullet and replied, \"we are going to keep flying exactly the way Kelly taught us to fly, without hesitation, anytime, anywhere.\"", "Kelly was returned to Sylvania on 14 July 1964 and was interred at the Screven County Memorial Cemetery, Sylvania, Georgia on 15 July 1964 following a memorial service at the Sylvania First Baptist Church. The Army provided an honor guard, a military escort, and a chaplain, and \"full military honors\" were provided at the graveside. Flags in the city were flown at half staff on the 14th and the 15th, draped with a black mourning stripe until after the completion of the funeral", ". All city offices in Sylvania were closed on the 14th and 15th, although no official proclamation of mourning was issued. As Sylvania's mayor, Ed Overstreet said, \"We made no proclamation of mourning. We in Sylvania all knew Major Kelly personally and we want only to enter his funeral personally. We will let the military handle the official part.\"", "Several young war correspondents for major American wire services, news magazines, and newspapers had been prowling the Delta in 1964 looking for stories. One of them, future Pulitzer Prize winning journalist Peter Arnett had made friends with Kelly and his crews in Soc Trang, figuring that Dustoff would make a good story for his employer, the Associated Press", ". Instead, he ended up writing what became, in essence, Kelly's obituary, which was carried nationally on the day Kelly was buried, many with a photo of Kelly at the controls of has Dustoff aircraft. Another, unnamed author wrote a story for Time magazine which ran nationally on 10 July.", "Long-term legacy\nThe official history of the Army Medical Service Corps perhaps sums up Kelly's contributions to army aeromedical evacuation best, when it stated that:", "\"Kelly became a legend, revered for his aggressive leadership and fearlessness in evacuating casualties. Ironically, his loss ensured that the Army's aeromedical operations would use his mold, one characterized by unarmed single ships operated without escort aircraft by aviators who, like Kelly, were experienced in night flying. In fact, the flying skills of Dustoff crews were such that some general aviation pilots believed there was a special school to teach their flying techniques", ". Kelly was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, and in 1967 General Heaton dedicated the Kelly Heliport at Fort Sam Houston, Texas.\"", "Awards, decorations and honors\n\nDistinguished Service Cross", "Citation:", "The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918 (amended by act of July 25, 1963), takes pride in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross (Posthumously) to Major (Medical Corps) Charles L. Kelly (ASN: 0-70399), United States Army, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations involving conflict with an armed hostile force in the Republic of Vietnam, while serving as an Aircraft Commander of the 57th Medical Detachment, on 1 July 1964", ". Major Kelly demonstrated exceptional courage, strong determination, and complete disregard for his own personal safety while participating in an aerial medical mission to evacuate wounded soldiers from an area under heavy attack by hostile forces. With unique professional skill and full knowledge of the intense ground fire and the immediate proximity of the enemy, he landed the unarmed helicopter ambulance close to the wounded men in the exposed area", ". Although the ground advisor warned him of the grave danger and recommended departure, Major Kelly refused to leave without the wounded soldiers and succeeded in loading them aboard the helicopter moments before he was mortally wounded by hostile gun fire", ". Major Kelly's extraordinary heroic actions, valiant efforts, and deep concern for his fellow man are in the highest traditions of the United States Army and reflect great credit upon himself and the United States Army Medical Service, and the armed forces of his country.", "Silver Star", "Citation:", "The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918 (amended by an act of July 25, 1963), takes pride in presenting the Silver Star (Posthumously) to Major (Medical Corps) Charles L. Kelly (ASN: 0-70399), United States Army, for gallantry in action in connection with military operations involving conflict with an armed hostile force in the Republic of Vietnam, while serving as an Aircraft Commander of the 57th Medical Detachment, on 19 June 1964", ". Major Kelly displayed professional skill, fortitude, and determination while participating in an aerial medical mission to evacuate several critically wounded Vietnamese troops. Although his first attempt to land the helicopter ambulance was prevented by intense enemy action, he returned within the hour and succeeded in maneuvering the aircraft into the area", ". As the small arms, automatic weapons fire, and mortar rounds fell near the aircraft, he exposed himself to the danger while assisting the wounded men on board the helicopter ambulance. When a round of ammunition hit the main fuel drain valve of the aircraft during the evacuation operations, he quickly assessed the situation and, through his decision that the patients on board be flown out immediately for medical treatment, the helicopter landed at a medical facility with a few minutes of fuel to spare", ". Through his courageous and unselfish actions the wounded men received timely medical aid and many lives were saved. Major Kelly's conspicuous gallantry is in the highest traditions of the United States Army and reflects great credit upon himself and the military service.", "Distinguished Flying Cross", "Citation", "The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 2, 1926, takes pride in presenting the Distinguished Flying Cross (Posthumously) to Major (Medical Corps) Charles L. Kelly (ASN: 0-70399), United States Army, for heroism while participating in aerial flight. Major Kelly distinguished himself by heroism while participating in aerial flight in action against a hostile force on 2 April 1964 in the Republic of Vietnam", ". Major Kelly was the aircraft commander of a helicopter ambulance on a combat support mission. He received information that an American helicopter had been hit by ground fire and was forced to land in hostile territory. He immediately flew to the area arriving just as the helicopter touched down. Disregarding his own personal safety, with full knowledge that the enemy forces had begun to attack the crew of the downed aircraft, Major Kelly landed in the middle of the enemy ground forces", ". Heavy fire was received during the approach and while on the ground, but Major Kelly never wavered in his efforts and determination to save the downed crew from possible death and almost certain capture. Major Kelly's efforts resulted in the downed aircraft being flown to safety. Major Kelly's actions were in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflect great credit upon himself and the United States Army.", "Distinguished Flying Cross (First Oak Leaf Cluster)", "Citation", "The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 2, 1926, takes pride in presenting a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of a Second Award of the Distinguished Flying Cross (Posthumously) to Major (Medical Corps) Charles L. Kelly (ASN: 0-70399), United States Army, for heroism while participating in aerial flight in action against a hostile force on 9 April 1964 in the Republic of Vietnam", ". Major Kelly was the aircraft commander of a helicopter ambulance on a combat support mission. Upon receiving information of a crashed Republic of Vietnam Air Force T-28, Major Kelly immediately flew to the crash site and began a low aerial search for the downed aircraft. At this time a United States Army helicopter in the immediate area declared an emergency and was forced down into an area surrounded by Viet Cong forces", ". Disregarding his own personal safety, Major Kelly was determined to save the crew of the downed aircraft. Upon making his approach, Major Kelly received heavy fire from all sides, with one round passing through the cock-pit. Despite the dangers involved, Major Kelly continued into the area and landed near the downed aircraft. Upon landing, he and his aircraft crew became engaged in a heavy fire fight with the enemy forces in the vicinity", ". It became necessary to destroy the downed helicopter to prevent its utilization by the enemy. The rescued crew was then flown out of the area under heavy fire to safety. Due to Major Kelly's efforts, members of the aircraft crew were saved from possible death or capture. Major Kelly's actions were in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflect great credit upon himself and the United States Army.", "Distinguished Flying Cross (Second Oak Leaf Cluster)", "Citation", "The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 2, 1926, takes pleasure in presenting a Second Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of a Third Award of the Distinguished Flying Cross to Major (Medical Corps) Charles L. Kelly (ASN: 0-70399), United States Army, for heroism while participating in aerial flight. Major Kelly distinguished himself by heroic action on 11 April 1964, in the Republic of Vietnam", ". Major Kelly distinguished himself by heroic action on 11 April 1964, in the Republic of Vietnam. On this date, Major Kelly was serving as the pilot of a UH-1B medical helicopter involved in the evacuation of two wounded Vietnamese soldiers who were located on Co To Mountain in An Giang Province", ". When he arrived at the combat area, he was informed that the only place to land was on the mountain in an area approximately 25 meters by 25 meters, surrounded by trees, and overlooked by terrain known to be infested by communist Viet Cong. Darkness was falling, the weather was misting, and gusting winds prevailed. Despite these extreme hazards, and in total disregard of his own personal safety, Major Kelly brought his aircraft into the landing zone through intense hostile fire", ". The incline of the mountain prevented a solid landing and Major Kelly had to \"hold the stick\" of his aircraft to prevent its falling off the mountain. Since one of the wounded soldiers had not been carried up the mountain, Major Kelly with remarkable skill and dogged determination held his aircraft on the mountain side for twenty minutes, refusing to leave until the wounded man was aboard", ". This was done in spite of the fact that total darkness would soon be upon him and would make take-off from the tiny landing zone even more dangerous. His only thoughts were for the welfare of the wounded men whom he knew would surely die without prompt medical attention. With the wounded finally aboard he skillfully took off, again running a gauntlet of automatic weapons fire. The two soldiers, one of whom had been wounded five times, were saved by the prompt medical attention they received", ". Major Kelly's dauntless courage, professional skill, and devotion to his comrades in arms have added to the highest traditions of the United States Army and reflect great credit upon himself and the military service.", "Commendations and awards\nKelly was awarded the following:\n \n\nKelly's awards are shown in the current Army configuration, with the Purple Heart immediately below the Bronze Star Medal instead of immediately below the Army Commendation Medal and with Bronze Numerals instead of Oak Leaf Clusters on the Air Medal, as would have been customary at the time of his death.\n\nMemorialization", "Kelly's name is listed on Panel 1E, Row 57 on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C.\nThe stadium at the Screven County High School in Sylvania, Georgia was named after Kelly in 1965, and rededicated to him on 1 July 2014, the 50th anniversary of his death.\nFort Sam Houston's Kelly Army Heliport (now the Kelly Army Reserve Center) was dedicated in Kelly's honor on 7 April 1967", "Charles Kelly Boulevard on Fitzsimmons Army Medical Center was named in Kelly's honor in June 1991. The Medical Center closed in 1996, and the remaining section of Kelly Boulevard is now named E. 17th Place; the remainder is a pedestrian walkway. A bronze marker still remains.\nFort Novosel's Kelly Hall is named in his honor.\nKelly was inducted into the Army Aviation Association of America's Hall of Fame in 1975.\nKelly was the first inductee into the Dustoff Association Hall of Fame, on 17 February 2001.", "Kelly was the first inductee into the Dustoff Association Hall of Fame, on 17 February 2001.\nThe Dustoff Association annually presents awards to the Aviator, Crew Chief, and Medic of the Year at the organization's annual Reunion Awards Banquet. The award is a bust of Kelly.", "Documentary film tribute\nIn 2002, the documentary film crew of In the Shadow of the Blade honored Kelly's story at their landing zone near Columbus, Georgia. After hearing the story of his father's courage from Vietnam Dustoff colleague Ernest Sylvester, Charles Kelly Jr. flew in the left seat of the documentary's restored UH-1 Iroquois, emulating his father's wartime experience.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nPage on Kelly on The Virtual Wall", "References\n\nExternal links\nPage on Kelly on The Virtual Wall\n\n1925 births\n1964 deaths\nMilitary personnel from Georgia (U.S. state)\nPeople from Wadley, Georgia\nRecipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)\nRecipients of the Gallantry Cross (Vietnam)\n5 Kelly, Charles\nUnited States Army aviators\nUnited States Army personnel killed in the Vietnam War\nUnited States Army personnel of World War II\nUnited States Army officers\nGeorgia Teachers College alumni" ]

[ "Events", "Pre-1600\nAD 25 – Guangwu claims the throne as Emperor of China, restoring the Han dynasty after the collapse of the short-lived Xin dynasty.\n70 – Fires resulting from the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem are extinguished. \n 642 – Battle of Maserfield: Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Northumbria.", "642 – Battle of Maserfield: Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Northumbria.\n 910 – The last major Danish army to raid England for nearly a century is defeated at the Battle of Tettenhall by the allied forces of Mercia and Wessex, led by King Edward the Elder and Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians.\n 939 – The Battle of Alhandic is fought between Ramiro II of León and Abd-ar-Rahman III at Zamora in the context of the Spanish Reconquista. The battle resulted in a victory for the Emirate of Córdoba.", "1068 – Byzantine–Norman wars: Italo-Normans begin a nearly-three-year siege of Bari.\n1100 – Henry I is crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.\n1278 – Spanish Reconquista: the forces of the Kingdom of Castile initiate the ultimately futile Siege of Algeciras against the Emirate of Granada.", "1305 – First Scottish War of Independence: Sir John Stewart of Menteith, the pro-English Sheriff of Dumbarton, successfully manages to capture Sir William Wallace of Scotland, leading to Wallace's subsequent execution by hanging, evisceration, drawing and quartering, and beheading 18 days later.\n1388 – The Battle of Otterburn, a border skirmish between the Scottish and the English in Northern England, is fought near Otterburn.", "1506 – The Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeats the Crimean Khanate in the Battle of Kletsk.\n1583 – Sir Humphrey Gilbert establishes the first English colony in North America, at what is now St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador.\n1600 – The Gowrie Conspiracy against King James VI of Scotland (later to become King James I of England) takes place.", "1601–1900\n1620 – The Mayflower departs from Southampton, England, carrying would-be settlers, on its first attempt to reach North America; it is forced to dock in Dartmouth when its companion ship, the Speedwell, springs a leak.\n1689 – Beaver Wars: Fifteen hundred Iroquois attack Lachine in New France.\n1716 – Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718): One-fifth of a Turkish army and the Grand Vizier are killed in the Battle of Petrovaradin.", "1735 – Freedom of the press: New York Weekly Journal writer John Peter Zenger is acquitted of seditious libel against the royal governor of New York, on the basis that what he had published was true.", "1772 – First Partition of Poland: The representatives of Austria, Prussia, and Russia sign three bilateral conventions condemning the ‘anarchy’ of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and imputing to the three powers ‘ancient and legitimate rights’ to the territories of the Commonwealth. The conventions allow each of the three great powers to annex a part of the Commonwealth, which they proceed to do over the course of the following two months.", "1763 – Pontiac's War: Battle of Bushy Run: British forces led by Henry Bouquet defeat Chief Pontiac's Indians at Bushy Run.\n1781 – The Battle of Dogger Bank takes place.\n1796 – The Battle of Castiglione in Napoleon's first Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars.\n1816 – The British Admiralty dismisses Francis Ronalds's new invention of the first working electric telegraph as \"wholly unnecessary\", preferring to continue using the semaphore.", "1824 – Greek War of Independence: Konstantinos Kanaris leads a Greek fleet to victory against Ottoman and Egyptian naval forces in the Battle of Samos.\n1858 – Cyrus West Field and others complete the first transatlantic telegraph cable after several unsuccessful attempts. It will operate for less than a month.\n1860 – Charles XV of Sweden of Sweden-Norway is crowned king of Norway in Trondheim.", "1860 – Charles XV of Sweden of Sweden-Norway is crowned king of Norway in Trondheim.\n1861 – American Civil War: In order to help pay for the war effort, the United States government levies the first income tax as part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US$800; rescinded in 1872).\n 1861 – The United States Army abolishes flogging.", "1861 – The United States Army abolishes flogging.\n1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Baton Rouge: Along the Mississippi River near Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Confederate troops attempt to take the city, but are driven back by fire from Union gunboats.\n1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Mobile Bay begins at Mobile Bay near Mobile, Alabama, Admiral David Farragut leads a Union flotilla through Confederate defenses and seals one of the last major Southern ports.", "1874 – Japan launches its postal savings system, modeled after a similar system in the United Kingdom.\n1882 – Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, today known as ExxonMobil, is established officially. The company would later grow to become the holder of all Standard Oil companies and the entity at the center of the breakup of Standard Oil.\n1884 – The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty is laid on Bedloe's Island (now Liberty Island) in New York Harbor.", "1888 – Bertha Benz drives from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back in the first long distance automobile trip, commemorated as the Bertha Benz Memorial Route since 2008.", "1901–present\n1901 – Peter O'Connor sets the first World Athletics recognised long jump world record of , a record that would stand for 20 years.\n1906 – Persian Constitutional Revolution: Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, King of Iran, agrees to convert the government to a constitutional monarchy.\n1914 – World War I: The German minelayer lays a minefield about off the Thames Estuary (Lowestoft). She is intercepted and sunk by the British light-cruiser .", "1914 – World War I: The guns of Point Nepean fort at Port Phillip Heads in Victoria (Australia) fire across the bows of the Norddeutscher Lloyd steamer which is attempting to leave the Port of Melbourne in ignorance of the declaration of war and she is detained; this is said to be the first Allied shot of the War.\n 1914 – In Cleveland, Ohio, the first electric traffic light is installed.", "1914 – In Cleveland, Ohio, the first electric traffic light is installed.\n1916 – World War I: Battle of Romani: Allied forces, under the command of Archibald Murray, defeat an attacking Ottoman army under the command of Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein, securing the Suez Canal and beginning the Ottoman retreat from the Sinai Peninsula.\n1925 – Plaid Cymru is formed with the aim of disseminating knowledge of the Welsh language that is at the time in danger of dying out.", "1926 – Harry Houdini performs his greatest feat, spending 91 minutes underwater in a sealed tank before escaping.\n1939 – The Thirteen Roses: Thirteen female members of the Unified Socialist Youth are executed by Francoist forces in Madrid, Spain. \n1940 – World War II: The Soviet Union formally annexes Latvia.", "1940 – World War II: The Soviet Union formally annexes Latvia.\n1944 – World War II: At least 1,104 Japanese POWs in Australia attempt to escape from a camp at Cowra, New South Wales; 545 temporarily succeed but are later either killed, commit suicide, or are recaptured.\n 1944 – World War II: Polish insurgents liberate a German labor camp (Gęsiówka) in Warsaw, freeing 348 Jewish prisoners.", "1944 – World War II: The Nazis begin a week-long massacre of between 40,000 and 50,000 civilians and prisoners of war in Wola, Poland.\n1949 – In Ecuador, an earthquake destroys 50 towns and kills more than 6,000.\n 1949 – In Montana, 12 smokejumper firefighters and 1 US Forest Service fire guard are killed in the Mann Gulch Fire.\n1957 – American Bandstand, a show dedicated to the teenage \"baby-boomers\" by playing the songs and showing popular dances of the time, debuts on the ABC television network.", "1960 – Burkina Faso, then known as Upper Volta, becomes independent from France.\n1962 – Apartheid: Nelson Mandela is jailed. He would not be released until 1990.\n 1962 – American actress Marilyn Monroe is found dead at her home from a drug overdose.\n1963 – Cold War: The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union sign the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.", "1964 – Vietnam War: Operation Pierce Arrow: American aircraft from carriers and bomb North Vietnam in retaliation for strikes against U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin.\n1965 – The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 begins as Pakistani soldiers cross the Line of Control dressed as locals.", "1966 – A group of red guards at Experimental High in Beijing, including Deng Rong and Liu Pingping, daughters of Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi respectively, beat the deputy vice principal, Bian Zhongyun, to death with sticks after accusing her of counter-revolutionary revisionism, producing one of the first fatalities of the Cultural Revolution.\n1969 – The Lonesome Cowboys police raid occurs in Atlanta, Georgia, leading to the creation of the Georgia Gay Liberation Front.", "1971 – The first Pacific Islands Forum (then known as the \"South Pacific Forum\") is held in Wellington, New Zealand, with the aim of enhancing cooperation between the independent countries of the Pacific Ocean.\n1973 – Mars 6 is launched from the USSR.\n1974 – Vietnam War: The U.S. Congress places a $1 billion limit on military aid to South Vietnam.", "1974 – Vietnam War: The U.S. Congress places a $1 billion limit on military aid to South Vietnam.\n 1974 – Watergate scandal: President Richard Nixon, under orders of the US Supreme Court, releases the \"Smoking Gun\" tape, recorded on June 23, 1972, clearly revealing his actions in covering up and interfering investigations into the break-in. His political support vanishes completely.\n1979 – In Afghanistan, Maoists undertake the Bala Hissar uprising against the Leninist government.", "1979 – In Afghanistan, Maoists undertake the Bala Hissar uprising against the Leninist government.\n1981 – President Ronald Reagan fires 11,359 striking air-traffic controllers who ignored his order for them to return to work.\n1984 – A Biman Bangladesh Airlines Fokker F27 Friendship crashes on approach to Zia International Airport, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, killing all 49 people on board.", "1995 – Yugoslav Wars: The city of Knin, Croatia, a significant Serb stronghold, is taken by Croatian forces during Operation Storm. The date is celebrated in Croatia as Victory Day.\n2003 – A car bomb explodes in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta outside the Marriott Hotel killing 12 and injuring 150.\n2010 – The Copiapó mining accident occurs, trapping 33 Chilean miners approximately below the ground for 69 days.", "2010 – Ten members of International Assistance Mission Nuristan Eye Camp team are killed by persons unknown in Kuran wa Munjan District of Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan.\n2012 – The Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting took place in Oak Creek, Wisconsin, killing six victims; the perpetrator committed suicide after being wounded by police.", "2015 – The Environmental Protection Agency at Gold King Mine waste water spill releases three million gallons of heavy metal toxin tailings and waste water into the Animas River in Colorado.\n2019 – The revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir (state) occurred and the state was bifurcated into two union territories (Jammu and Kashmir (union territory) and Ladakh).", "2020 – Prime Minister Narendra Modi attends the 'Bhoomi Pujan' or land worship ceremony and lays the foundation stone of Rama Mandir in Ayodhya after a Supreme Court verdict ruling in favour of building the temple on disputed land.\n2021 – Australia's second most populous state Victoria enters its sixth COVID-19 lockdown, enacting stage four restrictions statewide in reaction to six new COVID-19 cases recorded that morning.", "Births\n\nPre-1600\n79 BC – Tullia, Roman daughter of Cicero (d. 45 BC)\n1262 – Ladislaus IV of Hungary (d. 1290)\n1301 – Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (d. 1330)\n1397 – Guillaume Dufay, Belgian-Italian composer and theorist (d. 1474)\n1461 – Alexander Jagiellon, Polish king (d. 1506)\n1540 – Joseph Justus Scaliger, French philologist and historian (d. 1609)", "1601–1900\n1607 – Antonio Barberini, Italian cardinal (d. 1671)\n1623 – Antonio Cesti, Italian organist and composer (d. 1669)\n1626 – Richard Ottley, English politician (d. 1670)\n1662 – James Anderson, Scottish lawyer and historian (d. 1728)\n1681 – Vitus Bering, Danish explorer (d. 1741)\n1694 – Leonardo Leo, Italian composer (d. 1744)\n1749 – Thomas Lynch Jr., American commander and politician (d. 1779)\n1797 – Friedrich August Kummer, German cellist and composer (d. 1879)", "1797 – Friedrich August Kummer, German cellist and composer (d. 1879)\n1802 – Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (d. 1829)\n1811 – Ambroise Thomas, French composer (d. 1896)\n1813 – Ivar Aasen, Norwegian poet and linguist (d. 1896)\n1815 – Edward John Eyre, English explorer and politician, Governor of Jamaica (d. 1901)\n1827 – Deodoro da Fonseca, Brazilian field marshal and politician, 1st President of Brazil (d. 1892)\n1828 – Louise of the Netherlands (d. 1871)", "1828 – Louise of the Netherlands (d. 1871)\n1833 – Carola of Vasa (d. 1907)\n1843 – James Scott Skinner, Scottish violinist and composer (d. 1927)\n1844 – Ilya Repin, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1930)\n1850 – Guy de Maupassant, French short story writer, novelist, and poet (d. 1893)\n1860 – Louis Wain, English artist (d. 1939)\n1862 – Joseph Merrick, English man with severe deformities (d. 1890)\n1866 – Carl Harries, German chemist and academic (d. 1923)\n 1866 – Harry Trott, Australian cricketer (d. 1917)", "1866 – Harry Trott, Australian cricketer (d. 1917)\n1868 – Oskar Merikanto, Finnish pianist and composer (d. 1924)\n1872 – Oswaldo Cruz, Brazilian physician, bacteriologist, and epidemiologist, founded the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (d. 1917)\n1874 – Wesley Clair Mitchell, American economist and academic (d. 1948)\n 1874 – Horace Rawlins, English golfer (d. 1935)\n1876 – Mary Ritter Beard, American historian and activist (d. 1958)\n1877 – Tom Thomson, Canadian painter (d. 1917)", "1877 – Tom Thomson, Canadian painter (d. 1917)\n1880 – Gertrude Rush, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1962)\n 1880 – Ruth Sawyer, American author and educator (d. 1970)\n1882 – Anne Acheson, Irish sculptor (d. 1962)\n1887 – Reginald Owen, English-American actor and singer (d. 1972)\n1889 – Conrad Aiken, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet (d. 1973)\n1890 – Naum Gabo, Russian-American sculptor (d. 1977)\n 1890 – Erich Kleiber, Austrian conductor and director (d. 1956)", "1890 – Erich Kleiber, Austrian conductor and director (d. 1956)\n1897 – Roberta Dodd Crawford, American soprano and educator (d. 1954)\n 1897 – Aksel Larsen, Danish lawyer and politician (d. 1972)\n1900 – Rudolf Schottlaender, German philosopher, classical philologist and translator (d. 1988)", "1901–present\n1901 – Claude Autant-Lara, French director, screenwriter, and politician (d. 2000)\n1904 – Kenneth V. Thimann, English-American botanist and microbiologist (d. 1997)\n1906 – Joan Hickson, English actress (d. 1998)\n 1906 – John Huston, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1987)\n 1906 – Wassily Leontief, German-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)\n1908 – Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)", "1908 – Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)\n 1908 – Jose Garcia Villa, Filipino short story writer and poet (d. 1997)\n1910 – Bruno Coquatrix, French songwriter and manager (d. 1979)\n 1910 – Herminio Masantonio, Argentinian footballer (d. 1956)\n1911 – Robert Taylor, American actor and singer (d. 1969)\n1912 – Abbé Pierre, French priest and humanitarian (d. 2007)\n1914 – Parley Baer, American actor (d. 2002)", "1914 – Parley Baer, American actor (d. 2002)\n1916 – Peter Viereck, American poet and academic (d. 2006)\n1918 – Tom Drake, American actor and singer (d. 1982)\n 1918 – Betty Oliphant, English-Canadian ballerina, co-founded Canada's National Ballet School (d. 2004)\n1919 – Rosalind Hicks, British literary guardian and the only child of author, Agatha Christie (d. 2004)\n1920 – George Tooker, American painter and academic (d. 2011)\n1921 – Terry Becker, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)", "1921 – Terry Becker, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)\n1922 – L. Tom Perry, American businessman and religious leader (d. 2015)\n 1922 – Frank Stranahan, American golfer (d. 2013)\n1923 – Devan Nair, Malaysian-Singaporean union leader and politician, 3rd President of Singapore (d. 2005)\n1926 – Betsy Jolas, French composer\n 1926 – Jeri Southern, American jazz singer and pianist (d. 1991)\n1927 – John H. Moore II, American lawyer and judge (d. 2013)", "1927 – John H. Moore II, American lawyer and judge (d. 2013)\n1929 – Don Matheson, American soldier, police officer, and actor (d. 2014)\n1930 – Neil Armstrong, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut (d. 2012)\n 1930 – Damita Jo DeBlanc, American comedian, actress, and singer (d. 1998) \n 1930 – Richie Ginther, American race car driver (d. 1989)\n 1930 – Michal Kováč, Slovak lawyer and politician, 1st President of Slovakia (d. 2016)\n1931 – Tom Hafey, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2014)", "1931 – Tom Hafey, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2014)\n1932 – Tera de Marez Oyens, Dutch pianist and composer (d. 1996)\n 1932 – Vladimir Fedoseyev, Russian conductor\n1934 – Karl Johan Åström, Swedish engineer and theorist\n 1934 – Wendell Berry, American novelist, short story writer, poet, and essayist\n 1934 – Gay Byrne, Irish radio and television host (d. 2019)\n1935 – Michael Ballhaus, German director and cinematographer (d. 2017)", "1935 – Michael Ballhaus, German director and cinematographer (d. 2017)\n 1935 – Peter Inge, Baron Inge, English field marshal (d. 2022)\n 1935 – Roy Benavidez, American Master Sergeant and Medal of Honor Winner (d. 1998)\n1936 – Nikolai Baturin, Estonian author and playwright (d. 2019)\n 1936 – John Saxon, American actor (d. 2020)\n1937 – Herb Brooks, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003)\n 1937 – Brian G. Marsden, English-American astronomer and academic (d. 2010)", "1937 – Brian G. Marsden, English-American astronomer and academic (d. 2010)\n1939 – Roger Clark, English race car driver (d. 1998)\n 1939 – Carmen Salinas, Mexican actress and politician (d. 2021)\n1940 – Bobby Braddock, American country music songwriter, musician, and producer \n 1940 – Roman Gabriel, American football player, coach, and actor\n 1940 – Rick Huxley, English bass player (d. 2013)\n1941 – Bob Clark, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)", "1941 – Bob Clark, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)\n 1941 – Leonid Kizim, Ukrainian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2010)\n 1941 – Airto Moreira, Brazilian-American drummer and composer\n1942 – Joe Boyd, American record producer, founded Hannibal Records\n1943 – Nelson Briles, American baseball player (d. 2005)\n 1943 – Sammi Smith, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2005)\n1944 – Christopher Gunning, English composer (d. 2023)\n1945 – Loni Anderson, American actress", "1944 – Christopher Gunning, English composer (d. 2023)\n1945 – Loni Anderson, American actress\n1946 – Bruce Coslet, American football player and coach\n 1946 – Shirley Ann Jackson, American physicist\n 1946 – Rick van der Linden, Dutch keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2006)\n 1946 – Bob McCarthy, Australian rugby league player and coach\n 1946 – Erika Slezak, American actress\n 1946 – Xavier Trias, Spanish pediatrician and politician, 118th Mayor of Barcelona", "1946 – Xavier Trias, Spanish pediatrician and politician, 118th Mayor of Barcelona\n1947 – Angry Anderson, Australian singer and actor\n 1947 – Bernie Carbo, American baseball player \n 1947 – France A. Córdova, American astrophysicist and academic\n 1947 – Rick Derringer, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n 1947 – Greg Leskiw, Canadian guitarist and songwriter \n1948 – Ray Clemence, English footballer and manager (d. 2020)\n 1948 – Barbara Flynn, English actress", "1948 – Barbara Flynn, English actress\n 1948 – David Hungate, American bass guitarist, producer, and arranger\n 1948 – Shin Takamatsu, Japanese architect and academic\n1950 – Luiz Gushiken, Brazilian trade union leader and politician (d. 2013)\n 1950 – Mahendra Karma, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 2013)\n1951 – Samantha Sang, Australian pop singer\n1952 – Tamás Faragó, Hungarian water polo player\n 1952 – John Jarratt, Australian actor and producer\n 1952 – Louis Walsh, Irish talent manager", "1952 – John Jarratt, Australian actor and producer\n 1952 – Louis Walsh, Irish talent manager\n1953 – Rick Mahler, American baseball player and coach (d. 2005)\n1955 – Eddie Ojeda, American guitarist and songwriter \n1956 – Christopher Chessun, English Anglican bishop\n 1956 – Jerry Ciccoritti, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n 1956 – Maureen McCormick, American actress\n1957 – Larry Corowa, Australian rugby league player\n 1957 – David Gill, English businessman", "1957 – Larry Corowa, Australian rugby league player\n 1957 – David Gill, English businessman\n 1957 – Faith Prince, American actress and singer\n1959 – Pete Burns, English singer-songwriter (d. 2016)\n 1959 – Pat Smear, American guitarist and songwriter \n1960 – David Baldacci, American lawyer and author\n1961 – Janet McTeer, English actress\n 1961 – Athula Samarasekera, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach\n 1961 – Tim Wilson, American comedian, singer-songwriter, and guitarist (d. 2014)", "1961 – Tim Wilson, American comedian, singer-songwriter, and guitarist (d. 2014)\n1962 – Patrick Ewing, Jamaican-American basketball player and coach\n 1962 – Otis Thorpe, American basketball player\n1963 – Steve Lee, Swiss singer-songwriter (d. 2010)\n 1963 – Ingmar De Vos, Belgian sports administrator\n 1963 – Mark Strong, English actor\n1964 – Rory Morrison, English journalist (d. 2013)\n 1964 – Adam Yauch, American rapper and director (d. 2012)", "1964 – Adam Yauch, American rapper and director (d. 2012)\n1965 – Jeff Coffin, American saxophonist and composer \n 1965 – Motoi Sakuraba, Japanese keyboard player and composer\n1966 – Jennifer Finch, American singer, bass player, and photographer \n 1966 – Jonathan Silverman, American actor and producer\n1967 – Matthew Caws, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1968 – Terri Clark, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n 1968 – Kendo Kashin, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist", "1968 – Kendo Kashin, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist\n 1968 – Marine Le Pen, French lawyer and politician\n 1968 – Oleh Luzhnyi, Ukrainian footballer and manager\n 1968 – Colin McRae, Scottish race car driver (d. 2007)\n 1968 – John Olerud, American baseball player\n1969 – Jackie Doyle-Price, English politician\n 1969 – Vasbert Drakes, Barbadian cricketer\n 1969 – Venkatesh Prasad, Indian cricketer and coach\n 1969 – Rob Scott, Australian rower", "1969 – Venkatesh Prasad, Indian cricketer and coach\n 1969 – Rob Scott, Australian rower\n1970 – James Gunn, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1971 – Valdis Dombrovskis, Latvian academic and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Latvia\n1972 – Ikuto Hidaka, Japanese wrestler\n 1972 – Aaqib Javed, Pakistani cricketer and coach\n 1972 – Darren Shahlavi, English-American actor and martial artist (d. 2015)\n 1972 – Jon Sleightholme, English rugby player", "1972 – Jon Sleightholme, English rugby player\n 1972 – Theodore Whitmore, Jamaican footballer and manager\n 1972 – Christian Olde Wolbers, Belgian-American guitarist, songwriter, and producer \n1973 – Paul Carige, Australian rugby league player\n 1973 – Justin Marshall, New Zealand rugby player and sportscaster\n1974 – Alvin Ceccoli, Australian footballer\n 1974 – Kajol, Indian film actress\n 1974 – Olle Kullinger, Swedish footballer\n 1974 – Antoine Sibierski, French footballer", "1974 – Olle Kullinger, Swedish footballer\n 1974 – Antoine Sibierski, French footballer\n1975 – Dan Hipgrave, English guitarist and journalist \n 1975 – Josep Jufré, Spanish cyclist \n 1975 – Eicca Toppinen, Finnish cellist and composer \n1976 – Jeff Friesen, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1976 – Marians Pahars, Latvian footballer and manager\n 1976 – Eugen Trică, Romanian footballer and manager\n1977 – Eric Hinske, American baseball player and coach", "1977 – Eric Hinske, American baseball player and coach\n 1977 – Mark Mulder, American baseball player and sportscaster\n 1977 – Michael Walsh, English footballer\n1978 – Cosmin Bărcăuan, Romanian footballer and manager\n 1978 – Kim Gevaert, Belgian sprinter\n 1978 – Harel Levy, Israeli tennis player\n1979 – David Healy, Irish footballer\n1980 – Wayne Bridge, English footballer\n 1980 – Salvador Cabañas, Paraguayan footballer\n 1980 – Jason Culina, Australian footballer", "1980 – Salvador Cabañas, Paraguayan footballer\n 1980 – Jason Culina, Australian footballer\n 1980 – Jesse Williams, American actor, director, producer, and political activist\n1981 – David Clarke, English ice hockey player\n 1981 – Carl Crawford, American baseball player\n 1981 – Maik Franz, German footballer\n 1981 – Erik Guay, Canadian skier\n 1981 – Travie McCoy, American rapper, singer, and songwriter\n 1981 – Anna Rawson, Australian golfer", "1981 – Anna Rawson, Australian golfer\n 1981 – Rachel Scott, American murder victim, inspired the Rachel's Challenge (d. 1999)\n1982 – Jamie Houston, English-German rugby player\n 1982 – Lolo Jones, American hurdler\n 1982 – Michele Pazienza, Italian footballer\n 1982 – Tobias Regner, German singer-songwriter\n 1982 – Jeff Robson, Australian rugby league player\n 1982 – Pete Sell, American mixed martial artist\n1984 – Steve Matai, New Zealand rugby league player", "1984 – Steve Matai, New Zealand rugby league player\n 1984 – Helene Fischer, German singer-songwriter\n1985 – Laurent Ciman, Belgian footballer\n 1985 – Salomon Kalou, Ivorian footballer\n 1985 – Gil Vermouth, Israeli footballer\n 1985 – Erkan Zengin, Swedish footballer\n1986 – Paula Creamer, American golfer\n 1986 – Kathrin Zettel, Austrian skier\n1987 – Genelia D'Souza, Indian actress\n1988 – Michael Jamieson, Scottish-English swimmer\n 1988 – Federica Pellegrini, Italian swimmer", "1988 – Michael Jamieson, Scottish-English swimmer\n 1988 – Federica Pellegrini, Italian swimmer\n1989 – Ryan Bertrand, English footballer\n 1989 – Mathieu Manset, French footballer\n 1989 – Jessica Nigri, American model and actress\n1991 – Esteban Gutiérrez, Mexican race car driver\n 1991 – Konrad Hurrell, Tongan rugby league player\n 1991 – Daniëlle van de Donk, Dutch footballer\n 1991 – Andreas Weimann, Austrian footballer\n1995 – Pierre-Emile Højbjerg, Danish footballer", "1991 – Andreas Weimann, Austrian footballer\n1995 – Pierre-Emile Højbjerg, Danish footballer\n1996 – Takakeishō Mitsunobu, Japanese sumo wrestler\n 1996 – Cho Seung-youn, South Korean singer-songwriter and rapper\n1997 – Jack Cogger, Australian rugby league player\n 1997 – Olivia Holt, American actress and singer\n 1997 – Wang Yibo, Chinese dancer, singer and actor\n 1997 – Yungblud, English musician and actor\n1998 – Adam Doueihi, Australian-Lebanese rugby league player", "1998 – Adam Doueihi, Australian-Lebanese rugby league player\n 1998 – Mimi Keene, English actress\n 1998 – Kanon Suzuki, Japanese singer and actress\n2000 – Tom Gilbert, Australian rugby league player \n2001 – Anthony Edwards, American basketball player\n2003 – Toni Shaw, British Paralympic swimmer\n2004 – Gavi, Spanish footballer", "Deaths", "Pre-1600\n 553 – Xiao Ji, prince of the Liang dynasty (b. 508)\n 642 – Eowa, king of Mercia\n 642 – Oswald, king of Northumbria\n 824 – Heizei, Japanese emperor (b. 773)\n 877 – Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, Abbasid vizier \n 882 – Louis III, Frankish king (b. 863)\n 890 – Ranulf II, duke of Aquitaine (b. 850)\n 910 – Eowils and Halfdan, joint kings of Northumbria\n 910 – Ingwær, king of Northumbria\n 917 – Euthymius I of Constantinople (b. 834)\n 940 – Li Decheng, Chinese general (b. 863)", "917 – Euthymius I of Constantinople (b. 834)\n 940 – Li Decheng, Chinese general (b. 863)\n1063 – Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, King of Gwynedd\n1364 – Kōgon, Japanese emperor (b. 1313)\n1415 – Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge (b. 1375)\n 1415 – Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham (b. 1370)\n1447 – John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter (b. 1395)\n1579 – Stanislaus Hosius, Polish cardinal (b. 1504)\n1600 – John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie, Scottish conspirator (b. 1577)", "1601–1900\n1610 – Alonso García de Ramón, Spanish soldier and politician, Royal Governor of Chile (b. 1552)\n1633 – George Abbot, English archbishop and academic (b. 1562)\n1678 – Juan García de Zéspedes, Mexican tenor and composer (b. 1619)\n1729 – Thomas Newcomen, English engineer, invented the eponymous Newcomen atmospheric engine (b. 1664)\n1743 – John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, English courtier and politician, Vice-Chamberlain of the Household (b. 1696)", "1778 – Charles Clémencet, French historian and author (b. 1703)\n 1778 – Thomas Linley the younger, English composer (b. 1756)\n1792 – Frederick North, Lord North, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b. 1732)\n1799 – Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, English admiral and politician (b. 1726)\n1868 – Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes, French archaeologist and historian (b. 1788)\n1877 – Robert Williams (known as Trebor Mai), Welsh poet (b. 1830)", "1877 – Robert Williams (known as Trebor Mai), Welsh poet (b. 1830)\n1880 – Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, Austrian physician and dermatologist (b. 1816)\n1881 – Spotted Tail, American tribal chief (b. 1823)\n1895 – Friedrich Engels, German philosopher (b. 1820)", "1901–present\n1901 – Victoria, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom and German Empress (b. 1840)\n1904 – George Dibbs, Australian politician, 10th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1834)\n1911 – Bob Caruthers, American baseball player and umpire (b. 1864)\n1916 – George Butterworth, British composer, killed at the Battle of the Somme (b. 1885)\n1921 – Dimitrios Rallis, Greek lawyer and politician, 78th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1844)\n1929 – Millicent Fawcett, English trade union leader and activist (b. 1847)", "1929 – Millicent Fawcett, English trade union leader and activist (b. 1847)\n1933 – Charles Harold Davis, American painter and academic (b. 1856)\n1935 – David Townsend, American art director and set designer (b. 1891)\n1939 – Béla Jankovich, Hungarian economist and politician, Minister of Education of Hungary (b. 1865)\n1944 – Maurice Turnbull, Welsh cricketer and rugby player (b. 1906)\n1946 – Wilhelm Marx, German lawyer and politician, 17th Chancellor of Germany (b. 1863)", "1946 – Wilhelm Marx, German lawyer and politician, 17th Chancellor of Germany (b. 1863)\n1948 – Montagu Toller, English cricketer and lawyer (b. 1871)\n1952 – Sameera Moussa, Egyptian physicist and academic (b. 1917)\n1955 – Carmen Miranda, Portuguese-Brazilian actress and singer (b. 1909)\n1957 – Heinrich Otto Wieland, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)\n1959 – Edgar Guest, English-American journalist and poet (b. 1881)", "1959 – Edgar Guest, English-American journalist and poet (b. 1881)\n1960 – Arthur Meighen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1874)\n1963 – Salvador Bacarisse, Spanish composer (b. 1898)\n1964 – Moa Martinson, Swedish author (b. 1890)\n 1964 – Art Ross, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1886)\n1968 – Luther Perkins, American guitarist (b. 1928)\n1978 – Jesse Haines, American baseball player and coach (b. 1893)", "1978 – Jesse Haines, American baseball player and coach (b. 1893)\n1980 – Harold L. Runnels, American soldier and politician (b. 1924)\n1983 – Judy Canova, American actress and comedian (b. 1913)\n 1983 – Joan Robinson, English economist and author (b. 1903)\n1984 – Richard Burton, Welsh-Swiss actor and producer (b. 1925)\n1985 – Arnold Horween, American football player and coach (b. 1898)\n1987 – Georg Gaßmann, German politician, Mayor of Marburg (b. 1910)", "1987 – Georg Gaßmann, German politician, Mayor of Marburg (b. 1910)\n1991 – Paul Brown, American football player and coach (b. 1908)\n 1991 – Soichiro Honda, Japanese engineer and businessman, founded Honda (b. 1906)\n1992 – Robert Muldoon, New Zealand politician, 31st Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1921)\n1994 – Menachem Avidom, Israeli composer (b. 1908)\n 1994 – Alain de Changy, Belgian race car driver (b. 1922)\n1998 – Otto Kretschmer, German commander (b. 1912)", "1998 – Otto Kretschmer, German commander (b. 1912)\n 1998 – Todor Zhivkov, Bulgarian commander and politician, 36th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1911)\n2000 – Otto Buchsbaum, Austrian-Brazilian journalist and activist (b. 1920)\n 2000 – Tullio Crali, Montenegrin-Italian pilot and painter (b. 1910)\n 2000 – Lala Amarnath, Indian cricketer who scored India's first Test century (b. 1911)\n 2000 – Alec Guinness, English actor (b. 1914)", "2000 – Alec Guinness, English actor (b. 1914)\n2001 – Otema Allimadi, Ugandan politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Uganda (b. 1929)\n 2001 – Christopher Skase, Australian-Spanish businessman (b. 1948)\n2002 – Josh Ryan Evans, American actor (b. 1982)\n 2002 – Chick Hearn, American sportscaster (b. 1916)\n 2002 – Franco Lucentini, Italian journalist and author (b. 1920)\n 2002 – Darrell Porter, American baseball player (b. 1952)", "2002 – Darrell Porter, American baseball player (b. 1952)\n 2002 – Matt Robinson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1937)\n2005 – Polina Astakhova, Russian gymnast and coach (b. 1936)\n 2005 – Jim O'Hora, American football player and coach (b. 1915)\n 2005 – Raul Roco, Filipino lawyer and politician, 31st Filipino Secretary of Education (b. 1941)\n 2005 – Eddie Jenkins, Welsh footballer (b. 1909)\n2007 – Jean-Marie Lustiger, French cardinal (b. 1926)", "2007 – Jean-Marie Lustiger, French cardinal (b. 1926)\n 2007 – Florian Pittiș, Romanian actor, singer, director, and producer (b. 1943)\n2008 – Neil Bartlett, English-American chemist and academic (b. 1932)\n 2008 – Reg Lindsay, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1929)\n2009 – Budd Schulberg, American author, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1914)\n2011 – Andrzej Lepper, Polish farmer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1954)", "2011 – Andrzej Lepper, Polish farmer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1954)\n 2011 – Aziz Shavershian, Russian-born Australian Bodybuilder and internet sensation (b. 1989)\n2012 – Erwin Axer, Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1917)\n 2012 – Michel Daerden, Belgian lawyer and politician (b. 1949)\n 2012 – Fred Matua, American football player (b. 1984)\n 2012 – Martin E. Segal, Russian-American businessman, co-founded Film Society of Lincoln Center (b. 1916)", "2012 – Chavela Vargas, Costa Rican-Mexican singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1919)\n 2012 – Roland Charles Wagner, French author and translator (b. 1960)\n2013 – Ruth Asawa, American sculptor and educator (b. 1926)\n 2013 – Shawn Burr, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1966)\n 2013 – Willie Dunn, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)\n 2013 – Roy Rubin, American basketball player and coach (b. 1925)\n 2013 – May Song Vang, American activist (b. 1951)", "2013 – May Song Vang, American activist (b. 1951)\n 2013 – Rob Wyda, American commander and judge (b. 1959)\n2014 – Harold J. Greene, American general (b. 1962)\n 2014 – Vladimir Orlov, Russian author (b. 1936)\n 2014 – Chapman Pincher, Indian-English historian, journalist, and author (b. 1914)\n 2014 – Jesse Leonard Steinfeld, American physician and academic, 11th Surgeon General of the United States (b. 1927)\n2015 – Arthur Walter James, English journalist and politician (b. 1912)", "2015 – Arthur Walter James, English journalist and politician (b. 1912)\n 2015 – Tony Millington, Welsh footballer (b. 1943)\n2018 – Alan Rabinowitz, American zoologist (b. 1953)\n2019 – Toni Morrison, American author, Pulitzer Prize winner, and Nobel laureate (b. 1931).\n2020 – Hawa Abdi, Somali human rights activist and physician (b. 1947)\n2022 – Judith Durham, Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1943)\n 2022 – Cherie Gil, Filipino actress (b. 1963)\n 2022 – Ali Haydar, Syrian army officer (b. 1932)", "2022 – Ali Haydar, Syrian army officer (b. 1932)\n 2022 – Issey Miyake, Japanese fashion designer (b. 1938)\n 2022 – Dillon Quirke, Irish hurler (b. 1998)", "Holidays and observances\n Christian feast day:\n Abel of Reims\n Addai\n Afra\n Albrecht Dürer, Matthias Grünewald, and Lucas Cranach the Elder (Episcopal Church (USA))\n Cassian of Autun\n Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major (Catholic Church)\n Emygdius\n Memnius\n Oswald of Northumbria\n August 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n Independence Day (Burkina Faso)\n Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian defenders (Croatia)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n\nDays of the year\nAugust" ]

[ "The 1924 British Mount Everest expedition was—after the 1922 British Mount Everest expedition—the 2nd expedition with the goal of achieving the first ascent of Mount Everest. After two summit attempts in which Edward Norton set a world altitude record of , the mountaineers George Mallory and Andrew \"Sandy\" Irvine disappeared on the third attempt. Their disappearance has given rise to the long-standing speculation of whether or not the pair mightunder a narrow set of assumptionshave reached the summit", ". Mallory's body was found in 1999 at , but the resulting clues did not provide any conclusive evidence as to whether the summit was reached.", "Background and motivation \nAt the beginning of the 20th century, the British participated in contests to be the first to reach the North and South Poles, without success. A desire to restore national prestige led to scrutiny and discussion of the possibility of \"conquering the third pole\" – making the first ascent of the highest mountain on Earth.", "The southern side of the mountain, which is accessible from Nepal and today is the standard climbing route, was unavailable as Nepal was a \"forbidden country\" for westerners. Going to the north side was politically complex: it required the persistent intervention of the British-Indian government with the Dalai Lama regime in Tibet to allow British expedition activities.", "A major handicap of all expeditions to the north side of Mount Everest is the tight time window between the end of winter and the start of the monsoon rains. To travel from Darjeeling in northern India over Sikkim to Tibet, it was necessary to climb high, long snow-laden passes east of the Kangchenjunga area. After this first step, a long journey followed through the valley of the Arun River to the Rongbuk valley near the north face of Mount Everest", ". Horses, donkeys, yaks, and dozens of local porters provided transport. The expeditions arrived at Mount Everest in late April and only had until June before the monsoon began, allowing only six to eight weeks for altitude acclimatisation, setting up camps, and the actual climbing attempts.", "A secondary task for the expedition was to survey the area around the West Rongbuk Glacier. The Survey of India sent a Gurkha surveyor with the expedition who was assisted in climbing to the difficult areas to survey.", "Preparations", "Two expeditions preceded the 1924 effort. The first in 1921 was an exploratory expedition led by Harold Raeburn which described a potential route along the whole northeast ridge. Later George Mallory proposed a longer modified climb to the north col, then along the north ridge to reach the northeast ridge, and then on to the summit. This approach seemed to be the \"easiest\" terrain to reach the top", ". This approach seemed to be the \"easiest\" terrain to reach the top. After they had discovered access to the base of the north col via the East Rongbuk Glacier, the complete route was explored and appeared to be the superior option. Several attempts on Mallory's proposed route occurred during the 1922 expedition.", "After this expedition, insufficient time for preparation and a lack of financial means prevented an expedition in 1923. The Common Everest Committee had lost some 700 pounds in the bankruptcy of the Alliance Bank of Simla. So the third expedition was postponed until 1924.", "Like the two earlier expeditions, the 1924 expedition was also planned, financed and organised by the membership of the Royal Geographical Society, the Alpine Club, and a major contribution by Captain John Noel, who thereby purchased all photographic rights. The Mount Everest Committee which they formed used military strategies, with some military personnel.", "One important change was the role of the porters. The 1922 expedition recognised several of them were capable of gaining great heights and quickly learning mountaineering skills. The changed climbing strategy, which increased their involvement, later culminated in an equal partnership of Tenzing Norgay for the first known ascent in 1953 together with Edmund Hillary", ". The gradual reversal in the system of \"Sahib – Porter\" from the earliest expeditions eventually led to a \"professional – client\" situation where the Sherpa \"porters\" are the real strong mountaineering professionals and the westerners mainly weaker clients.", "Like the 1922 expedition, the 1924 expedition also brought bottled oxygen to the mountain. The oxygen equipment had been improved during the two intervening years, but was still not very reliable. Also there was no real clear agreement whether to use this assistance at all. It was the start of a discussion which still lasts today: the \"sporting\" arguments intend to climb Everest \"by fair means\" without the technical measure which reduces the effects of high altitude by a couple of thousand metres.", "Participants \nThe expedition was headed by the same leader as the 1922 expedition, General Charles G. Bruce. He was responsible for managing equipment and supplies, hiring porters and choosing the route to the mountain.", "The question of which mountaineers would comprise the climbing party was no easy one. As a consequence of World War I, there was a lack of a whole generation of strong young men. George Mallory was again part of the mission, along with Howard Somervell, Edward \"Teddy\" Norton and Geoffrey Bruce. George Ingle Finch, who had gained the record height in 1922, was proposed as a member but eventually was not included", ". The committee's reasons included that he was divorced and that he had accepted money for lectures. The influential Secretary of the committee, Arthur Hinks, made it clear that for an Australian to be first on Everest was not acceptable; the British wanted the climb to be an example of British spirit to lift morale. Mallory refused to climb again without Finch, but changed his mind after being personally persuaded by the British royal family at Hinks's request.", "The new members of the climbing team included Noel Odell, Bentley Beetham and John de Vars Hazard. Andrew \"Sandy\" Irvine, an engineering student whom Odell knew from an expedition to Spitsbergen, was a so-called \"experiment\" for the team and a test for \"young blood\" on the slopes of Mount Everest. Due to his technical and mechanical expertise, Irvine was able to enhance the capacities of the oxygen equipment, to decrease the weight, and to perform numerous repairs to it and other expedition equipment.", "The participants were not only selected for their mountaineering abilities; the status of their families and any military experience or university degrees were also factors in the selection procedures. Military experience was of the highest importance in the public image and communication to the newspapers. Quaker-educated Richard B. Graham, b", ". Quaker-educated Richard B. Graham, b. 1893 (Bootham School, York, 1906–10) was also chosen, but resigned on being told that some members of the party objected to climbing with a man who had refused to fight in the war.", "The full expedition team consisted of 60 porters and the following members:\n\nJourney", "At the end of February 1924, Charles and Geoffrey Bruce, Norton and Shebbeare arrived in Darjeeling where they selected the porters from Tibetans and Sherpas. They once again engaged the Tibetan born Karma Paul for translation purposes and Gyalzen for sardar (leader of the porters) and purchased food and material. At the end of March 1924, all expedition members were assembled and the journey to Mount Everest began. They followed the same route as the 1921 and 1922 expeditions", ". They followed the same route as the 1921 and 1922 expeditions. To avoid overloading the dak bungalows, they travelled in two groups and arrived in Yatung at the beginning of April. Phari Dzong was reached on 5 April. After negotiations with Tibetan authorities, the main part of the expedition followed the known route to Kampa Dzong while Charles Bruce and a smaller group chose an easier route. During this stage, Bruce was crippled with malaria and was forced to relinquish his leadership role to Norton", ". On 23 April the expedition reached Shekar Dzong. They arrived at the Rongbuk Monastery on 28 April, some kilometres from the planned base camp. The Lama of Rongbuk Monastery was ill and could not speak with the British members and the porters or perform the Buddhist puja ceremonies. The following day the expedition reached the location of the base camp at the glacier end of the Rongbuk valley. Weather conditions were good during the approach but now the weather was cold and snowy.", "Planned access route", "As the kingdom of Nepal was forbidden to foreigners, the British expeditions before the Second World War could only gain access to the north side of the mountain. In 1921, Mallory had seen a possible route from the North Col to go to the top. This route follows the East Rongbuk Glacier to the North Col. From there, the windy ridges (North Ridge, Northeast Ridge) seemed to allow a practical route to the top", ". On the Northeast Ridge a formidable obstacle blocks the route in the form of steep cliff called the Second Step at , whose difficulty was unknown in 1924. The second step massive is a suddenly steeper stratum of rock with a total height of 30 m. The crux is a 5 m cliff that was first verifiably climbed by the Chinese in 1960. Since 1975 it has been bridged with a ladder", ". Since 1975 it has been bridged with a ladder. After that point, the ridge route leads to the summit by a steep (45-degree) snow slope, the \"triangular snow field\" on the summit pyramid, and thence to the summit ridge.", "The first men to travel this route to the summit were the Chinese in 1960, along the Northeast Ridge. The British since 1922 had made their ascent attempts significantly down the ridge, crossed the giant north face to the Great Couloir (later called the \"Norton Couloir\"), climbed along the borderline of the couloir, and then attempted to reach the summit pyramid. This route was unsuccessful until Reinhold Messner followed it for his solo ascent in 1980", ". This route was unsuccessful until Reinhold Messner followed it for his solo ascent in 1980. The exact route of the Mallory and Irvine ascent is not known. They either used the natural Norton/Harris route—cutting diagonally through the Yellow Band ledges to the Northeast Ridge or, possibly, following the North Ridge straight up to the Northeast Ridge. It is unknown whether either of them reached the summit", ". It is unknown whether either of them reached the summit. The diagonal traverse of the northern face to breach the Second Step strata through the beginning of the Great (Norton) Couloir was a potential alternative to the ridge route, but it is rarely used.", "Erection of the camps \nThe positions of the high camps were planned before the expedition took place. Camp I (5400 m) was erected as an intermediate camp at the entrance of the East Rongbuk Glacier to the main valley. Camp II (about 6000 m) was erected as another intermediate camp, halfway to Camp III (advanced base camp, 6400 m) about 1 km from the icy slopes leading up to the North Col.", "Supplies were transported by about 150 porters from base camp to advanced base camp. The porters were paid around one shilling per day. At the end of April, they expanded the camp positions, a job which was finished in the first week of May.", "Further climbing activities were delayed because of a snow storm. On 15 May, the expedition members received the blessings of the Lama at the Rongbuk Monastery. As the weather started to improve, Norton, Mallory, Somervell and Odell arrived on 19 May at Camp III. One day later, they started to fix ropes on the icy slopes to the North Col. They erected Camp IV on 21 May at a height of .", "Once again the weather conditions deteriorated. John de Vars Hazard remained in Camp IV on the North Col with twelve porters and little food. Eventually, Hazard was able to climb down, but only eight porters came with him. The other four porters, who had become ill, were rescued by Norton, Mallory and Somervell. The whole expedition returned to Camp I. There, fifteen porters who had demonstrated the most strength and competence in climbing were elected as so called \"tigers\".", "Summit attempts \nThe first attempt was scheduled for Mallory and Bruce, and after that Somervell and Norton would get a chance. Odell and Irvine would support the summit teams from Camp IV on the North Col while Hazard provided support from Camp III. The supporters would also form the reserve teams for a third try. The first and second attempts were done without bottled oxygen.", "First: Mallory and Bruce", "On 1 June 1924 Mallory and Bruce began their first attempt from the North Col, supported by nine \"tiger\" porters. Camp IV was situated in a relatively protected space some below the lip of the North Col; when they left the shelter of the ice walls they were exposed to harsh, icy winds sweeping across the North Face. Before they were able to install Camp V at , four porters abandoned their loads and turned back", ". Before they were able to install Camp V at , four porters abandoned their loads and turned back. While Mallory erected the platforms for the tents, Bruce and one tiger retrieved the abandoned loads. The following day, three tigers also objected to climbing higher, and the attempt was aborted without erecting Camp VI as planned at . Halfway down to Camp IV, the first summit team met Norton and Somervell who had just started their attempt.", "Second: Norton and Somervell", "The second attempt was started on 2 June by Norton and Somervell with the support of six porters. They were astonished to see Mallory and Bruce descending so early and wondered if their porters would also refuse to continue beyond Camp V. This fear was partially realised when two porters were sent \"home\" to Camp IV, but the other four porters and the two English climbers spent the night in Camp V. On the following day, three of the porters brought up the materials to establish Camp VI at in a small niche", ". The porters were then sent back to Camp IV on the North Col.", "On 4 June, Norton and Somervell were able to start their summit bid at 6:40 am, later than originally planned. A spilled water bottle caused the delay, and a new quantity had to be melted. But the litre of water each man took was wholly inadequate for their climb, and a chronic shortcoming of the pre-WWII climbs. Weather was ideal", ". Weather was ideal. After ascending the North Ridge more than , they decided to traverse the North Face diagonally but, not breathing supplemental oxygen, the effect of altitude forced them to stop frequently to rest.", "Around 12 o'clock, Somervell was no longer able to climb higher. Norton continued alone and traversed to the deep gulley which leads to the eastern foot of the summit pyramid. This gulley was named \"Norton Couloir\" or \"Great Couloir\". During this solo climb, Somervell took one of the most remarkable photographs in mountaineering history. It shows Norton near his high point of where he tried to climb over steep, icy terrain with some spots of fresh snow", ". This altitude established a confirmed world record climbing altitude which was not surpassed for another 28 years; the 1952 Swiss Mount Everest Expedition, when Raymond Lambert and Tenzing Norgay reached on the south side of Everest.", "The summit was less than above Norton when he decided to turn around because of increasing terrain difficulty, insufficient time and doubts of his remaining strength. He re-joined Somervell at 2 pm; and they descended. Shortly after they joined up, Somervell accidentally dropped his ice axe and it fell down the north face and out of view.", "While following Norton, Somervell suffered a severe problem with a blockage of his throat, and he sat down to await his death. In a desperate last attempt, he compressed his lungs with his arms, and suddenly disgorged the blockage – which he described as the lining of his throat. He then followed Norton, who was by now 30 minutes ahead, unaware of the life-threatening episode to his partner.", "Below Camp V it had turned dark, but they managed to reach Camp IV at 9:30 pm and were using \"electric torches\". They were offered oxygen bottles by Mallory (a sign of his conversion to the shunned aid) but their first wish was to drink water. During the night, Mallory discussed his plan with expedition leader Norton, to make a final attempt with Andrew Irvine and to use oxygen.", "That night, Norton was struck with a severe pain in his eyes. By morning, he was completely snow blind and remained blinded for sixty hours. Norton remained in Camp IV on 5 June because he was most familiar with Nepalese and he assisted with co-ordinating the porters from his tent. On 6 June, Norton was carried down to Camp III (Advanced Base Camp) by a group of six porters who took turns carrying him. In the film, The Epic of Everest, Norton is seen being carried by one of the porters into Camp III.", "Third: Mallory and Irvine \nWhile Somervell and Norton ascended, Mallory and Bruce had climbed down to Camp III (ABC) and returned to the Camp IV (North Col) with oxygen.", "On 5 June Mallory and Irvine were in Camp IV. Mallory spoke with Norton about his selection of Sandy Irvine as his climbing partner. Since Norton was the expedition leader after the illness of Bruce, and Mallory was the chief climber, he decided not to challenge Mallory's plan, in spite of Irvine's inexperience in high-altitude climbing. Irvine was not chosen primarily for his climbing abilities; rather, it was due to his practical skill with the oxygen equipment", ". Mallory and Irvine had also become fast friends since they shared a lot of time aboard ship to India, and Mallory considered the personable 22-year-old as \"strong as an ox\".", "On 6 June, Mallory and Irvine departed for Camp V at 8:40 am with eight porters. They carried the modified oxygen apparatus with two cylinders as well as a day's ration of food. Their load was estimated to be 25 lbs each. Odell took their picture, which would end up being the last close up picture taken of the pair alive. The film The Epic of Everest captures a scene from that day of a party of ten people moving up the ridge, but at over two miles distance, only tiny figures can be seen", ". That evening shortly after 5 pm, four of the porters returned from Camp V with a note from Mallory which said, \"There is no wind here, and things look hopeful.\"", "On 7 June, Odell and Nema, a porter, went to Camp V to support the summit team. On the trip to Camp V, Odell picked up an oxygen-breathing set which had been abandoned by Irvine on the ridge only to discover that it was missing its mouthpiece. Odell carried it up to Camp V in hopes of finding an extra mouthpiece there but did not find one. Shortly after Odell arrived in Camp V, the four remaining porters who had assisted Mallory and Irvine returned from Camp VI", ". The porters gave Odell the following message:Dear Odell,---We're awfully sorry to have left things in such a mess – our Unna Cooker rolled down the slope at the last moment. Be sure of getting back to IV to-morrow in time to evacuate before dark, as I hope to. In the tent I must have left a compass – for the Lord's sake rescue it: we are without. To here on 90 atmospheres for two days – so we'll probably go on two cylinders – but it's a bloody load for climbing", ". Perfect weather for the job! Yours ever,G Mallory", "Another message carried by the porters read:\n\n(Mallory really meant 8a.m., not 8p.m.) Mallory referred to the climbers by their last names, thus, his letter to Odell starts, \"Dear Odell\" (Odell's first name is Noel), while his letter to John Noel starts \"Dear Noel.\" Nema was getting sick and Odell dispatched him and the remaining four porters back to Camp IV with a letter to Hazzard.", "John Noel received the letter and understood the mistake between \"p.m.\" and \"a.m.\". He also knew the location Mallory was referring to, as he and Mallory had discussed it previously, and both the \"skyline\" and the \"rockband\" could be seen at the same time through the camera.", "On 8 June, John Noel and two porters were at the photographic lookout point above Camp III (Advanced Base Camp) at 8a.m. looking for the climbers. They took turns with a telescope, and if anything were seen, Noel would turn the camera on—which was already focused upon the agreed spot. They did not spot anyone and could see the summit ridge until 10a.m. when clouds blocked the view.", "On the morning of 8 June, Odell awoke at 6:00 am, reporting that the night was largely free of wind and that he slept well. At 8:00 am, Odell started an ascent to Camp VI to make geological studies and to support Mallory and Irvine. The mountain was swept by mists so he could not see the NE Ridge clearly along which Mallory and Irvine intended to climb. At 7900m (26,000-ft) he climbed over a small outcropping. At 12:50, the mists suddenly cleared", ". At 7900m (26,000-ft) he climbed over a small outcropping. At 12:50, the mists suddenly cleared. Odell noted in his diary, \"saw M & I on the ridge, nearing base of final pyramide\". In a first report on 5 July to The Times he clarified this view. Odell was excited about having found the first fossils on Everest when there was a clearing in the weather and he saw the summit ridge and final pyramid of Everest. His eyes caught a tiny black dot which moved on a small snowcrest beneath a rock-step on the ridge", ". His eyes caught a tiny black dot which moved on a small snowcrest beneath a rock-step on the ridge. A second black dot was moving toward the first one. The first dot reached the crest of the ridge (\"broke skyline\"). He could not be certain if the second dot also did so.", "Odell's initial opinion was that the two climbers had reached the base of the Second Step.", "He was concerned because Mallory and Irvine seemed to be five hours behind their schedule. After this sighting, Odell continued on to Camp VI where he found the tent in chaotic disorder. At 2 p.m. an intense snow squall began. Odell went out in the squall hoping to signal the two climbers who he believed would by now be descending. He whistled and shouted, hoping to lead them back to the tent, but gave up because of the intense cold. Odell holed up in C-VI until the squall ended at 4pm", ". Odell holed up in C-VI until the squall ended at 4pm. He then scanned the mountain for Mallory and Irvine but saw no one.", "Because the single C-VI tent could only sleep two, Mallory had advised Odell to leave Camp VI and return to Camp IV on the North Col. Odell left C-VI at 4:30 p.m. arrived at C-IV at 6:45 p.m. As they had not seen any sign from Mallory and Irvine then or the next day, Odell again climbed up the mountain together with two porters. Around 3:30 p.m., they arrived at Camp V and stayed for the night. The following day Odell again went alone to Camp VI which he found unchanged", ". The following day Odell again went alone to Camp VI which he found unchanged. He then climbed up to around 8200m but could not see any trace of the two missing climbers. In Camp VI he laid 6 blankets in a cross on the snow which was the signal for \"No trace can be found, Given up hope, Awaiting orders\" to the advanced base camp. Odell climbed down to Camp IV. In the morning of 11 June they started to leave the mountain by climbing down the icy slopes of north col to end the expedition", ". Five days later they said goodbye to the Lama at Rongbuk Monastery.", "After the expedition", "The expedition participants erected a memorial cairn in honour of the men who had died in the 1920s on Mount Everest. Mallory and Irvine became national heroes. Magdalene College, one of the constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge, where Mallory had studied, erected a memorial stone in one of its courts – a court renamed for Mallory. The University of Oxford, where Irvine studied, erected a memorial stone in his memory", ". The University of Oxford, where Irvine studied, erected a memorial stone in his memory. In St Paul's Cathedral a ceremony took place which was attended by King George V and other dignitaries, as well as the families and friends of the climbers.", "The official film of the expedition The Epic of Everest, produced by John Noel, caused a diplomatic controversy later known as the Affair of the Dancing Lamas. A group of monks was taken clandestinely from Tibet to perform a song and dance act before each showing of the film. This greatly offended the Tibetan authorities. Because of this and various unauthorised activities during the expedition, the Dalai Lama did not allow access for further expeditions until 1933.", "Odell's sighting of Mallory and Irvine", "The opinion of the Everest climbing community began to challenge the location Odell claimed to have seen the two climbers. Many thought the Second Step, if not unclimbable, was at least not climbable in the five minutes Odell says he saw one of the two surmount it. Based on their position, both Odell and Norton believed that Mallory and Irvine had made it to the summit, with Odell sharing this belief with the newspapers after the expedition", ". The expedition report was presented to Martin Conway, a prominent politician and mountaineer, who expressed the opinion that the summit had been reached. Conway's opinion was based on their location on the mountain and Mallory's exceptional mountaineering skill.", "Under social pressure from the climbing community Odell varied his opinion on several occasions as to the very spot where he had seen the two black dots. Most climbers believe he must have seen them climbing the far easier First Step. In the expedition report he wrote that the climbers were on the second-to-last step below the summit pyramid, indicating the famous and more difficult Second Step. Odell's account of the weather situation also varied", ". Odell's account of the weather situation also varied. At first, he described that he could see the whole ridge and the summit. Later, he said that only a part of the ridge was free of mist. After viewing photographs of the 1933 expedition, Odell again said that he might have seen the two climbers at the Second Step. Shortly before his death in 1987, he admitted that since 1924 he had never been clear about the exact location along the northeast ridge where he had seen the black dots.", "A recent theory suggests the two climbers were cresting the First Step after they had given up their climb and were already on the descent.", "They scrambled up the small hillock to take photographs of the remaining route, much as the French did in 1981, when they too were blocked from further progress. As to which step they were seen on, Conrad Anker has stated that \"it's hard to say because Odell was looking at it obliquely ..", "... you're at altitude, the clouds were coming in\" but that he believes \"they were probably in the vicinity of the First Step when they turned back, because the First Step itself is very challenging and the Second Step is more challenging...", ".... [T]o put them where they might have fallen in the evening and where Mallory's body is resting, because it's a traversing route, he couldn't have fallen off either the First or Second Step and ended up where he was at, they were well to the East of that descending the Yellow Band\".", "Findings", "Odell discovered the first evidence which might reveal something about the climb of Mallory and Irvine among the equipment in camps V and VI. In addition to Mallory's compass, which normally was a critical component for climbing activities, he discovered some oxygen bottles and spare parts. This situation suggests the possibility that there had been a problem with the oxygen equipment which might have caused a delayed start in the morning", ". A hand-generator electric lamp also remained in the tent – it was still in working order when it was found by the Ruttledge expedition nine years later.", "During the 1933 British Mount Everest expedition, Percy Wyn-Harris found the ice axe of Irvine some 250 yards (230 metres) east of the First Step and 60 feet (20 metres) below the ridge. This location raises additional questions. The area is a 30-degree slab of rock with loose pebbles, according to Wyn-Harris. Expedition leader Hugh Ruttledge said: \"We have naturally paid close attention to the problem. Firstly, it seems probable that the axe marked the scene of a fatal accident", ". Firstly, it seems probable that the axe marked the scene of a fatal accident. For reasons already given, neither climber would be likely to abandon it deliberately on the slabs...its presence there would seem to indicate that it was accidentally dropped when a slip occurred or that its owner put it down in order to have both hands free to hold the rope\".", "On the second summit climb of the Chinese in 1975, the Chinese mountaineer Wang Hongbao saw an \"English dead\" (body) at . This news was officially denied by the Chinese Mountaineering Association (CMA), but this report to a Japanese climber, who passed it on to Tom Holzel led to the first Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition in 1986, which was unsuccessful due to bad weather.", "In 1999, a new search expedition was mounted, founded by German Everest researcher Jochen Hemmleb, and led by Eric Simonson. Simonson had seen some very old oxygen bottles near the First Step during his first summit climb in 1991. One of these bottles was again found in 1999 and was one belonging to Mallory and Irvine, thus proving the two climbed at least as high as shortly below the First Step", ". Their location also suggests a climbing speed of approximately 275 vert-ft/hr, good time for the altitude and an indication the oxygen systems were working perfectly. The expedition also tried to reproduce Odell's position when he had seen Mallory and Irvine. The mountaineer Andy Politz later reported that they could clearly identify each of the three steps without any problems.", "The most remarkable finding was the corpse of George Leigh Mallory at a height of . The lack of extreme injuries indicated he had not tumbled very far. His waist showed severe rope-jerk mottling, showing the two had been roped when they fell. Mallory's injuries were such that a walking descent was impossible: his right foot was nearly broken off and there was a golf ball-sized puncture wound in his forehead. His unbroken leg was on top of the broken one, as if to protect it", ". His unbroken leg was on top of the broken one, as if to protect it. General Hospital neurosurgeon Dr. Elliot Schwamm believes it not possible that he would have been conscious after the forehead injury. There was no oxygen equipment near the body, but the oxygen bottles would have been empty by that time and discarded at a higher altitude to relinquish the heavy load. Mallory was not wearing snow goggles, although a pair was stored in his vest, which may indicate that he was on the way back by night", ". However, a contemporary photograph shows he had two sets of goggles when he started his summit climb. The image of his wife Ruth which he intended to put on the summit was not in his vest. He carried the picture throughout the whole expedition—a sign that he might have reached the top. Since his Kodak pocket camera was not found, there is no proof of a successful climb to the summit.", "First ascent speculation\nSince 1924, there have been supporting claims and rumours that Mallory and Irvine had been successful and so were actually the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest. One counter argument claims that their fleece, vests and trousers were of too poor a quality. In 2006, Graham Hoyland climbed to 21,000 ft. in an exact reproduction of Mallory's original clothing. He said that it functioned very well and was quite comfortable.", "However, human thermo-regulation expert Professor George Havenith of Loughborough University (UK), has tested a rigorously accurate recreation of Mallory's clothing in a weather chamber. His conclusion: \"If the wind speed had picked up, a common feature of weather on Everest, \nthe insulation of the clothing would only just be sufficient to . Mallory would not have survived any deterioration in conditions.\"", "Odell's sighting is of especially high interest. The description of Odell's sighting and the current knowledge indicate Mallory's 5-minute surmounting of the Second Step is unlikely. This wall cannot be climbed as fast as described by Odell. Only the first and the third step can be climbed quickly. Odell said that they were at the foot of the summit pyramid, which contradicts a location at the First Step, but it is unlikely the pair could have started early enough to reach the Third Step by 12:50 pm", ". Since the First Step is far away from the Third Step, confusing them is also not likely. One suggestion proposes that Odell confused a sighting of birds for climbers, as occurred with Eric Shipton in 1933.", "This speculation also involves theories concerning whether Mallory and Irvine could have managed to climb the Second Step. Òscar Cadiach was the first to climb it in 1985 free and rated it V+. Conrad Anker led an experiment to free climb this section without using the \"Chinese ladder\" for assistance, since that equipment was not installed in 1924. In 1999, he did not manage a complete free climb as he put one foot briefly on the ladder when it blocked the only available foothold", ". At that time he rated the difficulty of the Second Step as 5.10—well outside of Mallory's capability. In June 2007, Anker returned as a member of the Altitude Everest Expedition 2007, and with Leo Houlding successfully free-climbed the Second Step, after removing the \"Chinese ladder\" (which was later replaced). Houlding rated the climb at 5.9, just within Mallory's estimated capabilities. Theo Fritsche climbed the step free solo on-sight in 2001 and rated it V+.", "An argument against the possible summit claim is the long distance from high camp VI to the summit. It is normally not possible to reach the summit before dark after starting in daylight. It was not until 1990 that Ed Viesturs was able to reach the top from an equivalent distance as Mallory and Irvine planned. In addition, Viesturs knew the route, while for Mallory and Irvine it was completely unknown territory", ". Finally, Irvine was not an experienced climber and it is considered unlikely that Mallory had put his friend into such danger or would have aimed for the summit without calculating the risks.", "Despite the discovery of Mallory's body in 1999, how and where exactly the two climbers lost their lives is still unknown.\n\nModern climbers who take a very similar route start their summit bid from high camp at around midnight to avoid the risk of a second night on the descent or a highly risky bivouac without the protection of a tent. They also use headlamps during the dark, a technology which was not used by the early British climbers.", "See also \n 1922 British Mount Everest expedition\n Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions\n List of 20th-century summiters of Mount Everest\n\nBibliography \n \n \n \n \n Holzel, Tom and Salkeld, Audrey, co-authors (1996) First on Everest: The Mystery of Mallory & Irvine. New York: 1996 Henry Holt & Co.\n\nReferences \n\n1924\nMountaineering in the United Kingdom\nBritish Mount Everest expedition, 1924\nExpeditions from the United Kingdom" ]

[ "Salience is the state or condition of being prominent. The Oxford English Dictionary defines salience as \"most noticeable or important.\" The concept is discussed in communication, semiotics, linguistics, sociology, psychology, and political science. It has been studied with respect to interpersonal communication, persuasion, politics, and its influence on mass media.\n\nSemiotics", "Semiotics\n\nIn semiotics (the study of signs or symbolism), salience refers to the relative importance or prominence of a part of a sign. The salience of a particular sign when considered in the context of others helps an individual to quickly rank large amounts of information by importance and thus give attention to that which is the most important. This process keeps an individual from being overwhelmed with information overload.\n\nDiscussion", "Discussion\n\nMeaning can be described as the \"system of mental representations of an object or phenomenon, its properties and associations with other objects and/or phenomena. In the consciousness of an individual, meaning is reflected in the form of sensory information, images and concepts.\" It is denotative or connotative, but the sign system for transmitting meanings can be uncertain in its operation or conditions may disrupt the communication and prevent accurate meanings from being decoded.", "Further, meaning is socially constructed and dynamic as the culture evolves. That is problematic because an individual's frame of reference and experience may produce some divergence from some of the prevailing social norms. So the salience of data will be determined by both situational and emotional elements in a combination relatively unique to each individual", ". For example, a person with an interest in botany may allocate greater salience to visual data involving plants, and a person trained as an architect may scan buildings to identify features of interest. A person's world view or Weltanschauung may predispose salience to data matching those views. Because people live for many years, responses become conventional", ". Because people live for many years, responses become conventional. At a group or community level, the conventional levels of significance or salience are slowly embedded in the sign systems and culture, and they cannot arbitrarily be changed.", "For example, the first thing seen in a poster may be the title or picture of a face.", "Communication studies\nThe noun \"salience\" derives from the Latin word saliens - ‘leaping, or bounding’. In a human embryo, the heart tissue is beating and leaping. A Native American may pay no attention to Columbus Day protests until after instruction in tribal and historical Indian traditions (priming). After gaining new cultural insights, these protests may become \"salient.\"", "Salience, as a component of Communication and Social Psychology studies, asks the question of why something captures and holds our attention and why it is more readily available as a cognition than other facts, feelings, and emotions? When a person perceives and reacts, they use the information and emotions most readily accessible. This information is understood to be the most salient information.", "Social Influence is an area of intense study for Social Psychologists and Communication theorists. Social Influence asks how and why, are people influenced to weaken a strongly held position, adopt a new position, change an attitude, or persuade someone? The extent that the communicator can understand and harness the power of Social Influence is the extent that they can succeed in their goal.", "Salience has been identified as one of the key ideas that guides our understanding of how to make a point of view stand out from among others and draw the receivers attention to the salient points of the encoded message. Salience is then an important concept in several theories relating to Social Influence", ". Salience is then an important concept in several theories relating to Social Influence. Some areas of Communication and Social Psychology research that include the concept of salience as a component of their theory are: Persuasion Theory, Vested Interest, Summation Theory of Attitude Change, Group Salience, and Social Presence Theory. The use of salience in these theories is summarized below:", "Persuasion theory: Salience is the critical concept, along with agenda and spin, for the Persuasion theory of Professor Richard E. Vatz of Towson University as articulated in his book, /The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion/, (Kendall Hunt, 2012, 2013). Salience, in his book and articles, is used as a measure of how reality is created for chosen audiences. He claims (1973) (2013) that the struggle for salience (and agenda and meaning and spin) is the sine qua non of the persuasive process.", "Vested interest (communication theory): William Crano's states that, \"Vested Interest refers to the extent to which an attitude object is hedonically relevant for the attitude holder\" (Crano, 1995, p. 131). In order for someone to have a vested interest in something, it must be perceived to affect their lives personally. Things that in which we are highly vested also bear on our behavior (Crano, 1995), and it must be salient or leap out", ". Vivid cues are more likely to grab our attention (McArthur & Post, 1977). If an attitude object is salient to us, our vested interest will be increased as well as the likelihood that our behavior and attitudes will be consistent (Sears & Citrin, 1985).", "Crano states, \"Apparently, making an attitude object more salient enhances the salience of attitude-relevant outcomes as well. Vividness, priming, and similar operations may all enhance the salience of the self-interest implications of a position.\" (Crano, 1995, p. 131). The stronger the salience of our attitude, the stronger will be the connection between our attitude object and our behavior.", "Attitude Summation Theory: Fishbein posited that we have many beliefs about an attitude object (characteristics, attributes, values, etc.). Each belief held is argued to have an affective (feeling) and evaluative (value determining) component. An attitude is then a mediated evaluative response (Fishbein, 1963). These attitudes sum together to form our overall view of the attitude object and comes to the forefront (made salient) when we engage the attitude object.", "Fishbein indicates that we can hold six to nine salient beliefs at a time (Cronen, 1973). Those manifested during the attitude object encounter determine the prevailing attitude. Fishbein believed that the strongest held beliefs would be the most salient and come to the fore. Cronen argued that salience is not intrinsically tied to strength, but is an independent attribute of attitude change, as some strongly held beliefs are non-salient (Cronen, 1973).", "Group Salience: Group salience is a person's cognizance of fellow group members similarities and differences within a group interaction (Harwood et al., 2006). Within a group, communication is the primary way that we determine salience of attitudes. Other things such as physical attributes can be observed, but deeper feelings will have to be communicated within the group to make them salient (Harwood et al., 2006). Coupland et al", "., 2006). Coupland et al., suggest that communication processes represent an individual's identity within the group (Coupland et al., 1991).", "Social presence theory (SPT): SPT can be defined as, \"The degree to which a person is perceived to be a real person in mediated communication.\" (Gunwadena, 1995) This is an update on the original definition, developed by Short, Williams and Christie (1976), which stated, \"The degree of salience of the other person in an interaction.\"", "What makes something salient? How does the mind select, structure and impart meaning to stimuli? People \"develop and stabilize\" cognitions about stimuli by an \"examination of action, intention, ability and environment.\" (Taylor & Fiske, 1978, citing Heider, 1934, as their source, p. 250). Individuals have limited cognitive resources and abilities to process and comprehend information and situational complexity", ". A person cannot grasp every nuance of a stimuli required to assign its full and complete meaning. Salience is the way researchers understand what information will most likely capture one's attention in a given situation and have the greatest influence on one's cognitions about the stimuli. Research has shown that the most salient information is not always the most accurate or important, but a \"Top of the Head Phenomenon\" (Taylor & Fiske, 1978)", ". People are not fully conscious of the extent to which salience affects them. In experimental studies, individuals generated strong cognitions with only slight manipulation of stimuli. When shown this fact, the participant reacted strongly to the idea that they made choices based on \"trivial\" information (Taylor & Fiske, 1978).", "\"Salience has generally been treated as a propriety [conforming to standard norms of morality and behavior] of a stimulus which allows it to stand out and be noticed\" (Guido, 1998, p. 114). Guido developed the Theory of Dichotic Salience after a review of some 1,200 studies, which pointed to a \"common origin among salience instances, by emphasizing the nature of prominence which is intrinsic to any salience construct\" (Guido, 1998, Abstract, p. 114)", ". 114). According to this theory, a stimulus is \"in-salient\" if it is not in harmony with perceiver's worldview. It is \"re-salient\" if it is in harmony with the perceiver's goals (Guido, 1998).", "Salience is a construct that depends on the ability of the mind to access the feelings or emotions (affect) generated by the salient stimulus. The activation in memory of cognitions that relate to and evaluate the stimulus. And finally, the availability of these mental resources to engage the stimulus (Guido, 1998).", "A schema (psychology) is a cognitive framework or concept through which one organizes and interprets information. Schemas provide shortcuts in sorting and interpreting the enormous quantity of information generated in one's environment. The limitation of such a construct, is that it may cause one to exclude pertinent facts and feelings about a situation. Instead one may focus on only those that harmonize with one's biases, beliefs and ideations.", "Schemas are very useful as they help one to decide about things with very little information. This simplification filters how one allocates cognitive resources. It also allows one to learn more readily and rapidly, if the learning fits within an already established schema. A schema allows for quick access to stored cognitions and filtering through pre-established algorithms, which saves time in processing and retrieving information", ". Because they are so useful and reliable in helping one make sense of the world, schemas can be hard to change. Thomas Kuhn (1962), in his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, talks about how scientists, considered the most rationale and fact driven professionals, can be so committed to their schemas that they ignore or misinterpret relevant data gathered from experiments that is contrary to their notions", ". One challenge for communicators is to find a way to break through these hardened perceptions in order to persuade. Making an idea salient is one of the keys.", "Guido's Principle one is figure-ground, which is the means the perceptual field from which people direct their attention towards something that stands out. Figurality is the brightness, complexity, and energy (movement) of a stimulus. It is thought that these aspects trigger cognitions and thought processes in the brain that lead to salience. Brightness includes the magnitude and the colors of the object", ". Brightness includes the magnitude and the colors of the object. Studies have shown that bright, vibrant colors more easily capture the attention and are easier to remember (Guido, 1998).", "Complexity builds upon the contextual factors (the number of perceptible qualities about the stimulus object that one can distinguish) and learning (what we perceive as unfamiliar). Complexity is the interaction of the familiarity, unfamiliarity, and the number of aspects of the stimulus object that we can resolve. Complexity is the interaction of these stimuli interact to engage affect and cognitions developed about the object (Guido, 1998)", ". Movement of an object engages sensory receptors, which when sparked, send stimuli to the body and brain. Moving pictures, signs and eyes are used to capture our attention and make us pay attention (Guido, 1998).", "Novelty is the \"isolation\" of the stimulus from other stimuli (objects). This isolation or uniqueness sets it apart from other objects in the background, so that it can be noticed (Guido, 1998). This can also be expressed as comparative distinctiveness (Higgins, 1996).", "Guido's Principle two is Unusuality, which can be broken down into statistical novelty (unique and unfamiliar), unexpectancy, out of role behaviors, negativity and extremity (emotional impact). Novelty is the degree that one has no experience with the stimuli. Unexpectancy is a result of learning. We have developed an expectation that is violated (Guido, 1998). Negativity is our gut reaction. Extremity is the emotional impact of the Negativity. Each of these contributes to making something salient.", "Accessibility and Salience. When we evaluate a situation, what comes first to our minds? The things that come to mind are those that are most accessible (most readily recalled and those that are most salient (Kreech and Crutchfield, 1948). Our beliefs and thoughts vary in salience. Salient beliefs are most easily activated in the cognitive processes and are more easily recalled, and are therefore more accessible (Higgins, 1996).", "Salience is determined by stimuli, such as brightness, contract, situational properties, schemas, expectations, arousal, and properties of the interpreter (e.g., need state, enduring beliefs, and motivations). The interconnectedness of these stimuli causes the brain to be activated and information salient to the situation recalled and acted upon.", "Information stored in memory, that is accessible, can be recalled either by a cue or free association. Information that is not accessible, cannot be recalled and therefore is not available for use in interpreting a situation. Higgins (1996) defines a memory's activation potential as having three properties: 1. the possibility that the knowledge can be recalled (not repressed or lost), 2. how easily accessible is it, and 3.the intensity or the energy of the memory", ". how easily accessible is it, and 3.the intensity or the energy of the memory. To the extent that memories are available, accessible, and have sufficient effect is the extent that these memories will be activated and that knowledge is brought to bear on the situation at hand.", "Cramer (1968, p. 82) defines priming as \"a change in antecedent conditions which is specifically designed to increase the probability of a particular response given to a particular stimulus\". The process of priming can activate a particular memory to bring it to the fore so that it can be engaged in a communication or social influence situation. Priming has been shown to increase accessibility of relevant knowledge (Higgins, 1996)", ". Priming has been shown to increase accessibility of relevant knowledge (Higgins, 1996). Priming is, then, any event that causes increased accessibility and availability of a framework of knowledge (schema) useful for that particular situation.", "In journalism, priming is associated with framing. When an author writes an article to persuade, he or she frames certain information so that it is more salient to the reader (Weaver, 2007). Framing including writing decisions about definitions of words and events, causal linkages, moral implications, and solution sets for the problem area (McCombs, 1997). Our minds sort information available using our agenda (framing) and stimulus (priming) for that situation and activate it to accomplish our purpose.", "When one encounters a stimulus for the first time, the initial reaction is characterized as unconditioned response. An unconditioned response is one that \"elicits a national, reflexive response.\" (Weseley & McEntarffer, 2014, p. 136). Subsequent encounters will elicit a conditioned response has been developed through the learning that occurred with the intervening encounters with the stimulus. This learning is bedrock knowledge on which one draws when responding to a given situation", ". This learning is bedrock knowledge on which one draws when responding to a given situation. (Weseley & McEntarffer, 2014). If the first time one ate ice cream the experience was pleasant, the second experience will be informed from the firs. The second experience will generate salient pleasant cognitions, salivation, and other biological responses that will reinforce the pleasant salience of the experience", ". If on the other hand, the first encounter was negative (disgust, pain or nausea), the second encounter will generate the feeling of pain in the stomach awful memories of the first encounter. which will reinforce the negative salience of the first and second experience.", "Another key aspect of whether a particular memory or knowledge will be activated is whether it is applicable to the situation. If it is not applicable, it will not be salient and is unlikely to be activated for that situation. \"According to the synapse model…, the process begins with the stimulus, which increases the excitation level of stored knowledge as a function of the features of the match between the attended features of the stimulus and the features of the stored knowledge.\" (Higgins, 1996, p", ".\" (Higgins, 1996, p. 137). The stimulus information creates a pathway to the knowledge, which is then evaluated for a salience match to the stimulus. If there is a match, then the knowledge will be activated.", "Our minds and bodies are bombarded by relevant and irrelevant knowledge and experiences every day. We will tune into salient ones (crane the ears to more fully hear enjoyable music) and tune-out non-salient ones (cover our ears from jackhammer noise). There is difference between seeing something and looking at it. In seeing, the capacity of our retina to take in the light energy is engaged and the brain processes that information into an image", ". When one looks at an object, not only are visual perceptive capacities engaged, but other mental processes for evaluation and ordering of the object are activated (Skinner, 1974).", "Humans have gatekeeper mental mechanisms that allow certain information in and keeps others out. This discrimination process can be viewed a defensive mechanism the protects and enhances our life experience. Our processes of making cognitions \"also involve contingencies of reinforcement.\" (Skinner, 1974, p. 117). Skinner implies that reinforcement as \"a special kind of stimulus control.\" (Skinner, 1974, p. 119)", ".\" (Skinner, 1974, p. 119). Salience can be thought of as a reinforcement mechanism that make certain thoughts, feelings and emotions available, accessible, applicable and actionable within the context of the situation.", "Esber and Haselgrove (2011) looked at the use of predictiveness and uncertainty on stimulus salience. They cite the example of a bird watching the water for the presence of fish. Through learning, the bird associates the ripples with the closeness of the fish, but they must be careful of the uncertainty that ripple is not caused by a crocodile. The ripples are very salient, if they are caused by fish suitable for use as food", ". The ripples are very salient, if they are caused by fish suitable for use as food. The likelihood increases that the ripples will catch the attention of the bird and improve its probability of eating the fish, if the ripple cue is a predictor of fish behavior and presence. The predictiveness of ripples reinforces its salience", ". The predictiveness of ripples reinforces its salience. The Esber–Haselgrove model argues that (1) \"stimuli acquire added salience to the degree that they predict motivationally relevant consequences\", and (2) \"a predictor of multiple reinforcers should have more salience than a predictor of just one.\" (Esber & Haselgrove, 2011, 2555-25557)", ".\" (Esber & Haselgrove, 2011, 2555-25557). So, for example, if ripples predict both the presence of fish and the increased likelihood that the fish can be caught, they will be much more salient to the bird, than if the ripples only predict the presence of the fish, but tell the bird nothing about the probability of making a catch.", "Salience is a broad concept in the social sciences, that can cause confusion. Part of the confusion lies in that different researchers use the same term to posit different ideas of what makes a particular stimulus salient. When we encounter an object or idea, we may be draw to it for a variety of reasons. It may be its brightness or intensity, its predictive capacity, or other features such as uniqueness or enormity that catches one's attention.", "Once the attention is engaged, our brain will begin to process this information and make assessments and judgements about the encounter. Our minds and bodies will activate useful memories, biological responses and feelings that were generated from prior encounters with the object of similar objects. These memory-evaluative-feeling-biology responses will determine if the object is salient", ". These memory-evaluative-feeling-biology responses will determine if the object is salient. If it is salient, we will devote more cognitive processing resources to the encounter and it will enhance or protect us in that moment.", "Axioms of salience\nCommunication scholars have found that a number of different factors have a direct effect on the salience of attitude objects.\n\nDirect experience\nWilliam Crano posits that one's direct experience with an issue or attitude object increases the salience and consequently the potency of that attitude, and the level of consistency between attitude and behavior.", "For example: Consider two people: one with emphysema, one without. Both of whom share a negative attitude toward cigarette smoking. The person with emphysema would have a stronger attitude than his counterpart, and consequently would show greater consistency between his relevant attitude and behavior. It is posited by Crano that the attitude toward smoking of the person with emphysema may be more salient due to his direct experience with the consequence of smoking.\n\nSelf-Interest", "The concept called vested interest by Crano is called self-interest by Sears (1997). It seems that \"self-interest\" is the more widely recognized term. Self-interest involves either perceived or actual personal consequences. That is, Crano (1997) argues that vested interest involves perceived personal consequences (p. 490), while Sears (1997, a critique of Crano) counter-argues that Crano's survey experiments define it objectively", ". Crano argues that vested interest should have a moderating effect on attitudes. Sears argues that, actually, evidence for this is conflicting: The survey literature has rarely found significant effects of self-interest, while the experimental literature finds significant effects. The literature is concerned with salience only marginally; it is actually about strength of attitudes (i.e. how well they correlate with behavior). It is about salience inasmuch as anything \"strong\" is \"salient\".", "Needs and aspirations\nThe salience (prominence) of an attitude can also be measured by the relevance of an idea to that person's needs or aspirations. As ideals become more salient they become more accessible, the more accessible the attitude object is the stronger the attitude toward the object. As accessibility increases, so does the likelihood of self-interested voting (Young).", "For example: In times of elections, issue relevant events are the focus of attention. Therefore, candidates, due to their aspiration for a certain political position are interest driven toward the salient events since they are favorable to their party.\n\nPolicy making", "Policy making\n\nPolitical scientists agree that salience is relatively important in examining political policy, because policies are not only determined by what issues are important to people but also by how important they are. This involves examining what issues are ignored and which are made \"important.\" One research agenda that political scientists are concerned with understanding is \"when and how salience and changes in salience matter for political action.\"", "There are three related understandings of salience.", "The first (\"classical\") interpretation considers salience to be independent of the \"status quo\" and politicians’ ideal policies and programs. Although it says salience is independent of ideals, it does not say that salience is independent of preferences. This means, where there is a change in salience there is also a change in preferences. Often a player or policymaker's ideals may not be known but their preferences are usually revealed in their party's manifestos", ". Often policymakers cannot achieve their ideals but rather must choose between the offers on the table. They may prefer one over the other and this is where salience affects a party or a politician's position on an issue.", "The second (\"valence\") interpretation proposes that for certain issues salience is a very important factor. In other words, when there is a general consensus of principles, the relative salience of various issues amongst the public determines the policy position of policy makers. This is due to constraints in policy making, where ideals are often induced, which policy makers view as the tradeoff space", ". For example, although \"ideally\" they may like to see low unemployment and low inflation, they are usually constrained to pick a position on the \"tradeoff\" line. Thus, their ideal has been induced due to constraints. In these situations salience and policy position are almost interchangeable, because their \"induced ideal\" is their \"favored allocation.\" In the classical interpretation, salience would be used to describe the different levels of preference between positions on policies.", "The third (\"price\") interpretation assumes that salience is not separate from ideals, as the classical view states, but that it is also not the same as ideals, as the valence view claims. This interpretation assumes that although a group of players, sharing benevolent preferences, all dissatisfied with the status quo, may still value different aspects differently when considering policy change. The price interpretation is favored over the other two for three reasons. First, it is more applicable", ". First, it is more applicable. Unlike the classical view, the price interpretation can be applied to a more wide-ranging set of situations. Second, the price interpretation uses both the classical point of view and ideals in its evaluation of salience. Not only do you need to know a player's weighted preferences but also their connection to their ideal point and the status quo. Therefore, a change in salience can reflect a change in ideal point, status quo, or their weighted preferences", ". Third, this interpretation can be used to determine the elements stand in importance or worth. For example, players may organize and focus their time and energy into options with the biggest pay off. \"That is they may look to see where they get the greatest ‘bang for their buck.’\"", "Public opinion", "McCombs and Shaw’s seminal \"Chapel Hill study,\" which researched salience and public opinion examined most of the agenda-setting research since the 1968 United States presidential election which has been concerned with how the public salience of the issue is related to mass media’s ranking of these issues in terms of frequency of coverage and news play. The main hypothesis examined in this study is the ranking of certain issues by the media, which, in time, becomes the public agenda", ". More importantly, the article searched whether the perceived public salience of the federal budget deficit is significantly related \"to the amount of public knowledge about the issue, direction of public opinion regarding one possible solution to the issue, the strength of that opinion and political behavior such as writing letters, signing petitions, voting, etc", ".\" The result of this study concluded that \"even though the federal deficit issue was one of the more salient to newspaper and voters during the 1988 election, it (the federal budget deficit) was not as emotional or dramatic as some of the other highly salient issues such as drug abuse or environmental pollution", ". Thus it seemed likely that public opinion regarding a solution to the federal budget deficit might be rather evenly split and would likely be more stable during the month of interviewing than would opinion on some of the other more dramatic issues being emphasized in news media coverage and political advertisements.\" In other words, issues that directly involve subjects, in this study, would conclude to be more salient than issues that do not involve them directly.", "Marketing stimuli\n\nAlthough salience is a stimulus response, is it a stimulus quality or an absolute quality? Salience plays an important role in intergroup communication. According to Harwood, Raman and Hewstone, \"Group salience is a key variable both in influencing quality of intergroup contact and in moderating the effects of intergroup contact on prejudicial attitudes.\"", "In their study of family communication and intergroup relationships, \"Group salience is an individual’s awareness of group memberships and respective group differences in an intergroup encounter (e.g., the salience of race in an interracial conversation).\" This study carefully examines the dynamics of intergroup relationships with respect to communication in a family context", ". Their study involved communicative aspects associated with age salience in the grandparent – grandchild relationship, the extent to which various dimension of communication predicts measures of salience, relational or inter-family proximity, and attitudes towards aging. According to Harwood, Raman and Hewstone, \"Communication phenomena that were positively correlated with measures of age salience were negatively related to relational closeness", ". Only one communication measure (grandparents talking about the past) moderated the relationship between quality of contact with grandparent and attitudes toward older people. Specific communicative dimensions emerged that warrant further investigation in this and other intergroup contexts.\"", "Salience also from an applied communicative perspective plays an important role in our Consumer- Marketing world. In Gianluigi Guido's book, The Salience of Marketing Stimuli: an incongruity – salience hypothesis on consumer awareness, \"salience triggered by an external physical stimuli, like all marketing stimuli are before being internalized by consumers – to explain and predict the conditions under which a marketing stimulus, is able to achieve its communication outcomes in term of processing and memory", ".\" The book clearly defines the history of the definition of salience and the ambiguities of arriving at an accurate definition. It also utilizes various theories to best define salience in our marketing world. Of the many theories, Guido uses aspects of Incongruity theory, Schema theory and an information processing model referred to as the In-salience hypothesis emphasizes the nature of prominence of salience.", "Marketing plans have become quite intricate and detailed in many ways. Analysts and industry experts used a myriad of tools to collect information from would be customers, previous customers and others in order to fashion the sales message of a particular product. This level of detailed work has evolved over time, but in many ways the same resources and information are gathered and used to achieve result of a sale", ". The marketing strategy feeds into one of the final products most people get to experience: the commercial. The commercial embodies the elements of the marketing strategy in language, affective response, and attitude change. Marketing plans in the modern age also look at the international customer when creating plans and formulating strategy", ". \"An evolutionary perspective of internationalization of the firm has been adopted by a number of authors in the areas of international economics and international management. The theory of the international product lifecycle, propounded by Vernon and others, identifies a number of phases in the internationalization process based on the location of production. In the initial phase, a firm exports to overseas markets from a domestic production base", ". In the initial phase, a firm exports to overseas markets from a domestic production base. As market potential builds up, overseas production facilities are established. Low cost local competition then enters the market, and ultimately exports to the home market of the initial entrant, thus challenging its international market position", ".\"\"This model is part of wider Dichotic theory of salience, according to which a stimulus is salient either when it is incongruent in a certain context to a perceiver's schema, or when it is congruent in a certain context to a perceiver's goal. According to the four propositions of the model, in-salient stimuli are better recalled, affect both attention and interpretation, and are moderated by the degree of perceivers' comprehension (i.e", ".e., activation, accessibility, and availability of schemata), and involvement (i.e., personal relevance of the stimuli). Results of two empirical studies on print advertisements show that in-salient ad messages have the strongest impact in triggering ad processing which, in turn, leads to consumer awareness.\"The field of marketing is continually being studied and researched", ".\"The field of marketing is continually being studied and researched. Anshular & Kumar, Williams & Schmidt, Holden, Kuznetsov & Whitelock, and Huang & Chan have researched and published works regarding the language of marketing. Although the research is ongoing and adaptive to the customer, the research has been able to study points of importance to the consumer", ". Marketing requires an approach that carefully designs messages (commercials), utilizing signs and symbols to resonate with a potential buyer or customer. Nike's swoosh, Michael Jordan's jump-man image, Ford/GMC Cadillac logos are all signs that most people can quickly grab and discern the message being laid out. In the world of marketing having this power and ability lends a significant edge in comparison to the competition", ". Van Der Lans, Pieters, and Wedel write based on their research: \"We estimate brand salience at the point of purchase, based on perceptual features (color, luminance, edges) and how these are influenced by consumers’ search goals. We show that the salience of brands has a pervasive effect on search performance, and is determined by two key components: The bottom-up component is due to in-store activity and package design", ". The top-down component is due to out-of-store marketing activities such as advertising.\"Using computer based langue to design extraction tools as part of the user experiences. Language errors that exists in projects can be passed on and further create issues for the next group. From this view issues to be fixed, ID’d and solutions set up to combat such issues. In the IT world, coding language is very important and therefore errors must be monitored well throughout the process.", "Internet Alcohol Vendors unlike traditional brick and mortar stores are established to reach a wider market. With this intent state officials and competitors have both started cases in court as further regulating the practice of internet alcohol sales. Internet sales give buyers reduced discounts in many forms while offering very little in security and accountability", ". The case brought against the industry favored further regulation keying in on individuals underage age having access to and buying alcohol online. The courts pushed back against the plaintiff lacking substantial information to make the case. The marketing language used was focused on reduced taxes based on quantity purchased and reduced or zero fees for shipping. Customers were connected to this message and therefore drawn to the product and made significant purchases.", "Russian viewpoint of marketing focused on the battle against capitalism, the west and specifically USA. Marketing language focused on the economics of each nation and how to improve it in an ever-changing world. Marketing was studied in the west by Russian students and translated for Russians to understand. Bad language came from translators who took artistic leisure with the material", ". Bad language came from translators who took artistic leisure with the material. Based on this context things were changed and missed when information was being relayed created huge shifts in understanding of the original material.", "The difference between the English alphabet and Chinese logographical system offer a unique challenge in brand creation, marketing and language. The article touches on how unique messages have to be crafted without simply translating. The Chinese language and system of writing is over 35,000 years old and not as easily bent or flexed to make easily pronounced phrases both in sound and linguistic prowess. Marketing in china is affected my culture and language equally", ". Marketing in china is affected my culture and language equally. Crafting an effective strategy requires adherence and understanding of all factors.", "Therefore, to define salience as appropriate as possible using the information, it would be apt to define it such that, salience is that intrinsic concept of the perceived or interpreted prominence of an attitude, and its manifestation on our choices.", "Salience in marketing based on the research reviewed, can be categorized as a stimulus quality. What that means is the customers’ needs have to be calculated and adjusted towards through the entire planning and execution of the plan. The overall goal of the messenger should be to create a message which adapts to the customer's affective responses, rewarding it with more info, then finally providing a product which would best arrive at the predetermined feel", ". Most consumers when asked about a marketing campaign are able to identify it clearly from the point of view of a commercial. These commercials capture the essence of the message being sent to all recipients. Products such as make up, cars, clothing, coffee, food, shoes etc. are all designed to create and provide an affective reaction from the recipient. The process of engaging with the customer seeks a cognitive connection", ". The process of engaging with the customer seeks a cognitive connection. Customers will have to be grouped based on the item in order to predict affective responses. With this in mind, the focus is placed on imagery, affective responses from the consumer. How does this make you feel, do you empathize, how would you feel about using this product, etc. Marketing messages that have a significant affective component are able to connect better with people and yield greater outcome.", "Identity salience can affect the consumer. This display can be explain using \"Identity theory posits that identities are arranged hierarchically and that salient identities are more likely to affect behavior than those that are less important. We propose that identity salience may play an important role in relationships that are distinguished by a minimum of two characteristics", ". First, though most theoretical and empirical research in relation-ship marketing focuses on characteristics of successful business-to-business relationships, such as trust and commitment (Morgan and Hunt 1994), many exchange relationships involve individuals. It is not unusual for organizations to attempt to develop long-term relationships with consumers on an individual basis", ". We argue that in contexts in which one partner is an individual, for example, business-to consumer marketing, identity salience may be an important construct that mediates relationship-inducing factors, such as reciprocity and satisfaction, and relationship marketing success.\" Identity gets tied to brands, products and places for some people. There are generations of family sports team supporters, airline users, vacation goings and even restaurant patrons", ". These key items become a foundation block of self-identification and perception.", "The vehicle industry uses certain symbols as part of its marketing campaign. Most of these are touched on from different manufacturers in their efforts to win over customers. These are also common messages points that are used to make the sale and acquire the vested interest of the customer. For e.g. comfort (leather seating), roominess (cabin space), reliability, safety, performance, on/off-road handling, award winner by category, insurance companies or other entity", ". The best part of all the campaign is the dealership experience. This experience is the affective piece of the process. The initial being cognitive and schema connection, followed by the affective which aims at nudging the customer towards affirming the purchase. Customer attitudes can be influenced by a myriad of variables, therefore the marketing campaign is aimed at skewing enough of those variables towards to nearest dealer or once most capable of making the sale", ". \"Specifically, research on behavioral synchrony suggests that people express greater feelings of attraction when they share their visual gazes, body postures (Chartrand & Lakin,2013), and more recently, their language style in writing or speech (Ireland & Pennebaker,2010).\"", "Salience as a stimulus quality is a significant piece of the marketing, sales and commercial strategy. Manufacturers use celebrities, athletes, and other professionals as a way of drawing your attention to their product through stimulus. When it comes to car buying, many people refer to a past memory, this stimuli is different with each person but overall the quality and richness of that response is what connects to the brand in a way nothing else does", ". Care makers go through periods of recycling pieces of nostalgia to connect new drivers to those of yesteryear. Granpa is able to drive his mustang next to a grandson who favors the new model with a few modifications. A suit maker is able to dress members of the same family for 3 generations and just as many weddings and formal events.", "The stimulus quality is the strongest connection between all these events and the company or product creator able to take advantage of this, is most likely to achieve success. \"Research concerning stimulus characteristics, which include information content and format, suggests that consumers utilize more nutrition information when it Is presented in an easily processed form (Levy et al. 1985; Muller 1985; Russo et al. 1986; Scammon 1977)", ". 1985; Muller 1985; Russo et al. 1986; Scammon 1977).(Moorman, 1990)\" Stimulus qualities continually change and therefore needs to be studied and adaptations made in order to attain the best marketing end results. Cultural viewpoints of marketing and advertising is important across industries in many parts of the world", ". In the US alcohol sales are restricted to individuals ages 21 and greater, that rule isn't universal and some in nations around the world are trying to cope with the effects of marketing and ad campaigns (O’Brian & Carr 2016).\" Marketing messages are important based on the roles of the recipient. In the example of a mom she’s expected to judge the quality of goods and purchase based on the needs of children even though the good may not directly be marketed to and for her", ". \"Noting the incongruence between the self-interested, utility maximizing persona one is expected to portray in the workforce, and the selfless, nurturing persona widespread among mothers, Hays argues that the latter identity in fact reveals a deep-seated cultural ambivalence towards economistic principles and behaviours.\"", "le form schema based on social norms and roles. These roles are enforced individual beliefs and boosts perceptions is supposed to be doing, sometimes those expectations hold true and in others it doesn't. Social identity theory has been used while creating marketing strategies regarding women. Marketing strategies with products aimed at women should have like minds as part of the planning and creative process. Women across cultures and backgrounds experience similar stimuli but not on the same wave", ". Women across cultures and backgrounds experience similar stimuli but not on the same wave. Products like shoes, makeup, clothing and others geared specifically for women have messages focused on stimuli response of \"feel good\". Moms receive and are sent messages of safety and security of their children, a measure of style and the look and presentation of a strong woman. Marketing towards men are designed to inspire the feel of strength, leadership, vision, connection to nature, and feeling of ruggedness.", "The Language used in marketing is important because it is potentially the most important reason why someone makes a purchase/acquires a product. Research has shown that analytics aren't always the best predictor of sales or consumer connection with a product. Social identity theory can be used to evaluate the roles of individuals while creating the strategy. Depending on this solely will lead one astray without the addition of other pieces of information", ". Depending on this solely will lead one astray without the addition of other pieces of information. Shema allows the consumer to receive each detail of a commercial/ad campaign in a way that energizes particular stimuli and therefore puts each person into the \"driver seat\" of an experience.", "The cognitive perspective spells out information which must be received, processed and analyzed and solutions south. Salience in marketing searches for the affective or stimulus response. A combination of efforts which both harvests information and processes it carefully if very important. Things such as age group, buying power, shopping frequency, socioeconomic status are all important. Once a product is created and during its testing phase the response which users and customers alike will be its feel", ". In the new age of tech data, appliances and complex machinery, marketing will still need to focus its efforts on such products and how consumer stimuli reacts to the product. The best engineers can create something that's amazing with all its bells and whistles, but its up to the perception of the customer to evaluate its usefulness and fit into his/her lifestyle.", "The growing tech industry with the power of achievement is quickly advancing virtual reality. VR can be experienced in the home without leaving to try or test any product prior to purchase. \"The mural isn't just about aesthetics. Visitors will be instructed via signs to download an app to view the mural's augmented reality features. Downloading the app will also unlock a special coupon at The Elephant Room. It's a marketing tactic that Moody believes can drive foot traffic to the bar", ". It's a marketing tactic that Moody believes can drive foot traffic to the bar.\" With this power marketing analysts and executives can craft messages and commercial aimed at each person with a unique and authentic feel. Information and data points are being collected and tested now. Video games offer a chance into the virtual world medical training and some groups in government and the military are adopting the technology to better achieve results", ". Crafting the message and spreading it out the masses will take less effort in the future, messages can be adapted to fit all manner of permutations each person may have. There may finally be an era of error free messaging with a direct link into the internet, show rooms of fashion designers, engineers at car factories and all other sorts of products. Testing in the virtual world would be far less tasking on legions of people.", "Humans in general respond greatly to stimuli and we offer this through the reactions generated. Marketing lends help in this manner by studying the patterns of behavior and crafting products for sale. The messaging is not always clear, succinct, and wide reaching. Research is still ongoing regarding how best to reach the customer in order to pitch and complete a sale. Those who are successful have crafted tools to help measure key things like salience in messaging and reaction to products", ". In the new age, the data collected will be very important while outfitting each member of the consuming public. Being able to craft a message or medium that can quickly adapt to each person virtually is of great importance. Online markets are gaining followership daily as more money spending moves to the digital realm. Perception and reception of the message is still the single most important part of any marketing strategy and should not be treated lightly.", "References", "Bibliography\n Crano, W. D. (1995). Attitude strength and vested interest. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and Consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 131–158.\n \n Humphreys & Garry, M & J (2000). Thinking about salience. Early drafts from Columbia. 1–55.\n Sears, D. O., & Citrin, J. (1985). Tax revolt: Something for nothing in California (enlarged ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.", "Weaver, D (1991). Issue salience and public opinion: Are there consequences of agenda-setting?. International journal of public opinion research. 1–16.\n Vatz, R. E. (1973). The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric. 155–162.\n Vatz, R. E. (2012, 2013) The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion. Dubuque, Iowa. Kendall Hunt.", "Further reading\n Benjamin Brown, '“But Me No Buts”: The Theological Debate Between the Hasidim and the Mitnagdim in Light of the Discourse-Markers Theory'\n 'Benjamin Brown, \"Some Say This , Some Say That\": Pragmatics and Discourse Markers in Yad Malachi's Interpretation Rules'\n\nMarketing\nSemiotics\nSemantics\nPragmatics" ]

[ "An electronic cigarette is a handheld battery-powered vaporizer that simulates smoking, but without tobacco combustion. E-cigarette components include a mouthpiece (drip tip), a cartridge (liquid storage area), a heating element/atomizer, a microprocessor, a battery, and some of them have an LED light on the end. An atomizer consists of a small heating element, or coil, that vaporizes e-liquid and a wicking material that draws liquid onto the coil", ". When the user inhales a flow sensor activates the heating element that atomizes the liquid solution; most devices are manually activated by a push-button. The e-liquid reaches a temperature of roughly within a chamber to create an aerosolized vapor. The user inhales an aerosol, which is commonly but inaccurately called vapor, rather than cigarette smoke", ". Vaping is different from smoking, but there are some similarities, including the hand-to-mouth action of smoking and an aerosol that looks like cigarette smoke. The aerosol provides a flavor and feel similar to tobacco smoking. There is a learning curve to use e-cigarettes properly. E-cigarettes are cigarette-shaped, and there are many other variations. E-cigarettes that resemble pens or USB memory sticks are also sold that may be used unobtrusively.", "There are three main types of e-cigarettes: cigalikes, looking like cigarettes; eGos, bigger than cigalikes with refillable liquid tanks; and mods, assembled from basic parts or by altering existing products. Cigalikes are either disposable or come with rechargeable batteries and replaceable nicotine cartridges. A cigalike e-cigarette contains a cartomizer, which is connected to a battery", ". A cigalike e-cigarette contains a cartomizer, which is connected to a battery. A \"cartomizer\" (a portmanteau of cartridge and atomizer) or \"carto\" consists of an atomizer surrounded by a liquid-soaked poly-foam that acts as an e-liquid holder. Clearomizers or \"clearos\", not unlike cartotanks, use a clear tank in which an atomizer is inserted", ". A rebuildable atomizer or an RBA is an atomizer that allows users to assemble or \"build\" the wick and coil themselves instead of replacing them with off-the-shelf atomizer \"heads\". The power source is the biggest component of an e-cigarette, which is frequently a rechargeable lithium-ion battery.", "As the e-cigarette industry continues to evolve, new products are quickly developed and brought to market. First-generation e-cigarettes tend to look like traditional cigarettes and so are called \"cigalikes\". Most cigalikes look like cigarettes but there is some variation in size. Second-generation devices are larger overall and look less like traditional cigarettes. Third-generation devices include mechanical mods and variable voltage devices", ". Third-generation devices include mechanical mods and variable voltage devices. The fourth-generation includes sub ohm tanks and temperature control devices. The voltage for first-generation e-cigarettes is about 3.7 and second-generation e-cigarettes can be adjusted from 3 V to 6 V, while more recent devices can go up to 8 V. The latest generation of e-cigarettes are pod mods, which provide higher levels of nicotine than regular e-cigarettes through the production of aerosolized protonated nicotine.", "E-liquid is the mixture used in vapor products such as e-cigarettes and usually contain propylene glycol, glycerin, nicotine, flavorings, additives, and differing amounts of contaminants. E-liquid formulations greatly vary due to fast growth and changes in manufacturing designs of e-cigarettes. The composition of the e-liquid for additives such as nicotine and flavors vary across and within brands", ". The liquid typically consists of a combined total of 95% propylene glycol and glycerin, and the remaining 5% being flavorings, nicotine, and other additives. There are e-liquids sold without propylene glycol, nicotine, or flavors. The flavorings may be natural, artificial, or organic. Over 80 chemicals such as formaldehyde and metallic nanoparticles have been found in the e-liquid. There are many e-liquids manufacturers in the US and worldwide, and more than 15,500 flavors existed in 2018", ". Under the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rules, e-liquid manufacturers are required to comply with a number of manufacturing standards. The revision to the EU Tobacco Products Directive has some standards for e-liquids. Industry standards have been created and published by the American E-liquid Manufacturing Standards Association (AEMSA).", "Uses\n\nFunction", "An e-cigarette is a handheld battery-powered vaporizer that simulates smoking, but without tobacco combustion. Once the user inhales, the airflow activates the flow sensor, and then the heating element atomizes the liquid solution. The different kinds of trigger sensor or sensors used are acoustic, pressure, touch, capacitive, optical, Hall Effect or electromagnetic field. Most devices have a manual push-button switch to turn them on or off", ". Most devices have a manual push-button switch to turn them on or off. E-cigarettes do not turn on by trying to \"light\" the device with a flame.", "The e-liquid reaches a temperature of roughly 100-250 °C within a chamber to create an aerosolized vapor. Variable voltage devices can raise the temperature. A glycerin-only liquid vaporizes at a higher temperature than a propylene glycol-glycerin liquid. Rather than cigarette smoke, the user inhales an aerosol, commonly but inaccurately called vapor. E-cigarettes do not create vapor between puffs.\n\nPerception", "Vaping is different from tobacco smoking, but there are some similarities with their behavioral habits, including the hand-to-mouth action and a vapor that looks like cigarette smoke. E-cigarettes provide a flavor and feel similar to smoking. A noticeable difference between the traditional cigarette and the e-cigarette is sense of touch. A traditional cigarette is smooth and light but an e-cigarette is rigid, cold and slightly heavier", ". A traditional cigarette is smooth and light but an e-cigarette is rigid, cold and slightly heavier. Since e-cigarettes are more complex than traditional cigarettes, a learning curve is needed to use them correctly.", "Compared to traditional cigarettes, the general e-cigarette puff time is much longer, and requires a more forceful suction than a regular cigarette. The volume of vapor created by e-cigarette devices in 2012 declined with vaping. Thus, to create the same volume of vapor increasing puff force is needed. Later-generation e-cigarettes with concentrated nicotine liquids may deliver nicotine at levels similar to traditional cigarettes", ". Many e-cigarette versions include a power control to adjust the volume of vapor created. The amount of vapor produced is controlled by the power from the battery, which has led some users to adjust their devices to increase battery power. Larger percentages of glycerin in e-liquid also increase vapor production.", "Construction \n\nE-cigarettes come in many variations, such as cigarette-shaped, pen-shaped, and tank-shaped styles. Some e-cigarettes look like traditional cigarettes, but others do not. There are three main types of e-cigarettes: cigalikes, looking like cigarettes; eGos, bigger than cigalikes with refillable liquid tanks; and mods, assembled from basic parts or by altering existing products.", "E-cigarette components include a mouthpiece, a cartridge (liquid storage area), a heating element/atomizer, a microprocessor, a battery, and some have a LED light on the end. E-cigarettes are sold in disposable or reusable variants. Most versions are reusable, though some are disposable. They range in cost from under $10 to over $200. An entry-level reusable e-cigarette costs around $25.", "Disposable e-cigarettes are discarded once the liquid in the cartridge is used up, while rechargeable e-cigarettes may be used indefinitely. Even with rechargeable cigarettes (pod-based systems), there is a risk of littering. There are some thoughts on how to prevent pods from ending up in the environment (i.e. a deposit-system for e-cigarette pods) and we should remember that cigarette butts currently also pollute the environment.\nOne piece devices are normally disposable.", "E-cigarettes are typically designed as one, two, three or multiple pieces. A disposable e-cigarette lasts to around 400 puffs. Reusable e-cigarettes are refilled by hand or exchanged for pre-filled cartridges, and general cleaning is required. A wide range of disposable and reusable e-cigarettes exist. Disposable e-cigarettes are offered for a few dollars, and higher-priced reusable e-cigarettes involve an up-front investment for a starter kit", ". Some e-cigarettes have a LED at the tip to resemble the glow of burning tobacco. The LED may also indicate the battery status. The LED is not generally used in personal vaporizers or mods.", "First-generation e-cigarettes usually simulated smoking implements, such as cigarettes or cigars, in their use and appearance. Later-generation e-cigarettes often called mods, PVs (personal vaporizer) or APVs (advanced personal vaporizer) have an increased nicotine-dispersal performance, house higher capacity batteries, and come in various shapes such as metal tubes and boxes. They contain silver, steel, metals, ceramics, plastics, fibers, aluminum, rubber and spume, and lithium batteries", ". A growing subclass of vapers called cloud-chasers configure their atomizers to produce large amounts of vapor by using low-resistance heating coils. This practice is known as cloud-chasing. Many e-cigarettes are made of standardized replaceable parts that are interchangeable between brands. A wide array of component combinations exists. Many e-cigarettes are sold with a USB charger. E-cigarettes that resemble pens or USB memory sticks are also sold for those who may want to use the device unobtrusively.", "The increasing numbers of new vaping products combined with unrelated functions attest to a clear trend toward customization of e-cigarettes. It seems that experienced users like to adopt the e-cigarette to their (inhalation) needs, leading to e-cigarettes with adjusted airflow inlet using atomizer heads with different sized air holes", ". This is applied in the most recently introduced models, which are activated by a pressure difference when the user inhales from the e-cigarette, avoiding pressing a button to heat the device. Other interesting new e-cigarette-like devices provide a combined function with other electronic products such as a Bluetooth e-cigarette, which combines vaping with listening to music or calling friends and another device can be used both as e-cigarette and mobile phone.", "Smartphone applications were introduced that track the number of e-cigarette puffs taken, calculate cost savings and increased life expectancy, and have features such as auto-shut down and password protection safety. In line with this, Philip Morris International has filed a patent for an e-cigarette that is Wi-Fi connected, and thus would be able to connect to other devices", ". This device could potentially synchronize to a smartphone application that is intended to help people quit smoking, and carefully track their progress. A similar product is the Vaporcade Jupiter, a \"cellular vaporizer,\" combining a smartphone with an e-cigarette. This allows the user to monitor the e-cigarette use, the e-liquid remaining, and the flavor used.", "Device generations", "As the e-cigarette industry continues to evolve, new products are quickly developed and brought to market. The early devices looked like a traditional cigarette, often including a small light on the tip that lit when the user puffed. These early systems were generally inefficient at delivering nicotine, in part because the particle sizes of the aerosol were too large to penetrate deep into the lungs", ". Newer versions feature replaceable or refillable reservoirs and rechargeable batteries that generate smaller particles and more efficient nicotine delivery. Since e-cigarettes are not regulated in many countries, the device designs can change often. There is wide differences in the quality of e-cigarettes, such as the airflow rate, aerosol production, and leaking of e-liquid cartridges.", "First-generation \n\nFirst-generation e-cigarettes started off as patents in periods of 1927-1936 and 1963-1998, but becoming commercially mainstream in 2003. They tend to look like tobacco cigarettes and so are called \"cigalikes\". The three parts of a cigalike e-cigarette initially were a cartridge, an atomizer, and a battery. A cigalike e-cigarette currently contains a cartomizer (cartridge atomizer), which is connected to a battery. Most cigalikes look like cigarettes but there is some variation in size.", "They may be a single unit comprising a battery, coil and filling saturated with e-liquid in a single tube to be used and discarded after the battery or e-liquid is depleted. They may also be a reusable device with a battery and cartridge called a cartomizer. The cartomizer cartridge can be separated from the battery so the battery can be charged and the empty cartomizer replaced when the e-liquid runs out.", "The battery section may contain an electronic airflow sensor triggered by drawing breath through the device. Other models use a power button that must be held during operation. An LED in the power button or on the end of the device may also show when the device is vaporizing.", "Charging is commonly accomplished with a USB charger that attaches to the battery. Some manufacturers also have a cigarette pack-shaped portable charging case (PCC), which contains a larger battery capable of recharging the individual e-cigarette batteries. Reusable devices can come in a kit that contains a battery, a charger, and at least one cartridge", ". Reusable devices can come in a kit that contains a battery, a charger, and at least one cartridge. Varying nicotine concentrations are available and nicotine delivery to the user also varies based on different cartomizers, e-liquid mixtures, and power supplied by the battery.", "These manufacturing differences affect the way e-cigarettes convert the liquid solution to an aerosol, and thus the levels of ingredients, that are delivered to the user and the surrounding air for any given liquid. First-generation e-cigarettes use lower voltages, around 3.7 V.\n\nSecond-generation", "Second generation devices started in 2013, and tend to be used by people with more experience. They are larger overall and look less like tobacco cigarettes. They usually consist of two sections, basically a tank and a separate battery. Their batteries have higher capacity, and are not removable. Being rechargeable, they use a USB charger that attaches to the battery with a threaded connector. Certain batteries have a \"passthrough\" feature so they can be used even while they are charging.", "Second-generation e-cigarettes commonly use a tank or a \"clearomizer\". Clearomizer tanks are meant to be refilled with e-liquid, while cartomizers are not. Because they're refillable and the battery is rechargeable, their cost of operation is lower. They can also use cartomizers, which are pre-filled only.", "Some cheaper battery sections use a microphone that detects the turbulence of the air passing through to activate the device when the user inhales. Other batteries like the eGo style can use an integrated circuit, as well as a button for manual activation. The LED shows battery status. The power button can also switch off the battery so it is not activated accidentally. Second generation e-cigarettes may have lower voltages, around 3.7 V. Adjustable-voltage devices can be set between 3 V and 6 V.", "Third-generation \n\nThe third-generation started in 2013, it included mechanical mods and variable voltage devices. Battery sections are commonly called \"mods,\" referencing their past when user modification was common. Mechanical mods do not contain integrated circuits. They are commonly cylindrical or box-shaped, and typical housing materials are wood, aluminium, stainless steel, or brass. A larger \"box mod\" can hold bigger and sometimes multiple batteries.", "Mechanical mods and variable devices use larger batteries than those found in previous generations. Common battery sizes used are 18350, 18490, 18500 and 18650. The battery is often removable, so it can be changed when depleted. The battery must be removed and charged externally.\n\nVariable devices permit setting wattage, voltage, or both. These often have a USB connector for recharging; some can be used while charging, called a \"passthrough\" feature.", "The power section may include additional options such as screen readout, support for a wide range of internal batteries, and compatibility with different types of atomizers. Third-generation devices can have rebuildable atomizers with different wicking materials. These rebuildables use handmade coils that can be installed in the atomizer to increase vapor production. Hardware in this generation is sometimes modified to increase power or flavor.", "The larger battery sections used also allow larger tanks to be attached that can hold more e-liquid. Recent devices can go up to 8 V, which can heat the e-liquid significantly more than earlier generations.\n\nFourth-generation", "Fourth-generation \n\nA fourth-generation e-cigarette became available in the United States in 2014. Fourth-generation e-cigarettes can be made from stainless steel and pyrex glass, and contain very little plastics. Included in the fourth-generation are sub ohm tanks and temperature control devices. The e-cigarette user can breathe in large puff volumes, which results in a significant usage of e-liquid per puff. Usually used by experienced e-cigarettes users.", "Fifth-generation", "The last Generation is mainly dominated by Disposable E-Cigarettes. Disposable vapes are a type of e-cigarette that are designed to be used once and then thrown away. They usually consist of a plastic or metal tube that contains a pre-filled cartridge of e-liquid and a battery. They do not have any buttons or switches, but are activated by inhaling. Disposable vapes are popular among young people and smokers who want to try vaping without investing in a reusable device", ". However, they also pose environmental and health risks, as they generate a large amount of waste and may contain high levels of nicotine and harmful chemicals.", "The most known brand of disposable vapes is Elf Bar, which has become one of the most popular vaping products in the UK and other markets. Elf Bar sales skyrocketed over the last year, growing 883% between May 2021 and May 2022 at some retailers.\n\nAtomizer and tank", "Atomizer and tank \n\nAn atomizer consists of a small heating element that vaporizes e-liquid and a wicking material that draws liquid onto the coil. Along with a battery and e-liquid the atomizer is the main component of every personal vaporizer. When activated, the resistance wire coil heats up and vaporizes the liquid, which is then inhaled by the user.", "The electrical resistance of the coil, the voltage output of the device, the airflow of the atomizer and the efficiency of the wick all affect the vapor coming from the atomizer. They also affect the vapor quantity or volume yielded.", "Atomizer coils made of kanthal usually have resistances that vary from 0.4Ω (ohms) to 2.8Ω. Coils of lower ohms have increased vapor production but could risk fire and dangerous battery failures if the user is not knowledgeable enough about electrical principles and how they relate to battery safety.", "Wicking materials vary from one atomizer to another. \"Rebuildable\" or \"do it yourself\" atomizers can use silica, cotton, rayon, porous ceramic, hemp, bamboo yarn, oxidized stainless steel mesh and even wire rope cables as wicking materials.\n\nCartomizers", "A \"cartomizer\" (a portmanteau of cartridge and atomizer.) or \"carto\" consists of an atomizer surrounded by a liquid-soaked poly-foam that acts as an e-liquid holder. They can have up to 3 coils and each coil will increase vapor production. The cartomizer is usually discarded when the e-liquid starts to taste burnt, which usually happens when the e-cigarette is activated with a dry coil or when the cartomizer gets consistently flooded (gurgling) because of sedimentation of the wick", ". Most cartomizers are refillable even if not advertised as such.", "Cartomizers can be used on their own or in conjunction with a tank that allows more e-liquid capacity. The portmanteau word \"cartotank\" has been coined for this. When used in a tank, the cartomizer is inserted in a plastic, glass or metal tube and holes or slots have to be punched on the sides of the cartomizer so liquid can reach the coil.\n\nClearomizers", "The clearomizer was invented in 2009 that originated from the cartomizer design. It contained the wicking material, an e-liquid chamber, and an atomizer coil within a single clear component. This allows the user to monitor the liquid level in the device. Clearomizers or \"clearos\", are like cartotanks, in that an atomizer is inserted into the tank. There are different wicking systems used inside clearomizers", ". There are different wicking systems used inside clearomizers. Some rely on gravity to bring the e-liquid to the wick and coil assembly (bottom coil clearomizers for example) and others rely on capillary action or to some degree the user agitating the e-liquid while handling the clearomizer (top coil clearomizers). The coil and wicks are typically inside a prefabricated assembly or \"head\" that is replaceable by the user.", "Clearomizers are made with adjustable air flow control. Tanks can be plastic or borosilicate glass. Some flavors of e-liquid have been known to damage plastic clearomizer tanks.\n\nRebuildable atomizers", "Rebuildable atomizers \n\nA rebuildable atomizer (RBA) is an atomizer that allows the user to assemble or \"build\" the wick and coil themselves instead of replacing them with off-the-shelf atomizer \"heads\". They are generally considered advanced devices. They also allow the user to build atomizers at any desired electrical resistance.\n\nThese atomizers are divided into two main categories; rebuildable tank atomizers (RTAs) and rebuildable dripping atomizers (RDAs).", "Rebuildable tank atomizers", "RTAs have a tank to hold liquid that is absorbed by the wick. They can hold up to 4 ml of e-liquid. The tank can be either plastic, glass, or metal. One form of tank atomizers was the Genesis style atomizers. They can use ceramic wicks, stainless steel mesh or rope for wicking material. The steel wick must be oxidized to prevent arcing of the coil. Another type is the Sub ohm tank. These tanks have rebuildable or RBA kits. They can also use coil heads of 0.2 ohm, 0.4 ohm, and 0.5 ohm", ". They can also use coil heads of 0.2 ohm, 0.4 ohm, and 0.5 ohm. These coil heads can have stainless steel coils.", "Rebuildable dripping atomizers", "RDAs are atomizers where the e-liquid is dripped directly onto the coil and wick. The common nicotine strength of e-liquids used in RDA's is 3 mg and 6 mg. Liquids used in RDA's tend to have more vegetable glycerin. A fully saturated wick can give you as many as 10-20 puffs. They typically consist only of an atomizer \"building deck\", commonly with three posts with holes drilled in them, which can accept one or more coils", ". The user needs to manually keep the atomizer wet by dripping liquid on the bare wick and coil assembly, hence their name.", "Resistance elements\nKanthal wire is used in RDA's, RBA's, RTA's, in addition to clearomizers, tanks, and cartomizers. Nickel wire or titanium wire can be used for temperature control.\n\nSquonk mods", "The origins of a squonk mod bottom-feeding system go as far back as 2009. A member of the E-Cigarette Forum (ECF) named \"Carlos49\" was largely credited with developing the first squonker available in the marketplace. Squonk mods differ from other mod boxes with their construction. Squonk mods have a 510 connection that have been modified with the use of an e-liquid bottle placed inside the mod", ". The user squeezes an e-liquid bottle through an opening in the device to send e-liquid through a tube into the attached atomizer. Extra liquid goes back into the bottle when it is unsqueezed.", "Pod mods \n\nPod mods heat up a liquid containing nicotine, flavors, and other ingredients that creates an aerosol. Pod mods are lightweight, portable, small, and reusable. Pod mods do not require pushing a button. A pod mod does not require much of a learning curve. With the majority of pod mods, users can just open their new package, put a pod into the device, and begin vaping. They are charged using a USB port. There are numerous pod mods in the marketplace and there are many kinds of pod mods.", "The three categories for the different kinds of pod mods are an open system, a closed system, or those that use both. Pod mods come in varying colors and flavors. Many devices rely on replaceable liquid pods that may contain propylene glycol, glycerin, benzoic acid, nicotine, and artificial flavors. Some pod mods can be refillable, with flavors such as cotton candy, donut cream, and gummy bear. Pod mods that contain tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive chemical of cannabis, are being sold.", "Pod mods can look like USB flash drives, cell phones, credit card holders, and highlighters. Because pod mods are small and generate less aerosol, it makes it easy to hide them. There are pod mods that can be concealed in the palm of a person's hand. Later-generation pod mods are small like a Sharpie pen. Pod mods cost about half as much as larger e-cigarettes.", "The latest generation of e-cigarettes, \"pod products\", such as Juul, have the highest nicotine content (59 mg/mL), in protonated salt, rather than the free-base nicotine form found in earlier generations, which makes it easier for less experienced users to inhale. Pod mods deliver higher levels of nicotine than regular e-cigarettes. One nicotine pod, in terms of nicotine, is roughly equivalent to one pack of regular cigarettes", ". One nicotine pod, in terms of nicotine, is roughly equivalent to one pack of regular cigarettes. The labels on products state pods contain 59 mg/mL of nicotine, but the levels can be considerably greater such as 75 mg/mL of nicotine. Some pod mods contained greater levels of nicotine than Juul which were as high as 6.5%. In June 2015, Juul introduced a pod mod device. British American Tobacco told to The Verge in 2018 that \"They've been incorporated in our Vuse e-liquid in the US since 2012.\"", "Research on nicotine salts is limited. Tests show that the pod mods Juul, Bo, Phix, and Sourin contain nicotine salts in a solution with propylene glycol and glycerin. A nicotine base and a weak acid such as benzoic acid or levulinic acid is used to form a nicotine salt. Benzoic acid is the most used acid to create a nicotine salt. A free-base nicotine solution with an acid reduces the pH, which makes it possible to provide higher levels of nicotine without irritating the throat", ". Nicotine salts are thought to amplify the level and rate of nicotine delivery to the user.", "The speed of nicotine salts uptake into the body is close to the speed of nicotine uptake from traditional cigarettes. Nicotine salts are less harsh and less bitter, and as a consequence e-liquids that contain nicotine salts are more tolerable even with high nicotine concentrations. Traditional cigarettes provide high levels of nicotine, but with the bad taste of smoking. Pod mods, however, can provide high levels of nicotine without the negative smoking experience.\n\nPower", "Power\n\nVariable power and voltage devices", "Variable devices are variable wattage, variable voltage or both. Variable power and/or variable voltage have an electronic chip allowing the user to adjust the power applied to the heating element. The amount of power applied to the coil affects the heat produced, thus changing the vapor output. Greater heat from the coil increases vapor production. Variable power devices monitor the coil's resistance and automatically adjust the voltage to apply the user-specified level of power to the coil", ". Recent devices can go up to 8 V.", "They are often rectangular but can also be cylindrical. They usually have a screen to show information such as voltage, power, and resistance of the coil. To adjust the settings, the user presses buttons or rotates a dial to turn the power up or down. Some of these devices include additional settings through their menu system such as: atomizer resistance meter, remaining battery voltage, puff counter, and power-off or lock", ". The power source is the biggest component of an e-cigarette, which is frequently a rechargeable lithium-ion battery.", "Smaller devices contain smaller batteries and are easier to carry but typically require more repeated recharging. Some e-cigarettes use a long lasting rechargeable battery, a non-rechargeable battery or a replaceable battery that is either rechargeable or non-rechargeable for power. Some companies offer portable chargeable cases to recharge e-cigarettes", ". Some companies offer portable chargeable cases to recharge e-cigarettes. Nickel-cadmium (NiCad), nickel metal-hydride (NiMh), lithium ion (Li-ion), alkaline and lithium polymer (Li-poly), and lithium manganese (LiMn) batteries have been used for the e-cigarettes power source.", "Temperature control devices \n\nTemperature control devices allow the user to set the temperature. There is a predictable change to the resistance of a coil when it is heated. The resistance changes are different for different types of wires, and must have a high temperature coefficient of resistance. Temperature control is done by detecting that resistance change to estimate the temperature and adjusting the voltage to the coil to match that estimate.", "Nickel, titanium, NiFe alloys, and certain grades of stainless steel are common materials used for wire in temperature control. The most common wire used, kanthal, cannot be used because it has a stable resistance regardless of the coil temperature. Nickel was the first wire used because it has the highest coefficient of the common metals.", "The temperature can be adjusted in Celsius or Fahrenheit. The Evolv's DNA40 and YiHi's SX350J are control boards used in temperature control devices. Temperature control can stop dry wicks from burning, or e-liquid overheating.\n\nMechanical devices", "Mechanical devices \n\nMechanical PVs or mechanical \"mods\", often called \"mechs\", are devices without integrated circuits, electronic battery protection, or voltage regulation. They are activated by a switch. They rely on the natural voltage output of the battery and the metal that the mod is made of often is used as part of the circuit itself.", "The term \"mod\" was originally used instead of \"modification\". Users would modify existing hardwares to get better performance, and as an alternative to the e-cigarettes that looked like traditional cigarettes. Users would also modify other unrelated items like flashlights as battery compartments to power atomizers. The word mod is often used to describe most personal vaporizers.", "Mechanical PVs have no power regulation and are unprotected. Because of this ensuring that the battery does not over-discharge and that the resistance of the atomizer requires electric current within the safety limits of the battery is the responsibility of the user.\n\nE-cigarette liquid\n\nComposition", "E-cigarette liquid, E-Cig liquid, e-liquid, juice, vapor juice, vape juice, smoke juice, vaping fluid, vaping juice, e-juice, e-fluid or vape oil is the mixture used in vapor products including e-cigarettes. Since e-cigarettes are not regulated in many countries, the composition of the liquid can change often. There is a great amount of variability in e-liquid formulations due to fast growth and changes in the manufacturing designs of e-cigarettes", ". The composition of the e-liquid for additives such as nicotine and flavors vary across and within brands. E-liquids come in many variations, including different nicotine strengths and many different flavors.", "The main ingredients are propylene glycol, glycerin, and flavorings; and most often, nicotine in liquid form. The liquid typically consists of a combined total of 95% propylene glycol and glycerin, and the remaining 5% being flavorings, nicotine, and other additives. The most frequently used e-liquid solvents are propylene glycol and glycerin. Flavorings may contain menthol, sugars, esters, and pyrazines.", "Flavor components include eucalyptol, camphor, methyl salicylate, pulegone, ethyl salicylate, cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, diphenyl ether, coumarin, diacetyl, acetoin, 2,3-pentanedione, cyclohexanone, benzaldehyde, cresol, butyraldehyde, and isoamyl acetate. Sugars are frequently used in e-liquids to provide a sweet flavor. Diacetyl, acetoin, and 2,3-pentanedione are used for buttery flavoring. Camphor and cyclohexanone are used for minty flavoring. Benzaldehyde is used for cherry or almond flavoring", ". Benzaldehyde is used for cherry or almond flavoring. Cinnamaldehyde is used for cinnamon flavoring. Cresol is used for leathery or medicinal flavoring.", "Butyraldehyde is used for chocolate flavoring. Isoamyl acetate is used for banana flavoring. E-liquids named coffee, tea, chocolate, or energy drinks, typically contain caffeine at levels considerably less than in comparison with dietary products. E-liquids are available with vitamins or cannabis flavors. Specific e-cigarettes (mods) are available that allow for not only liquids but also herbs, oils, or fruits to be vaped", ". Dual-function devices handle both concentrates and e-liquids using multiple cartridges.", "E-liquid can be made with or without nicotine, with more than 90% of e-liquids containing some level of nicotine. The most regularly used base carrier chemical is propylene glycol with or without glycerin. E-liquid containing glycerin and water made without propylene glycol are also sold. There are e-liquids sold without propylene glycol, nicotine, or flavors. E-liquids containing THC or other cannabinoids are also sold. Specific kinds of e-liquids contain a tiny amount of alcohol", ". Specific kinds of e-liquids contain a tiny amount of alcohol. The amount of alcohol in e-liquids vary, and there are cases where it has not been disclosed as an ingredient.", "It is uncertain whether the nicotine used in e-liquid is manufactured using a US Pharmacopeia grade nicotine, a tobacco plant or tobacco dust extract, or a synthetic nicotine. Most e-cigarette liquids contain nicotine, but the level of nicotine varies depending on user-preference and manufacturers. Although some e-liquid is nicotine-free, surveys demonstrate that 97% of respondents use products that contain nicotine. About 3.5% of users use liquid without nicotine", ". About 3.5% of users use liquid without nicotine. An e-cigarette user used approximately three flavors. A 2016 study showed that measurable amounts of arsenic, nickel and other metals were in e-liquids.", "Over 80 chemicals such as formaldehyde and metallic nanoparticles have been found in the e-liquid. E-liquids typically contain nicotine, propylene glycol, glycerin, 1,3-butanediol, 1,3-propanediol, ethylene glycol, menthol, safrole, ethyl vanillin, camphor, α-thujone, coumarin, and diethylene glycol, according to a 2017 review. E-liquid can contain a range of toxicants and can contain impurities", ". E-liquid can contain a range of toxicants and can contain impurities. A 2013 study found the e-liquids tested had as high as five times the upper threshold permitted levels of impurities. E-liquids have been found to contain low levels of some of the toxicants found in tobacco smoke, as well as small concentrations of carcinogens.", "In 2009, the FDA analyzed e-liquid cartridge samples which were found to contain tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs), diethylene glycol (detected one e-cigarette cartridge), cotinine, anabasine, myosmine, and beta-nicotyrine", ". The TSNAs N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN), 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), N-nitrosoanabasine, and nitrosoanatabine have been detected in five e-liquid cartridge samples from two companies in levels comparable to nicotine replacement products, according to the results of the FDA's analysis. TSNAs were found in a broad range of levels. TSNAs present in tobacco smoke, were also found in e-liquids, at different levels, in trace amounts.", "2013 studies of other e-liquids had not detected diethylene glycol. The majority of the e-liquids analyzed contained NNN from 0.34 to 60.08 μg/L and contained NNK from 0.22 to 9.84 μg/L", ".34 to 60.08 μg/L and contained NNK from 0.22 to 9.84 μg/L. The FDA issued warnings to several e-cigarette companies for selling e-cartridges and refill solutions containing active pharmaceutical ingredients such as rimonabant (Zimulti) for the purpose of losing weight and reducing smoking addiction, and tadalafil (the active ingredient in Cialis) for the purpose of increasing sexual capacity", ". FDA analyses of these e-cartridges and solutions showed the presence of amino-tadalafil and not tadalafil, and the presence of an oxidative product of rimonabant, as well as rimonabant.", "The e-liquid often contain other substances unknown and/or undisclosed to the user. The specific origin of the e-liquid ingredients is often unclear. When content information is given on the packaging, it is usually incomplete. Contamination with various compounds in e-liquids is a result of poor quality control. Some nicotine and TSNAs have been found in e-liquids labelled as 'no nicotine'. Nicotine content information on labels for some e-liquid companies may be vague, inaccurate or absent", ". E-liquid were found to contain low levels of anthracene, phenanthrene, 1-methyl phenanthrene and pyren. Diethylene glycol, ethylene glycol, hydrocarbons, ethanol, terpenic compounds and aldehydes, particularly formaldehyde and acrolein were found in the e-liquid. Diethylene glycol is a potential byproduct of propylene glycol.", "A 2014 study showed that e-liquids from a specific manufacturer contained greater amounts of ethylene glycol than glycerin or propylene glycol, which was likely a result of improper manufacturing methods. Some liquids contained residual solvents such as 1,3-butadiene, cyclohexane, and acetone. Some e-liquids contain tobacco alkaloids such as nornicotine, anabasine, or anatabine, and TSNAs, such as N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN), 4-(methylnitrosamine)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), nitrates, and phenol", ". Tobacco alkaloids that were identified in some e-liquids were not found on the ingredient list. Small quantities of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and styrene have been found in the e-liquid. Diethyl phthalate and diethylhexyl phthalate have been found in e-liquids. Some e-liquids contain tin \"whiskers,\" microscopic crystals that originate from tin in the solder joints.", "Levels of aldehydes in e-liquid \n\n∗A 2013 analysis tested a total of 42 bottles of e-liquids.\n\nContents", "The e-liquid is sold in bottles, pre-filled disposable cartridges, or as a kit for consumers to make their own e-liquids. E-liquids are made with various tobacco, fruit, and other flavors, as well as variable nicotine concentrations (including nicotine-free versions). The standard notation \"mg/ml\" is often used on labels to denote nicotine concentration, and is sometimes shortened to \"mg\". Some flavors are created to resemble the flavors used in traditional cigarettes such as tobacco and menthol-tobacco", ". Adults in general also preferred sweet flavors (though smokers like tobacco flavor the most) and disliked flavors that elicit bitterness or harshness. Young adults overall preferred sweet, menthol, and cherry flavors, while non-smokers in particular preferred coffee and menthol flavors.", "In surveys of regular e-cigarette users, the most popular e-liquids had a nicotine content of 18 mg/ml, and the preferred flavors were largely tobacco, mint and fruit. Men tend to favor flavors with tobacco, while women tend to favor chocolate or sweet flavors. The most favorite flavors among regular e-cigarette users reported in a 2017 UK survey were fruit, tobacco, and menthol/mint. The survey also found 2.6% regular e-cigarette users used no flavors", ". The survey also found 2.6% regular e-cigarette users used no flavors. A 2013 study examined 33 countries and found that only 1% of the adult smokers exclusively used non-nicotine e-cigarettes. A cartridge may contain 0 to 20 mg of nicotine.", "Refill liquids are often sold in the size range from 15 to 30 ml. E-liquids are frequently sold in dropper bottles. One cartridge may typically last as long as one pack of cigarettes. A refill bottle can contain up to 100 mg/ml of nicotine, which is meant to be diluted before use. Some users, probably due to financial reasons and the willingness to experiment, are opting to make homemade e-liquids. A small percentage of liquids without flavoring is also sold. The flavorings may be natural or artificial", ". The flavorings may be natural or artificial. Certified organic e-liquid is also sold. About 8,000 flavors existed in 2014. More than 15,500 flavors existed in 2018.", "A user does not normally consume a whole cartridge in a single session. Most e-liquids are produced by a few manufacturers in China, the US, and Europe. An e-cigarette user will usually obtain 300 to 500 puffs per ml of e-liquid. A 2017 survey found that 62.2% of everyday e-cigarette users stated using lower than 4 ml daily and 1.5% used higher than 10 ml daily. 18.1% of everyday e-cigarette users were not aware of the amount of e-liquid they use.\n\nManufacturing", "Manufacturing \n\nE-liquids are manufactured by many producers, both in the US and across the world. First tier manufacturers use lab suits, gloves, hair covers, inside of certified clean rooms with air filtration similar to pharmaceutical-grade production areas.\n\nStandards", "E-liquid manufacturing requirements under the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rules include report user fee information, pay user fees, register their establishment and submit list of products, including labeling and advertisements, submit health documents, submit ingredient listing, include required warning statements on packages and advertisements, submit quantities of harmful and potentially harmful constituents, and submit a modified risk tobacco product application", ". The revision to the EU Tobacco Products Directive has some standards for e-liquids.", "Standards for e-liquid manufacturing have been created by American E-liquid Manufacturing Standards Association (AEMSA), which is trade association dedicated to creating responsible and sustainable standards for the safe manufacturing of e-liquids used in vapor products. AEMSA has published a comprehensive list standards and best known methods, which are openly available for use by any manufacturer of e-Liquids", ". The AEMSA standards cover nicotine, ingredients, sanitary manufacturing rooms, safety packaging, age restrictions, and labeling. AEMSA guidelines recommend that the nicotine levels in e-liquids be within the amount of ±10% from the levels stated on the label.", "Regulation", "Effective August 8, 2016, under the FDA rules, a company that mixes or prepares e-liquids is regulated as a tobacco product manufacturer. Under the same regulation, a company that sells e-liquids is regulated as a tobacco retailer. Companies who import or try to sell for import into the US must conform to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The 2016 FDA ruling did not incorporate regulation concerning flavoring of e-cigarettes", ". The 2016 FDA ruling did not incorporate regulation concerning flavoring of e-cigarettes. Industry standards have been created and published by the American E-liquid Manufacturing Standards Association (AEMSA). The FDA authority to regulate e-liquids was announced in May 2016. The FDA has sought to regulate e-liquid in 2014 through use of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, passed into law in June 2009", ". In April 2014, the FDA issued its \"Deeming\" proposals for public comment, which would cover e-liquids manufacturing.", "Manufacturers of e-liquid in the UK are required to inform the Government regarding the content in each liquid. The EU Tobacco Products Directive requires e-liquids to be tested 6 months before they are sold.", "The Tobacco Products Directive in the EU limits the sale of e-liquid. It can only be sold in 10 ml bottles, which need to have a child-proof closure. They have to be pre-registered to the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency before sale. There is also a limit on the nicotine content, meaning the nicotine strength of any e-liquid cannot exceed 20 mg/ml (2.0%). Refill liquids in the EU with more than 20 mg/ml of nicotine may be sold with prior authorization from the pharmaceutical regulation.", "As of January 2020, the Food and Drug Administration put new regulations on the flavor of e-liquids. They ban companies from manufacturing any juices or pre-filled pods that contained fruity or minty flavors. This restriction also banned stores from selling any flavors of e-liquid that are fruity or minty that could have been imported from a different country.\n\nNicotine yield", "Smoking a traditional cigarette yields between 0.5 and 1.5 mg of nicotine, but the nicotine content of the cigarette is only weakly correlated with the levels of nicotine in the smoker's bloodstream. The amount of nicotine in the e-cigarette aerosol varies widely either from puff-to-puff or among devices of the same company. In practice e-cigarette users tend to reach lower blood nicotine concentrations than smokers, particularly when the users are inexperienced or using first-generation devices", ". Nicotine in cigarette smoke is absorbed into the bloodstream rapidly, and e-cigarette aerosol is relatively slow in this regard.", "Vaping typically gives a lower amount of nicotine per puff than smoking cigarettes. E-liquids contain nicotine in a variety of different strengths. From no nicotine to 36 mg/ml. On average a regular cigarette contains 6–28 mg of nicotine or the user will inhale about 1.1 to 1.8 mg of nicotine if just a portion is used. On average an e-cigarette contains 0.5-15.4 mg of nicotine per 15 puffs", ". On average an e-cigarette contains 0.5-15.4 mg of nicotine per 15 puffs. In practice, the nicotine concentration in an e-liquid is not a reliable guide to the amount of nicotine that reaches the bloodstream.", "Notes\n\nBibliography \n\nWeingarten, A (March 2018). \"Welcome to the World of Sub-Ohm Vaping\" USA: Industry Trades\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n2003 introductions\nCigarette types\nElectronic cigarettes\nSmoking cessation" ]

[ "The Ste. Genevieve Academy in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, enjoys a wealth of documentary evidence, which far surpasses that of any other contributing property contained within the Ste. Genevieve National Historic Landmark District. The early French settlers of the town, led by their cosmopolitan Irish pastor, maintained a detailed journal, which outlined the activities of the Academy's Trustees", ". Rediscovered in 1995, this journal describes the activities of the Academy's directors from its early planning stages in 1807 through the construction, operation, and the final closing of the school in 1861.", "General Firmin A. Rozier and his children lived in the Old Academy from 1862 until Tom Rozier's death in the late 1930s. They maintained the mansion as a veritable museum, thereby preserving many hundreds of documents for the historic record. Fortunately, most of this documentary evidence found its way into the hands of the competent, though widely dispersed, caretakers", ". This rare collection permits a truly accurate description of the remarkable events surrounding the creation of the first publicly chartered school in the Louisiana Territory.", "Early history", "A list of financial backers or 'subscribers' was compiled by Father James Maxwell in July 1807 to establish the first school publicly charted by the government of the Louisiana Territory. This list of subscribers included the Chouteau family of St. Louis as well as the leading families of Ste. Genevieve, New Bourbon, and the lead mining districts around present day Ironton, Missouri", ". Genevieve, New Bourbon, and the lead mining districts around present day Ironton, Missouri. These wealthy families promised to pay $1,904 in cash and $814 in materials for the 'building of a suitable house for an Academy' to be located in the Town of Ste. Genevieve.", "The first meeting of the subscribers took place at the home of Joseph Pratte in Ste. Genevieve, Saturday, September 26, 1807. A 21-member Board of Trustees was elected from this group and a constitution was created to govern the future 'Louisiana Academy'. Father James Maxwell was chosen to be chairman of the Academy's Board of Trustees. President Thomas Jefferson honored this Catholic priest by appointing him as a member of the Louisiana Territory's first Legislative Assembly", ". As a measure of Father Maxwell's influence, we should note that he later presided over their first session.", "It is clear that both the constitution and the 'subscriber list' are written entirely in the hand of Father Maxwell. In his capacity as Curate of Ste. Genevieve and Vicar General of Upper Louisiana, Reverend Maxwell made frequent visits to St. Louis. Father Maxwell's home was in New Bourbon and he regularly visited the mining districts further south.", "The concept of an Academy teaching both English and French in a French speaking territory was clearly Reverend Maxwell's work. If his congregation was to thrive under the United States government it was imperative that its children learn to conduct business in the English language. This then is the central purpose of Father Maxwell's Academy", ". This then is the central purpose of Father Maxwell's Academy. It is also likely that this priest inserted into the constitution the very Jeffersonian concept of educating the poor and Indian children beside the sons of the great planters and merchants. No other person in Upper Louisiana had the universal prestige to garner support for such a scheme and carry the concept through to fruition.", "Plans to construct new building\nIn December 1807, the inaugural meeting of the Trustees of the Louisiana Academy took place at the home of Joseph Pratte. By the following January, the Trustees had appointed a committee to prepare architectural plans for the construction of a 'suitable building' and also make initial inquiries as to a possible building site. This committee consisted of Reverend James Maxwell, Joseph Pratte, and Judge Otho Shrader.", "The trustees requested that the United States government provide them with suitable land for their proposed school. When Congress failed to act the Trustees decided to purchase four arpents of land near the town of Ste. Genevieve from John Price for the sum of $100. The property was then situated outside the northwest boundary of the town on a hilltop, which enjoys a panoramic view of Ste. Genevieve, the mighty Mississippi, and the surrounding countryside.", "The land, which the Trustees acquired, was originally owned by Louis Champaigne. There was serious concern regarding the possibility of a clouded title. The Reverend James Maxwell resolved this issue by personally warranting the title against all claims except that of the United States government. Thus, by March 1808, the way was finally cleared for breaking ground.", "It is very clear from the 'Journal of the Ste. Genevieve Academy' that Father Maxwell was the driving force behind the development of this school. It is also eminently clear that it was Father Maxwell who decided the setting and style of the Academy building. This cosmopolitan priest was born and reared in eighteenth century Ireland and educated at the famed Irish College of the University of Salamanca, in Spain", ". It should not surprise us that his Academy was constructed in the new Federal style and that it shows a decided influence from the Irish country houses of his day.", "Challenges securing funds", "The Trustees meeting of March 1808 determined that funds thus far collected from the subscribers was not sufficient for the construction of a two-story stone house measuring 5o ft. long by 25 ft. wide. A plan was adopted to reduce the size of the initial construction to 31 ft. by 25 ft. and enlarge the building to 50 ft. by 25 ft. when more funds were available", ". by 25 ft. and enlarge the building to 50 ft. by 25 ft. when more funds were available. The Treasurer was instructed by the Trustees to call upon each subscriber to pay one-half their pledged contribution immediately and the balance within three months. Unfortunately, the continued operation of this school would be threatened for years to come by collection difficulties.", "Plans for the Academy and the use of stone in construction were unanimously approved by the Trustees in March 1808. The actual building site was selected by Reverend Maxwell, Timothy Phelps, and Vital St. Gemme Beauvais. Strong evidence suggest that the stone used in construction was salvaged on flatboats from the ruins of Fort de Chartres, which was also constructed of blue limestone and abandoned in 1772", ". Blue limestone was only available from the mine developed by the French army east of Fort de Chartres. This mine supplied the huge quantities of stone required for building of the stone fort in 1751.", "After the great flood of 1785, Fort de Chartres lay in complete ruins. Mountains of free building materials were therefore available for the taking. Ox carts could easily carry the salvaged stone from the flatboats up Academy hill to the building site less than one-half mile from the levee.", "Updated plans", "At the May 1808 meeting of the Trustees, the Building Committee, chartered by Father Maxwell, reported that the plan to build only two-thirds of the building now and later complete the task was unwise. It was determined that: 'by adding a new wall to the one that was some time before build will in course shrink below the old work and thereby ruin the whole", ".' As a result, the Trustees voted unanimously to 'carry up' the whole building but, 'only cover that part of the building that was designed to be completed at a future day.'", "Since dendrochronology dates all of the first floor joists to 1808, it is assumed that two rooms of the Academy's second floor remained somewhat unfinished until the 'repairs' of 1818 and the reopening of the Academy by the French Christian Brothers.", "Public charter\nThe Louisiana Territorial Legislature, under President was the Reverend James Maxwell, unanimously approved the incorporation of a charter creating the Ste. Genevieve Academy on June 21, 1808. This institution was the first public institution of higher education created in the Louisiana Territory. Indeed, the Ste. Genevieve Academy is the first school incorporated by the United States west of the Mississippi.", "The 'Act of Incorporation' was passed in the final year of President Thomas Jefferson's second term. It reflects many of Jefferson's ideals. However, financial restraints the premature death of the schools founder never allowed for their complete enactment.", "On August 3, 1808, William Shannon, Trustee of the Academy, and builder by trade, signed a contract to build the Academy. It is important to note that William Shannon was also born reared in Ireland that in the early 19th century the builder was usually also the architect for the project. Thus, the architectural style of the Academy building was under the total control and influence of two Irishmen, Father Maxwell and Mr. Shannon.", "The construction contract signed by William Shannon calls for: \"the whole of mason work on said Academy to be completely finished, in a workman like manner by the first day of December next.\"", "The Trustees agreed to pay $900 to William Shannon for the masonry work. This amount reflected the cost of labor only, for the Trustees supplied all of the materials. One-half of Mr. Shannon's payment was to be in cash and the balance in lead at the current rate of exchange. Shannon was to receive one-half of the payment two months after work commences and the remaining balance upon completion of the project.", "In December 1808, the Academy Board of Trustees authorized the Board's collector to receive lead from subscribers in lieu of cash at the rate of $5 per one hundred pounds, if the lead was paid to the collector within ten days. Clearly, cash and lead were needed to pay William Shannon his fee for the construction of the Academy. However, as will be seen, another eighteen months will pass before sufficient funds are available to pay Mr. Shannon for the remainder of his fee.", "1809 Smallpox epidemic", "Several months later, a smallpox epidemic swept through Ste. Genevieve. It was believed that the disease was brought in town from infected persons on flatboats traveling the Mississippi and docking in town. By 1802, smallpox vaccination was available in Ste. Genevieve. Very few people took advantage and were vaccinated. As a result, the disease ravaged the town and delayed any possible opening of the Academy. Nevertheless, on August 30, 1809 the Trustees authorized the collector of the Town of Ste", ". Nevertheless, on August 30, 1809 the Trustees authorized the collector of the Town of Ste. Genevieve to file suit against subscribers who had not made full payment in 'money, lead, or produce.'", "Further financial difficulties", "There is evidence that the Reverend James Maxwell completed work on the Academy not approved by the Board of Trustees and personally guaranteed payment. On March 1, 1810, the Trustees heard the auditor's reports and found that the accounts of the Building Committee, chaired by Father Maxwell, were in a shambles. Reverend Maxwell had ordered finishing work on the Academy that had not been approved by the Board and had given his personal guarantee for payment", ". This was against the bylaws of the Board of Trustees and it was adopted that from that moment forward a strict enforcement of financial procedures would be observed. However, it is doubtful that Father Maxwell paid any heed to this directive. The Board's only recourse was to collect past due subscriber accounts. George Bullett, a Trustee, was appointed to collect accounts in the lead mining districts, and Elias Austin Elliott was appointed to complete a similar task in St. Louis.", "Mr. Daniel Barry Esq. was approved by the Trustees to preside as teacher of the Ste. Genevieve Academy on April 24, 1810. Mr. Barry agreed to: 'undertake to teach English, French, Latin, Greek, Mathematics, Arithmetic, Surveying, Logic, Metaphysics, Geography, History, Natural and Moral Philosophy, agreeably to a prospectus already exhibited; for the sum of 1,100 dollars for the first year ye will superintend the education of 45 students.'", "It appears that Mr. Daniel Barry left after one year because on March 20, 1811 the Board of Trustees examined the qualifications of a Mr. Curtis as teacher for the Ste. Genevieve Academy. The Board of Trustees found nothing against Mr. Curtis' character, but felt he was not qualified to teach the different branches of education demanded by the Trustees.", "At their March 20, 1811 meeting the Trustees also examined William Shannon's claim again them for past due payments for the completion of the Academy building. The Board of Trustees agreed to reimburse Mr. Shannon for 'all the monies he has expanded in completing the building'. The Building Committee determined the total amount due Mr. Shannon was $151.82. At this point, Mr. Shannon was paid in full for construction of the Academy", ". Shannon was $151.82. At this point, Mr. Shannon was paid in full for construction of the Academy. However, as will be seen, many outstanding debts still remain unpaid to other creditors.", "Appointment of Mann Butler\nJanuary 24, 1812, Mr. Mann Butler, Esq. was recommended for the position of Principal Teacher of the Ste. Genevieve Academy. It is important to note at this meeting of the Trustees that no mention of damage to the Academy is noted in the minutes. The 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes had devastated the region south of Ste. Genevieve. Clearly, the Academy withstood these unprecedented shocks without appreciable harm to its structure or contents.", "Mann Butler was born in Baltimore, Maryland. He spent 11 years of his childhood in England and returned at age 14 to the United States in 1798. Butler studied at St. Mary's College in Washington D.C. where he received degrees in medicine and law. In 1806, he moved to Lexington, Kentucky where he briefly practiced law before beginning his career as an educator. Late in 1806, he founded an Academy in Versailles, Kentucky and married Martha Dedman", ". Late in 1806, he founded an Academy in Versailles, Kentucky and married Martha Dedman. From 1810 through 1811, Butler taught in Washington and Maysville, Mason Country, Kentucky.", "On January 31, 1812, Mann Butler became the 'Principal-Teacher' of the Ste. Genevieve Academy. However, difficulty in collecting tuition once again left the Trustees short of funds for the teacher's salary. John Scott, Trustee, was appointed by the board on June 27, 1812 to call on all the parents of the children who failed to pay their tuition and fees. If they failed to do so immediately, their children were to be removed from the Academy. Parents could pay Mr", ". Parents could pay Mr. Butler the amount they owed and present the Board of Trustees with a receipt of payment.", "Mann Butler remained at the Ste. Genevieve Academy until the close of the term in 1814. His departure was likely due to the accidental death of Father James Maxwell, the Chairman of the Academy's Board of Trustees and the driving force in providing the necessary funds to keep the school open. Father Maxwell was thrown from his horse on his way back to New Bourbon after hearing confessions at Ste. Genevieve Catholic Church", ". Genevieve Catholic Church. He was taken unconscious to the home of his friend, Joseph Pratte where he died the following day, May 28, 1814, at the age of 72.", "After leaving Ste. Genevieve, Mr. Butler taught school in Frankfort, Kentucky until 1824 when he became a professor at Transylvania University. He is renowned as an educator for writing the first reliable histories of Kentucky.", "Challenges following the death of Father Maxwell\nCreditors descended like vultures upon the Ste. Genevieve Academy following the unexpected death of its primary patron and founder, Father Maxwell. Their suits forced the sale of the Academy building and its land at public auction. Fortunately, it was William Shannon who placed the highest bid on the courthouse steps. Shannon purchased the Academy for $390 on November 18, 1814.", "Appointment of Father Louis DuBourg", "Shortly before this 'Sheriff's Sale', Father Louis DuBourg was appointed the first Bishop of the Louisiana Territory and the Floridas by Archbishop Carroll of Baltimore, August 18, 1814. Father DuBourg traveled to Rome in 1815 where he was consecrated Bishop of Louisiana and the Floridas. The opening of schools in his frontier diocese was a primary concern, which necessitated the recruitment of teachers", ". Thus, we find Bishop DuBourg and his entourage, engaged in an eighteen-month extended tour of France and Belgium. Their quest was for members of religious orders willing to volunteer for service in Bishop DuBourg's mission parishes and schools of the Louisiana Territory.", "DuBourg made an initial request to the Superior General of the Christian Brothers; Brother Gerbaud initially refused the request. The French Revolution of 1789 had resulted in the disbursement of this order and the execution of many of its members. The Bourbon restoration had only been in place for three years at the time of this request and the Christian Brothers Institute in France had only just begun a slow recovery.", "However, Bishop DuBourg was not a man to take no for an answer. He asked for, and received the assistance of the Vatican Curia and the Pope. Pius VII immediately sent a request to the Superior General of the Christian Brothers on behalf of Bishop DuBourg: 'Our Venerable Brother William DuBourg recently consecrated here and named Bishop of New Orleans, ardently desires to bring with him some of your Brothers to instruct the youth of his vast diocese", ". We earnestly recommend this matter to you, and We desire that if you have some subjects who are willing to go there and whom you judge proper for this pious work, that you should send them if it can be done. This will be most agreeable to God and to Us.'", "It is not surprising that Brother Gerbaud relented and on April 20, 1816 composed a letter agreeing to give Bishop DuBourg the brothers requested.", "Louis XVIII, King of France, gave Bishop DuBourg and his entire entourage free passage to America. The group consisted of 5 priests, 2 sub deacons, 9 clerics, 3 Christian Brothers, 4 seminarians, and 4 workmen or mechanics. They departed from Bordeaux, July 1, 1817, on board La Caravane, a frigate of the French Royal Navy, and landed in Annapolis, Maryland two months later on September 4.", "Bishop DuBourg had petitioned the Pope to allow him to establish his residence in St. Louis due to the 'distressing conditions' and general riotous circumstances in New Orleans. He therefore, traveled first to Baltimore, and then on to Pittsburg, Louisville, and finally to Bardstown, Kentucky where the three Christian Brothers remained to learn English and assist with the construction of a new seminary. Bishop DuBourg then traveled on to Ste. Genevieve and finally to his cathedral city of St. Louis.", "1814 Closing of Academy", "The death of Father James Maxwell in 1814 had resulted in the closing of the Ste. Genevieve Academy. The Academy had lost its charter when the building became the personal property of William Shannon. Father Henry Pratte, a young priest who was born in Ste. Genevieve, and educated at the College of Montreal, was selected to replace Father Maxwell as pastor of Ste. Genevieve. The Reverend Henry Pratte was the son of John-Baptiste Sylvester Pratte by his second wife Teresa", ". The Reverend Henry Pratte was the son of John-Baptiste Sylvester Pratte by his second wife Teresa. He was, therefore, the half brother of Joseph Pratte, Trustee of the Ste. Genevieve Academy. It is likely that Father James Maxwell was well acquainted with this young man from his parish, and very instrumental in his placement at the seminary in Montreal", ". We should not be surprised, therefore, that on e of the first concerns of this young pastor was to restore to full operation Father Maxwell's education project of the Academy.", "Father Pratt asked Bishop DuBourg for a Christian Brother to teach in the school he intended to reopen at the Academy. In a letter to Father Rosati, Bishop DuBourg's co-adjustor, dated December 23, 1818, Father Pratte writes: '\"I have asked of the Bishop for a Brother to open school in Ste. Genevieve. He replied to me that I can have one, and he requests me to write you that paragraph from his letter", ". It is as follows: 'I have written recently to the Brothers that, if you ask for one, to send Brother Antonin who is best educated in English. Act accordingly and write to this effect to Mr. Rosati, giving him this paragraph from my letter. But, remember, you must take charge of everything, for I do not wish to be mixed up with the parents.'\"", "1818 Reopening of the Academy\nJune 13, 1818 a group of subscribers met at Colonel Valle's home on the northwest corner of Main and Market Streets. The meeting was chaired by William Shannon who now owned the Academy building and it surrounding land. The purpose of the meeting was to establish a Seminary at the town of Ste. Genevieve. It was determined that the subscribers had collected sufficient money 'to purchase the right of Mr. Shannon to the stone house called the Ste. Genevieve Academy.'", "Five days later, on June 18, 1818, William Shannon sold the Academy and its four acres back to the Trustees of the Ste. Genevieve Academy for $600. A committee was established to prepare and engage workmen for repairing and finishing the stone house.", "Brother Antonin arrived in Ste. Genevieve in late December 1818. Bishop DuBourg states in a letter to Father Rosati dated January 4, 1819 that 'I am delighted that Brother Antonin is at Ste. Genevieve. I have received one of his letters and am sending the various things for which he asked.'", "With the opening of school January 8, 1819, the Ste. Genevieve Academy became the first school operated by the Christian Brothers in the United States. Since Bishop DuBourg had promised not to separate the three brothers, Brother Fulgence and Brother Aubin soon joined Brother Antonin at the Academy. The bishop had assured the Superior General of the Christian Brothers that the three would be kept together so as to be able observe a community life.", "The journal of the Ste. Genevieve Academy is not maintained during the three years that the Christian Brothers maintained the school. This was a Roman Catholic school maintained by the Catholic citizens of Upper Louisiana. It was not operating under a charter from the Louisiana Legislature.", "Father Pratte died September 1, 1822, at the age of thirty-four. The Christian Brothers had been operating the school for three years. Bishop DuBourg decided that this successful enterprise could be extended by separating the brothers and having each open an individual school. At this point, the Bishop seems to have forgotten his pledge to the Superior General not to separate the three Christian Brothers", ". Unfortunately, only temporary vows, which had expired, cause all three to leave their religious order. Once again, the Ste. Genevieve Academy was closed and remained so for 32 years.", "Ste. Genevieve Plain Dealer\nJuly 1854", "\"For many years prior to the year 1853 there stood on a hill west of the town an old dilapidated stone building called the Old Academy and known among river men as the haunted house - the residence of owls and bats of the neighboring woods. There seemed to be a strange fatality attendant on every attempt to fit up this house for the purposes of education; either the undertaking failed for want of means and was abandoned, or no permanent teacher could be obtained", ". Thus matter stood in the winter of 52 and 53. The house was tenanted by a few destitute families who were forced by necessity to seek shelter under its crumbling roof.\"", "Three decades past, before anyone paid serious attention to the Old Academy as it was called in antebellum Ste. Genevieve. It is difficult to believe that this massive stone house perched atop the highest hill in town, would inspire only thoughts of ridicule. However, history, especially the history of this great house, seems to repeat itself. The one man of vision in Ste", ". The one man of vision in Ste. Genevieve with the funds to save the Old Academy was about to replace the care lavished by Father Maxwell with a love affair that would preserve the Old Academy for another hundred years.", "Impact of Firmin Anthony Rozier\nFirmin Anthony Rozier was the son of Jean Ferdinand Rozier who came to Ste. Genevieve the year the Academy was built, with his partner John James Audubon. Ferdinand soon became one of the wealthiest men in Upper Louisiana through his thriving mercantile business. He brought his nephew, Firmin Desloge, from France and established him in the family business.", "Firmin A. Rozier was born in Ste. Genevieve and became a true Victorian romantic. He attended St. Mary's College in Perryville, Missouri and then studied law under Colonel Lewis Bogy. Later Firmin graduated from Transylvania College in Lexington, Kentucky, the same college where the Old Academy's teacher of 1812, Mann Butler, once served as a professor.", "In the 1840s it was fashionable for men of wealth to form and outfit militia companies. Firmin Rozier formed a militia company in 1845 and was appointed Brigadier General of the State Militia by Governor John C. Edwards of Missouri. A complete inventory of the outfitting of his men has been preserved with his book collection by the Ste. Genevieve Board of Education", ". Genevieve Board of Education. While \"the General\" never once led his men in action of any kind, he cherished the romantic ring of his title, and was called General Rozier for the remainder of his life.", "August 20, 1851, Firmin Rozier, while serving as Mayor of Ste. Genevieve, gave an address to the Board of Aldermen calling for the development of public schools. This address marked the beginning of a preoccupation that would lead to the first restoration of an historic structure n Missouri and forever link the name of Firmin Rozier with the Ste. Genevieve Academy.", "Acquisition of the school", "March 6, 1849 the Missouri Legislature created an act to incorporate the Trustees of the Ste. Genevieve Academy. It is known that General Firmin A. Rozier, who had recently received his inheritance from his father, was actively pursuing the reopening of the Old Academy. General Rozier had also just completed the building of the Plank Road from Ironton to the Ste. Genevieve Levee", ". Genevieve Levee. This wooden causeway enabled ox carts to travel easily across country from Ironton with their immensely heavy cargos of lead bound for the Port of Ste. Genevieve.", "\"The General\" was obviously interested in personally acquiring the Old Academy and starting a school of his own design. On February 17, 1853, we find yet another act from the Missouri Legislature. This act repeals the Act of Incorporation of 1849. The only difference between the two acts is that the 1853 act clearly defines how the Trustees must compose a deed of conveyance for the sale of real estate. Thus, the passing of this act cleared the path for General Firmin A", ". Thus, the passing of this act cleared the path for General Firmin A. Rozier to acquire the Old Academy as his personal property.", "The Trustees, on March 30, 1853, conveyed the deed to the Old Academy to General Firmin A. Rozier in exchange for his pledge to maintain a school on the premises for ten years and to admit, free of charge, fifty poor children for one year each, over a three-year period.", "Two days later on April 2, 1853 Rozier signed a construction contract to add a 50 ft. by 25 ft. two-story brick addition to the Old Academy. The contract was given to John Troll, Joseph Jokurst, and Charles Jokurst. It called for the entire work to be completed by September 1, 1853 for a sum of $1,025.", "The Circuit Court of Ste. Genevieve County ruled on November 23, 1853, that the Trustees of the Ste. Genevieve Academy had the right to sell the Academy and its grounds to Firmin A. Rozier. Obviously, General Rozier wasn't taking any chances and wanted to eliminate any possibility of a challenge to the legality of his acquisition of the Old Academy.", "A list of the 1854 roster of children at the Ste. Genevieve Academy reads like the social register of St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve. Even the children of Pierre Chouteau attended this school. This notable absence of poor children and 'well behaved' Indians explains Rozier's next action.", "On January 18, 1856, a Deed of Conveyance was recorded between the Trustees of the Ste. Genevieve Academy as grantors, and Firmin A. Rozier. General Rozier paid $400 to the Directors of the Public Schools for the benefit of public school children. This released General Rozier from the obligation to educate 50 poor children free of charge for one year. General Firmin A. Rozier then received from the Trustees 'fee simple absolute title' to the Old Academy, its improvements, and surrounding 4 acres.", "The Ste. Genevieve Academy, directed by General Firmin Rozier was by far the most successful of the three attempts to establish a lasting institution of higher learning on Academy Hill.", "General Rozier's meticulous records and balance sheets show an institution with a minimum of 50 students. Well over one-half of these students boarded at an annual cost for tuition and board of between $175 to $200. This figure represented the average annual income of a laborer, which explains why the student body consisted entirely of the sons of socially prominent families.", "Civil War\nThe onslaught of the Civil war spelled a death knell to this thriving enterprise. General Rozier lost all four of his teachers upon their enlistment into the Confederate Army. Under the circumstances, replacement of the teaching staff was impossible. Thus, with the closing of the summer term in 1861, the Academy forever closed its doors as an institution of higher learning.", "Conversion to private estate", "Since 1808, the Academy had been occupied as a school for only twelve years of its 53-year history. However, the old mansion was not to be abandoned as it had been in the past. The General simply converted the building with its splendid setting into the finest private estate in the county. The 50 ft by 25 ft classroom wing added in 1853 was converted on the first floor into a dining room, sitting room, and bathroom. A large central chimney was also added", ". A large central chimney was also added. The second floor rear wing was similarly divided and served as bedroom and a large library for the General. The original rooms of the 1808 stone portion of the Academy were never altered and were simply used as a drawing room, parlor, and bedrooms.", "General Rozier acquired additional grounds for his estate, which ultimately expanded to 9th Street and covered ten acres. His children continued to live in the Old Academy until their deaths. In 1934, the Academy and 10 acres of land were sold to the Ste. Genevieve Board of Education for $8,500.", "Acquisition by public school system\nThe Ste. Genevieve School District developed the ten-acre estate as the site for its public school system. All of the Academy's outbuildings were raised. But until the late 1950s the mansion remained occupied by the Superintendent of Schools.", "Unfortunately, the maintenance and repair of a museum property was not within the budge of the Board of Education. For over thirty years, the Old Academy was allowed to fall into a state of near collapse. In 1991, the Ste. Genevieve Board of Education donated the mansion to the State of Missouri. The Old Academy and one acre of land was placed in the Department of Natural Resources, Historic Properties Revolving Fund, and offered for sale.", "Contemporary history", "The property was purchased by Timothy G. Conley in the spring of 1994 and was restored over a five-year period. Thus, history once again repeated itself for this resilient relic of the early Federal period. For the third time in nearly 200 years, the Old Academy was on the verge of demolition, only to be saved in the eleventh hour. Once again, an Irishman came to her rescue from demolition, only to be saved in the eleventh hour", ". Once again, an Irishman came to her rescue from demolition, only to be saved in the eleventh hour. Once again, an Irishman came to her rescue and the Old Academy has regained her place as the premier residence of Ste. Genevieve County. However, it is the original creation of the Academy as a school that continues to intrigue. She remains the oldest school building known to exist west of the Appalachian Mountains and is a symbol of the frontier forces, which shaped education in the Louisiana Territory.", "The Ste. Genevieve Academy was purchased by the Rolfe Family Residential Trust in 2005 and is once again being used as a family home, just as General Firmin Rozier did 150 years earlier.\n\nReferences\n\nSte. Genevieve County, Missouri" ]

[ "Australian Athletics Championships for women have been conducted since 1930.\n\nAt the first national championships, only 3 events (100 yards, 80 metres hurdles, and High Jump) were contested, but the programme has since expanded to include the full track and field programme. Until 1963, championships were only held once every two years.\n\nThe most successful athlete at the Championships has been thrower Gael Martin who won 20 events in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Australia's national champions in athletics are listed below, by event.\n\n100 metres\nNote: 100 yards until 1967", "1930: Chrissie Dahm\n1931: Not held\n1932: Eileen Wearne\n1933: Emily Brookes\n1934: Not held\n1935: Edith Robinson\n1936: Edith Robinson\n1937: Decima Norman\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Lola Forster\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Joyce King\n1949: Not held\n1950: Marjorie Jackson\n1951: Not held\n1952: Marjorie Jackson\n1953: Not held\n1954: Marjorie Jackson\n1955: Not held\n1956: Wendy Hayes\n1957: Not held", "1953: Not held\n1954: Marjorie Jackson\n1955: Not held\n1956: Wendy Hayes\n1957: Not held\n1958: Marlene Mathews\n1959: Not held\n1960: Pat Duggan\n1961: Not held\n1962: Glenys Beasley\n1963: Dianne Bowering\n1964: Joyce Bennett\n1965: Debbie Thompson (USA)\n1966: Joan Henricksen\n1967: Dianne Burge\n1968: Dianne Burge\n1969: Jenny Lamy", "1970: Raelene Boyle\n1971: Raelene Boyle\n1972: Raelene Boyle\n1973: Raelene Boyle\n1974: Denise Boyd\n1975: Denise Boyd\n1976: Raelene Boyle\n1977: Raelene Boyle\n1978: Debbie Wells\n1979: Denise Boyd\n1980: Denise Boyd\n1981: Debbie Wells\n1982: Helen Davey\n1983: Diane Holden\n1984: Debbie Wells\n1985: Jenny Flaherty (dead-heat with Diane Holden)\n1986: Diane Holden\n1987: Diane Holden\n1988: Jane Flemming\n1989: Sue Broadrick\n1990: Jane Flemming\n1991: Monique Dunstan\n1992: Melinda Gainsford\n1993: Melinda Gainsford", "1990: Jane Flemming\n1991: Monique Dunstan\n1992: Melinda Gainsford\n1993: Melinda Gainsford\n1994: Gwen Torrence (USA) \n1995: Melinda Gainsford\n1996: Cathy Freeman\n1997: Melinda Gainsford\n1998: Melinda Gainsford\n1999: Lauren Hewitt\n2000: Melinda Gainsford\n2001: Lauren Hewitt\n2002: Lauren Hewitt\n2003: Sharon Cripps\n2004: Gloria Kemasuode (NGR)\n2005: Sally McLellan\n2006: Sally McLellan\n2007: Sally McLellan\n2008: Fiona Cullen\n2009: Sally McLellan", "2010: Melissa Breen\n2011: Sally McLellan\n2012: Melissa Breen\n2013: Toea Wisil\n2014: Sally Pearson\n2015: Melissa Breen\n2016: Melissa Breen\n2017: Toea Wisil\n2018: Riley Day\n2019: Naa Anang\n2020: Not held\n2021: Hana Basic\n2022: Zoe Hobbs\n\n200 metres\nNote: 220 yards until 1967", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Amy Bremer\n1934: Not held\n1935: Edith Robinson\n1936: Edith Robinson\n1937: Decima Norman\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Jean Coleman\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Joyce King\n1949: Not held\n1950: Marjorie Jackson\n1951: Not held\n1952: Marjorie Jackson\n1953: Not held\n1954: Marjorie Jackson\n1955: Not held\n1956: Betty Cuthbert\n1957: Not held\n1958: Marlene Mathews", "1954: Marjorie Jackson\n1955: Not held\n1956: Betty Cuthbert\n1957: Not held\n1958: Marlene Mathews\n1959: Not held\n1960: Betty Cuthbert\n1961: Not held\n1962: Glennys Beasley\n1963: Joyce Bennett\n1964: Joyce Bennett\n1965: Dianne Bowering\n1966: Joyce Bennett\n1967: Jenny Lamy\n1968: Dianne Burge\n1969: Jenny Lamy", "1970: Raelene Boyle\n1971: Raelene Boyle\n1972: Raelene Boyle\n1973: Raelene Boyle\n1974: Denise Boyd\n1975: Denise Boyd\n1976: Raelene Boyle\n1977: Raelene Boyle\n1978: Denise Boyd\n1979: Denise Boyd\n1980: Denise Boyd\n1981: Debbie Wells\n1982: Sharon Ruxton\n1983: Denise Boyd\n1984: Debbie Wells\n1985: Maree Holland\n1986: Diane Holden\n1987: Diane Holden\n1988: Kerry Johnson\n1989: Sue Broadrick\n1990: Cathy Freeman\n1991: Cathy Freeman (dead-heat with Esther Paolo)\n1992: Melinda Gainsford\n1993: Melinda Gainsford", "1991: Cathy Freeman (dead-heat with Esther Paolo)\n1992: Melinda Gainsford\n1993: Melinda Gainsford\n1994: Cathy Freeman\n1995: Melinda Gainsford\n1996: Cathy Freeman\n1997: Melinda Gainsford\n1998: Melinda Gainsford\n1999: Lauren Hewitt\n2000: Cathy Freeman\n2001: Lauren Hewitt\n2002: Lauren Hewitt\n2003: Sharon Cripps\n2004: Lauren Hewitt\n2005: Lauren Hewitt\n2006: Melanie Kleeberg\n2007: Monique Williams (NZL)\n2008: Makilesi Batimala (FIJ)\n2009: Monique Williams (NZL)", "2010: Jody Henry\n2011: Sally McLellan\n2012: Melissa Breen\n2013: Monica Brennan\n2014: Ella Nelson\n2015: Ella Nelson\n2016: Ella Nelson\n2017: Toea Wisil\n2018: Riley Day\n2019: Zoe Hobbs (NZL)\n2020: Not held\n2021: Riley Day\n2022: Georgia Hulls\n\n400 metres\nNote: 440 yards until 1967", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Not held\n1934: Not held\n1935: Not held\n1936: Not held\n1937: Jean Coleman\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Irene Talbot\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Shirley McConnachie\n1949: Not held\n1950: Shirley Strickland\n1951: Not held\n1952: Shirley Strickland\n1953: Not held\n1954: Pam Bryant\n1955: Not held\n1956: Shirley Strickland\n1957: Not held\n1958: Brenda Jones\n1959: Not held", "1955: Not held\n1956: Shirley Strickland\n1957: Not held\n1958: Brenda Jones\n1959: Not held\n1960: Dixie Willis\n1961: Not held\n1962: Dixie Willis\n1963: Betty Cuthbert\n1964: Dixie Willis\n1965: Judy Pollock\n1966: Judy Pollock\n1967: Judy Pollock\n1968: Sandra Brown\n1969: Elaine Frawley", "1970: Sandra Brown\n1971: Cheryl Peasley\n1972: Judy Pollock\n1973: Charlene Rendina\n1974: Marg Sargant\n1975: Charlene Rendina\n1976: Bethanie Nail\n1977: Marian Fisher\n1978: Maxine Corcoran\n1979: Maxine Corcoran\n1980: Raelene Boyle\n1981: Terri Cater\n1982: Raelene Boyle\n1983: Denise Boyd\n1984: Kim Robertson (NZL)\n1985: Debbie Flintoff-King\n1986: Debbie Flintoff-King\n1987: Sally Fleming\n1988: Maree Holland\n1989: Maree Holland\n1990: Sharon Stewart\n1991: Renee Poetschka\n1992: Sharon Stewart\n1993: Renee Poetschka", "1990: Sharon Stewart\n1991: Renee Poetschka\n1992: Sharon Stewart\n1993: Renee Poetschka\n1994: Renee Poetschka\n1995: Cathy Freeman\n1996: Renee Poetschka\n1997: Cathy Freeman\n1998: Cathy Freeman\n1999: Cathy Freeman\n2000: Cathy Freeman\n2001: Nova Peris\n2002: Catherine Murphy (GBR)\n2003: Cathy Freeman\n2004: Annabelle Smith\n2005: Tamsyn Manou\n2006: Jane Arnott (NZL)\n2007: Tamsyn Manou\n2008: Tamsyn Manou\n2009: Tamsyn Manou", "2010: Joanne Cuddihy (IRL)\n2011: Tamsyn Manou\n2012: Joanne Cuddihy (IRL)\n2013: Caitlin Sargent-Jones\n2014: Morgan Mitchell\n2015: Anneliese Rubie\n2016: Morgan Mitchell\n2017: Morgan Mitchell\n2018: Anneliese Rubie\n2019: Bendere Oboya\n2020: Not held\n2021: Bendere Oboya\n2022: Isabel Neal\n\n800 metres\nNote: 880 yards until 1967", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Not held\n1934: Not held\n1935: Not held\n1936: Not held\n1937: Audrey Bradfield\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Betty Judge\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Kit Mears\n1949: Not held\n1950: Mavis Monaghan\n1951: Not held\n1952: Stella Massey\n1953: Not held\n1954: Beris Folland\n1955: Not held\n1956: Joyce Hanger\n1957: Not held\n1958: Brenda Jones\n1959: Not held\n1960: Dixie Willis", "1956: Joyce Hanger\n1957: Not held\n1958: Brenda Jones\n1959: Not held\n1960: Dixie Willis\n1961: Not held\n1962: Dixie Willis\n1963: Dixie Willis\n1964: Dixie Willis\n1965: Judy Pollock\n1966: Judy Pollock\n1967: Judy Pollock\n1968: Sandra Brown\n1969: Cheryl Peasley", "1970: Cheryl Peasley\n1971: Cheryl Peasley\n1972: Judy Pollock\n1973: Charlene Rendina\n1974: Charlene Rendina\n1975: Charlene Rendina\n1976: Charlene Rendina\n1977: Penny Gray\n1978: Julie Schwass\n1979: Charlene Rendina\n1980: Terri Cater\n1981: Terri Cater\n1982: Heather Barralet\n1983: Heather Barralet\n1984: Heather Barralet\n1985: Bronwyn Fleming\n1986: Wendy Old\n1987: Sarah Collins\n1988: Sharon Stewart\n1989: Sharon Stewart\n1990: Wendy Old\n1991: Sharon Stewart\n1992: Jodie Nykvist-Hebbard\n1993: Narelle Parr", "1990: Wendy Old\n1991: Sharon Stewart\n1992: Jodie Nykvist-Hebbard\n1993: Narelle Parr\n1994: Sandy Dawson\n1995: Sandy Dawson\n1996: Lisa Lightfoot\n1997: Saleena Roberts\n1998: Tamsyn Manou\n1999: Tamsyn Manou\n2000: Tamsyn Manou\n2001: Tamsyn Manou\n2002: Tamsyn Manou\n2003: Tamsyn Manou\n2004: Rikke Ronholt (DEN)\n2005: Katherine Katsanavakis\n2006: Suzy Walsham\n2007: Tamsyn Manou\n2008: Tamsyn Manou\n2009: Madeleine Pape", "2010: Katherine Katsanavakis\n2011: Tamsyn Manou\n2012: Tamsyn Manou\n2013: Kelly Hetherington\n2014: Brittany McGowan\n2015: Brittany McGowan\n2016: Brittany McGowan\n2017: Lora Storey\n2018: Brittany McGowan\n2019: Catriona Bisset\n2020: Not held\n2021: Catriona Bisset\n2022: Catriona Bisset\n\n1500 metres\nNote: One mile until 1967", "1960: Not held\n1961: Not held\n1962: Not held\n1963: Not held\n1964: Not held\n1965: Beth Stanford\n1966: Beth Stanford\n1967: Margaret Clifford\n1968: Brenda Carr\n1969: Cheryl Peasley\n1970: Raie Thompson\n1971: Jenny Orr\n1972: Jenny Orr\n1973: Jenny Orr\n1974: Jenny Orr\n1975: Angela Cook\n1976: Judy Pollock\n1977: Angela Cook\n1978: Alison Wrench\n1979: Penny Gray\n1980: Sue Muir\n1981: Margaret Reddish\n1982: Sharon Dalton\n1983: Linda Gray (NZL)\n1984: Anne McKenzie (NZL)\n1985: Geng Ziunuan (CHN)\n1986: Penny Just", "1983: Linda Gray (NZL)\n1984: Anne McKenzie (NZL)\n1985: Geng Ziunuan (CHN)\n1986: Penny Just\n1987: Jackie Perkins\n1988: Marg Leaney\n1989: Liz Miller\n1990: Wendy Old\n1991: Suzy Walsham\n1992: Jodie Nykvist-Hebbard\n1993: Susie Power\n1994: Marg Leaney\n1995: Sonia O'Sullivan (IRE)\n1996: Marg Crowley\n1997: Mandy Giblin\n1998: Liz Miller\n1999: Sarah Jamieson", "2000: Naomi Mugo (KEN)\n2001: Suzy Walsham\n2002: Georgie Clarke\n2003: Suzy Walsham\n2004: Sarah Jamieson\n2005: Sarah Jamieson\n2006: Sarah Jamieson\n2007: Lisa Corrigan\n2008: Veronique Molan\n2009: Sarah Jamieson\n2010: Kaila McKnight\n2011: Zoe Buckman\n2012: Kaila McKnight\n2013: Zoe Buckman\n2014: Zoe Buckman\n2015: Heidi See\n2016: Heidi See\n2017: Heidi See\n2018: Linden Hall\n2019: Chloe Tighe\n2020: Not held\n2021: Linden Hall\n2022: Abbey Caldwell\n\n3000 metres", "1970: Not held\n1971: Not held\n1972: Not held\n1973: Not held\n1974: Jenny Orr\n1975: Angela Cook\n1976: Irene Cooke\n1977: Phyllis Lazarakis\n1978: Phyllis Lazarakis\n1979: Rhonda Taylor\n1980: Sue Muir\n1981: Jenny Lund\n1982: Megan Sloane\n1983: Anne Lord\n1984: Donna Gould\n1985: Jackie Perkins\n1986: Jackie Perkins\n1987: Jackie Perkins\n1988: Jackie Perkins\n1989: Ann Hare (NZL)\n1990: Krishna Stanton\n1991: Jenny Lund\n1992: Rhona Makepeace\n1993: Krishna Stanton\n1994: Liz Miller\n1995: Not held\n1996: Not held", "1992: Rhona Makepeace\n1993: Krishna Stanton\n1994: Liz Miller\n1995: Not held\n1996: Not held\n1997: Not held\n1998: Not held\n1999: Not held\n2000: Not held\n2001: Not held\n2002: Not held\n2003: Anna Thompson\n2004: Not held\n2005: Not held\n2006: Not held\n2007: Lauren Fleshman (USA)\n2008: Chloe Tighe\n2009: Melanie Daniels", "2010: Not held\n2011: Not held\n2012: Not held\n2013: Not held\n2014: Not held\n2015: Bridey Delaney\n2016: Not held\n2017: Not held\n2018: Not held\n2019: Not held\n2020: Not held\n2021: Genevieve Gregson\n2022: Rose Davies\n\n5000 metres", "1995: Carolyn Schuwalow\n1996: Kate Anderson\n1997: Kate Anderson\n1998: Anne Cross\n1999: Natalie Harvey\n2000: Anne Cross\n2001: Elizabeth Miller\n2002: Hayley McGregor\n2003: Benita Johnson\n2004: Georgie Clarke\n2005: Benita Johnson\n2006: Eloise Wellings\n2007: Benita Johnson\n2008: Georgie Clarke\n2009: Sarah Jamieson\n2010: Eloise Wellings\n2011: Belinda Martin\n2012: Kaila McKnight\n2013: Kaila McKnight\n2014: Emily Brichacek\n2015: Magdalene Masai (KEN)\n2016: Genevieve Lacaze\n2017: Heidi See\n2018: Celia Sullohern", "2015: Magdalene Masai (KEN)\n2016: Genevieve Lacaze\n2017: Heidi See\n2018: Celia Sullohern\n2019: Melissa Duncan\n2020: Jessica Hull\n2021: Andrea Seccafien (CAN)\n2022: Jessica Hull", "10,000 metres", "1980: Not held\n1981: Not held\n1982: Not held\n1983: Maureen Moyle\n1984: Sally Pearson\n1985: Mary O'Connor (NZL)\n1986: Tania Turney\n1987: Jackie Perkins\n1988: Carolyn Schuwalow\n1989: Coral Farr\n1990: Sue Mahony\n1991: Jenny Lund\n1992: Sue Hobson\n1993: Sue Hobson\n1994: Sue Hobson\n1995: Lisa Martin\n1996: Not held\n1997: Kylie Risk\n1998: Natalie Harvey\n1999: Natalie Harvey\n2000: Sonia O'Sullivan (IRE)\n2001: Sonia O'Sullivan (IRE)\n2002: Kerryn McCann\n2003: Anna Thompson\n2004: Benita Johnson\n2005: Hayley McGregor", "2002: Kerryn McCann\n2003: Anna Thompson\n2004: Benita Johnson\n2005: Hayley McGregor\n2006: Benita Johnson\n2007: Jessica Ruthe (NZL)\n2008: Melinda Vernon\n2009: Lara Tamsett\n2010: Eloise Wellings\n2011: Eloise Wellings\n2012: Joyce Chepkirui (KEN)\n2013: Neely Spence Gracey (USA)\n2014: Nikki Chapple\n2015: Veronica Wanjiru (KEN)\n2016: Eloise Wellings\n2017: Camille Buscomb (NZL)\n2018: Celia Sullohern\n2019: Hitomi Niiya (JPN)", "2020: Genevieve Gregson\n2021: Rose Davies\n2022: Rose Davies\n\n100 metres hurdles\nNote: 90 yards or 80 metres hurdles until 1967", "1930: Clarice Kennedy\n1931: Not held\n1932: Jean Manson\n1933: Clarice Kennedy\n1934: Not held\n1935: Clarice Kennedy\n1936: Clarice Kennedy\n1937: Isabel Grant\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Decima Norman\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Shirley Strickland\n1949: Not held\n1950: Shirley Strickland\n1951: Not held\n1952: Shirley Strickland\n1953: Not held\n1954: Gwen Wallace\n1955: Not held\n1956: Norma Austin\n1957: Not held", "1953: Not held\n1954: Gwen Wallace\n1955: Not held\n1956: Norma Austin\n1957: Not held\n1958: Norma Thrower\n1959: Not held\n1960: Norma Thrower\n1961: Not held\n1962: Jackie Dufall\n1963: Pam Kilborn\n1964: Pam Kilborn\n1965: Pam Kilborn\n1966: Pam Kilborn\n1967: Pam Kilborn\n1968: Pam Kilborn\n1969: Pam Kilborn", "1970: Maureen Caird\n1971: Diane Pease\n1972: Penny Gillies\n1973: Gaye Dell\n1974: Gaye Dell\n1975: Gaye Dell\n1976: Gaye Dell\n1977: Penny Gillies\n1978: Cheryl Boswell\n1979: Penny Gillies\n1980: Penny Gillies\n1981: Penny Gillies\n1982: Glynis Nunn\n1983: Glynis Nunn\n1984: Glynis Nunn\n1985: Glynis Nunn\n1986: Glynis Nunn\n1987: Jenny Laurendet\n1988: Jane Flemming\n1989: Helen Pirovano (NZL)\n1990: Jenny Laurendet\n1991: Jayne Moyes\n1992: Jayne Moyes\n1993: Jane Flemming\n1994: Jane Flemming\n1995: Jane Flemming", "1991: Jayne Moyes\n1992: Jayne Moyes\n1993: Jane Flemming\n1994: Jane Flemming\n1995: Jane Flemming\n1996: Sam Farquharson (GBR)\n1997: Jane Flemming\n1998: Debbi Edwards\n1999: Eunice Barber (FRA)\n2000: Valerie Manning (USA)\n2001: Jacqui Munro\n2002: Jacqui Munro\n2003: Jacqui Munro\n2004: Jacqui Munro\n2005: Sally Pearson (dead-heat with Fiona Cullen)\n2006: Sally Pearson\n2007: Sally Pearson\n2008: Andrea Miller (NZL)\n2009: Sally Pearson", "2010: Hayley Butler\n2011: Sally Pearson\n2012: Shannon McCann\n2013: Shannon McCann\n2014: Sally Pearson\n2015: Sally Pearson\n2016: Michelle Jenneke\n2017: Sally Pearson\n2018: Sally Pearson\n2019: Celeste Mucci\n2020: Not held\n2021: Elizabeth Clay\n2022: Elizabeth Clay\n\n200 metres hurdles\n\n1968: Not held\n1969: Not held\n1970: Maureen Caird\n1971: Maureen Caird\n1972: Pam Ryan\n1973: Gaye Dell\n1974: Gaye Dell\n1975: Gaye Dell\n\n400 metres hurdles", "1970: Not held\n1971: Not held\n1972: Not held\n1973: Not held\n1974: Not held\n1975: Lyn Young\n1976: Marian Fisher\n1977: Marian Fisher\n1978: Marian Fisher\n1979: Lyn Foreman\n1980: Lyn Foreman\n1981: Lyn Foreman\n1982: Lyn Foreman\n1983: Debbie Flintoff\n1984: Debbie Flintoff\n1985: Debbie Flintoff\n1986: Debbie Flintoff-King\n1987: Sally Flemming\n1988: Debbie Flintoff-King\n1989: Helen Graham\n1990: Jenny Laurendet\n1991: Debbie Flintoff-King\n1992: Gail Millar-Luke\n1993: Renee Poetschka\n1994: Lauren Poetschka", "1991: Debbie Flintoff-King\n1992: Gail Millar-Luke\n1993: Renee Poetschka\n1994: Lauren Poetschka\n1995: Jacqueline Parker (GBR)\n1996: Rebecca Campbell\n1997: Evette Cordy\n1998: Stephanie Price\n1999: Lauren Poetschka\n2000: Lauren Poetschka\n2001: Jana Pittman\n2002: Jana Pittman\n2003: Jana Pittman\n2004: Rebecca Wardell\n2005: Lauren Wells\n2006: Sonia Brito\n2007: Lauren Wells\n2008: Lauren Wells\n2009: Tamsyn Lewis", "2010: Lauren Wells\n2011: Lauren Wells\n2012: Jess Gulli\n2013: Lauren Wells\n2014: Lauren Wells\n2015: Lauren Wells\n2016: Lauren Wells\n2017: Lauren Wells\n2018: Lauren Wells\n2019: Lauren Wells\n2020: Not held\n2021: Lauren Wells\n2022: Sarah Carli\n\n3000 metres steeplechase", "1999: Melissa Rollison\n2000: Melissa Rollison\n2001: Rachel Penney (NZL)\n2002: Melissa Rollison\n2003: Victoria Mitchell\n2004: Marnie Ponton\n2005: Kristy Villis\n2006: Melissa Rollison\n2007: Donna MacFarlane\n2008: Donna MacFarlane\n2009: Donna MacFarlane\n2010: Melissa Rollison\n2011: Victoria Mitchell\n2012: Milly Clark\n2013: Genevieve Gregson\n2014: Victoria Mitchell\n2015: Genevieve Gregson\n2016: Madeline Hills\n2017: Victoria Mitchell\n2018: Victoria Mitchell\n2019: Paige Campbell\n2020: Not held", "2017: Victoria Mitchell\n2018: Victoria Mitchell\n2019: Paige Campbell\n2020: Not held\n2021: Genevieve Gregson\n2021: Rose Davies\n2022: Amy Cashin", "Marathon", "1980: Jane Kuchins\n1981: Rosemary Longstaff\n1982: Barbara McKerrow (NZL)\n1983: Annick Loir-Lebreton (FRA)\n1984: Ngaire Drake (NZL)\n1985: Ngaire Drake (NZL)\n1986: Ngaire Drake (NZL)\n1987: Tani Ruckle\n1988: Ngaire Drake (NZL)\n1989: Jan Fedrick\n1990: Hiromi Satoyama (JPN)\n1991: Jackie Hallam\n1992: Mari Tanigawa (JPN)\n1993: Eriko Asai (JPN)\n1994: Joanne Cowan\n1995: Julie Rose\n1996: Sylvia Rose\n1997: Susan Hobson\n1998: Lisa Dick\n1999: Carolyn Schuwalow\n2000: Krishna Stanton\n2001: Krishna Stanton", "1998: Lisa Dick\n1999: Carolyn Schuwalow\n2000: Krishna Stanton\n2001: Krishna Stanton\n2002: Heather Turland\n2003: Helen Verity-Tolhurst\n2004: Jenny Wickham\n2005: Jackie Fairweather\n2006: Jennifer Gillard\n2007: Eliza Mayger\n2008: Lisa Flint\n2009: Lisa Flint\n2010: Roxie Fraser\n2011: Kirsten Molloy\n2012: Lauren Shelley\n2013: Sharon Ryder\n2014: Tarli Bird\n2015: Kelly-Ann Varey\n2016: Virginia Moloney\n2017: Makda Harun\n2018: Kerri Hodge\n2019: Ingrid Cleland", "10 kilometre road walk", "1982: Not held\n1983: Sue Cook\n1984: Sally Pierson\n1985: Kerry Saxby\n1986: Kerry Saxby\n1987: Kerry Saxby\n1988: Kerry Saxby\n1989: Miriam Harding\n1990: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n1991: Jane Saville\n1992: Jane Saville\n1993: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n1994: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n1995: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n1996: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n1997: Jane Saville\n1998: Jane Saville\n1999: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n2000: Lisa Paolini\n2001: Lyn Ventris\n2002: Claire Woods\n2003: Simone Wolowiec\n2004: Claire Woods\n2005: Simon Wolowiec\n2006: Natalie Saville", "2003: Simone Wolowiec\n2004: Claire Woods\n2005: Simon Wolowiec\n2006: Natalie Saville\n2007: Megan Szirom\n2008: Not held\n2009: Not held", "20 kilometre road walk", "1980: Not held\n1981: Not held\n1982: Not held\n1983: Sally Pierson\n1984: Kerry Saxby\n1985: Kerry Saxby\n1986: Kerry Saxby\n1987: Kerry Saxby\n1988: Bev Hayman\n1989: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n1990: Sue Cook\n1991: Sharon Schnyder\n1992: Gabriele Blythe\n1993: Anne Manning\n1994: Anne Manning\n1995: Anne Manning\n1996: Simone Wolowiec\n1997: Jill Maybir-Barrett\n1998: Wendy Muldoon\n1999: Not held\n2000: Erica Alfredi (ITA)\n2001: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n2002: Jane Saville\n2003: Jane Saville\n2004: Jane Saville\n2005: Jane Saville", "2001: Kerry Saxby-Junna\n2002: Jane Saville\n2003: Jane Saville\n2004: Jane Saville\n2005: Jane Saville\n2006: Jane Saville\n2007: Claire Tallent\n2008: Johanna Jackson (GBR)\n2009: Cheryl Webb\n2010: Claire Tallent\n2011: Claire Tallent\n2012: Claire Tallent\n2013: Tanya Holliday\n2014: Kelly Ruddick\n2015: Tanya Holliday\n2016: Rachel Tallent\n2017: Regan Lamble", "Pole vault", "1995: Emma George\n1996: Melissa Harris\n1997: Emma George\n1998: Emma George\n1999: Tatiana Grigorieva\n2000: Emma George\n2001: Jenni Dryburgh (NZL)\n2002: Tatiana Grigorieva\n2003: Melina Hamilton (NZL)\n2004: Kym Howe\n2005: Melina Hamilton (NZL)\n2006: Tatiana Grigorieva\n2007: Kym Howe\n2008: Alana Boyd\n2009: Alana Boyd\n2010: Elizabeth Parnov\n2011: Charmaine Lucock\n2012: Vicky Parnov\n2013: Alana Boyd\n2014: Elizabeth Parnov\n2015: Alana Boyd\n2016: Elizabeth Parnov\n2017: Eliza McCartney (NZL)\n2018: Nina Kennedy", "2015: Alana Boyd\n2016: Elizabeth Parnov\n2017: Eliza McCartney (NZL)\n2018: Nina Kennedy\n2019: Olivia McTaggart (NZL)\n2020: Not held\n2021: Nina Kennedy\n2022: Nina Kennedy", "High jump", "1930: Rosa Winter\n1931: Not held\n1932: Doris Carter\n1933: Doris Carter\n1934: Not held\n1935: Doris Carter\n1936: Doris Carter\n1937: Doris Carter\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Doris Carter\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Coral Stewart\n1949: Not held\n1950: Jacqueline Baumann\n1951: Not held\n1952: Mary Grace\n1953: Not held\n1954: Carol Bernoth\n1955: Not held\n1956: Jan Cooper\n1957: Not held\n1958: Michele Mason", "1954: Carol Bernoth\n1955: Not held\n1956: Jan Cooper\n1957: Not held\n1958: Michele Mason\n1959: Not held\n1960: Helen Frith\n1961: Not held\n1962: Carolyn Wright\n1963: Robyn Woodhouse\n1964: Michele Brown\n1965: Robyn Woodhouse\n1966: Michele Brown\n1967: Robyn Woodhouse\n1968: Carolyn Wright\n1969: Carolyn Wright", "1970: Carolyn Wright\n1971: Carolyn Wright\n1972: Raylene Parke\n1973: Carolyn Lewis\n1974: Raylene Parke\n1975: Raylene Parke\n1976: Christine Annison\n1977: Christine Annison\n1978: Katrina Gibbs\n1979: Vanessa Browne\n1980: Christine Stanton\n1981: Christine Stanton\n1982: Katrina Gibbs\n1983: Christine Stanton\n1984: Vanessa Browne\n1985: Christine Stanton\n1986: Christine Stanton\n1987: Christine Stanton\n1988: Vanessa Browne\n1989: Vanessa Ward\n1990: Vanessa Ward\n1991: Alison Inverarity\n1992: Tania Murray (NZL)", "1989: Vanessa Ward\n1990: Vanessa Ward\n1991: Alison Inverarity\n1992: Tania Murray (NZL)\n1993: Alison Inverarity\n1994: Alison Inverarity\n1995: Alison Inverarity\n1996: Lea Haggett (GBR)\n1997: Alison Inverarity\n1998: Alison Inverarity\n1999: Alison Inverarity\n2000: Alison Inverarity\n2001: Carmen Hunter\n2002: Petrina Price\n2003: Miyuki Aoyama (JPN)\n2004: Petrina Price\n2005: Sophia Begg\n2006: Ellen Pettitt\n2007: Ellen Pettitt\n2008: Catherine Drummond\n2009: Petrina Price", "2010: Petrina Price\n2011: Ellen Pettitt\n2012: Miyuki Fukumoto (JPN)\n2013: Miyuki Fukumoto (JPN)\n2014: Eleanor Patterson\n2015: Eleanor Patterson\n2016: Eleanor Patterson\n2017: Eleanor Patterson\n2018: Cassie Purdon\n2019: Nicola McDermott\n2020: Not held\n2021: Nicola McDermott\n2022: Nicola Olyslagers\n\nLong jump", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Connie Hudson\n1934: Not held\n1935: Thelma Peake\n1936: Thelma Peake\n1937: Thelma Peake\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Decima Norman\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Judy Canty\n1949: Not held\n1950: Judy Canty\n1951: Not held\n1952: Verna Johnston\n1953: Not held\n1954: Valerie Schwarzinger\n1955: Not held\n1956: Erica Willis\n1957: Not held\n1958: Beverley Watson\n1959: Not held", "1955: Not held\n1956: Erica Willis\n1957: Not held\n1958: Beverley Watson\n1959: Not held\n1960: Sylvia Mitchell\n1961: Not held\n1962: Pam Kilborn\n1963: Pam Kilborn\n1964: Helen Frith\n1965: Willye White (USA)\n1966: Helen Frith\n1967: Pam Kilborn\n1968: Lenore Liscombe\n1969: Diane Pease", "1970: Diane Pease\n1971: Diane Pease\n1972: Lyn Tillett\n1973: Erica Nixon\n1974: Erica Nixon\n1975: Erica Nixon\n1976: Erica Nixon\n1977: Lyn Jacenko\n1978: Lyn Jacenko\n1979: Lyn Jacenko\n1980: Linda Garden\n1981: Chris Stanton\n1982: Linda Garden\n1983: Robyn Strong\n1984: Robyn Strong\n1985: Linda Garden\n1986: Robyn Lorraway\n1987: Nicole Boegman\n1988: Nicole Boegman\n1989: Jayne Moffitt (NZL)\n1990: Peta Kennedy\n1991: Jayne Moffitt (NZL)\n1992: Nicole Boegman\n1993: Nicole Boegman\n1994: Nicole Boegman", "1991: Jayne Moffitt (NZL)\n1992: Nicole Boegman\n1993: Nicole Boegman\n1994: Nicole Boegman\n1995: Nicole Boegman\n1996: Chantal Brunner (NZL)\n1997: Chantal Brunner (NZL)\n1998: Nicole Boegman\n1999: Eunice Barber (FRA)\n2000: Kylie Reed\n2001: Chantal Brunner (NZL)\n2002: Bronwyn Thompson\n2003: Bronwyn Thompson\n2004: Kerrie Taurima\n2005: Kerrie Taurima\n2006: Bronwyn Thompson\n2007: Bronwyn Thompson\n2008: Bronwyn Thompson\n2009: Jacinta Boyd", "2010: Jessica Penney\n2011: Kerrie Perkins\n2012: Kerrie Perkins\n2013: Kerrie Perkins\n2014: Brooke Stratton\n2015: Chelsea Jaensch\n2016: Brooke Stratton\n2017: Naa Anang\n2018: Brooke Stratton\n2019: Naa Anang\n2020: Not held\n2021: Brooke Stratton\n2022: Samantha Dale\n\nTriple jump", "1986: Anne Turnbull\n1987: Lynette Smith\n1988: Lynette Smith\n1989: Karen Charlton\n1990: Karen Charlton\n1991: Jayne Moffitt (NZL)\n1992: Leanne Stapylton-Smith (NZL)\n1993: Nicole Boegman\n1994: Yoko Morioka (JPN)\n1995: Mariklud Viduka\n1996: Shelley Stoddart (NZL)\n1997: Tania Dixon (NZL)\n1998: Connie Henry (GBR)\n1999: Carmen Miller\n2000: Nicole Mladenis\n2001: Nicole Mladenis\n2002: Nicole Mladenis\n2003: Jeanette Bowles\n2004: Nicole Mladenis\n2005: Jeanette Bowles\n2006: Linda Allen\n2007: Jeanette Bowles", "2004: Nicole Mladenis\n2005: Jeanette Bowles\n2006: Linda Allen\n2007: Jeanette Bowles\n2008: Emma Knight\n2009: Linda Allen\n2010: Meggan O'Riley\n2011: Emma Knight\n2012: Ellen Pettitt\n2013: Linda Leverton\n2014: Linda Leverton\n2015: Nneka Okpala (NZL)\n2016: Nneka Okpala (NZL)\n2017: Meggan O'Riley\n2018: Meggan O'Riley\n2019: Ellen Pettitt\n2020: Not held\n2021: Aliyah Parker\n2022: Roksana Khudoyarova (UZB)", "Shot put", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Cora Hannan\n1934: Not held\n1935: Vera Cowan\n1936: Vera Cowan\n1937: Vera Cowan\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Cora Hannan\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Pat Lucas\n1949: Not held\n1950: Ann Shanley\n1951: Not held\n1952: Val Lawrence\n1953: Not held\n1954: Val Lawrence\n1955: Not held\n1956: Mary Breen\n1957: Not held\n1958: Margaret Woodlock\n1959: Not held", "1955: Not held\n1956: Mary Breen\n1957: Not held\n1958: Margaret Woodlock\n1959: Not held\n1960: Margaret Woodlock\n1961: Not held\n1962: Mary Breen\n1963: Jean Roberts\n1964: Jean Roberts\n1965: Jean Roberts\n1966: Jean Roberts\n1967: Jean Roberts\n1968: Jean Roberts\n1969: Jean Roberts", "1970: Jean Roberts\n1971: Anne Karner\n1972: Anne Karner\n1973: Christine Schultz\n1974: Anne Karner\n1975: Anne Karner\n1976: Gael Mulhall\n1977: Gael Mulhall\n1978: Gael Mulhall\n1979: Gael Mulhall\n1980: Gael Mulhall\n1981: Gael Mulhall\n1982: Bev Francis\n1983: Gael Mulhall\n1984: Gael Martin\n1985: Gael Martin\n1986: Gael Martin\n1987: Gael Martin\n1988: Astra Vitols\n1989: Astra Vitols\n1990: Nicole Carkeek\n1991: Daniela Costian\n1992: Christine King (NZL)\n1993: Daniela Costian\n1994: Daniela Costian", "1991: Daniela Costian\n1992: Christine King (NZL)\n1993: Daniela Costian\n1994: Daniela Costian\n1995: Lisa-Marie Vizaniari\n1996: Georgette Reed (CAN)\n1997: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n1998: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n1999: Tressa Thompson (USA)\n2000: Helen Toussis\n2001: Yoko Toyonaga (JPN)\n2002: Michelle Haage\n2003: Sumi Ichioka (JPN)\n2004: Valerie Adams (NZL)\n2005: Valerie Adams (NZL)\n2006: Ana Pouhila (TGA)\n2007: Ana Pouhila (TGA)\n2008: Valerie Adams (NZL)\n2009: Valerie Adams (NZL)", "2010: Joanne Mirtschin\n2011: Margaret Satupai\n2012: Dani Stevens\n2013: Terina Keenan (NZL)\n2014: Terina Keenan (NZL)\n2015: Chelsea Lenarduzzi\n2016: Chelsea Lenarduzzi\n2017: Alifatou Djibril\n2018: Maddi Wesche (NZL)\n2019: Victoria Owers (NZL)\n2020: Not held\n2021: Lyvante Su'Emai\n2022: Emma Berg\n\nDiscus", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Cora Hannan\n1934: Not held\n1935: Cora Hannan\n1936: Doris Carter\n1937: Cora Hannan\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Doris Carter\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Charlotte MacGibbon\n1949: Not held\n1950: Charlotte MacGibbon\n1951: Not held\n1952: Jeanette Joy\n1953: Not held\n1954: Lorraine Murphy\n1955: Not held\n1956: Lois Jackman\n1957: Not held\n1958: Lois Jackman", "1954: Lorraine Murphy\n1955: Not held\n1956: Lois Jackman\n1957: Not held\n1958: Lois Jackman\n1959: Not held\n1960: Isabel De Neefe\n1961: Not held\n1962: Rosslyn Williams\n1963: Mary McDonald\n1964: Mary McDonald\n1965: Jean Roberts\n1966: Jane Adams\n1967: Jean Roberts\n1968: Jean Roberts\n1969: Jean Roberts", "1970: Jean Roberts\n1971: Anne Karner\n1972: Sue Culley\n1973: Sue Culley\n1974: Anne Karner\n1975: Anne Karner\n1976: Denise Ashford\n1977: Gael Mulhall\n1978: Gael Mulhall\n1979: Gael Mulhall\n1980: Gael Mulhall\n1981: Gael Mulhall\n1982: Andrina Rovis-Herman\n1983: Gael Mulhall\n1984: Gael Martin\n1985: Sue Reinwald\n1986: Gael Martin\n1987: Gael Martin\n1988: Astra Vitols\n1989: Daniela Costian\n1990: Daniela Costian\n1991: Daniela Costian\n1992: Daniela Costian\n1993: Daniela Costian\n1994: Daniela Costian", "1991: Daniela Costian\n1992: Daniela Costian\n1993: Daniela Costian\n1994: Daniela Costian\n1995: Daniela Costian\n1996: Lisa-Marie Vizaniari\n1997: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n1998: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n1999: Lisa-Marie Vizaniari\n2000: Alison Lever\n2001: Alison Lever\n2002: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n2003: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n2004: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n2005: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n2006: Beatrice Faumuina (NZL)\n2007: Dani Stevens\n2008: Dani Stevens\n2009: Dani Stevens", "2010: Dani Stevens\n2011: Dani Stevens\n2012: Dani Stevens\n2013: Terina Keenan (NZL)\n2014: Dani Stevens\n2015: Dani Stevens\n2016: Dani Stevens\n2017: Dani Stevens\n2018: Dani Stevens\n2019: Taryn Gollshewsky\n2020: Not held\n2021: Dani Stevens\n2022: Jade Lally (GBR)\n\nJavelin", "1930: Not held\n1931: Not held\n1932: Not held\n1933: Clarice Kennedy\n1934: Not held\n1935: Clarice Kennedy\n1936: Clarice Kennedy\n1937: Elsie Jones\n1938: Not held\n1939: Not held\n1940: Charlotte MacGibbon\n1941: Not held\n1942: Not held\n1943: Not held\n1944: Not held\n1945: Not held\n1946: Not held\n1947: Not held\n1948: Charlotte MacGibbon\n1949: Not held\n1950: Charlotte MacGibbon\n1951: Not held\n1952: Charlotte MacGibbon\n1953: Not held\n1954: Vera Pepper\n1955: Not held\n1956: Patricia O'Neill\n1957: Not held", "1953: Not held\n1954: Vera Pepper\n1955: Not held\n1956: Patricia O'Neill\n1957: Not held\n1958: Anna Pazera\n1959: Not held\n1960: Anna Pazera\n1961: Not held\n1962: Maureen Wright\n1963: Anna Pazera\n1964: Anna Pazera\n1965: Pam Telfer\n1966: Anna Pazera\n1967: Anna Pazera\n1968: Barbara Friedrich (USA)\n1969: Mary Thomas", "1970: Petra Rivers\n1971: Petra Rivers\n1972: Jenny Symon\n1973: Jenny Symon\n1974: Petra Rivers\n1975: Chris Hunt\n1976: Chris Hunt\n1977: Pam Matthews\n1978: Pam Matthews\n1979: Pam Matthews\n1980: Pam Matthews\n1981: Petra Rivers\n1982: Petra Rivers\n1983: Petra Rivers\n1984: Petra Rivers\n1985: Jeanette Kieboom\n1986: Sue Howland\n1987: Sue Howland\n1988: Kate Farrow\n1989: Kaye Nordstrom (NZL)\n1990: Louise McPaul\n1991: Louise McPaul\n1992: Akiko Mayajima (JPN)\n1993: Louise McPaul\n1994: Joanna Stone", "1991: Louise McPaul\n1992: Akiko Mayajima (JPN)\n1993: Louise McPaul\n1994: Joanna Stone\n1995: Kirsten Hellier (NZL)\n1996: Tanja Damaske (GER)\n1997: Joanna Stone\n1998: Louise McPaul\n1999: Hayley Wilson (NZL)\n2000: Sueli Dos Santos (BRA)\n2001: Bina Ramesh (FRA)\n2002: Bina Ramesh (FRA)\n2003: Bina Ramesh (FRA)\n2004: Bina Ramesh (FRA)\n2005: Kimberley Mickle\n2006: Kimberley Mickle\n2007: Kimberley Mickle\n2008: Katherine Mitchell\n2009: Kimberley Mickle", "2010: Kimberley Mickle\n2011: Kimberley Mickle\n2012: Kimberley Mickle\n2013: Kimberley Mickle\n2014: Kimberley Mickle\n2015: Sunette Viljoen (RSA)\n2016: Lu Huihui (CHN)\n2017: Kelsey-Lee Roberts\n2018: Katherine Mitchell\n2019: Kelsey-Lee Barber\n2020: Not held\n2021: Kathryn Mitchell\n2022: Mackenzie Little\n\nHammer throw", "1980: Not held\n1981: Not held\n1982: Not held\n1983: Not held\n1984: Not held\n1985: Not held\n1986: Not held\n1987: Bernadette Serone\n1988: Bernadette Serone\n1989: Joanne Capper\n1990: Bernadette Serone\n1991: Bernadette Serone\n1992: Deborah Sosimenko\n1993: Deborah Sosimenko\n1994: Deborah Sosimenko\n1995: Deborah Sosimenko\n1996: Olga Kuzenkova (RUS)\n1997: Deborah Sosimenko\n1998: Deborah Sosimenko\n1999: Deborah Sosimenko\n2000: Lisa Misipeka (ASA)\n2001: Bronwyn Eagles\n2002: Bronwyn Eagles\n2003: Brooke Billett", "2000: Lisa Misipeka (ASA)\n2001: Bronwyn Eagles\n2002: Bronwyn Eagles\n2003: Brooke Billett\n2004: Bronwyn Eagles\n2005: Bronwyn Eagles\n2006: Brooke Billett\n2007: Karyne Di Marco\n2008: Bronwyn Eagles\n2009: Bronwyn Eagles\n2010: Gabrielle Neighbour\n2011: Gabrielle Neighbour\n2012: Gabrielle Neighbour\n2013: Lara Nielsen\n2014: Lara Nielsen\n2015: Lara Nielsen\n2016: Akane Watanabe (JPN)\n2017: Lara Nielsen\n2018: Alexandra Hulley\n2019: Alexandra Hulley\n2020: Not held\n2021: Alexandra Hulley\n2022: Alexandra Hulley", "Pentathlon\nEvents: 80 metres hurdles, high jump, shot put, long jump, 200 m until 1970\nEvents: 100 metres hurdles, high jump, shot put, long jump, 200 m until 1977\nEvents: 100 metres hurdles, high jump, shot put, long jump, 800 m until discontinuation", "1953: Not held\n1954: Not held\n1955: Not held\n1956: Norma Rose\n1957: Not held\n1958: Marlene Middlemiss\n1959: Not held\n1960: Helen Frith\n1961: Not held\n1962: Helen Frith\n1963: Pam Kilborn\n1964: Helen Frith\n1965: Helen Frith\n1966: Helen Frith\n1967: Pam Kilborn\n1968: Pam Kilborn\n1969: Jeanette Tandy\n1970: Jeanette Tandy\n1971: Diane Pease\n1972: Lyn Tillett\n1973: Erica Nixon\n1974: Erica Nixon\n1975: Erica Nixon\n1976: Erica Nixon\n1977: Erica Hooker\n1978: Glynis Nunn\n1979: Margaret Hamley\n1980: Glynis Nunn", "Heptathlon\nEvents: 100 metres hurdles, shot put, high jump, 200 m, long jump, javelin, 800 m", "1980: Not held\n1981: Glynis Nunn\n1982: Glynis Nunn\n1983: Terri Genge (NZL)\n1984: Glynis Nunn\n1985: Jocelyn Millar-Cubit\n1986: Jane Flemming\n1987: Jane Flemming\n1988: Jane Flemming\n1989: Sharon Jaklofsky-Smith\n1990: Katie Ackerman\n1991: Leisa Bruce\n1992: Kylie Coombe\n1993: Jane Flemming\n1994: Jane Flemming\n1995: Jane Jamieson\n1996: Jane Jamieson\n1997: Clare Thompson\n1998: Jane Jamieson\n1999: Sherryl Morrow\n2000: Sherryl Morrow\n2001: Jane Jamieson\n2002: Clare Thompson\n2003: Kylie Wheeler\n2004: Kylie Wheeler", "2001: Jane Jamieson\n2002: Clare Thompson\n2003: Kylie Wheeler\n2004: Kylie Wheeler\n2005: Kylie Wheeler\n2006: Kylie Wheeler\n2007: Kylie Wheeler\n2008: Kylie Wheeler\n2009: Lauren Foote\n2010: Rebecca Robinson\n2011: Lauren Foote\n2012: Megan Wheatley\n2013: Portia Bing (NZL)\n2014: Sophie Stanwell\n2015: Veronica Torr (NZL)\n2016: Sophie Stanwell\n2017: Alysha Burnett\n2018: Celeste Mucci\n2019: Celeste Mucci\n2020: Tori West\n2021: Taneille Crase\n2022: Taneille Crase", "See also\n Australian athletics champions (men)\n Australian Championships in Athletics\n Athletics Australia\n\nReferences\n\n Australian Athletics Historical Results\n\nWomen\nAthletics\nAustralian\nLists of female athletes" ]

[ "U.S. Route 460 (US 460) in Virginia runs west-east through the southern part of the Commonwealth. The road has two separate pieces in Virginia, joined by a relatively short section in West Virginia. Most of US 460 is a four-lane divided highway and is a major artery in the southern third of the state. From Petersburg to Suffolk, US 460 is a four-lane non-divided highway. It is a popular alternative to Interstate 64 (I-64) when going from", "Richmond and other points in central Virginia to the Currituck Sound and Outer Banks of North Carolina, avoiding the congestion\nand tunnels of the more northerly I-64 corridor. The road passes through several small towns that built up at stops along the railroad line.", "US 460 from I-81 at Christiansburg west to Pikeville, Kentucky, including the piece in West Virginia, is Corridor Q of the Appalachian Development Highway System. From West Virginia east to I-81, US 460 also is part of the proposed I-73.\n\nRoute description", "Big Rock to Bluefield", "US 460 enters Buchanan County from Pike County, Kentucky, within the Cumberland Plateau, a multi-state dissected plateau that is part of the Appalachian Mountains. The U.S. Highway heads southeast as a two-lane road parallel to Norfolk Southern Railway's Buchanan Branch in the narrow valley of the Levisa Fork of the Big Sandy River. US 460 passes by the communities of Conaway, Big Rock, and Artia before entering the town of Grundy, the county seat of Buchanan County, as Riverside Drive", ". The highway expands to four lanes and then becomes a divided highway as it approaches the center of Grundy, where the slopes of the hills have been blasted away to improve flood control, relocate highways to higher ground, and create more usable land for building. US 460 meets SR 83 (Edgewater Drive) at the confluence of Slate Creek and Levisa Fork", ". US 460 meets SR 83 (Edgewater Drive) at the confluence of Slate Creek and Levisa Fork. The two highways run concurrently south as a mix of two- and four-lane road through Tookland to Vansant, where SR 83 (Lovers Gap Road) splits west toward Clintwood. US 460 continues east as a four-lane divided highway through Deel, Janey, and Oakwood, the site of the Appalachian College of Pharmacy and where the railroad veers away from the highway. The U.S", ". The U.S. Highway continues through Keen Mountain and Grimsleyville, between which the route leaves Levisa Fork near its headwaters. US 460 ascends to Shortt Gap, where the highway crosses Sandy Ridge. There, US 460 leaves the Ohio River watershed for the Tennessee River watershed, leaves the Cumberland Plateau for the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and enters Tazewell County.", "US 460 descends Sandy Ridge south along Coal Creek and passes through the community of Red Ash. The four-lane divided highway, named for George C. Peery, curves east and begins to parallel Norfolk Southern's Clinch Valley District rail line and the Clinch River at Raven, where the highway is paralleled by and is joined by SR 67. US 460 and SR 67 enter the town of Richlands; west of the downtown area, US 460 Bus. splits east with SR 67 onto Front Street", ". splits east with SR 67 onto Front Street. US 460 passes to the north of downtown and has a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 67 (Railroad Avenue). The U.S. Highway continues into the town of Cedar Bluff and has a pair of right-in/right-out interchanges with its business route, here named Cedar Valley Drive. US 460 leaves the railroad and river, collects the eastern end of its business route, and heads south out of Cedar Bluff to Claypool Hill, where the highway intersects US 19 (Steelburg Highway).", "US 460 and US 19 head east along four-lane divided George C. Peery Highway, which is also named The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, through a long east–west valley between Paint Lick Mountain and Deskin Mountain to the south and Smith Ridge to the north. The U.S. Highways rejoin the Clinch River and the Clinch Valley District rail line at Pounding Mill. US 19 and US 460 head through Cliffield and Maxwell to Pisgah, where US 19 Bus. and US 460 Bus. split south along Crab Orchard Road toward Frog Level", ". and US 460 Bus. split south along Crab Orchard Road toward Frog Level. The mainline highways have a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 16 Alt. (Fairground Road) at the western town limit of Tazewell. US 460 and US 19 continue through a diamond interchange with SR 16 (Tazewell Avenue) and a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 61 (Riverside Drive) at a crossing of the Clinch River and the railroad west of downtown Tazewell. At the northeast corner of town, the U.S", ". At the northeast corner of town, the U.S. Highways have a pair of right-in/right-out interchanges with SR 645 and SR 678, cross the rail line, and have a partial interchange with the eastern ends of their business routes.", "US 460 and US 19 continue east between East River Mountain to the south and Little Valley Ridge to the north; the highways leave the Tennessee River watershed and enter the valley of the Bluestone River, which is part of the New River watershed. The U.S", ". The U.S. Highways follow the river through Springville to the town of Bluefield, at the west end of which US 19 (Trail of the Lonesome Pine) splits northeast at a trumpet interchange to pass through the centers of the twin cities of Bluefield, Virginia, and Bluefield. On the southern edge of the town, US 460 parallels SR 720 (Fincastle Turnpike and Valley Dale Street) and has a pair of partial cloverleaf interchanges with that highway; the eastern interchange leads to SR 102 (College Avenue)", ". East of the latter interchange, US 460 enters West Virginia. The U.S. Highway serves that state's Bluefield and Princeton before re-entering Virginia near where the New River crosses the Virginia–West Virginia state line.", "Glen Lyn to Christiansburg", "US 460 re-enters Virginia at the town of Glen Lyn in Giles County at the northwestern end of the New River Valley region. The four-lane divided U.S. Highway, named Virginia Avenue throughout Giles County, crosses the East River, briefly parallels a bend in Norfolk Southern Railway's Christiansburg District, and crosses to the east side of the New River. US 460 follows the river around a bend into the town of Rich Creek, where the highway meets the southern end of US 219 (Island Street)", ". The route follows the river south through a gap between East River Mountain to the west and Peters Mountain to the east to the town of Narrows, where the highway meets the eastern end of SR 61 (Fleshman Street). US 460 curves east and crosses the New River again into the county seat of Pearisburg; there, US 460 Bus. (Main Street) splits off at a trumpet interchange to serve downtown Pearisburg and connect with SR 100. East of the town in Ripplemead, the U.S. Highway meets the eastern end of US 460 Bus", ". East of the town in Ripplemead, the U.S. Highway meets the eastern end of US 460 Bus. (Wenonah Avenue) and SR 636 (Ripplemead Road) at a diamond interchange and crosses the New River and its parallel rail lines.", "US 460 veers away from the New River and its rail lines at the town of Pembroke, through which the highway temporarily becomes undivided. The highway follows Sinking Creek to Newport, where the highway meets the southern end of the middle segment of SR 42 (Bluegrass Trail). East of Newport, US 460 ascends Sinking Creek Mountain, at the top of which the highway enters Montgomery County", ". The highway, now named Pandapas Pond Road, passes between the eponymous pond, which is the source of Poverty Creek, which flows west into the New River, and the headwaters of Craig Creek, which flows east toward the James River. US 460 next crosses over Brush Mountain, east of which the highway curves south at Toms Creek and enters the town of Blacksburg.", "At the north end of town, the long US 460 Bus. that serves both Blacksburg and Christiansburg splits off along Main Street while US 460 bypasses downtown Blacksburg and Virginia Tech to the west. The four-lane freeway has partial cloverleaf interchanges with Toms Creek Road and Prices Fork Road, which heads east as SR 412 toward downtown Blacksburg and the center of the Virginia Tech campus", ". The freeway previously had one at-grade intersection: a junction with Southgate Drive (SR 314), which provided access to the Virginia Tech athletics facilities, including Lane Stadium and Cassell Coliseum; the Virginia–Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine; and a research park that contains Virginia Tech Montgomery Executive Airport. Construction started in the spring of 2015 on a new diverging-diamond interchange that replaced the at-grade Southgate Drive intersection", ". The new interchange is just south (east) of the current intersection and serves both the Virginia Tech campus and the Corporate Research Center via new roads and a relocated Southgate Drive (including two roundabouts). The project, which includes two bridges over US 460, opened in December 2017 one year earlier than estimated", ". At the southern edge of the research park, US 460 meets its business route (Main Street) at a complex interchange featuring many flyover ramps and a variety of direct and indirect connections to allow every movement between the two highways. Immediately to the east of the interchange is the western end of the Virginia Smart Road, a Virginia Department of Transportation facility that is not open to the public.", "US 460 continues south parallel to its business route and enters the town of Christiansburg, the county seat of Montgomery County. The U.S. Highway has a partial cloverleaf interchange with the eastern end of SR 114 (Peppers Ferry Road) before it reaches another complex interchange with US 460 Bus. (Franklin Street)", ". (Franklin Street). That interchange includes pair of flyovers from both directions of US 460 and a trumpet interchange to the north of Norfolk Southern's Christiansburg District and the business route's interchange with SR 111 (Cambria Street)", ". US 460 bypasses the center of Christiansburg and crosses over the Christiansburg District rail line before meeting the business route again, this time concurrent with US 11 (Roanoke Street), at a diamond interchange just north of US 460's full cloverleaf interchange with I-81, which has collector-distributor lanes through the interchange", ". The US 460 roadway continues south of I-81 as Parkway Drive, and there are ramps from the southbound I-81 ramp to westbound US 460 and from US 11 to the ramp from eastbound US 460 to southbound I-81. The two directions of US 460 continue along the collector-distributor lanes of I-81 east to the Interstate's partial cloverleaf interchange with US 11 and the eastern end of US 460 Bus., where US 460 exits into a concurrency with US 11.", "Christiansburg to Roanoke", "US 460 and US 11 follow a four-lane road with center turn lane toward the eastern end of Christiansburg, where the highways cross the Eastern Continental Divide from the New River watershed to the Roanoke River watershed. This road, named Roanoke Road and Lee Highway, reduces to two lanes plus center turn lane and then two lanes westbound, one lane eastbound as it descends the Pedlar Hills, also known as Christiansburg Mountain", ". At the bottom of the descent, US 460 and US 11 expand to a four-lane divided highway and parallel the Christiansburg District rail line and Spring Branch to the stream's confluence with the South Fork of the Roanoke River at Shawsville. The U.S. Highways follow the rail line and South Fork through Elliston to its confluence with the North Fork to form the Roanoke River proper at Lafayette, just east of which the road enters Roanoke County", ". US 460 and US 11 continue east along the river valley between Poor Mountain to the south and Fort Lewis Mountain to the north through Glenvar until the valley opens into the broad Roanoke Valley as the road enters the independent city of Salem.", "US 460 and US 11 enter Salem along Main Street, a four-lane road with center turn lane. The highways intersect SR 112 (Wildwood Road), a connector with I-81, then pass the historic Preston House and veer away from the railroad and river west of their junction with US 11 Alt. and US 460 Alt., which veer southeast along Fourth Street. US 460 and US 11 continue along a two- or three-lane street past the historic McVitty Home before entering the Downtown Salem Historic District. Within downtown, the U.S", ". Within downtown, the U.S. Highways pass the Salem Post Office and Salem Presbyterian Church before they diverge when US 11 turns south onto College Avenue; College Avenue to the north leads to Roanoke College, and the Main–College intersection is next to the Old Roanoke County Courthouse. One block to the east, US 460 intersects SR 311 (Thompson Memorial Drive)", ". One block to the east, US 460 intersects SR 311 (Thompson Memorial Drive). US 460 continues east past the Williams-Brown House and Store, Salem Presbyterian Parsonage, and Longwood Park and the western end of Lynchburg Turnpike. The U.S. Highway expands to a four-lane divided highway as it crosses a rail spur and intersects SR 419 (Electric Road), where US 460 Alt. ends and US 11 Alt. joins US 460 east out of Salem.", "US 460 and US 11 Alt. enter the independent city of Roanoke as Melrose Avenue. The highways intersect SR 117 (Peters Creek Road) and intersect and become concurrent with SR 116 (Lafayette Boulevard) on the west side of Roanoke. On the western edge of the Melrose-Rugby neighborhood, US 460, US 11 Alt., and SR 116 reduce to three lanes. The highways veer onto Salem Turnpike to shift from Melrose Avenye to Orange Avenue", ". The highways veer onto Salem Turnpike to shift from Melrose Avenye to Orange Avenue. The street becomes four lanes again at 11th Street, then it passes along the southern end of the Washington Park before expanding back to divided highway ahead of the cloverleaf interchange with I-581 and US 220. At I-581, road gains a fourth route, US 220 Alt.; gains an additional lane in each direction; and passes to the north of the Roanoke Civic Center", ".; gains an additional lane in each direction; and passes to the north of the Roanoke Civic Center. The next intersection, US 11 (Williamson Road), serves as the eastern terminus of US 11 Alt. In addition, SR 116 turns south toward Downtown Roanoke and US 221 joins US 460 and US 220 Alt. from Downtown Roanoke. US 460, US 221, and US 220 Alt. continue east with six lanes", ". from Downtown Roanoke. US 460, US 221, and US 220 Alt. continue east with six lanes. The highways pass under Norfolk Southern's Roanoke District, meet the southern end of SR 115 (Hollins Road), and drop to four lanes before crossing Tinker Creek. The routes curve northeast and pass historic Mount Moriah Baptist Church and Cemetery before leaving the city of Roanoke and re-entering Roanoke County, where US 220 Alt", ". splits north onto Cloverdale Road at Bonsack between Read Mountain to the west and the spine of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the east.", "Roanoke to Lynchburg (Salem-Lynchburg Turnpike)", "US 460 and US 221 continue northeast into Botetourt County along four-lane divided Blue Ridge Boulevard. The highways pass by the hamlet of Coyner Springs to the east of Coyner Mountain and through the community of Laymantown, where they meet the Blue Ridge Parkway at a partial cloverleaf interchange", ". US 460 and US 221 continue through the community of Blue Ridge and parallel Norfolk Southern Railway's Blue Ridge District across the spine of the Blue Ridge at low and wide Buford's Gap, just south of which the routes enter Bedford County. US 460 and US 221 gradually curve east as Lynchburg Salem Turnpike, parallel the South Folk of Goose Creek, and pass through the communities of Villamont and Montvale, between which the U.S. Highways pass to the south of the railroad", ".S. Highways pass to the south of the railroad. The routes cross the North Fork of Goose Creek just north of its confluence with the South Fork to form the main stream, then the carriageways briefly split wide where they and Goose Creek pass between Porters Mountain to the south and Taylors Mountain to the north as the U.S. Highways leave the Blue Ridge Mountains and enter the Virginia Piedmont.", "US 460 and US 221 parallel the Blue Ridge District rail line through Irving and Thaxton to the town of Bedford. At the west end of town, the U.S. Highways have a directional Y interchange with US 460 Bus. (Blue Ridge Avenue), which parallels the railroad toward downtown Bedford, where it intersects SR 43; the interchange has no direct access from the westbound business route to the eastbound U.S. Highways", ".S. Highways. US 460 and US 221 bypass the center of town to the south, where they have a diamond interchange with SR 122 (Burks Hill Road), which joins the U.S. Highways heading east, and its business route, which provides access to the National D-Day Memorial. The three highways pass under SR 43 (South Street) with no access before receiving the other end of US 460 Bus. (Main Street) at a diamond interchange at the east end of Bedford where US 221 and SR 122 exit north to serve the east side of the town.", "US 460 continues through eastern Bedford County, crossing the Big Otter River on its way to the hamlet of New London on the east side of the Campbell County line, where the route's name becomes Lynchburg Highway. The highway becomes a freeway at its trumpet interchange with US 460 Bus. (Timberlake Road) on the southern edge of the Lynchburg suburb of Timberlake", ". (Timberlake Road) on the southern edge of the Lynchburg suburb of Timberlake. US 460 has a diamond interchange with SR 682 (Leesville Road) then curves northeast and has a diamond interchange with SR 678 (Airport Road) on the west side of Lynchburg Regional Airport. North of the airport, the route has a cloverleaf interchange with Wards Road, which heads south as US 29 and north as US 29 Bus", ". Immediately to the north of the junction, US 460 and US 29 cross over Norfolk Southern's Danville District rail line and enter the independent city of Lynchburg.", "US 460 and US 29 head north along the western slope of Candlers Mountain through the campus of Liberty University. Access to the university is via five widely spaced ramps: a northbound entrance ramp from Liberty Mountain Drive, a northbound exit for Candlers Mountain Road, a southbound right-in/right-out interchange with University Boulevard near Williams Stadium, and a southbound entrance ramp from Champion Circle near the Vines Center", ". North of Candlers Mountain Road, US 460 and US 29 have a directional T interchange with US 501. The three U.S. Highway continue northeast across Norfolk Southern's Durham District rail line to the end of the freeway at a partial cloverleaf interchange with Campbell Avenue, which carries US 501 southeast toward Rustburg and US 460 Bus. and US 501 Bus. west toward downtown Lynchburg.", "Lynchburg to Petersburg (Richmond Highway)", "US 460 and US 29 continue along four-lane divided Richmond Highway, which heads east past Falwell Airport and across Norfolk Southern's Blue Ridge District. The U.S. Highway diverge at a large trumpet interchange at the eastern city limit of Lynchburg. US 460 briefly parallels the CSX rail line that follows the south bank of the James River before the railroad and river veer north", ". The highway has a trumpet interchange with SR 726 (Mount Athos Road) at Kelly and crosses Beaver Creek as it heads southeast to Concord at the Appomattox County line, where SR 24 (Village Highway) joins the U.S. Highway. US 460 and SR 24 continue east parallel to the Blue Ridge District rail line through Spout Spring to the town of Appomattox. US 460 Bus. (Confederate Boulevard) splits south toward the center of town at a diamond interchange that also marks the southern terminus of SR 26 (Oakville Road)", ". SR 24 (Old Courthouse Road) splits northeast toward Appomattox Court House National Historical Park and US 60; SR 131 heads southwest toward the center of town in the opposite direction. US 460 continues along the east side of town before it collects the other end of US 460 Bus. (Confederate Boulevard) at a directional Y interchange that has no ramp from the eastbound business route to westbound US 460.", "US 460 continues southeast through Evergreen and briefly rejoins the railroad at Flood. The US 460 Bus. serving Pamplin City, which provides access to SR 47, splits southeast along the road while US 460 curves east and enters Prince Edward County. The U.S. Highway collects its business route at Shields and continues east as Prince Edward Highway through Elam to Prospect, east of which the railroad and highway diverge. The Farmville edition of US 460 Bus", ". The Farmville edition of US 460 Bus. splits at a trumpet interchange near Dowdy Corner; US 15 (Sheppards Road) joins US 460 on the freeway bypass. The U.S. Highways cross over Buffalo Creek and US 15 diverges at a diamond interchange south of town; US 15 Bus. heads north along Farmville Road into the county seat. US 460 collects the eastern end of its business route, which follows Third Street, at a partial interchange at the east town limit.", "US 460 crosses the Bush and Sandy rivers on its way to Rice, where SR 307 (Holly Farms Road) splits east while US 460 veers southeast; SR 307 provides a shortcut to US 360 to Richmond. The U.S. Highway enters Nottoway County before it reaches a junction with US 360 (Patrick Henry Highway) on the west side of Burkeville. The junction is a partial trumpet interchange with an intersection with the west end of the fully concurrent US 360 Bus. and US 460 Bus", ". and US 460 Bus. (Second Street); there is no direct access from eastbound US 460 to westbound US 360 or from the westbound U.S. Highways to the business route. US 460 and US 360 loop around the northern edge of town and collect the dual business routes at the east town limit, just west of their bridge across Norfolk Southern's Richmond District. East of the railroad, the U.S", ". East of the railroad, the U.S. Highways diverge at a partial interchange; access from westbound US 460 to eastbound US 360 and from westbound US 360 to eastbound US 460 is via SR 723 (Lewiston Plank Road).", "US 460 continues east parallel to Norfolk Southern's Blue Ridge District into the town of Crewe, where the highway follows Virginia Avenue. East of SR 49 (Watsons Wood Road), the two highways reduce to a two-lane road with center turn lane and parallel the Crewe rail yard that separates Norfolk Southern's Blue Ridge and Norfolk districts. In the center of town, SR 49 splits south onto The Falls Road. US 460 expands back to a four-lane divided highway at the east end of town. The U.S", ". US 460 expands back to a four-lane divided highway at the east end of town. The U.S. Highway parallels the railroad to east of its trumpet interchange with the west end of US 460 Bus. (Old Nottoway Road) at the county seat of Nottoway. US 460 passes along the northern edge of the town of Blackstone, where it has a diamond interchange with SR 606 (Cottage Road), and picks up the railroad again at its intersection with the eastern end of the business route, Cox Road, on the north side of Fort Barfoot.", "US 460 heads east along Cox Road and meets the southern end of SR 153 (Rocky Hill Road) at Wellville before entering Dinwiddie County. The U.S. Highway passes through the hamlets of Wilsons, Hebron (where it crosses to the south side of the railroad), Ford, Walkers, Church Road, and Sutherland as it approaches Petersburg. US 460 veers away from the railroad at its junction with SR 226, on which the Cox Road name continues while the U.S. Highway continues on Airport Street", ".S. Highway continues on Airport Street. US 460 passes Dinwiddie County Airport shortly before its partial cloverleaf interchange with I-85 where the highway joins the Interstate. US 460 Bus. continues along Airport Street to US 1 (Boydton Plank Road), which it joins to head toward downtown Petersburg.", "Petersburg to Suffolk", "In the Petersburg area, US 460 leaves the Piedmont and enters the Atlantic coastal plain. I-85 and US 460 cross over Norfolk Southern's Norfolk District rail line and meet US 1 and US 460 Bus. (Boydton Plank Road) again at a partial cloverleaf interchange before entering the independent city of Petersburg. The highways have a diamond interchange with Squirrel Level Road then cross over CSX's North End Subdivision and pass under US 301 Alt. (Sycamore Street) as they approach I-95", ". (Sycamore Street) as they approach I-95. I-85 reaches its eastern terminus at a trumpet interchange with I-95 (Richmond Petersburg Turnpike) that features ramps with adjacent interchanges serving downtown Petersburg to the north and the southeastern part of the city to the south. The ramp from I-85 to southbound I-95 joins that direction's collector-distributor lanes for interchanges with US 301 (Crater Road) and US 460 Bus. Eastbound US 460 Bus", ". Eastbound US 460 Bus. briefly runs concurrently with eastbound US 460 along the collector-distributor lanes from the ramp from southbound US 301 to the ramp where US 460 Bus. exits; westbound US 460 Bus. does not join any part of I-95, and there is no access from westbound US 460 Bus. to southbound I-95 and eastbound US 460.", "South of the collector-distributor roads, I-95 and US 460 cross over the Norfolk District rail line and Blackwater Swamp, the headwaters of the Blackwater River, before the highways split at a cloverleaf interchange with Wagner Road. US 460 follows four-lane divided Wagner Road across the Norfolk District rail line to a four-legged intersection with US 460 Bus. (County Drive) and SR 106 (Courthouse Road)", ". (County Drive) and SR 106 (Courthouse Road). US 460 heads southeast along four-lane divided County Drive and enters Prince George County at its cloverleaf interchange with I-295. The U.S. Highway becomes undivided and parallels the rail line through New Bohemia and Disputanta on either side of its intersection with SR 156 (Prince George Drive).", "US 460 enters Sussex County along General Mahone Highway, which is named for William Mahone, the builder of the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad whose course US 460 parallels southeast of Petersburg. Mahone and his wife, Otelia Butler Mahone, were responsible for naming the stations along the railroad, including Disputanta; these stations eventually became the towns and villages along US 460. The U.S", ". The U.S. Highway intersects SR 40 (Main Street) in the town of Waverly and meets the southern end of SR 31 (Main Street) in the town of Wakefield. A well-known local landmark, the Virginia Diner, is in Wakefield, the so-called \"Peanut Capital of the World\", and near the site of the first commercial peanut crop grown in the New World. US 460 clips the southern corner of Surry County on its way between Sussex and Southampton counties", ". The route passes through the town of Ivor and crosses the Blackwater River into the town of Zuni in Isle of Wight County, where the route follows Windsor Highway. US 460 intersects US 258 (Prince Boulevard) in the town of Windsor.", "East of Windsor, US 460 veers away from the Norfolk Southern rail line and enters the independent city of Suffolk as Pruden Boulevard. Northwest of downtown Suffolk, US 460 joins US 13 and US 58 on the Suffolk Bypass at a partial cloverleaf interchange; US 460 Bus. continues toward downtown along Pruden Boulevard. The three U.S. Highways have a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 10 and SR 32 (Godwin Boulevard), cross the Nansemond River, and have a diamond interchange with SR 642 (Wilroy Road)", ". The bypass veers southeast and crosses the Commonwealth Railway line to Portsmouth and SR 337 (Nansemond Parkway) without access. US 460, US 13, and US 58 curve back east and receive their respective business routes (Portsmouth Boulevard) at a partial interchange that includes a loop ramp from the westbound business routes to the eastbound mainline highways.", "Chesapeake", "US 460, US 13, and US 58 head east from Suffolk along six-lane divided Military Highway parallel to CSX's Portsmouth Subdivision rail line across the northern fringe of the Great Dismal Swamp. The U.S. Highways enter the city of Chesapeake and pass Hampton Roads Executive Airport before approaching the Bowers Hill area, a major highway junction. The U.S", ". The U.S. Highways have an intersection with the west end of West Military Highway, then have a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-664 (Hampton Roads Beltway) that includes a flyover ramp from northbound I-664 to the U.S. Highways toward Suffolk. The ramp from the eastbound U.S. Highways to southbound I-664, which leads to the concurrent termini of I-664, I-64, and I-264, includes a right-in/right-out interchange with West Military Highway. East of I-664, the U.S", ". East of I-664, the U.S. Highways reach an intersection with SR 191 (Joliff Road) and Airline Boulevard, onto which US 58 and US 460 Alt. continue straight while US 460 and US 13 turn south onto South Military Highway. The two U.S. Highways pass under I-664, then turn east to remain on South Military Highway at its intersection with West Military Highway; South Military Highway immediately has an at-grade crossing of the Portsmouth Subdivision rail line.", "US 460 and US 13 head east along four-lane divided Military Highway, which receives a ramp from southbound I-664. The highways curve southeast and cross over an old railroad grade, then veer back east and meet I-64 (Hampton Roads Beltway) at a diamond interchange", ". US 460 and US 13 intersect US 17 (George Washington Highway) and the eastern end of SR 196 (Canal Drive) before they parallel Norfolk Southern's Norfolk District rail line across the Southern Branch Elizabeth River on the Gilmerton Bridge, a vertical-lift bridge. The U.S. Highways have an at-grade crossing of the Norfolk and Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad ahead of their split at a partial cloverleaf interchange; the fourth leg of the interchange is SR 166 (Bainbridge Boulevard) from the south", ". The interchange includes a flyover ramp for eastbound US 460 toward Bainbridge Boulevard while US 13 continues east on Military Highway on a bridge across the flyover and the Norfolk District rail line.", "US 460 and SR 166 follow a two-lane road with center turn lane under I-464 (Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Highway) and across Milldam Creek. North of Freeman Street, which provides access to I-464, the roadway becomes four lanes undivided. US 460 and SR 166 cross over another Norfolk Southern rail line and enter the South Norfolk area of Chesapeake. Within that neighborhood, Bainbridge Boulevard intersects Poindexter Street", ". Within that neighborhood, Bainbridge Boulevard intersects Poindexter Street. SR 337, which provides access to I-464 and to Portsmouth via the Jordan Bridge, enters the intersection from Poindexter Street to the west and turns onto Bainbridge Boulevard; US 460 and SR 166 turn east onto two-lane Poindexter Street. At Liberty Street, which heads east as SR 246, the highways turn west onto Liberty Street then turn northeast again onto 22nd Street and cross over the Norfolk District rail line", ". US 460 and SR 166 veer from 22nd onto two-lane Wilson Road at the boundary between the cities of Chesapeake and Norfolk.", "Norfolk", "US 460 and SR 166 follow Wilson Road north through where it expands to a four-lane divided highway just south of its intersection with Indian River Road, which is SR 407 to the east. Next, the highways have an acute intersection with SR 168 (Campostella Road). The three highways head north on six-lane divided Campostella Road and cross the Eastern Branch Elizabeth River on the Campostella Bridge", ". US 460, SR 166, and SR 168 have a partial interchange with I-264; there is no access from the surface highway to the westbound Interstate or from eastbound I-264 to eastbound US 460. Immediately to the north of the interchange, the highways pass under Hampton Roads Transit's Tide Light Rail and its elevated NSU station at the southwest corner of the Norfolk State University campus. The three highways head west on Brambleton Avenue; SR 166 splits north from US 460 and SR 168 at Park Avenue", ". US 460 and SR 168 pass under the Norfolk District rail line and intersect Tidewater Drive, onto which SR 168 turns north and from which SR 337 joins US 460 from the south. US 460 and SR 337 follow Brambleton Avenue west together to Church Street, onto which US 460 turns north while SR 337 continues west on Brambleton Avenue with the easternmost portion of US 460 Alt.", "US 460 follows four-lane divided Church Street through an intersection with US 58 (Virginia Beach Boulevard), an underpass of the Norfolk District rail line, and intersections with SR 247, which follow the one-way pair of 26th Street and 27th Street. The U.S. Highway has an oblique intersection with Granby Street, the name the highway keeps to its eastern terminus, south of the Virginia Zoological Park", ". US 460 becomes a four-lane road with center turn lane as it passes the zoo, then becomes divided again just before it crosses the Lafayette River. The highway intersects SR 165 (Little Creek Road) and meets I-64 (Hampton Roads Beltway) and I-564 (Admiral Taussig Boulevard), which serves Naval Station Norfolk, at the junction of the Interstates just north of the U.S. Highway's at-grade crossing of the secondary Norfolk Southern rail line", ".S. Highway's at-grade crossing of the secondary Norfolk Southern rail line. US 460 receives a ramp from I-564, eastbound US 460 has a ramp to I-564, and westbound US 460 receives a ramp from eastbound I-64. Access from US 460 to eastbound I-64 and from westbound I-64 to US 460 is made via SR 165. North of the I-64–I-564 junction, US 460 parallels I-64 along the eastern edge of Naval Station Norfolk; there are ramps from US 460 to both directions of I-64 during the parallel stretch", ". North of Masons Creek, US 460 veers away from I-64. The U.S. Highway has a partial interchange with SR 168 (Tidewater Drive); there is no access from northbound SR 168 to westbound US 460 or from southbound SR 168 to westbound US 460. Westbound US 460 runs concurrently with US 60 Alt. from SR 168 to US 460's eastern terminus at US 60 (Ocean View Avenue) in the Ocean View neighborhood on the Chesapeake Bay.", "River crossings\nIn South Hampton Roads, US 460 crosses the Elizabeth River twice on its way to its eastern terminus. In western Chesapeake, it shares the four-lane Gilmerton Bridge with US 13 to cross the Southern Branch of the river. After crossing through the city, it then shares the Campostella Bridge with SR 168 to cross the Eastern Branch in the city of Norfolk.", "History\nMost of present US 460 or its former alignments was part of the initial Virginia highway system, defined in 1918. Specifically, the following pieces existed:\nClaypool Hill to West Virginia (U.S. Route 19 concurrency): VA 11\nWest Virginia to Christiansburg: VA 23\nChristiansburg to Petersburg (including the U.S. Route 11 concurrency): VA 10\nSuffolk to Norfolk (U.S. Route 58 concurrency): VA 10\n\nKentucky to West Virginia", "In late 1921, the Virginia State Highway Commission recommended that the General Assembly add the road from State Route 11 (now U.S. Route 19) at Claypool Hill northwest to Grundy to the state highway system as a spur of SR 11 to provide \"an easterly outlet from Buchanan County\". This spur was assigned the designation State Route 11X by 1923, and later that year it became State Route 111. It was renumbered State Route 126 in the 1928 renumbering and State Route 84 in the 1933 renumbering. A 6.38-mile (10", ". A 6.38-mile (10.27 km) extension from Grundy northwest towards Kentucky was added in 1932, and the rest to the state line was added in 1936. In the 1940 renumbering, SR 84 was renumbered State Route 4 to match Kentucky Route 4.", "West Virginia to Norfolk\nPart of the track of the highway was once known as the Trader's Path, a colonial trail dating from the 17th century that led from Augusta County, Virginia to Roanoke, Virginia.", "In the early 1970s, the former Virginian Railway right-of-way along the north bank of the New River eastward from a point near the Virginia-West Virginia border, near Glen Lyn to Narrows (both in Virginia) was acquired by VDOT's predecessor agency from the Norfolk and Western Railway to enable four-laning of the highway through the narrow space between the river and rocky bluffs. (The N&W main line follows the south bank through this area)", ". (The N&W main line follows the south bank through this area). This portion of the highway has experienced long closures due to massive landslides.", "From Lynchburg east to Suffolk, the highway was built closely following the main line of the Norfolk and Western Railway (now Norfolk Southern), in many places.", "Legend has it that William Mahone (1826–1895), builder of the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad and his wife, Otelia Butler Mahone (1837–1911), traveled along the newly completed Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad naming stations. Otelia was reading Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott. From his historical Scottish novels, Otelia chose the place names of Wakefield as well as Windsor and Waverly. She tapped the Scottish Clan \"McIvor\" for the name of Ivor, a small town in neighboring Southampton County.", "As they continued west, they reached a station in Prince George County where they could not agree on a suitable name from the books. Instead, they became creative, and invented a new name in honor of their dispute. This is how the tiny community of Disputanta was named.", "The N&P railroad was completed in 1858. William Mahone became a Major General in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, and later, a Senator in the United States Congress. After the War, he was also a major force in linking three trunk railroads across a southern tier of Virginia from Norfolk to Bristol to form the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad, the principal predecessor of the Norfolk and Western.", "William and Otelia Mahone made Petersburg their family home in their later years. In modern times, a large portion of U.S. Highway 460 between Petersburg and Suffolk is named General Mahone Boulevard in his honor.\n\nMajor intersections\nExit numbers reset for every town.\n\nSee also\n\nSpecial routes of U.S. Route 460\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nVirginia Highways Project: US 460", "Special routes of U.S. Route 460\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nVirginia Highways Project: US 460\n\n60-4\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nU.S. Route 460\nExpressways in the United States\n4 in Virginia" ]

[ "The Boise State Broncos football program represents Boise State University in college football and competes in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) as a member of the Mountain West Conference. The Broncos play their home games on campus at Albertsons Stadium in Boise, Idaho, and their head coach is Andy Avalos. The program is 13–7 in bowl games since 1999, has finished in the top 25 13 times since 2002, has the longest current streak of winning seasons in college football with 25", ". It also has a 3–0 record in the Fiesta Bowl. As of the end of the 2022 season, the Broncos' all-time winning percentage of .728 is the fifth highest in all of collegiate football.", "History", "Early history (1933–1975)", "Originally a junior college, Boise State first fielded a football team in 1933 under head coach Dusty Kline. That team compiled a record of 1–2–1 (). Kline was succeeded by Max Eiden. Under Eiden, the Broncos posted a record of 11–17–1 () from 1934 to 1937. Eiden was succeeded by Harry Jacoby, who coached the team from 1938 to the middle of the 1941 season before being called into Army service. The remainder of the 1941 season was coached by George \"Stub\" Allison, who posted a record of 2–1 ()", ". The Broncos did not compete in intramural football from 1942 to 1945 due to having a reduced male student population during World War II. Following the war, Jacoby would return to coach the Broncos for one more season in 1946, posting a final record of 14–15–2 (). After a year as an assistant, Lyle Smith was promoted to head football coach of Boise Junior College in 1947. Smith saw incredible success as head coach, winning his first 31 games in a row as head coach", ". Smith saw incredible success as head coach, winning his first 31 games in a row as head coach. In 1950, the team moved into a new 10,000-seat stadium. With the outbreak of the Korean War, Smith, still undefeated as a head coach, was recalled to the Navy and was only able to coach in the first three games of the 1950 season. George Blankley assumed the head coaching duties for the remainder of 1950 and the entire 1951 season in Smith's absence and compiled a 16–2 () record", ". Smith returned as head coach in 1952 and stretched his winning streak all the way to 37 games before suffering his first defeat. In 1954, Smith was a leading candidate for the vacant job at his alma mater Idaho, but withdrew his name from consideration, content at Boise. Boise won thirteen conference titles in football under Smith and the NJCAA National Football Championship in 1958. Smith's final record is 150–25–6 (). Coach Smith never had a losing season as the head coach", ". Smith's final record is 150–25–6 (). Coach Smith never had a losing season as the head coach. Boise State's football program moved up to four-year status in 1968 under new head coach Tony Knap and competed as an NAIA independent for two seasons. The Broncos were accepted into the NCAA in October 1969, and a month later into the Big Sky Conference, effective the following July. The Broncos began NCAA competition in 1970 in Division II (\"College Division\" prior to 1973) in a brand new Bronco Stadium", ". Knap and the Broncos won three consecutive Big Sky titles from 1973 to 1975 and compiled a record of 71–19–1.", "Jim Criner era (1976–1982)", "Knap was succeeded by Jim Criner in 1976, a defensive assistant the previous season under Dick Vermeil at UCLA, the Rose Bowl champions. BSU won the Big Sky again in 1977, and in 1978, the Broncos and the Big Sky moved up to the new Division I-AA (renamed FCS in 2006). A scouting violation late that season at NAU resulted in probation and compromised an excellent 10–1 season in 1979, undefeated in conference at 7–0; the Broncos were ineligible for the Big Sky title and I-AA playoffs", ". Off probation in 1980, BSU won its first national title, taking the I-AA national championship over defending champion Eastern Kentucky in Sacramento. A runner-up to Idaho State in the Big Sky in 1981, BSU hosted Eastern Kentucky in the I-AA semifinals, but lost, 17–23. Criner departed after the 1982 season to accept the head football coach position at Iowa State; his overall record at BSU was .", "Lyle Setencich era (1983–1986)\nLyle Setencich was promoted from defensive coordinator to head coach of Boise State following Criner's departure. Under Setencich, Boise State posted a 24–20 record in four seasons. Setencich's final season in 1986, the first season of blue turf, saw the first losing campaign (5–6) for the Broncos football program in four decades, winning just one road game and losing the final two home games. He lost all four rivalry games against Idaho and resigned following the season.", "Skip Hall era (1987–1992)", "Skip Hall, previously an assistant coach under Don James at Washington, was hired after Setencich's resignation. In Hall's second season in 1988, the Broncos returned to the Division I-AA playoffs, their first appearance since 1981. Hall's best season was in 1990, when Boise State advanced to the national semifinals, falling in a high scoring game against Big Sky rival Nevada, the conference champion whom the Broncos had defeated a month earlier in Boise", ". Hall lost all six against Idaho; he resigned after six seasons, with a record.", "Pokey Allen era (1993–1996)\nThe Broncos turned to Portland State head coach Pokey Allen to lead the Boise State football team after Hall resigned. In Allen's second season, the Broncos returned to the championship game in 1994. After 26 years in the Big Sky, BSU joined the Big West Conference in 1996 and moved up to Division I-A (now FBS). The Broncos had an interim head coach for part of 1996 as Allen battled cancer. Allen died due to the cancer in December 1996.", "Houston Nutt era (1997)", "Head coach Houston Nutt made the step up to NCAA Division I-A the next year when Boise State hired him away from Murray State to take over the program. Two years after making the Division I-AA finals in 1994, Boise State's first year in Division I-A had been difficult and was looking for a recruiter and motivator to jump start their program following Allen's death. Nutt's team posted a 5–6 record in 1997, playing at the Division I-A level with its Division I-AA players", ". Nutt's team beat rival Idaho on the road in overtime for the first BSU win in Moscow since 1981. Additionally, Boise State almost pulled off an upset against Wisconsin of the Big Ten. Nutt resigned as head coach after just one season to accept the head football coach position at Arkansas.", "Dirk Koetter era (1998–2000)\nIn three seasons under head coach Dirk Koetter, who previously served as Oregon's offensive coordinator, the Broncos were 26–10, won two Big West championships and moved to the Western Athletic Conference effective in 2001. In his three winning seasons at Boise State, Koetter won ten or more games twice, with two bowl wins. Koetter departed the Broncos after the 2000 season for Arizona State in the Pac-10.", "Dan Hawkins era (2001–2005)", "Dan Hawkins was promoted from offensive coordinator to head coach on December 2, 2000. In 2004, Hawkins was honored with his second Western Athletic Conference (WAC) Coach of the Year title in three years. Through the 2005 season, he compiled a 53–11 record as Boise State's head coach, including a 37–3 record in WAC competition with four straight WAC titles. Only Walter Camp, George Washington Woodruff and Bob Pruett had more total wins in their first five years of head coaching", ". He holds a 31–game WAC winning streak, the longest in conference history. One of his first hires at Boise State was Chris Petersen as his offensive coordinator; Petersen was a quarterback at UC Davis while Hawkins was an assistant coach, and was the wide receivers coach at Oregon under head coach Mike Bellotti. After five seasons at the helm of the Broncos football program, Hawkins left for Colorado of the Big 12 Conference", ". He had three top 25 finishes, won ten or more games three times, and won two bowl games.", "Chris Petersen era (2006–2013)", "Following Hawkins' departure, offensive coordinator Chris Petersen was promoted to head coach. At Boise State, Petersen won two Paul \"Bear\" Bryant National Coach of the Year Awards, voted on by the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association. He is the first coach to receive this award twice, which debuted in 1986 (it has since been awarded twice to Nick Saban and three times to Dabo Swinney)", ". Under Petersen, Boise State recorded two undefeated seasons, three undefeated regular seasons, and reached the Bowl Championship Series twice. The 2006 season was capped with a memorable upset of Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl, while the 2009 team defeated TCU in the Fiesta Bowl to finish at 14–0 and were fourth in both major polls. They were just the second team ever to go 14–0 in the history of major college football. Petersen brought Boise State football its highest ranking during the 2010 season", ". Petersen brought Boise State football its highest ranking during the 2010 season. The team rose to second in the Associated Press poll during weeks 7, 8, and 9, and No. 2 in the Coaches' Poll, as well as earning the No. 3 slot in the first BCS ranking. After 2010, Boise State joined the Mountain West Conference.", "In May 2011, Boise State Athletics was cited by the NCAA for \"lack of institutional control,\" for one major violation in women's tennis and several minor violations in four sports, including football. While the football program's violations were minor (student athletes provided fellow recruits with meals and beds while visiting campus), the football program suffered serious penalties nonetheless", ". The Boise State football program was given three years' probation, lost three scholarships a year, and had its number of Fall practices reduced. As a result of the NCAA violations, Gene Bleymaier, the athletic director who brought blue turf to Boise State in 1986 and promoted Petersen 20 years later, was asked to resign, and ultimately fired when he refused. Despite President Bob Kustra's firing of Bleymaier, boosters continued to support him", ". Despite President Bob Kustra's firing of Bleymaier, boosters continued to support him. Just two years later, the new football facility was named in his honor.", "Between 2008 and 2011, the Broncos went 50–3 to become the first FBS team to win 50 games over a four-year span. With the 50–3 record, quarterback Kellen Moore became the winningest quarterback in FBS history, passing former Texas quarterback Colt McCoy (45 wins). On December 7, 2011, it was announced that the Broncos would join the Big East Conference as football-only members in July 2013, in a division with Memphis, SMU, Houston, San Diego State, and Temple", ". However, the following year Boise State announced they had decided to stay in the Mountain West Conference, leaving the Big East without ever playing a game in the conference. Petersen accepted the head coaching position at the University of Washington of the Pac-12 Conference on December 6, 2013. The vacancy was created when the Huskies' Steve Sarkisian left to take the head coaching position at USC", ". Petersen finished his eight seasons as head coach of Boise State with a record of , with three top 10 finishes, seven seasons with ten or more wins, six top 25 finishes, two Fiesta Bowl titles, five bowl wins, and five conference titles. He was at BSU for a total of 13 years, the first five as offensive coordinator under Hawkins. Assistant head coach Bob Gregory was named interim head coach for Boise State's bowl game.", "Bryan Harsin era (2014–2020)", "On December 11, 2013, Arkansas State head coach Bryan Harsin returned to his alma mater as Petersen's replacement. Harsin had been an assistant for the Broncos under Petersen and was co-offensive coordinator at Texas under Mack Brown. In his first season in 2014, they went 10–2 in the regular season and won the Mountain West Championship Game, defeating Fresno State 28–14. This was Boise State's first outright Mountain West Conference championship", ". This was Boise State's first outright Mountain West Conference championship. The Broncos faced the Arizona Wildcats in the Fiesta Bowl and won 38–30 for a 12–2 record and were ranked 15th in both major polls. Boise State shared the Mountain division title in 2016, going 10–3 with wins over Washington State and Oregon State. BSU was 11–3 in 2017 and won their second Mountain west conference championship under Harsin with a 17–14 win over Fresno State in the Mountain West Championship Game", ". Boise State capped the season with a Las Vegas Bowl win over Oregon and climbed to 22nd in both final polls. In 2018, Boise State was 10–3 overall; they won the Mountain Division championship and beat three teams that won ten or more games (Troy, Utah State, and Fresno State) and were ranked in both final polls", ". In 2019 Boise State went 12–2 won the opener at Florida State went 8–0 in the Mountain West conference play for the first time in the regular season, won the Mountain Division and won the conference championship 31–10 vs Hawaii and finished ranked in both final polls", ". Under Harsin, Boise State is through 2020, with at least nine wins per year, a 3–2 record in bowl games, 1 Fiesta Bowl title, Have been ranked in the top 25 in the polls at some point in every season, won three conference titles, five division titles, and have been in the AP final poll four times. On December 22, 2020, Harsin resigned to become the head coach at Auburn. He finished at Boise State with a seven-year record of 69–19.", "Andy Avalos era (2021–present)\nOn January 8, 2021, Boise State hired Oregon defensive coordinator Andy Avalos as their new head coach. Avalos, a former player and assistant coach for the Broncos, signed a five-year contract worth $7.75 million.\n\nHead coaches\nHead coaching records since Boise State became a four-year school in 1968.", "Head coaches\nHead coaching records since Boise State became a four-year school in 1968.\n\n^ Mason was the interim head coach for the first 10 games of the 1996 season while head coach Pokey Allen battled cancer.* Gregory was the interim head coach after Petersen took the job at Washington.! Ties eliminated after the addition of overtime in 1996—Big Sky began overtime for conference games in 1980\n NAIA (1968–69), NCAA Division II (1970–77), Division I-AA (1978–95), Division I-A/FBS (1996–present)", "Championships\n\nNational championships\nBoise State Claims two national titles in the Junior College Division and at the NCAA Division I FCS.\n\nConference championships\n\n§ – Conference co–champions\n The 1979 team went 7–0 and 10–1 overall, but they were on probation, thus they were not officially awarded a conference title.\n\nDivision titles\n\n – Division co–champions, did not play in MW Championship Game.\n\n* Season still in progress, division title already clinched.\n\nMountain West Championship Game", "* Season still in progress, division title already clinched.\n\nMountain West Championship Game\n\nPostseason results", "Division I-A/FBS bowl game appearances", "The Broncos have appeared in 20 official D-I-A bowl games with a record of 13–7, including two wins in BCS bowl games and one win in a New Year's Six bowl. They also appears in the Division II 1973 Pioneer Bowl, 1971 Camellia Bowl and 1980 Camellia Bowl. Their appearance in the 2018 First Responder Bowl was ruled a no contest after being canceled due to inclement weather. On December 5th, 2021, Boise State received a bid to play Central Michigan in the Arizona Bowl", ". On December 5th, 2021, Boise State received a bid to play Central Michigan in the Arizona Bowl. However, On December 27, 2022, Barstool Sports (the title sponsor of the bowl) founder David Portnoy announced the withdrawal of the Broncos from the bowl due to COVID-19 issues within the program. Through the 2019 season, Boise State is tied with Wisconsin with 18 straight bowl games which is the 4th longest active bowl streak in the country behind Georgia, Oklahoma and LSU.", "Division I-AA Playoffs results\nThe Broncos were members of Division I-AA for eighteen seasons, from its inception in 1978 through 1995. They appeared in the I-AA playoffs five times with a record of 8–4, and were I-AA national champions in 1980.\n\nDivision II Playoffs results\nThe Broncos appeared in the Division II playoffs three times, with an overall record of 1–3; all three losses were to the eventual national champions.", "In 1977, Boise State (9–2) was undefeated in the Big Sky (6–0) and won another title. Due their regular season not ending until November 26 at Idaho, the same day as the first round of the Division II playoffs, BSU was replaced by runner-up Northern Arizona, who lost 35–0 at home.", "College Division Postseason results\nThe Broncos had one appearance in the NCAA College Division postseason, with a victory in the West regional final in the Camellia Bowl in 1971. No semifinals or finals were played in the College Division from 1964 through 1972, a poll followed the four quarterfinals.\n\nTop 25 Finishes\n\nAlbertsons Stadium", "Since 1970, Boise State has played its home games in Albertsons Stadium (known as Bronco Stadium from 1970 to May 2014), which enjoys a reputation as one of the most difficult places in the country for opposing teams to play. The stadium is well known for its blue artificial surface, which was first installed in 1986 making it the first college stadium field to be any color other than traditional green, as well as the only college to have a non-green field for 22 years (1986–2008)", ". \"The Blue,\" as it is called by fans, is one of the most distinguishing and enduring symbols of Boise State football. Boise State holds a trademark on any non-green field, not just blue. Therefore, anyone (high school, college, or otherwise) must apply for a license from Boise State before installing a football field any color other than green. Boise State is one of 7 college football programs in the United States to have a non-green playing surface", ". Other schools with non-green fields are as follows: (FBS) Eastern Michigan University (gray), Coastal Carolina University (teal), (FCS) Eastern Washington University (red), the University of Central Arkansas (grey and purple), (Division II) the University of New Haven (blue), (NAIA) Lindenwood University (red and grey). Hosei University in Tokyo, Japan also has a blue football field. Boise State recently approved the proposal for a blue field at Luther College (Division III)", ". Boise State recently approved the proposal for a blue field at Luther College (Division III). As of December 7, 2019, the Broncos are 128–9 () at home since the 1999 season. The Broncos won 47 straight home conference games from 1999 to 2011 and were undefeated at home in conference play during their 10 years in the WAC (40–0). The Broncos are 122–7 () in regular season home games since 1999, and had a winning streak of 65 regular season games from 2001 to 2011", ". Their current home winning streak stands at 0.", "Blue uniform ban", "In 2011, citing a \"competitive advantage,\" the Mountain West Conference banned Boise State from wearing their all-blue uniforms for home conference games as a condition of joining the conference. When questioned about the ban, Mountain West Commissioner Craig Thompson confirmed that either the jerseys or pants could be blue, provided that the other be white or orange", ". After Boise State decided to not join the Big East Conference and remain in the Mountain West the uniform restrictions were lifted beginning in the 2013 season. The NCAA considered a rule that would have required a team's uniform, either jersey or pants, to contrast the playing surface. The rule would have banned Boise State's all blue uniforms at home and most other teams from wearing all green uniforms as well. The NCAA eventually decided against instituting the rule.", "Hosei Tomahawks\n\nIn 2012, Boise State granted special permission and an international trademark to Hosei University in Tokyo, Japan for use of the blue field turf for their football field, Tomahawks Field.\n\nRivalries\n\nFresno State", "BSU has had a rivalry with Fresno State University since joining the WAC. The series is 17–8 all time in favor of Boise State. In 2001, the series became a WAC match-up, christened with Boise State's upset over No. 8 Fresno State 35–30. In 2005, the series became the Battle for the Milk Can, and No. 20 Fresno State ended Boise State's 31-game winning streak against WAC opponents with their 27–7 victory. After being played as a non-conference game in 2011, the series continued as a conference game in 2012", ". The winner of the game receives the Milk Can. Although Fresno State has five all-time wins over Boise State, only two wins have come since they have played each other every year since 2001. In the 2014 season, Boise State played Fresno State twice, winning both times, the second one coming in the Mountain West Championship, which Boise State won for the first time. Fresno State was looking to repeat as champions", ". Fresno State was looking to repeat as champions. They met twice in 2017 in back-to-back weeks as they ended the regular season with a game in Fresno, which Fresno won, before meeting the next week in the Mountain West Championship in Boise, which Boise won. In 2018, Boise State upset No. 16 Fresno State 24–17 to end Fresno's seven game winning streak", ". In 2018, Boise State upset No. 16 Fresno State 24–17 to end Fresno's seven game winning streak. Three weeks later, the Bulldogs avenged their regular season loss by defeating Boise State 19–16 in overtime in a snow covered Mountain West Championship Game.", "The rivalry is no longer an annual affair following the expansion of the MW to 12 football members in 2013. At that time, Boise State and Fresno State were placed in separate football divisions (respectively, Mountain and West). As part of the new scheduling arrangement, all cross-divisional games rotate in a four-year cycle, with two years of play followed by two years off. This in turn means that the game was not played in 2015 or 2016.\n\nIdaho", "Idaho\n\nBoise State had a 40-year in-state rivalry with the University of Idaho, which began with a Bronco victory in the first meeting in 1971. They met every year through 2010, and with the exception of four years (2001–2004), the matchup was a conference game. The rivalry was dominated by streaks as Idaho won 12 straight years from 1982 to 1993, while Boise State won the most recent 12 games between 1999 and 2010, mostly by large margins. BSU leads the rivalry with a series record of 22–17–1 (.563).", "After Boise State's move to the Mountain West Conference in 2011, Boise State has refused to play Idaho home and home in football. As a response, Idaho has refused to play Boise State at ExtraMile Arena for men's basketball. As of 2021, no future games for football or men's basketball have been scheduled; with Idaho having returned to FCS football in 2018, the football rivalry is unlikely to resume in the foreseeable future.\n\nNevada", "Nevada\n\nBoise State has a long-standing rivalry with Nevada. Boise State leads the series 30–13. Boise State and Nevada have been conference rivals in the Big Sky Conference, the Big West Conference, the WAC, and the Mountain West. However, the series is no longer an annual affair after the 2013 expansion, as Nevada was placed in the opposite division from Boise State. They play each other only twice every four years. The last game was in 2018 with the next game coming in 2021.", "The series was played as a non-conference game in 2011 as the teams met in Boise during Nevada's last year in the WAC. Nevada split the WAC championship with Boise State in 2005 as both teams finished 7–1 in conference play. Boise State beat Nevada in the last game of the season in 2006, giving Boise State a berth into their first BCS bowl. In 2007, in one of the highest scoring games in NCAA Division I football history, Boise State defeated Nevada 69–67 in four overtimes", ". Recently, the conference championship has been decided by the Wolf Pack and Broncos' late-season games. In 2010, Nevada defeated No. 3 Boise State 34–31 in overtime, ending the Broncos' BCS National Championship hopes. The rivalry between the two schools felt as if it had been rekindled after Nevada's win, since Boise State had won the past 10 games dating back to 1998. Boise State and Nevada have played one time in the postseason in the 1990 I-AA semifinal", ". Boise State and Nevada have played one time in the postseason in the 1990 I-AA semifinal. Nevada won the game in triple overtime 59–52, and would go on to lose in the final.", "All-time record vs. Mountain West teams\n\nFuture scheduled non-conference games\nAnnounced schedules as of July 11, 2022.\n\nNotable honors\n\nCollege Football Hall of Famers\n\nPlayers\nRandy Trautman – DT, 1978–81\n\nPro Football Hall of Famers\n\nPlayers\nDave Wilcox – LB 1960–62 inducted 2000\n\nIndividual awards\n\nKellen Moore Award", "Players\nDave Wilcox – LB 1960–62 inducted 2000\n\nIndividual awards\n\nKellen Moore Award\n\nPreviously called the Quarterback of the Year Award, this accolade differs from Sammy Baugh Trophy in that it goes to top quarterback, rather than the top passer. Its name was changed to its current identity in 2012, honoring two-time winner Kellen Moore, who became the FBS all-time leader in wins by a quarterback after going 50–3 as the starter at Boise State.\n\nSports Illustrated All-Decade Team\nRyan Clady, OT", "Sports Illustrated All-Decade Team\nRyan Clady, OT\n\nBobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award\nChris Petersen (2010)\n\nPaul \"Bear\" Bryant Award\nChris Petersen (2006)\nChris Petersen (2009)", "AP All-Americans\nAvery Williams, 2020 First-Team All-Purpose/Return Specialist\nDarian Thompson, 2015 3rd team S\nJay Ajayi, 2014 3rd team RB (2nd team on USA Today)\nTitus Young, 2010 3rd team WR\nKellen Moore, 2009 3rd team QB & 2010 3rd team QB\nRyan Clady, 2007 Consensus All-American LT\nIan Johnson, 2006 3rd team RB (1st team on SI, 2nd team on Sporting News)\nMarkus Koch, 1985 1st team DE & 1983 1st team DT\nJohn Rade, 1982 1st team DE & 1981 2nd team LB\nRandy Trautman, 1981 & 1980 1st team DT", "John Rade, 1982 1st team DE & 1981 2nd team LB\nRandy Trautman, 1981 & 1980 1st team DT\nRick Woods, 1981 2nd team SS\nCedric Minter, 1980 2nd team & 1978 3rd team RB\nNate Potter, 2011 Consensus All-American LT", "Notable players\nDave Wilcox – LB, BSU 1960–62 (Boise Junior College)\nJerry Inman – DL, BSU 1962–63 (Boise Junior College)\nEric Guthrie – QB, BSU 1968–71\nJim McMillian – QB, BSU 1972–1974\nRoland \"Rollie\" Woolsey – DB, BSU 1972–74\nDavid Hughes – FB, BSU 1977–80\nCedric Minter – RB, BSU 1977–80\nRick Woods – S/PR, BSU 1978–81\nJohn Rade – LB, BSU 1979–82\nRandy Trautman – DT, BSU 1980–81\nMichel Bourgeau – DT, BSU 1980–83\nMarkus Koch – DE, BSU 1982–85\nJon Francis – RB, BSU 1982–85\nChuck Compton – DB, BSU 1984–86", "Markus Koch – DE, BSU 1982–85\nJon Francis – RB, BSU 1982–85\nChuck Compton – DB, BSU 1984–86\nTerry Heffner-WR, BSU 1986-90\nBart Hull – RB, BSU 1988–90\nFrank Robinson – CB, BSU 1988–91\nScott Monk – LB, BSU 1989–95\nKimo Von Oelhoffen – DT, BSU 1992–93\nBryan Johnson – FB, BSU 1996–99\nBryan Harsin QB, BSU 1995–99\nShaunard Harts – S, BSU 1997–2000\nBart Hendricks – QB, BSU 1997–2000", "Bryan Harsin QB, BSU 1995–99\nShaunard Harts – S, BSU 1997–2000\nBart Hendricks – QB, BSU 1997–2000\nBrock Forsey – RB, BSU 1998–2002, NFL 2003–05, (2003) 6th Round, 206th Pick Overall to Chicago Bears. Chicago Bears (2003), Miami Dolphins (2004), Washington Redskins (2005)", "Jeb Putzier – TE, BSU 1998–2001, NFL 2003–07, (2002) 6th Round, 191st Pick Overall to Denver Broncos. Denver Broncos (2003–05, 2008), Houston Texans (2006–07), Seattle Seahawks (2008), UFL 2010, Hartford Colonials (2010), Omaha Nighthawks (2010)\nRyan Dinwiddie – QB, BSU 2000–03\nTim Gilligan – WR, BSU 2000–03", "Ryan Dinwiddie – QB, BSU 2000–03\nTim Gilligan – WR, BSU 2000–03\nChris Carr – CB, BSU 2001–04, (2005) UDFA, NFL 2005–13, Oakland Raiders (2005–07), Tennessee Titans (2008), Baltimore Ravens (2009–11), Minnesota Vikings (2012), San Diego Chargers (2012), New Orleans Saints (2013)\nDaryn Colledge – OG, BSU 2001–05, NFL 2006–14, (2006) 2nd Round, 47th Pick Overall, Green Bay Packers (2006–14), Arizona Cardinals (2011–13), Miami Dolphins (2014)\nAlex Guerrero – DL, BSU 2002–05", "Alex Guerrero – DL, BSU 2002–05\nGerald Alexander – S, BSU 2003–06, NFL 2007–11, (2007) 2nd Round, 61st Pick Overall, Detroit Lions (2007–08), Jacksonville Jaguars (2009–10), Miami Dolphins (2011), New York Jets (2011)\nJared Zabransky – QB, BSU 2003–06, NFL 2007–08, CFL 2009–10, (2007) UDFA, Houston Texans (2007), Pittsburgh Steelers (2008), Edmonton Eskimos (2009–10)\nDerek Schouman – TE, 7th round, pick 222, BSU 2003–06, NFL 2007–10, Buffalo Bills (2007–09), St. Louis Rams (2010)", "Ryan Clady – RT/LT, 1st round, pick 12, BSU 2004–07, NFL 2008–16, Denver Broncos (2008–15), New York Jets (2016)\nOrlando Scandrick – CB, 5th round, pick 143 Dallas Cowboys (2008–2017), Washington Redskins (2018), Kansas City Chiefs (2018), Philadelphia Eagles (2019), BSU (2005–07)\nVinny Perretta – WR, BSU 2005–08\nKyle Brotzman – K, BSU 2007–10\nRyan Winterswyk – DE/TE, BSU 2007–10\nTitus Young – WR, 2nd round, pick 44, BSU 2007–2010, Detroit Lions 2011–2012, St. Louis Rams 2012", "Titus Young – WR, 2nd round, pick 44, BSU 2007–2010, Detroit Lions 2011–2012, St. Louis Rams 2012\nAustin Pettis- WR, 3rd round, pick 78, BSU 2007–2010, St. Louis Rams 2011–2014, San Diego Chargers 2015\nRicky Tjong-A-Tjoe – DT, BSU 2009–13\nMatt Paradis – Center, BSU 2009–13, 6th round, pick 207, Denver Broncos 2014–2018 Super Bowl Champion (50), Carolina Panthers 2019–present", "Tyler Shoemaker – WR/TE, BSU 2009–12, NFL 2012–13, CFL 2014–16, (2012) UDFA, Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2012), Kansas City Chiefs (2013), Ottawa Redblacks (2014–15)\nDoug Martin – RB, 1st round, pick 31, BSU 2007–2011, Tampa Bay Buccaneers 2012–2017, Oakland Raiders 2018\nShea McClellin – LB, 1st round, pick 19, BSU 2008–2011, Chicago Bears 2012–2015, New England Patriots 2016–2017\nKellen Moore – QB, BSU 2008–11, NFL 2012–2016, Dallas Cowboys offensive coordinator (2019–2022), Los Angeles Chargers (2023–present)", "DeMarcus Lawrence – All-Pro Defensive End for the Dallas Cowboys, BSU (2012–13), 2nd round, pick 34\nTyrone Crawford – DL, Dallas Cowboys, BSU (2010–11), 3rd round, pick 81. \nLeighton Vander Esch – LB, BSU (2014–2017) 1st round, pick 19 All-Pro, Dallas Cowboys (2018–present)\nJay Ajayi – RB, BSU (2011–2014) 5th round, pick 149 Miami Dolphins (2015–2017), Philadelphia Eagles (2017–2019)\nTyler Rausa – K, BSU (2013–2016) Columbus Lions (2018), Massachusetts Pirates (2019), DC Defenders (2020)", "Jeremy McNichols – RB, BSU (2014–2016) 5th round, pick 162 Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2017), San Francisco 49ers (2017), Indianapolis Colts (2018), Denver Broncos (2018), Tennessee Titans (2018), Chicago Bears (2019), Jacksonville Jaguars (2019), Tennessee Titans (2020–2021), Atlanta Falcons (2022), Pittsburgh Steelers (2022)\nBrett Rypien – QB, BSU (2015–2018), UDFA, Denver Broncos (2019–2022), Los Angeles Chargers (2023–present)", "Cedrick Wilson Jr. – WR, BSU (2016–2017), 6th round, 208th pick Dallas Cowboys (2018–2021), Miami Dolphins (2022–present)\nAlexander Mattison – RB, 3rd round, pick 102 BSU (2016–2018), Minnesota Vikings, (2019–present)\nA. J. Richardson - WR, BSU (2014–2018), UDFA, Arizona Cardinals (2019–2021), Michigan Panthers (2022–present)\nEzra Cleveland – OT, BSU (2016–2019), 2nd Round, Pick 58 Minnesota Vikings (2020–present)", "Ezra Cleveland – OT, BSU (2016–2019), 2nd Round, Pick 58 Minnesota Vikings (2020–present)\nJohn Hightower – WR, BSU (2018–2019), 5th round, Pick 168 Philadelphia Eagles (2020–2021), Los Angeles Chargers (2023–present)\nCurtis Weaver – OLB, BSU (2016–2019), 5th round, Pick 164 Miami Dolphins (2020), Cleveland Browns (2020–2022), Seattle Sea Dragons (2023), Minnesota Vikings (2023–present)\nJohn Bates – TE, BSU (2016–2020), 4th round, pick 124 Washington Football Team (2021–present)", "John Bates – TE, BSU (2016–2020), 4th round, pick 124 Washington Football Team (2021–present)\nAvery Williams – CB, BSU (2016–2020), 5th round, pick 183 Atlanta Falcons (2021–present)\nKhalil Shakir- WR, BSU (2018–2021), 5th round, Pick 148 Buffalo Bills (2022–present)\nJL Skinner- S, BSU (2019-2022), 6th round, pick 183 Denver Broncos (2023–present)\nScott Matlock- DT, BSU (2018–2022), 6th round, Pick 200 Los Angeles Chargers (2023–present)", "See also\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\n \nAmerican football teams established in 1933\n1933 establishments in Idaho" ]

[ "Bayt Jibrin or Beit Jibrin (; ), known between 200-400 CE as Eleutheropolis (Greek, Ἐλευθερόπολις, \"Free City\"; ), was a historical town, located northwest of the city of Hebron. Depopulated in 1948, the town had a total land area of 56,185 dunams or , of which were built-up while the rest remained farmland.", "During the 8th century BCE, the nearby village of Maresha was part of the Kingdom of Judah. During the days of Herod the Great, a Jewish ruler of the Herodian Kingdom, the town was the administrative center for the district of Idumea. After the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt, the town became a thriving Roman colony and a major administrative centre of the Roman Empire under the name of Eleutheropolis", ". Eleutheropolis became one of the most important cities in the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. The city was then inhabited by Jews, Christians and pagans. Under the British Mandate of Palestine, Bayt Jibrin again served as a district centre for surrounding villages. It was captured by Jewish forces during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, causing its Arab inhabitants to flee eastward", ". Today, many of the Palestinian refugees of Bayt Jibrin and their descendants live in the camps of Bayt Jibrin (ʽAzza) and Fawwar in the southern West Bank.", "The kibbutz of Beit Guvrin was established to the north of Bayt Jibrin, on the villages' lands, in 1949. The archaeological sites of Maresha and Beit Guvrin, including their ancient burial caves, are today an Israeli national park known as Beit Guvrin National Park. It is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Eleutheropolis remains a titular see in the Roman Catholic Church.\n\nName", "Name\n\nThe town was renamed over the centuries. Its Aramaic name Beth Gabra, preserved by the geographer Ptolemy in the Greek variation of Βαιτογάβρα (Baitogabra), translates as the \"house of the [strong] man\" or \"house of the mighty one\". The antecedent might be seen in the name of an Edomite king: Ḳaus-gabri or Kauš-Gabr, found on an inscription of Tiglathpileser III.", "Ptolemy referred to it as Baitogabra. According to historical geographer A. Schlatter, the name Betaris mentioned by Josephus should either be identified with Bittir, or else the T amended to Gamma so as to read Begabrin.", "In the year 200 CE, Roman Emperor Septimius Severus gave it the status of a city under a new Greek name, Eleutheropolis (Ἐλευθερόπολις), meaning 'City of the Free', and its inhabitants were given the rank of Roman citizens under the laws of ius italicum.\"\nIn the Peutinger Tables in 393 CE, Bayt Jibrin was called Beitogabri. In the Talmud, compiled between the 3rd and 4th centuries, it was known as Beit Gubrin (or Guvrin). To the Crusaders, it was known as Bethgibelin or Gibelin.", "Another name in medieval times may have been Beit Jibril, meaning \"house of Gabriel\". In Arabic, Bayt Jibrin or Jubrin (بيت جبرين) means \"house of the powerful\", reflecting its original Aramaic name, and the town was probably called Bayt Jibrin or Beit Jibril throughout its rule by various Muslim dynasties.", "History\n\nIron Age Maresha", "The excavations have revealed no remains older than the Iron Age, a time when the Judahite town of Maresha rose on the tell to the south of Bay Jibrin known in Arabic as Tell Sandahanna and in Hebrew as Tel Maresha.\nThis corresponds to several Hebrew Bible mentions of Maresha. However, local folklore tells that the former Arab village of Bayt Jibrin was first inhabited by Canaanites.", "After the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE, the city of Maresha became part of the Edomite kingdom. In the late Persian period a Sidonian community settled in Maresha, and the city is mentioned three times in the Zenon Papyri (259 BCE). During the Maccabean Revolt, Maresha was a base for attacks against Judea and suffered retaliation from the Maccabees", ". In 112 BCE, Maresha was conquered and destroyed by the Hasmonean king, John Hyrcanus I, after which the region of Idumea (the Greek name of Edom) remained under Hasmonean control and Idumeans were forced to convert to Judaism. In 40 BCE, the Parthians devastated completely the \"strong city\", after which it was never rebuilt. After this date, nearby Beit Guvrin succeeded Maresha as the chief center of the area.", "Roman and Byzantine periods", "In the Jewish War (68 CE), Vespasian slaughtered or enslaved the inhabitants of Betaris. According to Josephus: \"When he had seized upon two villages, which were in the very midst of Idumea, Betaris (corrected to read Begabris), and Caphartobas, he slew above ten thousand of the people, and carried into captivity above a thousand, and drove away the rest of the multitude, and placed no small part of his own forces in them, who overran and laid waste the whole mountainous country.\"", "However, it continued to be a Jewish-inhabited city until the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-135 CE).", "Septimius Severus, Roman Emperor from 193 to 211, granted the city municipal status, under a new Greek name, Eleutheropolis, meaning \"City of the Free\", and giving its citizens the ius italicum and exempting them from taxes. Coins minted by him, bearing the date 1 January 200, commemorate its founding and the title of polis.", "Eleutheropolis, which covered an area of (larger at the time than Aelia Capitolina - the Roman city built over the ruins of Jewish Jerusalem), flourished under the Romans, who built public buildings, military installations, aqueducts and a large amphitheater", ". Towards the end of the 2nd century CE, Rabbi Judah the Prince ameliorated the condition of its Jewish citizens by releasing the city from the obligations of tithing home-grown produce, and from observing the Seventh Year laws with respect to the same produce, as believing this area of the country was not originally settled by Jews returning from the Babylonian captivity.", "The vita of Epiphanius of Salamis, born into a Christian family near Eleutheropolis, describes the general surroundings in Late Antique Judaea.\nThe second chapter of the vita describes the details of the important market of Eleutheropolis.\nSeven routes met at Eleutheropolis,", "Seven routes met at Eleutheropolis,\nand Eusebius, in his Onomasticon, uses the Roman milestones indicating the city as a central point from which the distances of other towns were measured. The Madaba Map (dated 542-570 CE) shows Eleutheropolis as a walled city with three towers, a curving street with a colonnade in the central part and an important basilica. In the centre is a building with a yellowish-white dome on four columns.", "Eleutheropolis was last mentioned in the ancient sources by the near contemporary itinerarium of the Piacenza Pilgrim,\nabout 570.", "In the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, Christianity penetrated the city due to its location on the route between Jerusalem and Gaza. The city's first bishop, Justus, was one of the 70 Disciples. Eleutheropolis was a \"City of Excellence\" in the fourth century and a Christian bishopric with the largest territory in Palaestina. In 325 CE, Eleutheropolis was the seat of Bishop Macrinus, who in that year attended the First Council of Nicaea", ". Epiphanius of Salamis, Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, was born at Eleutheropolis; at Ad nearby he established a monastery which is often mentioned in the polemics of Jerome with Rufinus and John, Bishop of Jerusalem. Epiphanius also mentions that Akouas, a disciple of Mani, had been the first to spread Manichaeism in Eleutheropolis and the rest of Palestine during the reign of Aurelian (270-275 AD).", "Beit Guvrin is mentioned in the Talmud in the 3rd and 4th centuries, indicating a revival of the Jewish community around that time. The tanna Judah b. Jacob and the amora Jonathan (referred to in the Talmud as \"Yonatan me-Bet Guvrin\" or Jonathan of Bet Guvrin) were residents of the city. The Talmudic region known as Darom was within the area of Eleutheropolis (\"Beit Guvrin\"),\nlater known by its Arabic corruption ad-Dārūm.", "Excavations at Eleutheropolis show a prosperous city, and confirm the presence of Jews and Christians in the area. It was described as one of Palestine's five \"Cities of Excellence\" by 4th-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus", ". During the Roman-Byzantine era, water was brought into Beit Gubrin (Bayt Jibrin) via an aqueduct that passed through Wādi el-ʻUnqur, a watercourse that originates from a natural spring to the south-west of Hebron, and running in a north-westerly direction, bypassing Idhna on the north, for a total distance of about . Remnants of the aqueduct are still extant.", "The territory under the administration of Eleutheropolis encompassed most of Idumea, with the districts of Bethletepha, western Edom and Hebron up to Ein Gedi, and included over 100 villages.", "Bayt Jibrin is mentioned in the Talmud (redacted 5th–6th century CE) under the name Beit Gubrin. In the Peutinger Tables (393 CE), the place is called Beto Gabra, and shown as 16 Roman miles from Ascalon. The true distance is 20 English miles.\n\nThe Midrash Rabba (Genesis Rabba, section 67) mentions Beit Gubrin in relation to Esau and his descendants (Idumaeans) who settled the region, and which region was renowned for its fertile ground and productivity.\n\nEarly Islamic period", "The 9th-century historian al-Baladhuri mentions Bayt Jibrin (the name given to it by the Arabs following the Muslim conquest) as one of ten towns in Jund Filastin (military district of Palestine) conquered by the Muslims under Amr ibn al-As during the mid-630s' Muslim conquest. Amr enclosed a domain to Bayt Jibrin, which he named Ajlan, after one of his freemen.", "The 1904 Analecta Bollandiana recounts that in 638 the Muslim army beheaded fifty soldiers in Bayt Jibrin from the Byzantine garrison of Gaza who refused to abandon Christianity and who were then buried in a church built in their honor.", "In the beginning of the power struggle between Ali and Mu'awiya for the position of caliph, Amr left Medina in the Hejaz and took up residence at his estate called Ajlan in Bayt Jibrin with his sons Muhammad and Abdallah. The latter died there. The Umayyad prince and governor of Palestine, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, received the news of his becoming caliph in 715 during his stay in Bayt Jibrin.", "In 750 Palestine came under Abbasid rule. Bayt Jibrin may have already been devastated in 788,", "In 750 Palestine came under Abbasid rule. Bayt Jibrin may have already been devastated in 788,\nbut in any event, in 796, it was destroyed by Bedouin tribesmen in an effort to combat Christian influence in the region during a civil war between the Arab tribal federations of the area. According to a monk named Stephen, \"it was laid waste, and its inhabitants carried off into captivity\". However, by 985, Bayt Jibrin seemed to have recovered, judging by the writings of the Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi:", "\"[Bayt Jibrin] is a city partly in the hill country, partly in the plain. Its territory has the name of Ad Darum (the ancient Daroma and the modern Dairan), and there are here marble quarries. The district sends its produce to the capital (Ar Ramlah). It is an emporium for the neighbouring country, and a land of riches and plenty, possessing fine domains. The population, however, is now on the decrease....\"Al-Muqaddasi, 1994, p. 157", "Today, there is no marble quarry anywhere in Palestine, but al-Muqaddasi probably referred to the underground chalkstone quarries known today as \"bell caves\".\n\nCrusader and Mamluk eras", "In 1099, Crusaders invaded Palestine and established the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1135, King Fulk of Jerusalem erected a castle on the lands of Bayt Jibrin, the first of a series of Crusader fortifications built at this time to ensure control over the ports of Caesarea and Jaffa. In 1136, King Fulk donated the castle to the Knights Hospitallers. In 1168, the Hospitallers were granted a charter to establish a Frankish colony, which they named \"Bethgibelin\".", "Christian settlers in Beit Jibrin were promised a share of property looted from the Muslims. It was on the itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, who found three Jews living there when he visited the country.", "The Ayyubid army under Saladin sacked Bethgibelin in 1187, after most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem came under Muslim control as a consequence of his victory at the Battle of Hittin. Soon after its capture Saladin ordered the demolition of the Crusader castle. From 1191 to 1192, the town was held in probate by Henry of Champagne, as lord of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, while Saladin and Richard the Lionheart negotiated a ceasefire.", "However, the Crusaders remained in control of Bethgibelin until 1244, when the Ayyubids reconquered it under Sultan as-Salih Ayyub. By 1283, the Mamluks had taken control and it was listed as a domain of Sultan Qalawun.\nThe city prospered under the Egypt-based Mamluk Sultanate and served as a postal station. During Mamluk rule, Bayt Jibrin administratively belonged to Hebron and was under the jurisdiction of the Shafi'i (a school of law in Sunni Islam) qadi (head judge) of that city.", "Ottoman rule and the 'Azza family", "Bayt Jibrin and all of Palestine was conquered by the Ottomans after their victory over the Mamluks during the 1516 Battle of Marj Dabiq. Bayt Jibrin subsequently became part of the nahiya (subdistrict) of Hebron (al-Khalīl), which was part of the sanjak (\"district\") of Gaza. The Ottomans did not exercise strict control over their territories and tended to keep local leaders in their traditional positions as long as they complied with the higher authorities and paid imperial taxes.", "During Suleiman the Magnificent's reign, in 1552, the destroyed Crusader castle in Bayt Jibrin was partially rebuilt in order to protect the main road between Gaza and Jerusalem. In 1596, the inhabitants of Bayt Jibrin, consisting of 50 Muslim families, paid taxes on wheat, barley and sesame seeds, as well as goats and beehives.", "In the 19th century, Bayt Jibrin was the seat of the 'Azza family, who had ruled the area since migrating to Palestine from Egypt.", "In the 1840s, after the Ottomans attempted to crush local leaders in the Hebron Hills for their refusal to pay taxes, the 'Azza family joined a revolt against Ottoman rule. They had aligned themselves to the 'Amr clan of the Hebron-area village of Dura. Between 1840 and 1846, hostilities were raging between the Qays and Yaman tribo-political factions in southern Palestine", ". The 'Azza and 'Amr families, part of the Qays confederation, were constantly clashing with the Yaman-aligned Abu Ghosh clan, who were based in the vicinity of Jerusalem. In 1846, the shaykh (chief) of Bayt Jibrin, Muslih al-'Azza (known as the \"giant of Bayt Jibrin\"), the leader of the 'Amr clan, and other local leaders were exiled, but were allowed to return in the early 1850s.", "In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman pasha (\"governor\") of the sanjak (\"district\") of Jerusalem, Kamil Pasha, attempted to subdue the rebellion in the Hebron region. Kamil Pasha marched towards Hebron with his army in July 1855, and after crushing the opposition, he ordered the local shaykhs to summon to his camp.", "Several of the shaykhs, including the leader of the 'Amr clan and Muslih al-'Azza, did not obey the summons. Kamil Pasha then requested that the British consul in Jerusalem, James Finn, serve as an envoy and arrange a meeting with Muslih. Finn sent his vice-consul to assure Muslih of his safety in Hebron and convinced him to meet with Kamil Pasha. Muslih was well received in Hebron and returned to Bayt Jibrin escorted by twenty of the governor's men", ". Soon after, the Kamil Pasha paid a visit to Bayt Jibrin to settle affairs and collect the town's overdue taxes.", "Kamil Pasha took an oath of loyalty from all the local shaykhs in the Hebron region, including those under the rule of Muslih al-'Azza.", "In 1838, American archeologist Edward Robinson identified Bayt Jibrin as the site of both ancient Eleutheropolis and ancient Bethgebrim.\nHe cited William of Tyre's reference to the Arabic name.\nLater travelers who visited Bayt Jibrin during that time were very impressed both by the shaykh of Bayt Jibrin, as well as by his \"castle\" or \"manor\". At the time, the remains of the Crusader fortress still served for defensive purposes in the village.", "According to Bayt Jibrin's shaykh, in 1863, he was in command of 16 villages in the area and pledged \"to provide as many as 2,000 men to the government if necessary.\"\nIn 1864, however, Muslih's brother told a traveler that Muslih and his property had been seized on \"false charges of treason,\" and that he had been banished to Cyprus and then beheaded.", "Socin found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bayt Jibrin had a population of 508, with a total of 147 houses, though the population count included men, only.", "Bayt Jibrin's status began to decline throughout the 19th century. According to Western travelers it was \"a small and insignificant village\". The primary factors that contributed to the decline were the Bedouin raids on Bayt Jibrin's countryside villages, the 'Azza revolt, tribal warfare among the inhabitants of the towns and villages throughout Palestine and epidemics which struck the town and the nearby area.\n\nIn 1896 the population of Bet dschibrin was estimated to be about 1,278 persons.", "British Mandate era\nAfter the British Army captured Palestine from the Ottomans in 1917–1918,", "Bayt Jibrin resumed its role as an important town in the District of Hebron. The population was entirely Muslim, and had two schools, a medical clinic, a bus and a police station. The town's inhabitants cultivated grain and fruit, and residents from nearby towns flocked to its weekly market or souk. During the winter of 1920-1921 there was a severe outbreak of malaria. 157 villagers (one-sixth of the population) died with the mortality rate in the district reaching 68 per 1,000", ". Crops remained unharvested due to lack of people strong enough to work in the fields. The British authorities began a program of sealing open wells, improving drainage and distributing quinine across Palestine.", "In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Bayt Jibrin had a population of 1,420, all Muslim,\nincreasing the 1931 census to 1,804, still all Muslim, in a total of 369 houses.", "On 10 January 1938, during the Palestinian Arab revolt of 1936-1939, J. L. Starkey, a well-known British archaeologist, was killed by a group of armed Arabs on the track leading from Bayt Jibrin to Hebron.\n\nIn the 1945 statistics Bayt Jibrin had 2,430 Muslim inhabitants, with a total of 56,185 dunams of land. Of this, 2,477 dunums were irrigated or used for plantations, 31,616 dunams used for cereals,\nwhile 287 dunams were built-up (urban) areas.", "Bayt Jibrin was in the territory allotted to the Arab state under the 1947 UN Partition Plan.\n\n1948 war", "The First Battalion of the Egyptian Army were ordered to take up position in Bayt Jibrin during the second half of May during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. At the same time, The New York Times correspondent reported that thousands of Jaffa's inhabitants had fled inland, including \"large numbers\" to the Bayt Jibrin area.", "In October 1948, the Israeli Army (IDF) launched Operation Yoav, which differed from operations three months earlier, as the IDF was now equipped with aircraft, artillery, and tanks. On October 15–16, the IDF launched bombing and strafing attacks on a number of towns and villages, including Bayt Jibrin.", "According to Morris, the towns caught in the fighting were neither psychologically nor defensively prepared for aerial strikes, and Israeli Air Force bombing of Bayt Jibrin on October 19 set off a \"panic flight\" of residents from the town.", "On October 23, a United Nations-imposed ceasefire went into effect, however, there was an IDF raid on the neighboring police fort on the night of October 24, which resulted in more villagers fleeing Bayt Jibrin.\nIsraeli troops from the Giv'ati Brigade then occupied Bayt Jibrin and its police fort on October 27. In 2008, a former resident of the town who was eight months old at the time of the raid, described his family's ordeal as follows:", "In the 1948 war, the village was attacked by Israeli military units and bombed by Israeli aircraft. By that time, Beit Jibreen already hosted many refugees from neighboring villages. The fighting and bombing frightened the people. They escaped the fighting and sought shelter in the surrounding hills. [My] family found protection in a cave 5 km east of the village. They had left everything in their home, hoping to return after a few days when the attack would be over", ". The Israelis, however, did not allow them to return. Several men of Beit Jibreen were killed when they tried to go back.", "In 1949, kibbutz Beit Guvrin, was founded on the former town's lands. The excavated areas of the successive Judahite, Hellenistic, Roman-Byzantine and Crusader towns have been included in a large Israeli national park with major points of attraction for tourists. There is little focus on any traces of Arab presence within the park, the period from the 7th century onward receiving little attention.", "Geography", "Bayt Jibrin was situated in an area of plains and soft hills known as the Shfela (Shephelah) in Hebrew, located between the coastal plain to the west and the Hebron Hills to the east. The village was northwest of Hebron. The average elevation of Bayt Jibrin is above sea level. Nearby localities included the depopulated villages of Kudna to the north, al-Qubayba to the southwest, al-Dawayima to the south and the existing Palestinian towns of Beit Ula to the east and Idhna to the southeast", ". Historically, it was located on the main road between Cairo and Hebron, via Gaza.", "In 1945, Bayt Jibrin's total land area was , 98% of which was Arab-owned. The town's urban area consisted of , with of cultivable land and of non-cultivable land. 54.8% of the town's land was planted with cereal crops, 6.2% with olives and 4.4% with irrigated crops.", "The Bayt Jibrin region contains a large number of caverns, both natural formations and caves dug in the soft chalk by inhabitants of the region over the centuries for use as quarries, burial grounds, animal shelters, workshops and spaces for raising doves and pigeons. There is estimated to be 800 such caverns,\nmany linked by an underground maze of passageways. Eighty of them, known as the Bell Caves, are located on the grounds of the Beit Guvrin National Park.\n\nArchaeology", "Archaeology\n\nToday many of the excavated areas of Maresha and Beit Guvrin can be visited as part of the Israeli Beit Guvrin-Maresha National Park. Furthermore, the Archaeological Seminars Institute, under the license of the Israel Antiquities Authority, conducts excavations of Maresha's many quarried systems, and invites visitors to participate.", "In 1838, the American Bible scholar Edward Robinson visited Bayt Jibrin, and identified it as ancient Eleutheropolis.", "The remains of the city of Maresha on Tell Sandahanna/Tel Maresha were first excavated in 1898-1900 by Bliss and Macalister, who uncovered a planned and fortified Hellenistic city encircled by a town wall with towers. Two Hellenistic and one Israelite stratum were identified by them on the mound. Between 1989 and 2000, large-scale excavations were held by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) under the direction of Prof", ". Amos Kloner and conducted mainly in the Lower City of Maresha, concentrating both on the surface and on the subterranean complexes. Excavations continued in several subterranean complexes between 2001 and 2008.", "The largely preserved remains of the amphitheater built by the Romans were excavated by Kloner. Among other unique finds was a Roman bath that has been confirmed to be the largest in Israel and the Palestinian territories. Many of the ancient city's olive presses, columbaria and water cisterns can still be seen. Less than 10 percent of the caves on Tel Maresha have been excavated.", "The ruins of three Byzantine-era churches are located in Bayt Jibrin. A church on a northern hill of the town, later used as a private residence, had elaborate mosaics depicting the four seasons which were defaced in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. A church south of the town, known as Khirbet Sandahanna, was dedicated to Saint Anne", ". A church south of the town, known as Khirbet Sandahanna, was dedicated to Saint Anne. The New Testament does not give any information about the mother of the Virgin Mary, but the widely circulated apocryphal Gospel of James gives her name as Anne, and her birthplace as Bethlehem. In another Christian tradition though, Bayt Jibrin is the birthplace of Saint Anne.", "The initial Byzantine church was rebuilt by Crusaders in the 12th century. Today, the apse with its three arched windows and half-dome ceiling are still intact.", "The wider area of the Shfela has been inhabited for much longer. Excavations were conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) about 12 kilometres northeast from Bayt Jibrin at a site located on the same wadi, Nahal Guvrin, near moshav Menuha. The IAA has unearthed there artifacts from a village believed to be 6,500 years old, placing it at the end of the Stone Age or at the beginning of the Chalcolithic or \"copper-and-stone age\"", ". The finds include pottery vessels and stone tools, among them flint sickle blades, cultic objects, clay figurines of horned animals, ceramic spindle whorls and animal bones belonging to pigs, goats, sheep and larger herbivores. The inhabitants probably chose this area due to the arable land and copious springs flowing even in the rainless summer months", ". Archaeologists believe the villagers grew grain, as indicated by the sickle blades and the grinding and pounding tools, and raised animals that supplied milk, meat and wool, as attested to by the spindle whorls. The settlement was small in scope, approximately 1.5 dunams, but there is evidence of bartering, based on the presence of basalt vessels and other lithic objects brought to the site from afar.", "Demographics\nDuring the Roman period, Bayt Jibrin had a mixed population of Jews, Christians and pagans. Under Muslim rule, Islam gradually became the dominant religion and by the 20th century, the entire population was Muslim.", "In Ottoman tax records from 1596, the town had a population of 275 inhabitants. In the late 19th century its population reached 900, while in 1896 the population was estimated to be about 1,278 persons. In 1912 it was estimated to be about 1,000,", "and to 1,420 in the next decade. According to the 1931 census of Palestine, Bayt Jibrin's population was 1,804. A 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi reported a sharp increase to 2,430. The general growth pattern over every 9–11 years from 1912 to 1945 was around 400–500. In 1948, the projected population was 2,819.", "The number of refugees from Bayt Jibrin, including their descendants, was estimated to be 17,310 in 1998. Many live in the al-'Azza (also called Bayt Jibrin) and Fawwar camps in the southern West Bank.\n\nCulture", "Embroidery\nBayt Jibrin, together with Hebron and the surrounding villages, was known for its fine Palestinian embroidery.\nAn example is a woman's jillayeh (wedding dress)", "from Bayt Jibrin, dated about 1900, in the Museum of International Folk Art (MOIFA) collection in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The dress is made of handwoven indigo linen with long, pointed wing-sleeves. The qabbeh (\"chest-piece\") is embroidered with the qelayed pattern; the maya (\"water\") motif, el-ferraneh (\"the bakers wife\") pattern, and the saru (\"cypress\") motif. The side panels are also covered with cross-stitch embroidery in a variety of traditional patterns.", "Also on show is a late 19th-century shambar (large veil) from Bayt Jibrin worn at weddings and festivals. It is made of embroidered handwoven black silk with a separate heavy red silk fringe.", "A woman wore the shambar mainly on her wedding day, positioned so that when she covered her face the embroidered end would show. Another item in the collection is a headdress (iraqiyeh) embroidered with cross-stitch and decorated with Ottoman coins minted in AH 1223 (1808), as well as Maria Theresa coins. The iraqiyeh was worn by married women and elaborate pieces were passed down as family heirlooms", ". The iraqiyeh was worn by married women and elaborate pieces were passed down as family heirlooms. Long embroidered headbands made of cotton hanging from both sides were wrapped around the woman's braids to facilitate the bundling of her hair, then secured to the back of the headdress.", "Shrines", "In Islamic tradition, Bayt Jibrin is the burial place of the sahaba (companion) of the prophet Muhammad, Tamim al-Dari, who was famously known for his piety and briefly served as the Governor of Jerusalem in the late 7th century. Al-Dari and his family were granted trusteeship over the Hebron Hills, including Bayt Jibrin, and were assigned as the supervisors of the Cave of the Patriarchs (Ibrahimi Mosque) in Hebron. His sanctuary is the most venerated site in Bayt Jibrin, located just northwest of it", ". His sanctuary is the most venerated site in Bayt Jibrin, located just northwest of it. Until the present day, al-Dari's sanctuary has been a place of local Muslim pilgrimage.", "Other Islamic holy sites in the village include Maqam for a local shaykh named Mahmud and a tomb for a shaykha (female religious figure) named Ameina.", "See also\n\n Beit Guvrin-Maresha National Park\n Ibelin, Crusader castle at Tel Yavne on the Mediterranean coastal plain\n Justus of Eleutheropolis\n Kibbutz Beit Guvrin\n Depopulated Palestinian locations in Israel\n List of villages depopulated during the Arab-Israeli conflict\n Maresha\n National Parks of Israel\n Peter of Eleutheropolis\n Zebennus\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography", "References\n\nBibliography\n\n Search for \"Bait Jibreen\" (Spring 1849: pp.176, 178-182, stay at Bait Jibreen, at the house of the brother of the sheik)(Spring 1853, note 182: fighting in Bayt Jibreen, at least 35 killed.)\n\n Later edition quoted in Schölch\n\n with Introduction, notes and appendices by E. Mary Smallwood.\n\n reprinted 2001\n Visited \"Beit Jibrin\" in 1838.\n\n (Bayt Jibrin p. xxxiv)", "reprinted 2001\n Visited \"Beit Jibrin\" in 1838.\n\n (Bayt Jibrin p. xxxiv)\n\n (Mohammed Isa of Bayt Jibrin: February–April 1864, p. 374, p. 377, p. 378, p. 381 and p. 506)\n (Search for \"Beit Jebrin\" og \"Mosleh-el-Hasy\": p. 72, 73, 138, 139, 142, 147–154, 157, 185, 190, 191)", "External links\n Welcome To Bayt Jibrin\n Bayt Jibrin, Zochrot\n Survey of Western Palestine, Map 20: IAA, Wikimedia commons\n Bayt Jibrin from the Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center.\n Bayt Jibrin by Rami Nashashibi (1996), Center for Research and Documentation of Palestinian Society.\n The Imaginary Village by Sandy Tolan & Melissa Robbins\n Testimony: Army demolishes village housing over 200 Palestinians, west of the Barrier, Oct. 2007, Btselem", "Army demolishes village housing over 200 Palestinians, west of the Barrier, 25 November 2007, Btselem\n Edward Robinson: Biblical researches in Palestine, 1838-52. A journal of travels in the year 1838. (1856) p. 57ff: Eleutheropolis\n \n Amos Kloner, 1999. \"The City of Eleutheropolis\": in The Madaba Map Centenary 1897-1997, (Jerusalem) pp 244–246. Eleutheropolis in the late Roman and Byzantine period\n Archaeological World: Eleutheropolis\n Catholic Encyclopedia 1908, s.v. \"Eleutheropolis\"", "Archaeological World: Eleutheropolis\n Catholic Encyclopedia 1908, s.v. \"Eleutheropolis\"\n Jewish Encyclopedia: \"Eleutheropolis\"\n pictures of Eleutheropolis\n Early pictures of mosaics at Eleutheropolis, many now in Istanbul:\n Mosaic of warrior, (approximately 1900 to 1926)\n Mosaic of tethered horse, (approximately 1900 to 1926)\n Another view of mosaic floor, (approximately 1900 to 1926)\n Mosaic of Greek inscription, (approximately 1900 to 1926)\n Mosaic of maiden with fruit, (approximately 1900 to 1926)", "Mosaic of maiden with fruit, (approximately 1900 to 1926)\n Mosaic of maiden with fruit, (approximately 1900 to 1926)", "Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War\nCastles and fortifications of the Kingdom of Jerusalem\nCastles and fortifications of the Knights Hospitaller\nCastles in Israel\nEleutheropolis\nDistrict of Hebron\nFormer populated places in Southwest Asia\nHistory of Palestine (region)\nMandatory Palestine\nThrone villages\nTalmud places\nArchaeological sites in Israel\nRoman sites in Israel\n200s establishments in the Roman Empire\n8th-century disestablishments in the Abbasid Caliphate", "200s establishments in the Roman Empire\n8th-century disestablishments in the Abbasid Caliphate\n790s disestablishments" ]

[ "The Lepidoptera of Bulgaria consist of both the butterflies and moths recorded from Bulgaria.\n\nButterflies", "Hesperiidae\nCarcharodus alceae (Esper, 1780)\nCarcharodus floccifera (Zeller, 1847)\nCarcharodus lavatherae (Esper, 1783)\nCarcharodus orientalis Reverdin, 1913\nCarterocephalus palaemon (Pallas, 1771)\nErynnis marloyi (Boisduval, 1834)\nErynnis tages (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGegenes nostrodamus (Fabricius, 1793)\nHesperia comma (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHeteropterus morpheus (Pallas, 1771)\nMuschampia cribrellum (Eversmann, 1841)\nMuschampia tessellum (Hübner, 1803)\nOchlodes sylvanus (Esper, 1777)\nPyrgus alveus (Hübner, 1803)", "Muschampia tessellum (Hübner, 1803)\nOchlodes sylvanus (Esper, 1777)\nPyrgus alveus (Hübner, 1803)\nPyrgus armoricanus (Oberthur, 1910)\nPyrgus cacaliae (Rambur, 1839)\nPyrgus carthami (Hübner, 1813)\nPyrgus cinarae (Rambur, 1839)\nPyrgus malvae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPyrgus serratulae (Rambur, 1839)\nPyrgus sidae (Esper, 1784)\nSpialia orbifer (Hübner, 1823)\nSpialia phlomidis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1845)\nThymelicus acteon (Rottemburg, 1775)\nThymelicus lineola (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nThymelicus sylvestris (Poda, 1761)", "Lycaenidae\nAgriades dardanus (Freyer, 1845)\nAricia agestis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAricia anteros (Freyer, 1838)\nAricia artaxerxes (Fabricius, 1793)\nCallophrys rubi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCelastrina argiolus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCupido minimus (Fuessly, 1775)\nCupido osiris (Meigen, 1829)\nCupido alcetas (Hoffmannsegg, 1804)\nCupido argiades (Pallas, 1771)\nCupido decolorata (Staudinger, 1886)\nCyaniris semiargus (Rottemburg, 1775)\nEumedonia eumedon (Esper, 1780)\nFavonius quercus (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Eumedonia eumedon (Esper, 1780)\nFavonius quercus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGlaucopsyche alexis (Poda, 1761)\nIolana iolas (Ochsenheimer, 1816)\nKretania sephirus (Frivaldszky, 1835)\nLampides boeticus (Linnaeus, 1767)\nLeptotes pirithous (Linnaeus, 1767)\nLycaena alciphron (Rottemburg, 1775)\nLycaena candens (Herrich-Schäffer, 1844)\nLycaena dispar (Haworth, 1802)\nLycaena helle (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLycaena ottomanus (Lefebvre, 1830)\nLycaena phlaeas (Linnaeus, 1761)\nLycaena thersamon (Esper, 1784)", "Lycaena ottomanus (Lefebvre, 1830)\nLycaena phlaeas (Linnaeus, 1761)\nLycaena thersamon (Esper, 1784)\nLycaena tityrus (Poda, 1761)\nLycaena virgaureae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLysandra bellargus (Rottemburg, 1775)\nLysandra coridon (Poda, 1761)\nPhengaris alcon (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhengaris arion (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhengaris nausithous (Bergstrasser, 1779)\nPlebejus argus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPlebejus argyrognomon (Bergstrasser, 1779)\nPlebejus idas (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPolyommatus admetus (Esper, 1783)", "Plebejus idas (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPolyommatus admetus (Esper, 1783)\nPolyommatus aroaniensis (Brown, 1976)\nPolyommatus nephohiptamenos (Brown & Coutsis, 1978)\nPolyommatus orphicus Kolev, 2005\nPolyommatus ripartii (Freyer, 1830)\nPolyommatus daphnis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPolyommatus amandus (Schneider, 1792)\nPolyommatus dorylas (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPolyommatus eros (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nPolyommatus escheri (Hübner, 1823)\nPolyommatus icarus (Rottemburg, 1775)", "Polyommatus escheri (Hübner, 1823)\nPolyommatus icarus (Rottemburg, 1775)\nPolyommatus thersites (Cantener, 1835)\nPseudophilotes vicrama (Moore, 1865)\nSatyrium acaciae (Fabricius, 1787)\nSatyrium ilicis (Esper, 1779)\nSatyrium pruni (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSatyrium spini (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSatyrium w-album (Knoch, 1782)\nScolitantides orion (Pallas, 1771)\nTarucus balkanica (Freyer, 1844)\nThecla betulae (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Nymphalidae\nAglais io (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAglais urticae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nApatura ilia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nApatura iris (Linnaeus, 1758)\nApatura metis Freyer, 1829\nAphantopus hyperantus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAraschnia levana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArethusana arethusa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nArgynnis paphia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArgynnis pandora (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBoloria graeca (Staudinger, 1870)\nBoloria pales (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBoloria dia (Linnaeus, 1767)", "Boloria pales (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBoloria dia (Linnaeus, 1767)\nBoloria euphrosyne (Linnaeus, 1758)\nBoloria selene (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBoloria eunomia (Esper, 1799)\nBrenthis daphne (Bergstrasser, 1780)\nBrenthis hecate (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBrenthis ino (Rottemburg, 1775)\nBrintesia circe (Fabricius, 1775)\nChazara briseis (Linnaeus, 1764)\nCoenonympha arcania (Linnaeus, 1761)\nCoenonympha glycerion (Borkhausen, 1788)\nCoenonympha leander (Esper, 1784)", "Coenonympha glycerion (Borkhausen, 1788)\nCoenonympha leander (Esper, 1784)\nCoenonympha oedippus (Fabricius, 1787)\nCoenonympha pamphilus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCoenonympha rhodopensis Elwes, 1900\nErebia aethiops (Esper, 1777)\nErebia alberganus (de Prunner, 1798)\nErebia cassioides (Reiner & Hochenwarth, 1792)\nErebia euryale (Esper, 1805)\nErebia gorge (Hübner, 1804)\nErebia ligea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nErebia medusa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nErebia melas (Herbst, 1796)\nErebia oeme (Hübner, 1804)", "Erebia medusa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nErebia melas (Herbst, 1796)\nErebia oeme (Hübner, 1804)\nErebia orientalis Elwes, 1900\nErebia ottomana Herrich-Schäffer, 1847\nErebia pandrose (Borkhausen, 1788)\nErebia pronoe (Esper, 1780)\nErebia rhodopensis Nicholl, 1900\nEuphydryas aurinia (Rottemburg, 1775)\nEuphydryas cynthia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuphydryas maturna (Linnaeus, 1758)\nFabriciana adippe (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nFabriciana niobe (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHipparchia fagi (Scopoli, 1763)", "Fabriciana niobe (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHipparchia fagi (Scopoli, 1763)\nHipparchia syriaca (Staudinger, 1871)\nHipparchia fatua Freyer, 1844\nHipparchia statilinus (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHipparchia semele (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHipparchia senthes (Fruhstorfer, 1908)\nHipparchia volgensis (Mazochin-Porshnjakov, 1952)\nHyponephele lupinus (O. Costa, 1836)\nHyponephele lycaon (Rottemburg, 1775)\nIssoria lathonia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nKirinia climene (Esper, 1783)\nKirinia roxelana (Cramer, 1777)\nLasiommata maera (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Kirinia climene (Esper, 1783)\nKirinia roxelana (Cramer, 1777)\nLasiommata maera (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLasiommata megera (Linnaeus, 1767)\nLasiommata petropolitana (Fabricius, 1787)\nLibythea celtis (Laicharting, 1782)\nLimenitis camilla (Linnaeus, 1764)\nLimenitis populi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLimenitis reducta Staudinger, 1901\nLopinga achine (Scopoli, 1763)\nManiola jurtina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMelanargia galathea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMelanargia larissa (Geyer, 1828)\nMelitaea arduinna (Esper, 1783)", "Melanargia larissa (Geyer, 1828)\nMelitaea arduinna (Esper, 1783)\nMelitaea athalia (Rottemburg, 1775)\nMelitaea aurelia Nickerl, 1850\nMelitaea britomartis Assmann, 1847\nMelitaea cinxia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMelitaea diamina (Lang, 1789)\nMelitaea didyma (Esper, 1778)\nMelitaea phoebe (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMelitaea telona Fruhstorfer, 1908\nMelitaea trivia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMinois dryas (Scopoli, 1763)\nNeptis rivularis (Scopoli, 1763)\nNeptis sappho (Pallas, 1771)", "Minois dryas (Scopoli, 1763)\nNeptis rivularis (Scopoli, 1763)\nNeptis sappho (Pallas, 1771)\nNymphalis antiopa (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNymphalis polychloros (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNymphalis xanthomelas (Esper, 1781)\nPararge aegeria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPolygonia c-album (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPolygonia egea (Cramer, 1775)\nPseudochazara anthelea (Hübner, 1824)\nPseudochazara orestes De Prins & van der Poorten, 1981\nPyronia tithonus (Linnaeus, 1767)\nSatyrus ferula (Fabricius, 1793)\nSpeyeria aglaja (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Pyronia tithonus (Linnaeus, 1767)\nSatyrus ferula (Fabricius, 1793)\nSpeyeria aglaja (Linnaeus, 1758)\nVanessa atalanta (Linnaeus, 1758)\nVanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Papilionidae\nIphiclides podalirius (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPapilio machaon Linnaeus, 1758\nParnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParnassius mnemosyne (Linnaeus, 1758)\nZerynthia cerisy (Godart, 1824)\nZerynthia polyxena (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Pieridae\nAnthocharis cardamines (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAnthocharis gruneri Herrich-Schäffer, 1851\nAporia crataegi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nColias alfacariensis Ribbe, 1905\nColias caucasica Staudinger, 1871\nColias croceus (Fourcroy, 1785)\nColias erate (Esper, 1805)\nColias hyale (Linnaeus, 1758)\nColias myrmidone (Esper, 1781)\nEuchloe penia (Freyer, 1851)\nEuchloe ausonia (Hübner, 1804)\nGonepteryx farinosa (Zeller, 1847)\nGonepteryx rhamni (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLeptidea duponcheli (Staudinger, 1871)", "Gonepteryx rhamni (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLeptidea duponcheli (Staudinger, 1871)\nLeptidea reali Reissinger, 1990\nLeptidea sinapis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPieris brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPieris ergane (Geyer, 1828)\nPieris krueperi Staudinger, 1860\nPieris mannii (Mayer, 1851)\nPieris napi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPieris rapae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPontia chloridice (Hübner, 1813)\nPontia edusa (Fabricius, 1777)", "Riodinidae\nHamearis lucina (Linnaeus, 1758)\n\nMoths", "Adelidae\nAdela australis (Heydenreich, 1851)\nAdela reaumurella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAdela violella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCauchas leucocerella (Scopoli, 1763)\nNematopogon pilella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nNematopogon robertella (Clerck, 1759)\nNematopogon schwarziellus Zeller, 1839\nNematopogon swammerdamella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNemophora associatella (Zeller, 1839)\nNemophora barbatellus (Zeller, 1847)\nNemophora cupriacella (Hübner, 1819)\nNemophora degeerella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Nemophora cupriacella (Hübner, 1819)\nNemophora degeerella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNemophora dumerilella (Duponchel, 1839)\nNemophora fasciella (Fabricius, 1775)\nNemophora metallica (Poda, 1761)\nNemophora minimella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nNemophora pfeifferella (Hübner, 1813)\nNemophora raddaella (Hübner, 1793)\nNemophora violellus (Herrich-Schäffer in Stainton, 1851)", "Alucitidae\nAlucita cymatodactyla Zeller, 1852\nAlucita grammodactyla Zeller, 1841\nAlucita huebneri Wallengren, 1859\nAlucita major (Rebel, 1906)", "Argyresthiidae\nArgyresthia abdominalis Zeller, 1839\nArgyresthia albistria (Haworth, 1828)\nArgyresthia bonnetella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArgyresthia curvella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nArgyresthia fundella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1835)\nArgyresthia glaucinella Zeller, 1839\nArgyresthia goedartella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArgyresthia pruniella (Clerck, 1759)\nArgyresthia spinosella Stainton, 1849\nArgyresthia glabratella (Zeller, 1847)\nArgyresthia illuminatella Zeller, 1839", "Autostichidae\nAmselina cedestiella (Zeller, 1868)\nApatema apolausticum Gozmany, 1996\nApatema mediopallidum Walsingham, 1900\nAprominta atricanella (Rebel, 1906)\nAprominta designatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nHolcopogon bubulcellus (Staudinger, 1859)\nOegoconia caradjai Popescu-Gorj & Capuse, 1965\nOegoconia deauratella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nOegoconia novimundi (Busck, 1915)\nOegoconia uralskella Popescu-Gorj & Capuse, 1965\n\nBedelliidae\nBedellia somnulentella (Zeller, 1847)", "Bedelliidae\nBedellia somnulentella (Zeller, 1847)\n\nBlastobasidae\nBlastobasis phycidella (Zeller, 1839)\n\nBrachodidae\nBrachodes lucida (Lederer, 1853)\nBrachodes pumila (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nBrachodes tristis (Staudinger, 1879)\n\nBrahmaeidae\nLemonia balcanica (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nLemonia dumi (Linnaeus, 1761)\nLemonia taraxaci (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\n\nBucculatricidae\nBucculatrix maritima Stainton, 1851\nBucculatrix thoracella (Thunberg, 1794)\n\nCarposinidae\nCarposina scirrhosella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854", "Carposinidae\nCarposina scirrhosella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\n\nChimabachidae\nDasystoma salicella (Hübner, 1796)\nDiurnea lipsiella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\n\nChoreutidae\nAnthophila fabriciana (Linnaeus, 1767)\nProchoreutis myllerana (Fabricius, 1794)\nProchoreutis stellaris (Zeller, 1847)", "Coleophoridae\nColeophora adspersella Benander, 1939\nColeophora aestuariella Bradley, 1984\nColeophora agrianella Rebel, 1934\nColeophora albella (Thunberg, 1788)\nColeophora albicans Zeller, 1849\nColeophora albitarsella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora alcyonipennella (Kollar, 1832)\nColeophora alticolella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora anatipenella (Hübner, 1796)\nColeophora argentula (Stephens, 1834)\nColeophora artemisicolella Bruand, 1855\nColeophora badiipennella (Duponchel, 1843)", "Coleophora artemisicolella Bruand, 1855\nColeophora badiipennella (Duponchel, 1843)\nColeophora ballotella (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1839)\nColeophora ciconiella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855\nColeophora clypeiferella Hofmann, 1871\nColeophora coarctataephaga Toll, 1961\nColeophora congeriella Staudinger, 1859\nColeophora coronillae Zeller, 1849\nColeophora cracella (Vallot, 1835)\nColeophora deauratella Lienig & Zeller, 1846\nColeophora deviella Zeller, 1847\nColeophora dianthi Herrich-Schäffer, 1855", "Coleophora deviella Zeller, 1847\nColeophora dianthi Herrich-Schäffer, 1855\nColeophora ditella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora expressella Klemensiewicz, 1902\nColeophora follicularis (Vallot, 1802)\nColeophora glaseri Toll, 1961\nColeophora glaucicolella Wood, 1892\nColeophora graminicolella Heinemann, 1876\nColeophora gryphipennella (Hübner, 1796)\nColeophora hartigi Toll, 1944\nColeophora hungariae Gozmany, 1955\nColeophora inulae Wocke, 1877\nColeophora kroneella Fuchs, 1899\nColeophora lutipennella (Zeller, 1838)", "Coleophora kroneella Fuchs, 1899\nColeophora lutipennella (Zeller, 1838)\nColeophora maritimella Newman, 1863\nColeophora medelichensis Krone, 1908\nColeophora millefolii Zeller, 1849\nColeophora niveicostella Zeller, 1839\nColeophora obtectella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora occatella Staudinger, 1880\nColeophora ochripennella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora ochroflava Toll, 1961\nColeophora onopordiella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora oriolella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora ornatipennella (Hübner, 1796)", "Coleophora oriolella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora ornatipennella (Hübner, 1796)\nColeophora parvicuprella Baldizzone & Tabell, 2006\nColeophora pennella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nColeophora peribenanderi Toll, 1943\nColeophora pratella Zeller, 1871\nColeophora pseudociconiella Toll, 1952\nColeophora pseudodianthi Baldizzone & Tabell, 2006\nColeophora remizella Baldizzone, 1983\nColeophora salinella Stainton, 1859\nColeophora serinipennella Christoph, 1872\nColeophora siccifolia Stainton, 1856", "Coleophora serinipennella Christoph, 1872\nColeophora siccifolia Stainton, 1856\nColeophora silenella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855\nColeophora soffneriella Toll, 1961\nColeophora sternipennella (Zetterstedt, 1839)\nColeophora stramentella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora supinella Ortner, 1949\nColeophora tamesis Waters, 1929\nColeophora tanaceti Muhlig, 1865\nColeophora therinella Tengstrom, 1848\nColeophora trifolii (Curtis, 1832)\nColeophora tyrrhaenica Amsel, 1951\nColeophora variicornis Toll, 1952", "Coleophora tyrrhaenica Amsel, 1951\nColeophora variicornis Toll, 1952\nColeophora varnella Baldizzone & Tabell, 2006\nColeophora versurella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora vestianella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nColeophora vibicella (Hübner, 1813)\nColeophora vibicigerella Zeller, 1839\nColeophora virgatella Zeller, 1849\nColeophora vulnerariae Zeller, 1839\nColeophora vulpecula Zeller, 1849\nColeophora zelleriella Heinemann, 1854", "Cosmopterigidae\nCosmopterix lienigiella Zeller, 1846\nCosmopterix orichalcea Stainton, 1861\nCosmopterix zieglerella (Hübner, 1810)\nEteobalea anonymella (Riedl, 1965)\nEteobalea intermediella (Riedl, 1966)\nEteobalea isabellella (O. G. Costa, 1836)\nEteobalea serratella (Treitschke, 1833)\nEteobalea sumptuosella (Lederer, 1855)\nLimnaecia phragmitella Stainton, 1851\nPancalia leuwenhoekella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPancalia nodosella (Bruand, 1851)\nPancalia schwarzella (Fabricius, 1798)", "Pancalia nodosella (Bruand, 1851)\nPancalia schwarzella (Fabricius, 1798)\nPyroderces argyrogrammos (Zeller, 1847)\nPyroderces caesaris Gozmany, 1957\nSorhagenia lophyrella (Douglas, 1846)", "Cossidae\nAcossus terebra (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCossus cossus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDyspessa salicicola (Eversmann, 1848)\nDyspessa ulula (Borkhausen, 1790)\nParahypopta caestrum (Hübner, 1808)\nPhragmataecia castaneae (Hübner, 1790)\nStygia mosulensis Daniel, 1965\nZeuzera pyrina (Linnaeus, 1761)", "Crambidae\nAcentria ephemerella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAchyra nudalis (Hübner, 1796)\nAgriphila brioniellus (Zerny, 1914)\nAgriphila dalmatinellus (Hampson, 1900)\nAgriphila deliella (Hübner, 1813)\nAgriphila inquinatella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgriphila latistria (Haworth, 1811)\nAgriphila poliellus (Treitschke, 1832)\nAgriphila selasella (Hübner, 1813)\nAgriphila straminella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgriphila tersellus (Lederer, 1855)\nAgriphila tolli (Błeszyński, 1952)", "Agriphila tersellus (Lederer, 1855)\nAgriphila tolli (Błeszyński, 1952)\nAgriphila tristella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgrotera nemoralis (Scopoli, 1763)\nAnania coronata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nAnania crocealis (Hübner, 1796)\nAnania funebris (Strom, 1768)\nAnania fuscalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnania hortulata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAnania lancealis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnania stachydalis (Germar, 1821)\nAnania terrealis (Treitschke, 1829)\nAnania verbascalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Anania terrealis (Treitschke, 1829)\nAnania verbascalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnarpia incertalis (Duponchel, 1832)\nAncylolomia palpella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAncylolomia pectinatellus (Zeller, 1847)\nAncylolomia tentaculella (Hübner, 1796)\nAporodes floralis (Hübner, 1809)\nAtralata albofascialis (Treitschke, 1829)\nCalamotropha aureliellus (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1841)\nCalamotropha paludella (Hübner, 1824)\nCataclysta lemnata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCatoptria acutangulellus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)", "Cataclysta lemnata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCatoptria acutangulellus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nCatoptria biformellus (Drenowski, 1925)\nCatoptria casperella Ganev, 1983\nCatoptria confusellus (Staudinger, 1882)\nCatoptria domaviellus (Rebel, 1904)\nCatoptria falsella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCatoptria gozmanyi Błeszyński, 1956\nCatoptria laevigatellus (Lederer, 1870)\nCatoptria languidellus (Zeller, 1863)\nCatoptria luctiferella (Hübner, 1813)\nCatoptria lythargyrella (Hübner, 1796)", "Catoptria luctiferella (Hübner, 1813)\nCatoptria lythargyrella (Hübner, 1796)\nCatoptria margaritella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCatoptria myella (Hübner, 1796)\nCatoptria mytilella (Hübner, 1805)\nCatoptria olympica Ganev, 1983\nCatoptria osthelderi (Lattin, 1950)\nCatoptria permutatellus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nCatoptria petrificella (Hübner, 1796)\nCatoptria pinella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCatoptria pyramidellus (Treitschke, 1832)\nCatoptria siliciellus (Rebel, 1893)\nCatoptria verellus (Zincken, 1817)", "Catoptria siliciellus (Rebel, 1893)\nCatoptria verellus (Zincken, 1817)\nChilo luteellus (Motschulsky, 1866)\nChilo pulverosellus Ragonot, 1895\nCholius luteolaris (Scopoli, 1772)\nChrysocrambus craterella (Scopoli, 1763)\nChrysocrambus linetella (Fabricius, 1781)\nChrysoteuchia culmella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCrambus lathoniellus (Zincken, 1817)\nCrambus pascuella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCrambus perlella (Scopoli, 1763)\nCrambus pratella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCrambus silvella (Hübner, 1813)\nCrambus uliginosellus Zeller, 1850", "Crambus silvella (Hübner, 1813)\nCrambus uliginosellus Zeller, 1850\nCynaeda dentalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDiasemia reticularis (Linnaeus, 1761)\nDiasemiopsis ramburialis (Duponchel, 1834)\nDolicharthria bruguieralis (Duponchel, 1833)\nDolicharthria punctalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDolicharthria stigmosalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nDonacaula forficella (Thunberg, 1794)\nDonacaula mucronella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDonacaula niloticus (Zeller, 1867)\nEcpyrrhorrhoe diffusalis (Guenee, 1854)", "Donacaula niloticus (Zeller, 1867)\nEcpyrrhorrhoe diffusalis (Guenee, 1854)\nEcpyrrhorrhoe rubiginalis (Hübner, 1796)\nElophila nymphaeata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEpascestria pustulalis (Hübner, 1823)\nEphelis cruentalis (Geyer, 1832)\nEuchromius bella (Hübner, 1796)\nEuchromius ocellea (Haworth, 1811)\nEuchromius ramburiellus (Duponchel, 1836)\nEuchromius rayatellus (Amsel, 1949)\nEuchromius superbellus (Zeller, 1849)\nEuclasta splendidalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nEudonia delunella (Stainton, 1849)", "Euclasta splendidalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nEudonia delunella (Stainton, 1849)\nEudonia lacustrata (Panzer, 1804)\nEudonia mercurella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEudonia phaeoleuca (Zeller, 1846)\nEudonia truncicolella (Stainton, 1849)\nEurrhypis cacuminalis (Eversmann, 1843)\nEurrhypis guttulalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nEurrhypis pollinalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEvergestis aenealis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEvergestis alborivulalis (Eversmann, 1844)\nEvergestis caesialis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1849)", "Evergestis alborivulalis (Eversmann, 1844)\nEvergestis caesialis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1849)\nEvergestis desertalis (Hübner, 1813)\nEvergestis extimalis (Scopoli, 1763)\nEvergestis forficalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEvergestis frumentalis (Linnaeus, 1761)\nEvergestis limbata (Linnaeus, 1767)\nEvergestis pallidata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nEvergestis politalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEvergestis segetalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nEvergestis sophialis (Fabricius, 1787)\nEvergestis subfuscalis (Staudinger, 1871)", "Evergestis sophialis (Fabricius, 1787)\nEvergestis subfuscalis (Staudinger, 1871)\nFriedlanderia cicatricella (Hübner, 1824)\nGesneria centuriella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHeliothela wulfeniana (Scopoli, 1763)\nHyperlais dulcinalis (Treitschke, 1835)\nLoxostege aeruginalis (Hübner, 1796)\nLoxostege deliblatica Szent-Ivany & Uhrik-Meszaros, 1942\nLoxostege manualis (Geyer, 1832)\nLoxostege mucosalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nLoxostege sticticalis (Linnaeus, 1761)\nLoxostege turbidalis (Treitschke, 1829)", "Loxostege sticticalis (Linnaeus, 1761)\nLoxostege turbidalis (Treitschke, 1829)\nLoxostege virescalis (Guenee, 1854)\nMecyna biternalis (Mann, 1862)\nMecyna flavalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMecyna lutealis (Duponchel, 1833)\nMecyna subsequalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nMecyna trinalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMesocrambus candiellus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nMetacrambus carectellus (Zeller, 1847)\nMetasia carnealis (Treitschke, 1829)\nMetasia ophialis (Treitschke, 1829)", "Metasia carnealis (Treitschke, 1829)\nMetasia ophialis (Treitschke, 1829)\nMetasia suppandalis (Hübner, 1823)\nMetaxmeste phrygialis (Hübner, 1796)\nMetaxmeste schrankiana (Hochenwarth, 1785)\nNomophila noctuella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nNymphula nitidulata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nOrenaia alpestralis (Fabricius, 1787)\nOstrinia nubilalis (Hübner, 1796)\nOstrinia palustralis (Hübner, 1796)\nPalpita vitrealis (Rossi, 1794)\nParacorsia repandalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Palpita vitrealis (Rossi, 1794)\nParacorsia repandalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nParapoynx nivalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nParapoynx stratiotata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParatalanta hyalinalis (Hübner, 1796)\nParatalanta pandalis (Hübner, 1825)\nPediasia aridella (Thunberg, 1788)\nPediasia contaminella (Hübner, 1796)\nPediasia jucundellus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nPediasia luteella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPediasia matricella (Treitschke, 1832)\nPlatytes alpinella (Hübner, 1813)", "Pediasia matricella (Treitschke, 1832)\nPlatytes alpinella (Hübner, 1813)\nPlatytes cerussella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPleuroptya balteata (Fabricius, 1798)\nPleuroptya ruralis (Scopoli, 1763)\nPsammotis pulveralis (Hübner, 1796)\nPseudobissetia terrestrellus (Christoph, 1885)\nPyrausta aerealis (Hübner, 1793)\nPyrausta amatalis Rebel, 1903\nPyrausta aurata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPyrausta castalis Treitschke, 1829\nPyrausta cingulata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPyrausta coracinalis Leraut, 1982", "Pyrausta cingulata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPyrausta coracinalis Leraut, 1982\nPyrausta despicata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPyrausta falcatalis Guenee, 1854\nPyrausta nigrata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPyrausta obfuscata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPyrausta ostrinalis (Hübner, 1796)\nPyrausta porphyralis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPyrausta purpuralis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPyrausta sanguinalis (Linnaeus, 1767)\nPyrausta virginalis Duponchel, 1832\nSchoenobius gigantella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScirpophaga praelata (Scopoli, 1763)", "Schoenobius gigantella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScirpophaga praelata (Scopoli, 1763)\nSclerocona acutella (Eversmann, 1842)\nScoparia basistrigalis Knaggs, 1866\nScoparia ganevi Leraut, 1985\nScoparia ingratella (Zeller, 1846)\nScoparia manifestella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nScoparia pyralella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScoparia subfusca Haworth, 1811\nSitochroa palealis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSitochroa verticalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSynclera traducalis (Zeller, 1852)", "Sitochroa verticalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSynclera traducalis (Zeller, 1852)\nTalis quercella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTegostoma comparalis (Hübner, 1796)\nThisanotia chrysonuchella (Scopoli, 1763)\nTitanio normalis (Hübner, 1796)\nUdea austriacalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nUdea ferrugalis (Hübner, 1796)\nUdea fimbriatralis (Duponchel, 1834)\nUdea fulvalis (Hübner, 1809)\nUdea languidalis (Eversmann, 1842)\nUdea lutealis (Hübner, 1809)\nUdea nebulalis (Hübner, 1796)\nUdea olivalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Udea nebulalis (Hübner, 1796)\nUdea olivalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nUdea prunalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nUdea rhododendronalis (Duponchel, 1834)\nUdea uliginosalis (Stephens, 1834)\nUresiphita gilvata (Fabricius, 1794)\nXanthocrambus saxonellus (Zincken, 1821)", "Douglasiidae\nTinagma anchusella (Benander, 1936)", "Drepanidae\nAsphalia ruficollis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCilix asiatica O. Bang-Haas, 1907\nCilix glaucata (Scopoli, 1763)\nCymatophorina diluta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDrepana falcataria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHabrosyne pyritoides (Hufnagel, 1766)\nOchropacha duplaris (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPolyploca ridens (Fabricius, 1787)\nTethea ocularis (Linnaeus, 1767)\nTethea or (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nThyatira batis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nWatsonalla binaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nWatsonalla cultraria (Fabricius, 1775)", "Elachistidae\nAgonopterix alstromeriana (Clerck, 1759)\nAgonopterix curvipunctosa (Haworth, 1811)\nAgonopterix doronicella (Wocke, 1849)\nAgonopterix furvella (Treitschke, 1832)\nAgonopterix laterella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgonopterix pallorella (Zeller, 1839)\nAgonopterix propinquella (Treitschke, 1835)\nAgonopterix tschorbadjiewi (Rebel, 1916)\nAnchinia daphnella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnchinia laureolella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nBlastodacna atra (Haworth, 1828)", "Anchinia laureolella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nBlastodacna atra (Haworth, 1828)\nBlastodacna hellerella (Duponchel, 1838)\nChrysoclista splendida Karsholt, 1997\nDepressaria absynthiella Herrich-Schäffer, 1865\nDepressaria discipunctella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nDepressaria douglasella Stainton, 1849\nDepressaria marcella Rebel, 1901\nDepressaria pentheri Rebel, 1904\nDepressaria dictamnella (Treitschke, 1835)\nElachista bedellella (Sircom, 1848)\nElachista festucicolella Zeller, 1859\nElachista grotenfelti Kaila, 2012", "Elachista festucicolella Zeller, 1859\nElachista grotenfelti Kaila, 2012\nElachista laetella Rebel, 1930\nElachista maculata Parenti, 1978\nElachista metella Kaila, 2002\nElachista nuraghella Amsel, 1951\nElachista occulta Parenti, 1978\nElachista ohridella Parenti, 2001\nElachista parvula Parenti, 1978\nElachista pullicomella Zeller, 1839\nElachista rudectella Stainton, 1851\nElachista slivenica Kaila, 2007\nElachista squamosella (Duponchel, 1843)\nElachista vegliae Parenti, 1978\nElachista anserinella Zeller, 1839", "Elachista vegliae Parenti, 1978\nElachista anserinella Zeller, 1839\nElachista atricomella Stainton, 1849\nElachista consortella Stainton, 1851\nElachista contaminatella Zeller, 1847\nElachista tetragonella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nEthmia aurifluella (Hübner, 1810)\nEthmia haemorrhoidella (Eversmann, 1844)\nEthmia lugubris (Staudinger, 1879)\nEthmia terminella T. B. Fletcher, 1938\nEthmia tripunctella (Staudinger, 1879)\nExaeretia preisseckeri (Rebel, 1937)\nHeinemannia festivella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Exaeretia preisseckeri (Rebel, 1937)\nHeinemannia festivella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHeinemannia laspeyrella (Hübner, 1796)\nHypercallia citrinalis (Scopoli, 1763)\nOrophia denisella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOrophia ferrugella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPerittia farinella (Thunberg, 1794)\nStephensia brunnichella (Linnaeus, 1767)\nTelechrysis tripuncta (Haworth, 1828)", "Endromidae\nEndromis versicolora (Linnaeus, 1758)\n\nEpermeniidae\nEpermenia aequidentellus (E. Hofmann, 1867)\nEpermenia chaerophyllella (Goeze, 1783)\nEpermenia illigerella (Hübner, 1813)\nEpermenia insecurella (Stainton, 1854)\nEpermenia strictellus (Wocke, 1867)\nEpermenia ochreomaculellus (Milliere, 1854)\nEpermenia pontificella (Hübner, 1796)\nOchromolopis ictella (Hübner, 1813)", "Erebidae\nAmata kruegeri (Ragusa, 1904)\nAmata phegea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nApopestes spectrum (Esper, 1787)\nArctia caja (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArctia festiva (Hufnagel, 1766)\nArctia flavia (Fuessly, 1779)\nArctia villica (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArctornis l-nigrum (Muller, 1764)\nAtolmis rubricollis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAutophila asiatica (Staudinger, 1888)\nAutophila dilucida (Hübner, 1808)\nAutophila limbata (Staudinger, 1871)\nAutophila anaphanes Boursin, 1940\nAutophila ligaminosa (Eversmann, 1851)", "Autophila anaphanes Boursin, 1940\nAutophila ligaminosa (Eversmann, 1851)\nCallimorpha dominula (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCalliteara pudibunda (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCalymma communimacula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCalyptra thalictri (Borkhausen, 1790)\nCatephia alchymista (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCatocala coniuncta (Esper, 1787)\nCatocala conversa (Esper, 1783)\nCatocala dilecta (Hübner, 1808)\nCatocala disjuncta (Geyer, 1828)\nCatocala diversa (Geyer, 1828)\nCatocala electa (Vieweg, 1790)", "Catocala disjuncta (Geyer, 1828)\nCatocala diversa (Geyer, 1828)\nCatocala electa (Vieweg, 1790)\nCatocala elocata (Esper, 1787)\nCatocala eutychea Treitschke, 1835\nCatocala fraxini (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCatocala fulminea (Scopoli, 1763)\nCatocala hymenaea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCatocala lupina Herrich-Schäffer, 1851\nCatocala nupta (Linnaeus, 1767)\nCatocala nymphaea (Esper, 1787)\nCatocala nymphagoga (Esper, 1787)\nCatocala promissa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCatocala puerpera (Giorna, 1791)", "Catocala promissa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCatocala puerpera (Giorna, 1791)\nCatocala separata Freyer, 1848\nCatocala sponsa (Linnaeus, 1767)\nChelis maculosa (Gerning, 1780)\nClytie syriaca (Bugnion, 1837)\nColobochyla salicalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCoscinia cribraria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCoscinia striata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCybosia mesomella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCymbalophora pudica (Esper, 1785)\nCymbalophora rivularis (Menetries, 1832)\nDiacrisia sannio (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDiaphora luctuosa (Hübner, 1831)", "Diacrisia sannio (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDiaphora luctuosa (Hübner, 1831)\nDiaphora mendica (Clerck, 1759)\nDicallomera fascelina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDrasteria cailino (Lefebvre, 1827)\nDrasteria caucasica (Kolenati, 1846)\nDysauxes ancilla (Linnaeus, 1767)\nDysauxes famula (Freyer, 1836)\nDysgonia algira (Linnaeus, 1767)\nDysgonia torrida (Guenee, 1852)\nEilema caniola (Hübner, 1808)\nEilema complana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEilema costalis (Zeller, 1847)\nEilema depressa (Esper, 1787)\nEilema griseola (Hübner, 1803)", "Eilema costalis (Zeller, 1847)\nEilema depressa (Esper, 1787)\nEilema griseola (Hübner, 1803)\nEilema lurideola (Zincken, 1817)\nEilema lutarella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEilema palliatella (Scopoli, 1763)\nEilema pseudocomplana (Daniel, 1939)\nEilema pygmaeola (Doubleday, 1847)\nEilema sororcula (Hufnagel, 1766)\nEublemma amoena (Hübner, 1803)\nEublemma minutata (Fabricius, 1794)\nEublemma ostrina (Hübner, 1808)\nEublemma parva (Hübner, 1808)\nEublemma polygramma (Duponchel, 1842)\nEublemma pudorina (Staudinger, 1889)", "Eublemma polygramma (Duponchel, 1842)\nEublemma pudorina (Staudinger, 1889)\nEublemma purpurina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEublemma rosea (Hübner, 1790)\nEublemma viridula (Guenee, 1841)\nEuclidia mi (Clerck, 1759)\nEuclidia glyphica (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEuclidia triquetra (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuplagia quadripunctaria (Poda, 1761)\nEuproctis chrysorrhoea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEuproctis similis (Fuessly, 1775)\nExophyla rectangularis (Geyer, 1828)\nGrammodes bifasciata (Petagna, 1787)", "Exophyla rectangularis (Geyer, 1828)\nGrammodes bifasciata (Petagna, 1787)\nGrammodes stolida (Fabricius, 1775)\nHerminia grisealis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHerminia tarsicrinalis (Knoch, 1782)\nHerminia tarsipennalis (Treitschke, 1835)\nHerminia tenuialis (Rebel, 1899)\nHypena munitalis Mann, 1861\nHypena obesalis Treitschke, 1829\nHypena obsitalis (Hübner, 1813)\nHypena palpalis (Hübner, 1796)\nHypena proboscidalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHypena rostralis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHypenodes anatolica Schwingenschuss, 1938", "Hypena rostralis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHypenodes anatolica Schwingenschuss, 1938\nHyphantria cunea (Drury, 1773)\nHyphoraia aulica (Linnaeus, 1758)\nIdia calvaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLaelia coenosa (Hübner, 1808)\nLaspeyria flexula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLeucoma salicis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLithosia quadra (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLygephila craccae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLygephila lusoria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLygephila pastinum (Treitschke, 1826)\nLygephila procax (Hübner, 1813)", "Lygephila pastinum (Treitschke, 1826)\nLygephila procax (Hübner, 1813)\nLygephila viciae (Hübner, 1822)\nLymantria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLymantria monacha (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMacrochilo cribrumalis (Hübner, 1793)\nMetachrostis dardouini (Boisduval, 1840)\nMetachrostis velox (Hübner, 1813)\nMiltochrista miniata (Forster, 1771)\nMinucia lunaris (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nNodaria nodosalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nNudaria mundana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nOcneria ledereri (Milliere, 1869)", "Nudaria mundana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nOcneria ledereri (Milliere, 1869)\nOcneria rubea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOcnogyna parasita (Hübner, 1790)\nOdice arcuinna (Hübner, 1790)\nOdice suava (Hübner, 1813)\nOphiusa tirhaca (Cramer, 1773)\nOrectis proboscidata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nOrgyia antiquoides (Hübner, 1822)\nOrgyia antiqua (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParacolax tristalis (Fabricius, 1794)\nParascotia fuliginaria (Linnaeus, 1761)\nParasemia plantaginis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParocneria detrita (Esper, 1785)", "Parasemia plantaginis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParocneria detrita (Esper, 1785)\nParocneria terebinthi (Freyer, 1838)\nPechipogo plumigeralis Hübner, 1825\nPechipogo strigilata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPelosia muscerda (Hufnagel, 1766)\nPelosia obtusa (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nPenthophera morio (Linnaeus, 1767)\nPhragmatobia fuliginosa (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhragmatobia luctifera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhragmatobia placida (Frivaldszky, 1835)\nPhytometra viridaria (Clerck, 1759)\nPolypogon tentacularia (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Phytometra viridaria (Clerck, 1759)\nPolypogon tentacularia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nRaparna conicephala (Staudinger, 1870)\nRhyparia purpurata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nRhyparioides metelkana (Lederer, 1861)\nRivula sericealis (Scopoli, 1763)\nSchrankia costaestrigalis (Stephens, 1834)\nSchrankia taenialis (Hübner, 1809)\nScoliopteryx libatrix (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSetina irrorella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSetina roscida (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSimplicia rectalis (Eversmann, 1842)\nSpilosoma lubricipeda (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Simplicia rectalis (Eversmann, 1842)\nSpilosoma lubricipeda (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSpilosoma lutea (Hufnagel, 1766)\nSpilosoma urticae (Esper, 1789)\nThumatha senex (Hübner, 1808)\nTrisateles emortualis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTyria jacobaeae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nUtetheisa pulchella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nWatsonarctia deserta (Bartel, 1902)\nZanclognatha lunalis (Scopoli, 1763)\nZanclognatha zelleralis (Wocke, 1850)\nZebeeba falsalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1839)\nZekelita antiqualis (Hübner, 1809)\nZethes insularis Rambur, 1833", "Eriocottidae\nDeuterotinea balcanica Zagulajev, 1972\n\nEuteliidae\nEutelia adoratrix (Staudinger, 1892)\nEutelia adulatrix (Hübner, 1813)", "Gelechiidae\nAcompsia cinerella (Clerck, 1759)\nAgonochaetia quartana Povolny, 1990\nAltenia modesta (Danilevsky, 1955)\nAltenia scriptella (Hübner, 1796)\nAnacampsis obscurella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnacampsis populella (Clerck, 1759)\nAnacampsis scintillella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1841)\nAnarsia lineatella Zeller, 1839\nApodia bifractella (Duponchel, 1843)\nAproaerema anthyllidella (Hübner, 1813)\nAristotelia decoratella (Staudinger, 1879)\nAristotelia decurtella (Hübner, 1813)", "Aristotelia decoratella (Staudinger, 1879)\nAristotelia decurtella (Hübner, 1813)\nAristotelia subdecurtella (Stainton, 1859)\nAristotelia subericinella (Duponchel, 1843)\nAroga aristotelis (Milliere, 1876)\nAroga flavicomella (Zeller, 1839)\nAroga velocella (Duponchel, 1838)\nAthrips rancidella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nAtremaea lonchoptera Staudinger, 1871\nBrachmia blandella (Fabricius, 1798)\nBrachmia dimidiella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBryotropha affinis (Haworth, 1828)\nBryotropha arabica Amsel, 1952", "Bryotropha affinis (Haworth, 1828)\nBryotropha arabica Amsel, 1952\nBryotropha azovica Bidzilia, 1997\nBryotropha desertella (Douglas, 1850)\nBryotropha domestica (Haworth, 1828)\nBryotropha dryadella (Zeller, 1850)\nBryotropha figulella (Staudinger, 1859)\nBryotropha hendrikseni Karsholt & Rutten, 2005\nBryotropha hulli Karsholt & Rutten, 2005\nBryotropha plebejella (Zeller, 1847)\nBryotropha senectella (Zeller, 1839)\nBryotropha tachyptilella (Rebel, 1916)\nBryotropha terrella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Bryotropha tachyptilella (Rebel, 1916)\nBryotropha terrella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCarpatolechia decorella (Haworth, 1812)\nCarpatolechia fugacella (Zeller, 1839)\nCarpatolechia proximella (Hübner, 1796)\nCaryocolum fibigerium Huemer, 1988\nCaryocolum fischerella (Treitschke, 1833)\nCaryocolum junctella (Douglas, 1851)\nCaryocolum leucomelanella (Zeller, 1839)\nCaryocolum tischeriella (Zeller, 1839)\nChionodes distinctella (Zeller, 1839)\nChionodes electella (Zeller, 1839)\nChionodes fumatella (Douglas, 1850)", "Chionodes electella (Zeller, 1839)\nChionodes fumatella (Douglas, 1850)\nChionodes hayreddini Kocak, 1986\nChionodes viduella (Fabricius, 1794)\nChrysoesthia drurella (Fabricius, 1775)\nDichomeris alacella (Zeller, 1839)\nDichomeris derasella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDichomeris juniperella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nDichomeris marginella (Fabricius, 1781)\nDichomeris ustalella (Fabricius, 1794)\nDirhinosia cervinella (Eversmann, 1844)\nEphysteris insulella (Heinemann, 1870)\nEphysteris promptella (Staudinger, 1859)", "Ephysteris insulella (Heinemann, 1870)\nEphysteris promptella (Staudinger, 1859)\nEulamprotes atrella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEulamprotes unicolorella (Duponchel, 1843)\nEulamprotes wilkella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nExoteleia dodecella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nExoteleia succinctella (Zeller, 1872)\nFilatima spurcella (Duponchel, 1843)\nGelechia rhombella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGelechia scotinella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nGelechia sororculella (Hübner, 1817)\nGnorimoschema soffneri Riedl, 1965", "Gelechia sororculella (Hübner, 1817)\nGnorimoschema soffneri Riedl, 1965\nHelcystogramma lutatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nHelcystogramma triannulella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nHypatima rhomboidella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nIsophrictis anthemidella (Wocke, 1871)\nIsophrictis striatella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nKlimeschiopsis kiningerella (Duponchel, 1843)\nLutilabria lutilabrella (Mann, 1857)\nMegacraspedus binotella (Duponchel, 1843)\nMegacraspedus dolosellus (Zeller, 1839)\nMesophleps silacella (Hübner, 1796)", "Megacraspedus dolosellus (Zeller, 1839)\nMesophleps silacella (Hübner, 1796)\nMetzneria aestivella (Zeller, 1839)\nMetzneria aprilella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nMetzneria artificella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1861)\nMetzneria diffusella Englert, 1974\nMetzneria intestinella (Mann, 1864)\nMetzneria lappella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMetzneria neuropterella (Zeller, 1839)\nMetzneria paucipunctella (Zeller, 1839)\nMirificarma eburnella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMonochroa cytisella (Curtis, 1837)", "Mirificarma eburnella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMonochroa cytisella (Curtis, 1837)\nMonochroa lutulentella (Zeller, 1839)\nMonochroa rumicetella (O. Hofmann, 1868)\nMonochroa sepicolella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nMonochroa servella (Zeller, 1839)\nMonochroa tenebrella (Hübner, 1817)\nNeotelphusa cisti (Stainton, 1869)\nNothris verbascella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nParastenolechia nigrinotella (Zeller, 1847)\nPectinophora gossypiella (Saunders, 1844)\nPexicopia malvella (Hübner, 1805)", "Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders, 1844)\nPexicopia malvella (Hübner, 1805)\nPhthorimaea operculella (Zeller, 1873)\nPlatyedra subcinerea (Haworth, 1828)\nProlita sexpunctella (Fabricius, 1794)\nProlita solutella (Zeller, 1839)\nPseudotelphusa paripunctella (Thunberg, 1794)\nPseudotelphusa scalella (Scopoli, 1763)\nPsoricoptera gibbosella (Zeller, 1839)\nRecurvaria leucatella (Clerck, 1759)\nRecurvaria nanella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScrobipalpa acuminatella (Sircom, 1850)", "Recurvaria nanella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScrobipalpa acuminatella (Sircom, 1850)\nScrobipalpa artemisiella (Treitschke, 1833)\nScrobipalpa atriplicella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1841)\nScrobipalpa jariorum Huemer & Karsholt, 2010\nScrobipalpa kasyi Povolny, 1968\nScrobipalpa obsoletella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1841)\nScrobipalpa ocellatella (Boyd, 1858)\nScrobipalpa proclivella (Fuchs, 1886)\nScrobipalpa salinella (Zeller, 1847)\nScrobipalpa soffneri Povolny, 1964\nScrobipalpa thymelaeae (Amsel, 1939)", "Scrobipalpa soffneri Povolny, 1964\nScrobipalpa thymelaeae (Amsel, 1939)\nSitotroga cerealella (Olivier, 1789)\nSophronia acaudella Rebel, 1903\nSophronia consanguinella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nSophronia sicariellus (Zeller, 1839)\nStomopteryx detersella (Zeller, 1847)\nStomopteryx remissella (Zeller, 1847)\nSyncopacma cinctella (Clerck, 1759)\nSyncopacma coronillella (Treitschke, 1833)\nSyncopacma patruella (Mann, 1857)\nSyncopacma taeniolella (Zeller, 1839)\nTeleiodes luculella (Hübner, 1813)", "Syncopacma taeniolella (Zeller, 1839)\nTeleiodes luculella (Hübner, 1813)\nTeleiodes wagae (Nowicki, 1860)\nTeleiopsis diffinis (Haworth, 1828)\nTeleiopsis terebinthinella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1856)\nThiotricha majorella (Rebel, 1910)\nXystophora carchariella (Zeller, 1839)\nXystophora pulveratella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)", "Geometridae\nAbraxas grossulariata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAbraxas sylvata (Scopoli, 1763)\nAcasis appensata (Eversmann, 1842)\nAcasis viretata (Hübner, 1799)\nAethalura punctulata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgriopis aurantiaria (Hübner, 1799)\nAgriopis bajaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgriopis beschkovi Ganev, 1987\nAgriopis leucophaearia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgriopis marginaria (Fabricius, 1776)\nAlcis jubata (Thunberg, 1788)\nAlcis repandata (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Alcis jubata (Thunberg, 1788)\nAlcis repandata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAleucis distinctata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1839)\nAlsophila aceraria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAlsophila aescularia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAngerona prunaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAnticlea derivata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnticollix sparsata (Treitschke, 1828)\nApeira syringaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAplasta ononaria (Fuessly, 1783)\nAplocera columbata (Metzner, 1845)\nAplocera efformata (Guenee, 1858)\nAplocera plagiata (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Aplocera efformata (Guenee, 1858)\nAplocera plagiata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAplocera praeformata (Hübner, 1826)\nAplocera simpliciata (Treitschke, 1835)\nApocheima hispidaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nApochima flabellaria (Heeger, 1838)\nArchiearis parthenias (Linnaeus, 1761)\nArtiora evonymaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAscotis selenaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAsovia maeoticaria (Alphéraky, 1876)\nAspitates gilvaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAspitates ochrearia (Rossi, 1794)", "Aspitates gilvaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAspitates ochrearia (Rossi, 1794)\nAsthena albulata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nAsthena anseraria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nBaptria tibiale (Esper, 1791)\nBiston betularia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nBiston strataria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nBoudinotiana notha (Hübner, 1803)\nBoudinotiana puella (Esper, 1787)\nBupalus piniaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCabera exanthemata (Scopoli, 1763)\nCabera pusaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCampaea margaritaria (Linnaeus, 1761)\nCamptogramma bilineata (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Campaea margaritaria (Linnaeus, 1761)\nCamptogramma bilineata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCamptogramma scripturata (Hübner, 1799)\nCarsia lythoxylata (Hübner, 1799)\nCataclysme riguata (Hübner, 1813)\nCatarhoe cuculata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nCatarhoe permixtaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1856)\nCatarhoe putridaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nCatarhoe rubidata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCepphis advenaria (Hübner, 1790)\nChariaspilates formosaria (Eversmann, 1837)\nCharissa certhiatus (Rebel & Zerny, 1931)", "Chariaspilates formosaria (Eversmann, 1837)\nCharissa certhiatus (Rebel & Zerny, 1931)\nCharissa obscurata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCharissa pullata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCharissa mucidaria (Hübner, 1799)\nCharissa variegata (Duponchel, 1830)\nCharissa ambiguata (Duponchel, 1830)\nCharissa onustaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nCharissa intermedia (Wehrli, 1917)\nCharissa glaucinaria (Hübner, 1799)\nChesias rufata (Fabricius, 1775)\nChiasmia aestimaria (Hübner, 1809)\nChiasmia clathrata (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Chiasmia aestimaria (Hübner, 1809)\nChiasmia clathrata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nChlorissa cloraria (Hübner, 1813)\nChlorissa viridata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nChloroclysta miata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nChloroclysta siterata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nChloroclystis v-ata (Haworth, 1809)\nCidaria fulvata (Forster, 1771)\nCleora cinctaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCleorodes lichenaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nCleta filacearia (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nCoenotephria ablutaria (Boisduval, 1840)\nCoenotephria tophaceata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Coenotephria ablutaria (Boisduval, 1840)\nCoenotephria tophaceata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nColostygia aptata (Hübner, 1813)\nColostygia aqueata (Hübner, 1813)\nColostygia austriacaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nColostygia olivata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nColostygia pectinataria (Knoch, 1781)\nColostygia turbata (Hübner, 1799)\nColotois pennaria (Linnaeus, 1761)\nComibaena bajularia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCosmorhoe ocellata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCostaconvexa polygrammata (Borkhausen, 1794)", "Cosmorhoe ocellata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCostaconvexa polygrammata (Borkhausen, 1794)\nCrocallis elinguaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCrocallis tusciaria (Borkhausen, 1793)\nCyclophora linearia (Hübner, 1799)\nCyclophora porata (Linnaeus, 1767)\nCyclophora punctaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCyclophora suppunctaria (Zeller, 1847)\nCyclophora albiocellaria (Hübner, 1789)\nCyclophora annularia (Fabricius, 1775)\nCyclophora pendularia (Clerck, 1759)\nCyclophora puppillaria (Hübner, 1799)\nCyclophora quercimontaria (Bastelberger, 1897)", "Cyclophora puppillaria (Hübner, 1799)\nCyclophora quercimontaria (Bastelberger, 1897)\nCyclophora ruficiliaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nDasycorsa modesta (Staudinger, 1879)\nDocirava dervenaria (von Mentzer, 1981)\nDyscia innocentaria (Christoph, 1885)\nDysstroma citrata (Linnaeus, 1761)\nDysstroma truncata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nEarophila badiata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEcliptopera capitata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1839)\nEcliptopera silaceata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Ecliptopera capitata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1839)\nEcliptopera silaceata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEctropis crepuscularia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEilicrinia cordiaria (Hübner, 1790)\nEilicrinia trinotata (Metzner, 1845)\nElectrophaes corylata (Thunberg, 1792)\nElophos dilucidaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEmaturga atomaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEnnomos erosaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEnnomos fuscantaria (Haworth, 1809)\nEnnomos quercaria (Hübner, 1813)\nEnnomos quercinaria (Hufnagel, 1767)", "Ennomos quercaria (Hübner, 1813)\nEnnomos quercinaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nEntephria caesiata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEntephria cyanata (Hübner, 1809)\nEntephria flavicinctata (Hübner, 1813)\nEntephria nobiliaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nEpione repandaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nEpione vespertaria (Linnaeus, 1767)\nEpirrhoe alternata (Muller, 1764)\nEpirrhoe galiata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEpirrhoe hastulata (Hübner, 1790)\nEpirrhoe molluginata (Hübner, 1813)\nEpirrhoe rivata (Hübner, 1813)", "Epirrhoe molluginata (Hübner, 1813)\nEpirrhoe rivata (Hübner, 1813)\nEpirrhoe tristata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEpirrita autumnata (Borkhausen, 1794)\nEpirrita christyi (Allen, 1906)\nEpirrita dilutata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nErannis declinans (Staudinger, 1879)\nErannis defoliaria (Clerck, 1759)\nEuchoeca nebulata (Scopoli, 1763)\nEucrostes indigenata (de Villers, 1789)\nEulithis populata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEulithis prunata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEumannia oppositaria (Mann, 1864)\nEumera regina Staudinger, 1892", "Eulithis prunata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEumannia oppositaria (Mann, 1864)\nEumera regina Staudinger, 1892\nEuphyia biangulata (Haworth, 1809)\nEuphyia frustata (Treitschke, 1828)\nEuphyia unangulata (Haworth, 1809)\nEupithecia abbreviata Stephens, 1831\nEupithecia abietaria (Goeze, 1781)\nEupithecia absinthiata (Clerck, 1759)\nEupithecia alliaria Staudinger, 1870\nEupithecia assimilata Doubleday, 1856\nEupithecia biornata Christoph, 1867\nEupithecia breviculata (Donzel, 1837)\nEupithecia carpophagata Staudinger, 1871", "Eupithecia breviculata (Donzel, 1837)\nEupithecia carpophagata Staudinger, 1871\nEupithecia centaureata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEupithecia cretaceata (Packard, 1874)\nEupithecia cuculliaria (Rebel, 1901)\nEupithecia denotata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia denticulata (Treitschke, 1828)\nEupithecia distinctaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848\nEupithecia dodoneata Guenee, 1858\nEupithecia druentiata Dietze, 1902\nEupithecia egenaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848\nEupithecia ericeata (Rambur, 1833)", "Eupithecia egenaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848\nEupithecia ericeata (Rambur, 1833)\nEupithecia extraversaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1852\nEupithecia extremata (Fabricius, 1787)\nEupithecia gemellata Herrich-Schäffer, 1861\nEupithecia graphata (Treitschke, 1828)\nEupithecia gratiosata Herrich-Schäffer, 1861\nEupithecia gueneata Milliere, 1862\nEupithecia haworthiata Doubleday, 1856\nEupithecia icterata (de Villers, 1789)\nEupithecia impurata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia indigata (Hübner, 1813)", "Eupithecia impurata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia indigata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia innotata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nEupithecia insigniata (Hübner, 1790)\nEupithecia intricata (Zetterstedt, 1839)\nEupithecia inturbata (Hübner, 1817)\nEupithecia irriguata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia laquaearia Herrich-Schäffer, 1848\nEupithecia limbata Staudinger, 1879\nEupithecia linariata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEupithecia millefoliata Rossler, 1866\nEupithecia nanata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia ochridata Schutze & Pinker, 1968", "Eupithecia nanata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia ochridata Schutze & Pinker, 1968\nEupithecia orphnata W. Petersen, 1909\nEupithecia oxycedrata (Rambur, 1833)\nEupithecia pimpinellata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia plumbeolata (Haworth, 1809)\nEupithecia pusillata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEupithecia pyreneata Mabille, 1871\nEupithecia quercetica Prout, 1938\nEupithecia satyrata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia schiefereri Bohatsch, 1893\nEupithecia selinata Herrich-Schäffer, 1861\nEupithecia semigraphata Bruand, 1850", "Eupithecia selinata Herrich-Schäffer, 1861\nEupithecia semigraphata Bruand, 1850\nEupithecia silenata Assmann, 1848\nEupithecia silenicolata Mabille, 1867\nEupithecia simpliciata (Haworth, 1809)\nEupithecia spissilineata (Metzner, 1846)\nEupithecia subfuscata (Haworth, 1809)\nEupithecia subumbrata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEupithecia succenturiata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEupithecia tantillaria Boisduval, 1840\nEupithecia tenuiata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia thurnerata Schutze, 1958", "Eupithecia tenuiata (Hübner, 1813)\nEupithecia thurnerata Schutze, 1958\nEupithecia tripunctaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1852\nEupithecia trisignaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848\nEupithecia undata (Freyer, 1840)\nEupithecia variostrigata Alphéraky, 1876\nEupithecia venosata (Fabricius, 1787)\nEupithecia veratraria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848\nEupithecia virgaureata Doubleday, 1861\nEupithecia vulgata (Haworth, 1809)\nEustroma reticulata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nFagivorina arenaria (Hufnagel, 1767)", "Eustroma reticulata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nFagivorina arenaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nGandaritis pyraliata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGeometra papilionaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGlacies coracina (Esper, 1805)\nGnopharmia stevenaria (Boisduval, 1840)\nGnophos sartata Treitschke, 1827\nGnophos furvata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGnophos obfuscata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGymnoscelis rufifasciata (Haworth, 1809)\nGypsochroa renitidata (Hübner, 1817)\nHeliomata glarearia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Gypsochroa renitidata (Hübner, 1817)\nHeliomata glarearia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHemistola chrysoprasaria (Esper, 1795)\nHemithea aestivaria (Hübner, 1789)\nHorisme calligraphata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1838)\nHorisme corticata (Treitschke, 1835)\nHorisme radicaria (de La Harpe, 1855)\nHorisme tersata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHorisme vitalbata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHydrelia flammeolaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nHydria undulata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHydriomena furcata (Thunberg, 1784)", "Hydria undulata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHydriomena furcata (Thunberg, 1784)\nHydriomena impluviata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHydriomena ruberata (Freyer, 1831)\nHylaea fasciaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHypomecis punctinalis (Scopoli, 1763)\nHypomecis roboraria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHypoxystis pluviaria (Fabricius, 1787)\nIdaea albitorquata (Pungeler, 1909)\nIdaea aureolaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIdaea aversata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nIdaea biselata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nIdaea camparia (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)", "Idaea biselata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nIdaea camparia (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nIdaea circuitaria (Hübner, 1819)\nIdaea consanguinaria (Lederer, 1853)\nIdaea consolidata (Lederer, 1853)\nIdaea contiguaria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea degeneraria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea determinata (Staudinger, 1876)\nIdaea deversaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nIdaea dilutaria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea dimidiata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nIdaea distinctaria (Boisduval, 1840)\nIdaea elongaria (Rambur, 1833)\nIdaea emarginata (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Idaea elongaria (Rambur, 1833)\nIdaea emarginata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nIdaea filicata (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea fuscovenosa (Goeze, 1781)\nIdaea humiliata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nIdaea inquinata (Scopoli, 1763)\nIdaea laevigata (Scopoli, 1763)\nIdaea metohiensis (Rebel, 1900)\nIdaea moniliata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIdaea obsoletaria (Rambur, 1833)\nIdaea ochrata (Scopoli, 1763)\nIdaea ostrinaria (Hübner, 1813)\nIdaea pallidata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIdaea politaria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea rubraria (Staudinger, 1901)", "Idaea politaria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea rubraria (Staudinger, 1901)\nIdaea rufaria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea rusticata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIdaea seriata (Schrank, 1802)\nIdaea serpentata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nIdaea spissilimbaria (Mabille, 1888)\nIdaea straminata (Borkhausen, 1794)\nIdaea subsericeata (Haworth, 1809)\nIdaea sylvestraria (Hübner, 1799)\nIdaea trigeminata (Haworth, 1809)\nIsturgia arenacearia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIsturgia murinaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Isturgia murinaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIsturgia roraria (Fabricius, 1776)\nJodis lactearia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLampropteryx suffumata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLarentia clavaria (Haworth, 1809)\nLigdia adustata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLignyoptera fumidaria (Hübner, 1825)\nLithostege farinata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nLithostege griseata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLobophora halterata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nLomaspilis marginata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLomographa bimaculata (Fabricius, 1775)", "Lomaspilis marginata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLomographa bimaculata (Fabricius, 1775)\nLomographa temerata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLycia graecarius (Staudinger, 1861)\nLycia hirtaria (Clerck, 1759)\nLythria cruentaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nLythria purpuraria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMacaria alternata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMacaria artesiaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMacaria liturata (Clerck, 1759)\nMacaria notata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMacaria wauaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMartania taeniata (Stephens, 1831)", "Macaria notata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMacaria wauaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMartania taeniata (Stephens, 1831)\nMelanthia alaudaria (Freyer, 1846)\nMelanthia procellata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMenophra abruptaria (Thunberg, 1792)\nMesoleuca albicillata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMesotype didymata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMesotype parallelolineata (Retzius, 1783)\nMesotype verberata (Scopoli, 1763)\nMicroloxia herbaria (Hübner, 1813)\nMinoa murinata (Scopoli, 1763)\nNarraga fasciolaria (Hufnagel, 1767)", "Minoa murinata (Scopoli, 1763)\nNarraga fasciolaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nNarraga tessularia (Metzner, 1845)\nNebula achromaria (de La Harpe, 1853)\nNebula nebulata (Treitschke, 1828)\nNebula senectaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nNothocasis sertata (Hübner, 1817)\nNychiodes amygdalaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nNychiodes dalmatina Wagner, 1909\nNychiodes waltheri Wagner, 1919\nNycterosea obstipata (Fabricius, 1794)\nOdezia atrata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOdontopera bidentata (Clerck, 1759)", "Odezia atrata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOdontopera bidentata (Clerck, 1759)\nOdontopera graecarius (A. Bang-Haas, 1910)\nOperophtera brumata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOperophtera fagata (Scharfenberg, 1805)\nOpisthograptis luteolata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOrthostixis cribraria (Hübner, 1799)\nOulobophora externaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nOulobophora internata (Pungeler, 1888)\nOurapteryx sambucaria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParaboarmia viertlii (Bohatsch, 1883)\nParadarisa consonaria (Hübner, 1799)\nParectropis similaria (Hufnagel, 1767)", "Paradarisa consonaria (Hübner, 1799)\nParectropis similaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nPareulype berberata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPasiphila chloerata (Mabille, 1870)\nPasiphila rectangulata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPelurga comitata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPennithera firmata (Hübner, 1822)\nPennithera ulicata (Rambur, 1934)\nPerconia strigillaria (Hübner, 1787)\nPeribatodes correptaria (Zeller, 1847)\nPeribatodes rhomboidaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPeribatodes secundaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Peribatodes secundaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPeribatodes umbraria (Hübner, 1809)\nPerizoma affinitata (Stephens, 1831)\nPerizoma albulata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPerizoma alchemillata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPerizoma bifaciata (Haworth, 1809)\nPerizoma blandiata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPerizoma flavofasciata (Thunberg, 1792)\nPerizoma hydrata (Treitschke, 1829)\nPerizoma lugdunaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nPerizoma minorata (Treitschke, 1828)\nPerizoma obsoletata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1838)", "Perizoma minorata (Treitschke, 1828)\nPerizoma obsoletata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1838)\nPetrophora chlorosata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPhaiogramma etruscaria (Zeller, 1849)\nPhibalapteryx virgata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nPhigalia pilosaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhilereme transversata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nPhilereme vetulata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPlagodis dolabraria (Linnaeus, 1767)\nPlagodis pulveraria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nProteuchloris neriaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nProtorhoe corollaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)", "Proteuchloris neriaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nProtorhoe corollaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)\nProtorhoe unicata (Guenee, 1858)\nPseudopanthera macularia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPseudoterpna pruinata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nPungeleria capreolaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nRheumaptera hastata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nRheumaptera subhastata (Nolcken, 1870)\nRhodometra sacraria (Linnaeus, 1767)\nRhodostrophia calabra (Petagna, 1786)\nRhodostrophia discopunctata Amsel, 1935\nRhodostrophia vibicaria (Clerck, 1759)", "Rhodostrophia discopunctata Amsel, 1935\nRhodostrophia vibicaria (Clerck, 1759)\nRhoptria asperaria (Hübner, 1817)\nSchistostege decussata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScopula beckeraria (Lederer, 1853)\nScopula confinaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nScopula drenowskii Sterneck, 1941\nScopula flaccidaria (Zeller, 1852)\nScopula floslactata (Haworth, 1809)\nScopula imitaria (Hübner, 1799)\nScopula immistaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nScopula immutata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nScopula incanata (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Scopula immutata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nScopula incanata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nScopula marginepunctata (Goeze, 1781)\nScopula minorata (Boisduval, 1833)\nScopula subpunctaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nScopula ternata Schrank, 1802\nScopula corrivalaria (Kretschmar, 1862)\nScopula decorata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScopula immorata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nScopula nigropunctata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nScopula ochraceata (Staudinger, 1901)\nScopula orientalis (Alphéraky, 1876)\nScopula ornata (Scopoli, 1763)", "Scopula orientalis (Alphéraky, 1876)\nScopula ornata (Scopoli, 1763)\nScopula rubiginata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nScopula submutata (Treitschke, 1828)\nScopula tessellaria (Boisduval, 1840)\nScotopteryx bipunctaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScotopteryx chenopodiata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nScotopteryx coarctaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScotopteryx ignorata Huemer & Hausmann, 1998\nScotopteryx luridata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nScotopteryx moeniata (Scopoli, 1763)\nScotopteryx mucronata (Scopoli, 1763)", "Scotopteryx moeniata (Scopoli, 1763)\nScotopteryx mucronata (Scopoli, 1763)\nScotopteryx vicinaria (Duponchel, 1830)\nSelenia dentaria (Fabricius, 1775)\nSelenia lunularia (Hübner, 1788)\nSelenia tetralunaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nSiona lineata (Scopoli, 1763)\nSpargania luctuata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nStegania dilectaria (Hübner, 1790)\nSynopsia sociaria (Hübner, 1799)\nTephronia oranaria Staudinger, 1892\nTephronia sepiaria (Hufnagel, 1767)\nThalera fimbrialis (Scopoli, 1763)\nThera britannica (Turner, 1925)", "Thalera fimbrialis (Scopoli, 1763)\nThera britannica (Turner, 1925)\nThera cognata (Thunberg, 1792)\nThera juniperata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nThera obeliscata (Hübner, 1787)\nThera variata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nThera vetustata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTherapis flavicaria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTheria rupicapraria (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nThetidia smaragdaria (Fabricius, 1787)\nTimandra comae Schmidt, 1931\nTrichopteryx carpinata (Borkhausen, 1794)", "Timandra comae Schmidt, 1931\nTrichopteryx carpinata (Borkhausen, 1794)\nTrichopteryx polycommata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTriphosa dubitata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nTriphosa sabaudiata (Duponchel, 1830)\nVenusia blomeri (Curtis, 1832)\nVenusia cambrica Curtis, 1839\nXanthorhoe biriviata (Borkhausen, 1794)\nXanthorhoe decoloraria (Esper, 1806)\nXanthorhoe designata (Hufnagel, 1767)\nXanthorhoe ferrugata (Clerck, 1759)\nXanthorhoe fluctuata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nXanthorhoe montanata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Xanthorhoe fluctuata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nXanthorhoe montanata (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nXanthorhoe quadrifasiata (Clerck, 1759)\nXanthorhoe spadicearia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Glyphipterigidae\nAcrolepia autumnitella Curtis, 1838\nAcrolepiopsis marcidella (Curtis, 1850)\nDigitivalva perlepidella (Stainton, 1849)\nDigitivalva reticulella (Hübner, 1796)\nDigitivalva granitella (Treitschke, 1833)\nDigitivalva pulicariae (Klimesch, 1956)\nGlyphipterix equitella (Scopoli, 1763)\nGlyphipterix fuscoviridella (Haworth, 1828)\nGlyphipterix schoenicolella Boyd, 1859", "Gracillariidae\nAcrocercops brongniardella (Fabricius, 1798)\nAspilapteryx limosella (Duponchel, 1843)\nAspilapteryx tringipennella (Zeller, 1839)\nCallisto denticulella (Thunberg, 1794)\nCaloptilia elongella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nCaloptilia semifascia (Haworth, 1828)\nCalybites phasianipennella (Hübner, 1813)\nCameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic, 1986\nCupedia cupediella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nDialectica soffneri (Gregor & Povolny, 1965)\nGracillaria syringella (Fabricius, 1794)", "Dialectica soffneri (Gregor & Povolny, 1965)\nGracillaria syringella (Fabricius, 1794)\nLeucospilapteryx omissella (Stainton, 1848)\nMicrurapteryx kollariella (Zeller, 1839)\nParornix anglicella (Stainton, 1850)\nParornix carpinella (Frey, 1863)\nParornix devoniella (Stainton, 1850)\nParornix fagivora (Frey, 1861)\nParornix scoticella (Stainton, 1850)\nPhyllocnistis valentinensis M. Hering, 1936\nPhyllonorycter abrasella (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhyllonorycter acaciella (Duponchel, 1843)", "Phyllonorycter abrasella (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhyllonorycter acaciella (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhyllonorycter acerifoliella (Zeller, 1839)\nPhyllonorycter agilella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter blancardella (Fabricius, 1781)\nPhyllonorycter cerasicolella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nPhyllonorycter cerasinella (Reutti, 1852)\nPhyllonorycter comparella (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhyllonorycter coryli (Nicelli, 1851)\nPhyllonorycter corylifoliella (Hübner, 1796)\nPhyllonorycter delitella (Duponchel, 1843)", "Phyllonorycter corylifoliella (Hübner, 1796)\nPhyllonorycter delitella (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhyllonorycter dubitella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nPhyllonorycter emberizaepenella (Bouche, 1834)\nPhyllonorycter esperella (Goeze, 1783)\nPhyllonorycter froelichiella (Zeller, 1839)\nPhyllonorycter geniculella (Ragonot, 1874)\nPhyllonorycter harrisella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPhyllonorycter heegeriella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter insignitella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter joannisi (Le Marchand, 1936)", "Phyllonorycter insignitella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter joannisi (Le Marchand, 1936)\nPhyllonorycter junoniella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter klemannella (Fabricius, 1781)\nPhyllonorycter lautella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter maestingella (Muller, 1764)\nPhyllonorycter mannii (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter medicaginella (Gerasimov, 1930)\nPhyllonorycter messaniella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter millierella (Staudinger, 1871)\nPhyllonorycter nicellii (Stainton, 1851)\nPhyllonorycter oxyacanthae (Frey, 1856)", "Phyllonorycter nicellii (Stainton, 1851)\nPhyllonorycter oxyacanthae (Frey, 1856)\nPhyllonorycter pastorella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter platani (Staudinger, 1870)\nPhyllonorycter populifoliella (Treitschke, 1833)\nPhyllonorycter pyrifoliella (Gerasimov, 1933)\nPhyllonorycter quercifoliella (Zeller, 1839)\nPhyllonorycter rajella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhyllonorycter roboris (Zeller, 1839)\nPhyllonorycter salictella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter schreberella (Fabricius, 1781)", "Phyllonorycter salictella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter schreberella (Fabricius, 1781)\nPhyllonorycter scitulella (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhyllonorycter spinicolella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter staintoniella (Nicelli, 1853)\nPhyllonorycter stettinensis (Nicelli, 1852)\nPhyllonorycter strigulatella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)\nPhyllonorycter suberifoliella (Zeller, 1850)\nPhyllonorycter tenerella (de Joannis, 1915)\nPhyllonorycter ulmifoliella (Hübner, 1817)", "Heliozelidae\nAntispila treitschkiella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1843)\n\nHepialidae\nHepialus humuli (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPharmacis fusconebulosa (DeGeer, 1778)\nPharmacis lupulina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhymatopus hecta (Linnaeus, 1758)\nTriodia amasinus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nTriodia sylvina (Linnaeus, 1761)\n\nIncurvariidae\nIncurvaria masculella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nIncurvaria oehlmanniella (Hübner, 1796)\nIncurvaria vetulella (Zetterstedt, 1839)", "Lasiocampidae\nDendrolimus pini (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEriogaster catax (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEriogaster lanestris (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEriogaster rimicola (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGastropacha quercifolia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGastropacha populifolia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLasiocampa quercus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLasiocampa grandis (Rogenhofer, 1891)\nLasiocampa eversmanni (Eversmann, 1843)\nLasiocampa trifolii (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMacrothylacia rubi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMalacosoma castrensis (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Macrothylacia rubi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMalacosoma castrensis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMalacosoma neustria (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMalacosoma franconica (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOdonestis pruni (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPachypasa otus (Drury, 1773)\nPhyllodesma ilicifolia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhyllodesma tremulifolia (Hübner, 1810)\nPoecilocampa alpina (Frey & Wullschlegel, 1874)\nPoecilocampa populi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nTrichiura crataegi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nTrichiura verenae Witt, 1981", "Lecithoceridae\nCeuthomadarus viduellus Rebel, 1903\nEurodachtha flavissimella (Mann, 1862)\nLecithocera nigrana (Duponchel, 1836)\n\nLimacodidae\nApoda limacodes (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHeterogenea asella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Limacodidae\nApoda limacodes (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHeterogenea asella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\n\nLyonetiidae\nLeucoptera aceris (Fuchs, 1903)\nLeucoptera cytisiphagella Klimesch, 1938\nLeucoptera genistae (M. Hering, 1933)\nLeucoptera heringiella Toll, 1938\nLeucoptera laburnella (Stainton, 1851)\nLeucoptera malifoliella (O. Costa, 1836)\nLeucoptera sinuella (Reutti, 1853)\nLyonetia clerkella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Lypusidae\nLypusa tokari Elsner, Liska & Petru, 2008\nPseudatemelia flavifrontella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\n\nMicropterigidae\nMicropterix allionella (Fabricius, 1794)\nMicropterix corcyrella Walsingham, 1919\nMicropterix myrtetella Zeller, 1850\nMicropterix schaefferi Heath, 1975", "Momphidae\nMompha langiella (Hübner, 1796)\nMompha idaei (Zeller, 1839)\nMompha miscella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMompha epilobiella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMompha ochraceella (Curtis, 1839)\nMompha locupletella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Nepticulidae\nAcalyptris platani (Muller-Rutz, 1934)\nBohemannia pulverosella (Stainton, 1849)\nEctoedemia agrimoniae (Frey, 1858)\nEctoedemia albifasciella (Heinemann, 1871)\nEctoedemia angulifasciella (Stainton, 1849)\nEctoedemia arcuatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nEctoedemia argyropeza (Zeller, 1839)\nEctoedemia caradjai (Groschke, 1944)\nEctoedemia hannoverella (Glitz, 1872)\nEctoedemia mahalebella (Klimesch, 1936)\nEctoedemia occultella (Linnaeus, 1767)\nEctoedemia preisseckeri (Klimesch, 1941)", "Ectoedemia occultella (Linnaeus, 1767)\nEctoedemia preisseckeri (Klimesch, 1941)\nEctoedemia spinosella (de Joannis, 1908)\nEctoedemia turbidella (Zeller, 1848)\nEctoedemia decentella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nEctoedemia septembrella (Stainton, 1849)\nEctoedemia amani Svensson, 1966\nEctoedemia liebwerdella Zimmermann, 1940\nEctoedemia longicaudella Klimesch, 1953\nParafomoria helianthemella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1860)\nSimplimorpha promissa (Staudinger, 1871)\nStigmella aceris (Frey, 1857)", "Simplimorpha promissa (Staudinger, 1871)\nStigmella aceris (Frey, 1857)\nStigmella aeneofasciella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nStigmella anomalella (Goeze, 1783)\nStigmella assimilella (Zeller, 1848)\nStigmella atricapitella (Haworth, 1828)\nStigmella aurella (Fabricius, 1775)\nStigmella basiguttella (Heinemann, 1862)\nStigmella carpinella (Heinemann, 1862)\nStigmella catharticella (Stainton, 1853)\nStigmella centifoliella (Zeller, 1848)\nStigmella confusella (Wood & Walsingham, 1894)\nStigmella desperatella (Frey, 1856)", "Stigmella confusella (Wood & Walsingham, 1894)\nStigmella desperatella (Frey, 1856)\nStigmella floslactella (Haworth, 1828)\nStigmella freyella (Heyden, 1858)\nStigmella hemargyrella (Kollar, 1832)\nStigmella hybnerella (Hübner, 1796)\nStigmella johanssonella A. & Z. Lastuvka, 1997\nStigmella lemniscella (Zeller, 1839)\nStigmella lonicerarum (Frey, 1856)\nStigmella magdalenae (Klimesch, 1950)\nStigmella malella (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella microtheriella (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella minusculella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)", "Stigmella microtheriella (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella minusculella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nStigmella myrtillella (Stainton, 1857)\nStigmella obliquella (Heinemann, 1862)\nStigmella oxyacanthella (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella paliurella Gerasimov, 1937\nStigmella paradoxa (Frey, 1858)\nStigmella perpygmaeella (Doubleday, 1859)\nStigmella plagicolella (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella prunetorum (Stainton, 1855)\nStigmella pyri (Glitz, 1865)\nStigmella salicis (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella sorbi (Stainton, 1861)", "Stigmella pyri (Glitz, 1865)\nStigmella salicis (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella sorbi (Stainton, 1861)\nStigmella speciosa (Frey, 1858)\nStigmella splendidissimella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nStigmella tiliae (Frey, 1856)\nStigmella tityrella (Stainton, 1854)\nStigmella trimaculella (Haworth, 1828)\nStigmella ulmivora (Fologne, 1860)\nStigmella viscerella (Stainton, 1853)\nTrifurcula cryptella (Stainton, 1856)\nTrifurcula subnitidella (Duponchel, 1843)", "Noctuidae\nAbrostola agnorista Dufay, 1956\nAbrostola asclepiadis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAbrostola clarissa (Staudinger, 1900)\nAbrostola tripartita (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAbrostola triplasia (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcontia lucida (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAcontia candefacta (Hübner, 1831)\nAcontia trabealis (Scopoli, 1763)\nAcontia melanura (Tauscher, 1809)\nAcontia titania (Esper, 1798)\nAcronicta aceris (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcronicta leporina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcronicta strigosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Acronicta leporina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcronicta strigosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAcronicta alni (Linnaeus, 1767)\nAcronicta cuspis (Hübner, 1813)\nAcronicta psi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcronicta tridens (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAcronicta auricoma (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAcronicta euphorbiae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAcronicta orientalis (Mann, 1862)\nAcronicta rumicis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nActebia praecox (Linnaeus, 1758)\nActebia fugax (Treitschke, 1825)\nActinotia polyodon (Clerck, 1759)", "Actebia praecox (Linnaeus, 1758)\nActebia fugax (Treitschke, 1825)\nActinotia polyodon (Clerck, 1759)\nActinotia radiosa (Esper, 1804)\nAedia funesta (Esper, 1786)\nAedia leucomelas (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAedophron rhodites (Eversmann, 1851)\nAegle kaekeritziana (Hübner, 1799)\nAegle pallida (Staudinger, 1892)\nAegle semicana (Esper, 1798)\nAgrochola lychnidis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgrochola deleta (Staudinger, 1882)\nAgrochola gratiosa (Staudinger, 1882)\nAgrochola helvola (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Agrochola gratiosa (Staudinger, 1882)\nAgrochola helvola (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAgrochola humilis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgrochola kindermannii (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1837)\nAgrochola litura (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAgrochola nitida (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgrochola osthelderi Boursin, 1951\nAgrochola rupicapra (Staudinger, 1879)\nAgrochola thurneri Boursin, 1953\nAgrochola lota (Clerck, 1759)\nAgrochola macilenta (Hübner, 1809)\nAgrochola laevis (Hübner, 1803)\nAgrochola circellaris (Hufnagel, 1766)", "Agrochola laevis (Hübner, 1803)\nAgrochola circellaris (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAgrotis bigramma (Esper, 1790)\nAgrotis catalaunensis (Milliere, 1873)\nAgrotis cinerea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgrotis clavis (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAgrotis desertorum Boisduval, 1840\nAgrotis exclamationis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAgrotis fatidica (Hübner, 1824)\nAgrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAgrotis obesa Boisduval, 1829\nAgrotis puta (Hübner, 1803)\nAgrotis ripae Hübner, 1823\nAgrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Agrotis ripae Hübner, 1823\nAgrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAgrotis spinifera (Hübner, 1808)\nAgrotis trux (Hübner, 1824)\nAgrotis vestigialis (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAllophyes oxyacanthae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAmephana dalmatica (Rebel, 1919)\nAmmoconia caecimacula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAmmoconia senex (Geyer, 1828)\nAmphipoea oculea (Linnaeus, 1761)\nAmphipyra berbera Rungs, 1949\nAmphipyra effusa Boisduval, 1828\nAmphipyra livida (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAmphipyra micans Lederer, 1857", "Amphipyra livida (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAmphipyra micans Lederer, 1857\nAmphipyra pyramidea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAmphipyra stix Herrich-Schäffer, 1850\nAmphipyra tetra (Fabricius, 1787)\nAmphipyra tragopoginis (Clerck, 1759)\nAmphipyra cinnamomea (Goeze, 1781)\nAnaplectoides prasina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnarta dianthi (Tauscher, 1809)\nAnarta melanopa (Thunberg, 1791)\nAnarta mendax (Staudinger, 1879)\nAnarta odontites (Boisduval, 1829)\nAnarta stigmosa (Christoph, 1887)", "Anarta odontites (Boisduval, 1829)\nAnarta stigmosa (Christoph, 1887)\nAnarta trifolii (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAnorthoa munda (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAnthracia eriopoda (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nAntitype chi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAntitype suda (Geyer, 1832)\nApamea anceps (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nApamea aquila Donzel, 1837\nApamea crenata (Hufnagel, 1766)\nApamea epomidion (Haworth, 1809)\nApamea furva (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nApamea illyria Freyer, 1846\nApamea lateritia (Hufnagel, 1766)", "Apamea illyria Freyer, 1846\nApamea lateritia (Hufnagel, 1766)\nApamea lithoxylaea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nApamea maillardi (Geyer, 1834)\nApamea michielii Varga, 1976\nApamea monoglypha (Hufnagel, 1766)\nApamea oblonga (Haworth, 1809)\nApamea remissa (Hübner, 1809)\nApamea rubrirena (Treitschke, 1825)\nApamea scolopacina (Esper, 1788)\nApamea sicula (Turati, 1909)\nApamea sordens (Hufnagel, 1766)\nApamea sublustris (Esper, 1788)\nApamea syriaca (Osthelder, 1933)\nApamea unanimis (Hübner, 1813)", "Apamea sublustris (Esper, 1788)\nApamea syriaca (Osthelder, 1933)\nApamea unanimis (Hübner, 1813)\nApamea zeta (Treitschke, 1825)\nApaustis rupicola (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAporophyla australis (Boisduval, 1829)\nAporophyla canescens (Duponchel, 1826)\nAporophyla lutulenta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAporophyla nigra (Haworth, 1809)\nApterogenum ypsillon (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nArchanara dissoluta (Treitschke, 1825)\nArchanara neurica (Hübner, 1808)\nArenostola phragmitidis (Hübner, 1803)", "Archanara neurica (Hübner, 1808)\nArenostola phragmitidis (Hübner, 1803)\nAsteroscopus sphinx (Hufnagel, 1766)\nAsteroscopus syriaca (Warren, 1910)\nAtethmia ambusta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAtethmia centrago (Haworth, 1809)\nAthetis furvula (Hübner, 1808)\nAthetis gluteosa (Treitschke, 1835)\nAthetis pallustris (Hübner, 1808)\nAthetis hospes (Freyer, 1831)\nAthetis lepigone (Moschler, 1860)\nAtypha pulmonaris (Esper, 1790)\nAuchmis detersa (Esper, 1787)\nAutographa bractea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Auchmis detersa (Esper, 1787)\nAutographa bractea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAutographa gamma (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAutographa jota (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAutographa pulchrina (Haworth, 1809)\nAxylia putris (Linnaeus, 1761)\nBehounekia freyeri (Frivaldszky, 1835)\nBrachionycha nubeculosa (Esper, 1785)\nBrachylomia viminalis (Fabricius, 1776)\nBryophila ereptricula Treitschke, 1825\nBryophila felina (Eversmann, 1852)\nBryophila petricolor Lederer, 1870\nBryophila raptricula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Bryophila petricolor Lederer, 1870\nBryophila raptricula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBryophila ravula (Hübner, 1813)\nBryophila rectilinea (Warren, 1909)\nBryophila seladona Christoph, 1885\nBryophila tephrocharis (Boursin, 1953)\nBryophila domestica (Hufnagel, 1766)\nBryophila petrea Guenee, 1852\nCalamia tridens (Hufnagel, 1766)\nCalliergis ramosa (Esper, 1786)\nCallopistria juventina (Stoll, 1782)\nCallopistria latreillei (Duponchel, 1827)\nCalophasia barthae Wagner, 1929\nCalophasia lunula (Hufnagel, 1766)", "Calophasia barthae Wagner, 1929\nCalophasia lunula (Hufnagel, 1766)\nCalophasia opalina (Esper, 1793)\nCalophasia platyptera (Esper, 1788)\nCaradrina morpheus (Hufnagel, 1766)\nCaradrina gilva (Donzel, 1837)\nCaradrina pertinax Staudinger, 1879\nCaradrina vicina Staudinger, 1870\nCaradrina clavipalpis Scopoli, 1763\nCaradrina flavirena Guenee, 1852\nCaradrina selini Boisduval, 1840\nCaradrina suscianja (Mentzer, 1981)\nCaradrina wullschlegeli Pungeler, 1903\nCaradrina aspersa Rambur, 1834\nCaradrina kadenii Freyer, 1836", "Caradrina aspersa Rambur, 1834\nCaradrina kadenii Freyer, 1836\nCaradrina terrea Freyer, 1840\nCeramica pisi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCerapteryx graminis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCerastis leucographa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCerastis rubricosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCervyna cervago Eversmann, 1844\nCharanyca trigrammica (Hufnagel, 1766)\nCharanyca apfelbecki (Rebel, 1901)\nCharanyca ferruginea (Esper, 1785)\nChersotis alpestris (Boisduval, 1837)\nChersotis anatolica (Draudt, 1936)", "Chersotis alpestris (Boisduval, 1837)\nChersotis anatolica (Draudt, 1936)\nChersotis andereggii (Boisduval, 1832)\nChersotis cuprea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nChersotis elegans (Eversmann, 1837)\nChersotis fimbriola (Esper, 1803)\nChersotis laeta (Rebel, 1904)\nChersotis margaritacea (Villers, 1789)\nChersotis multangula (Hübner, 1803)\nChersotis rectangula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nChilodes maritima (Tauscher, 1806)\nChloantha hyperici (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nChrysodeixis chalcites (Esper, 1789)", "Chloantha hyperici (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nChrysodeixis chalcites (Esper, 1789)\nCleoceris scoriacea (Esper, 1789)\nCleonymia opposita (Lederer, 1870)\nColocasia coryli (Linnaeus, 1758)\nConisania renati (Oberthur, 1890)\nConisania luteago (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nConistra ligula (Esper, 1791)\nConistra rubiginosa (Scopoli, 1763)\nConistra vaccinii (Linnaeus, 1761)\nConistra veronicae (Hübner, 1813)\nConistra erythrocephala (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Conistra veronicae (Hübner, 1813)\nConistra erythrocephala (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nConistra rubiginea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nConistra ragusae (Failla-Tedaldi, 1890)\nConistra torrida (Lederer, 1857)\nCoranarta cordigera (Thunberg, 1788)\nCornutiplusia circumflexa (Linnaeus, 1767)\nCosmia trapezina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCosmia diffinis (Linnaeus, 1767)\nCosmia pyralina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCosmia confinis Herrich-Schäffer, 1849\nCosmia affinis (Linnaeus, 1767)", "Cosmia confinis Herrich-Schäffer, 1849\nCosmia affinis (Linnaeus, 1767)\nCraniophora ligustri (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCraniophora pontica (Staudinger, 1878)\nCryphia fraudatricula (Hübner, 1803)\nCryphia receptricula (Hübner, 1803)\nCryphia algae (Fabricius, 1775)\nCryphia ochsi (Boursin, 1940)\nCtenoplusia accentifera (Lefebvre, 1827)\nCucullia celsiae Herrich-Schäffer, 1850\nCucullia absinthii (Linnaeus, 1761)\nCucullia artemisiae (Hufnagel, 1766)\nCucullia asteris (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Cucullia artemisiae (Hufnagel, 1766)\nCucullia asteris (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCucullia balsamitae Boisduval, 1840\nCucullia biornata Fischer von Waldheim, 1840\nCucullia chamomillae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCucullia formosa Rogenhofer, 1860\nCucullia lactucae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCucullia lucifuga (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCucullia pustulata Eversmann, 1842\nCucullia santonici (Hübner, 1813)\nCucullia scopariae Dorfmeister, 1853\nCucullia tanaceti (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Cucullia scopariae Dorfmeister, 1853\nCucullia tanaceti (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCucullia umbratica (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCucullia xeranthemi Boisduval, 1840\nCucullia blattariae (Esper, 1790)\nCucullia gozmanyi (G. Ronkay & L. Ronkay, 1994)\nCucullia lanceolata (Villers, 1789)\nCucullia lychnitis Rambur, 1833\nCucullia prenanthis Boisduval, 1840\nCucullia scrophulariae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCucullia verbasci (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDasypolia ferdinandi Ruhl, 1892\nDasypolia templi (Thunberg, 1792)", "Dasypolia ferdinandi Ruhl, 1892\nDasypolia templi (Thunberg, 1792)\nDeltote bankiana (Fabricius, 1775)\nDeltote uncula (Clerck, 1759)\nDeltote pygarga (Hufnagel, 1766)\nDenticucullus pygmina (Haworth, 1809)\nDiachrysia chrysitis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDiachrysia chryson (Esper, 1789)\nDiachrysia nadeja (Oberthur, 1880)\nDiachrysia stenochrysis (Warren, 1913)\nDiachrysia zosimi (Hübner, 1822)\nDiarsia brunnea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDiarsia mendica (Fabricius, 1775)\nDiarsia rubi (Vieweg, 1790)", "Diarsia mendica (Fabricius, 1775)\nDiarsia rubi (Vieweg, 1790)\nDichagyris flammatra (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDichagyris musiva (Hübner, 1803)\nDichagyris candelisequa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDichagyris flavina (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nDichagyris forcipula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDichagyris melanura (Kollar, 1846)\nDichagyris nigrescens (Hofner, 1888)\nDichagyris renigera (Hübner, 1808)\nDichagyris signifera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDichonia aeruginea (Hübner, 1808)", "Dichagyris signifera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDichonia aeruginea (Hübner, 1808)\nDichonia convergens (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDicycla oo (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDiloba caeruleocephala (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDioszeghyana schmidti (Dioszeghy, 1935)\nDivaena haywardi (Tams, 1926)\nDryobota labecula (Esper, 1788)\nDryobotodes tenebrosa (Esper, 1789)\nDryobotodes carbonis Wagner, 1931\nDryobotodes eremita (Fabricius, 1775)\nDryobotodes monochroma (Esper, 1790)\nDryobotodes servadeii Parenzan, 1982", "Dryobotodes monochroma (Esper, 1790)\nDryobotodes servadeii Parenzan, 1982\nDypterygia scabriuscula (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEgira anatolica (M. Hering, 1933)\nEgira conspicillaris (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEgira tibori Hreblay, 1994\nElaphria venustula (Hübner, 1790)\nEnargia abluta (Hübner, 1808)\nEnargia paleacea (Esper, 1788)\nEnterpia laudeti (Boisduval, 1840)\nEpilecta linogrisea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEpimecia ustula (Freyer, 1835)\nEpipsilia cervantes (Reisser, 1935)\nEpipsilia grisescens (Fabricius, 1794)", "Epipsilia cervantes (Reisser, 1935)\nEpipsilia grisescens (Fabricius, 1794)\nEpisema glaucina (Esper, 1789)\nEpisema korsakovi (Christoph, 1885)\nEpisema lederi Christoph, 1885\nEpisema tersa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEremobia ochroleuca (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEucarta amethystina (Hübner, 1803)\nEucarta virgo (Treitschke, 1835)\nEuchalcia consona (Fabricius, 1787)\nEuchalcia modestoides Poole, 1989\nEuchalcia variabilis (Piller, 1783)\nEugnorisma depuncta (Linnaeus, 1761)", "Euchalcia variabilis (Piller, 1783)\nEugnorisma depuncta (Linnaeus, 1761)\nEugnorisma pontica (Staudinger, 1892)\nEugraphe sigma (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuplexia lucipara (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEupsilia transversa (Hufnagel, 1766)\nEurois occulta (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEuxoa aquilina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuxoa birivia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuxoa conspicua (Hübner, 1824)\nEuxoa cos (Hübner, 1824)\nEuxoa decora (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuxoa diaphora Boursin, 1928", "Euxoa cos (Hübner, 1824)\nEuxoa decora (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuxoa diaphora Boursin, 1928\nEuxoa distinguenda (Lederer, 1857)\nEuxoa eruta (Hübner, 1817)\nEuxoa glabella Wagner, 1930\nEuxoa hastifera (Donzel, 1847)\nEuxoa nigricans (Linnaeus, 1761)\nEuxoa nigrofusca (Esper, 1788)\nEuxoa obelisca (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEuxoa pareruta Fibiger, Gyulai, Zilli, Yela & Ronkay, 2010\nEuxoa segnilis (Duponchel, 1837)\nEuxoa temera (Hübner, 1808)\nEuxoa vitta (Esper, 1789)\nGlobia algae (Esper, 1789)", "Euxoa temera (Hübner, 1808)\nEuxoa vitta (Esper, 1789)\nGlobia algae (Esper, 1789)\nGlobia sparganii (Esper, 1790)\nGortyna borelii Pierret, 1837\nGortyna flavago (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGortyna moesiaca Herrich-Schäffer, 1849\nGriposia aprilina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGriposia pinkeri Kobes, 1973\nHada plebeja (Linnaeus, 1761)\nHadena irregularis (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHadena perplexa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHadena silenes (Hübner, 1822)\nHadena syriaca (Osthelder, 1933)\nHadena adriana (Schawerda, 1921)", "Hadena silenes (Hübner, 1822)\nHadena syriaca (Osthelder, 1933)\nHadena adriana (Schawerda, 1921)\nHadena albimacula (Borkhausen, 1792)\nHadena caesia (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHadena capsincola (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHadena clara (Staudinger, 1901)\nHadena compta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHadena confusa (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHadena drenowskii (Rebel, 1930)\nHadena filograna (Esper, 1788)\nHadena magnolii (Boisduval, 1829)\nHadena vulcanica (Turati, 1907)\nHadena wehrlii (Draudt, 1934)", "Hadena magnolii (Boisduval, 1829)\nHadena vulcanica (Turati, 1907)\nHadena wehrlii (Draudt, 1934)\nHadena tephroleuca (Boisduval, 1833)\nHaemerosia renalis (Hübner, 1813)\nHaemerosia vassilininei A. Bang-Haas, 1912\nHecatera bicolorata (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHecatera cappa (Hübner, 1809)\nHecatera dysodea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHelicoverpa armigera (Hübner, 1808)\nHeliothis adaucta Butler, 1878\nHeliothis incarnata Freyer, 1838\nHeliothis maritima Graslin, 1855\nHeliothis nubigera Herrich-Schäffer, 1851", "Heliothis maritima Graslin, 1855\nHeliothis nubigera Herrich-Schäffer, 1851\nHeliothis peltigera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHeliothis viriplaca (Hufnagel, 1766)\nHelivictoria victorina (Sodoffsky, 1849)\nHelotropha leucostigma (Hübner, 1808)\nHoplodrina ambigua (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHoplodrina blanda (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHoplodrina octogenaria (Goeze, 1781)\nHoplodrina respersa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHoplodrina superstes (Ochsenheimer, 1816)\nHydraecia micacea (Esper, 1789)", "Hoplodrina superstes (Ochsenheimer, 1816)\nHydraecia micacea (Esper, 1789)\nHydraecia petasitis Doubleday, 1847\nHydraecia ultima Holst, 1965\nHyppa rectilinea (Esper, 1788)\nIpimorpha retusa (Linnaeus, 1761)\nIpimorpha subtusa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nJanthinea friwaldskii (Duponchel, 1835)\nJodia croceago (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLacanobia contigua (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLacanobia suasa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLacanobia thalassina (Hufnagel, 1766)\nLacanobia blenna (Hübner, 1824)", "Lacanobia thalassina (Hufnagel, 1766)\nLacanobia blenna (Hübner, 1824)\nLacanobia oleracea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nLacanobia praedita (Hübner, 1813)\nLacanobia splendens (Hübner, 1808)\nLacanobia w-latinum (Hufnagel, 1766)\nLamprosticta culta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLamprotes c-aureum (Knoch, 1781)\nLasionycta imbecilla (Fabricius, 1794)\nLasionycta proxima (Hübner, 1809)\nLateroligia ophiogramma (Esper, 1794)\nLenisa geminipuncta (Haworth, 1809)\nLeucania loreyi (Duponchel, 1827)\nLeucania comma (Linnaeus, 1761)", "Leucania loreyi (Duponchel, 1827)\nLeucania comma (Linnaeus, 1761)\nLeucania herrichi Herrich-Schäffer, 1849\nLeucania obsoleta (Hübner, 1803)\nLeucania punctosa (Treitschke, 1825)\nLeucania putrescens (Hübner, 1824)\nLithophane furcifera (Hufnagel, 1766)\nLithophane ledereri (Staudinger, 1892)\nLithophane merckii (Rambur, 1832)\nLithophane ornitopus (Hufnagel, 1766)\nLithophane semibrunnea (Haworth, 1809)\nLithophane socia (Hufnagel, 1766)\nLithophane lapidea (Hübner, 1808)\nLuperina dumerilii (Duponchel, 1826)", "Lithophane lapidea (Hübner, 1808)\nLuperina dumerilii (Duponchel, 1826)\nLuperina rubella (Duponchel, 1835)\nLuperina testacea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLycophotia molothina (Esper, 1789)\nLycophotia porphyrea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMacdunnoughia confusa (Stephens, 1850)\nMamestra brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMegalodes eximia (Freyer, 1845)\nMeganephria bimaculosa (Linnaeus, 1767)\nMelanchra persicariae (Linnaeus, 1761)\nMesapamea secalella Remm, 1983\nMesapamea secalis (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Mesapamea secalella Remm, 1983\nMesapamea secalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMesogona acetosellae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMesogona oxalina (Hübner, 1803)\nMesoligia furuncula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMniotype adusta (Esper, 1790)\nMniotype satura (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMniotype solieri (Boisduval, 1829)\nMoma alpium (Osbeck, 1778)\nMormo maura (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMycteroplus puniceago (Boisduval, 1840)\nMythimna riparia (Rambur, 1829)\nMythimna albipuncta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Mythimna riparia (Rambur, 1829)\nMythimna albipuncta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMythimna congrua (Hübner, 1817)\nMythimna ferrago (Fabricius, 1787)\nMythimna l-album (Linnaeus, 1767)\nMythimna conigera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMythimna impura (Hübner, 1808)\nMythimna pallens (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMythimna pudorina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMythimna straminea (Treitschke, 1825)\nMythimna turca (Linnaeus, 1761)\nMythimna vitellina (Hübner, 1808)\nMythimna unipuncta (Haworth, 1809)", "Mythimna vitellina (Hübner, 1808)\nMythimna unipuncta (Haworth, 1809)\nMythimna alopecuri (Boisduval, 1840)\nMythimna andereggii (Boisduval, 1840)\nMythimna sicula (Treitschke, 1835)\nNaenia typica (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNoctua comes Hübner, 1813\nNoctua fimbriata (Schreber, 1759)\nNoctua interjecta Hübner, 1803\nNoctua interposita (Hübner, 1790)\nNoctua janthina Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775\nNoctua orbona (Hufnagel, 1766)\nNoctua pronuba (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNoctua tertia Mentzer & al., 1991", "Noctua orbona (Hufnagel, 1766)\nNoctua pronuba (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNoctua tertia Mentzer & al., 1991\nNoctua tirrenica Biebinger, Speidel & Hanigk, 1983\nNonagria typhae (Thunberg, 1784)\nNyctobrya amasina Draudt, 1931\nNyctobrya muralis (Forster, 1771)\nOchropleura leucogaster (Freyer, 1831)\nOchropleura plecta (Linnaeus, 1761)\nOligia latruncula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOligia strigilis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOligia versicolor (Borkhausen, 1792)\nOlivenebula subsericata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1861)", "Oligia versicolor (Borkhausen, 1792)\nOlivenebula subsericata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1861)\nOmphalophana anatolica (Lederer, 1857)\nOmphalophana antirrhinii (Hübner, 1803)\nOncocnemis confusa (Freyer, 1839)\nOncocnemis michaelorum Beshkov, 1997\nOpigena polygona (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOrbona fragariae Vieweg, 1790\nOria musculosa (Hübner, 1808)\nOrthosia gracilis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOrthosia opima (Hübner, 1809)\nOrthosia cerasi (Fabricius, 1775)\nOrthosia cruda (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Orthosia cerasi (Fabricius, 1775)\nOrthosia cruda (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOrthosia miniosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOrthosia populeti (Fabricius, 1775)\nOrthosia incerta (Hufnagel, 1766)\nOrthosia gothica (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOxicesta geographica (Fabricius, 1787)\nOxytripia orbiculosa (Esper, 1799)\nPabulatrix pabulatricula (Brahm, 1791)\nPachetra sagittigera (Hufnagel, 1766)\nPanchrysia aurea (Hübner, 1803)\nPanemeria tenebrata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPanemeria tenebromorpha Rakosy, Hentscholek & Huber, 1996", "Panemeria tenebrata (Scopoli, 1763)\nPanemeria tenebromorpha Rakosy, Hentscholek & Huber, 1996\nPanolis flammea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPanthea coenobita (Esper, 1785)\nPapestra biren (Goeze, 1781)\nParastichtis suspecta (Hübner, 1817)\nPeridroma saucia (Hübner, 1808)\nPerigrapha i-cinctum (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPerigrapha rorida Frivaldszky, 1835\nPeriphanes delphinii (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhilareta treitschkei (Frivaldszky, 1835)\nPhlogophora meticulosa (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhlogophora scita (Hübner, 1790)", "Phlogophora meticulosa (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhlogophora scita (Hübner, 1790)\nPhotedes captiuncula (Treitschke, 1825)\nPhotedes fluxa (Hübner, 1809)\nPhotedes minima (Haworth, 1809)\nPhotedes morrisii (Dale, 1837)\nPlusia festucae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPlusia putnami (Grote, 1873)\nPolia bombycina (Hufnagel, 1766)\nPolia hepatica (Clerck, 1759)\nPolia nebulosa (Hufnagel, 1766)\nPolia serratilinea Ochsenheimer, 1816\nPolychrysia moneta (Fabricius, 1787)\nPolymixis leuconota (Frivaldszky, 1841)", "Polychrysia moneta (Fabricius, 1787)\nPolymixis leuconota (Frivaldszky, 1841)\nPolymixis polymita (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPolymixis rufocincta (Geyer, 1828)\nPolymixis serpentina (Treitschke, 1825)\nPolymixis xanthomista (Hübner, 1819)\nPolyphaenis sericata (Esper, 1787)\nPraestilbia armeniaca Staudinger, 1892\nProtoschinia scutosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPseudeustrotia candidula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPseudozarba bipartita (Herrich-Schäffer, 1850)\nPyrrhia purpura (Hübner, 1817)", "Pseudozarba bipartita (Herrich-Schäffer, 1850)\nPyrrhia purpura (Hübner, 1817)\nPyrrhia umbra (Hufnagel, 1766)\nRhizedra lutosa (Hübner, 1803)\nRhyacia arenacea (Hampson, 1907)\nRhyacia lucipeta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nRhyacia simulans (Hufnagel, 1766)\nRileyiana fovea (Treitschke, 1825)\nSchinia cardui (Hübner, 1790)\nSchinia cognata (Freyer, 1833)\nScotochrosta pulla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSedina buettneri (E. Hering, 1858)\nSenta flammea (Curtis, 1828)\nSesamia cretica Lederer, 1857", "Sedina buettneri (E. Hering, 1858)\nSenta flammea (Curtis, 1828)\nSesamia cretica Lederer, 1857\nSesamia nonagrioides Lefebvre, 1827\nSideridis rivularis (Fabricius, 1775)\nSideridis implexa (Hübner, 1809)\nSideridis reticulata (Goeze, 1781)\nSideridis lampra (Schawerda, 1913)\nSideridis turbida (Esper, 1790)\nSimyra albovenosa (Goeze, 1781)\nSimyra dentinosa Freyer, 1838\nSimyra nervosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSpaelotis ravida (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSpaelotis senna (Freyer, 1829)", "Spaelotis ravida (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSpaelotis senna (Freyer, 1829)\nSpodoptera exigua (Hübner, 1808)\nStandfussiana lucernea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSubacronicta megacephala (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSyngrapha interrogationis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSyngrapha rilaecacuminum Varga & L. Ronkay, 1992\nTeinoptera lunaki (Boursin, 1940)\nTeinoptera olivina (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)\nThalpophila matura (Hufnagel, 1766)\nTholera cespitis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTholera decimalis (Poda, 1761)", "Tholera cespitis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTholera decimalis (Poda, 1761)\nThysanoplusia daubei (Boisduval, 1840)\nThysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabricius, 1775)\nTiliacea aurago (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTiliacea citrago (Linnaeus, 1758)\nTiliacea cypreago (Hampson, 1906)\nTiliacea sulphurago (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTrachea atriplicis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nTrichoplusia ni (Hübner, 1803)\nTrigonophora flammea (Esper, 1785)\nTyta luctuosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nUlochlaena hirta (Hübner, 1813)", "Tyta luctuosa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nUlochlaena hirta (Hübner, 1813)\nValeria oleagina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nValerietta hreblayi Beshkov, 2006\nValerietta niphopasta (Hampson, 1906)\nXanthia gilvago (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nXanthia icteritia (Hufnagel, 1766)\nXanthia ocellaris (Borkhausen, 1792)\nXanthia castanea Osthelder, 1933\nXanthia togata (Esper, 1788)\nXestia ashworthii (Doubleday, 1855)\nXestia c-nigrum (Linnaeus, 1758)\nXestia ditrapezium (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Xestia c-nigrum (Linnaeus, 1758)\nXestia ditrapezium (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nXestia triangulum (Hufnagel, 1766)\nXestia speciosa (Hübner, 1813)\nXestia baja (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nXestia castanea (Esper, 1798)\nXestia cohaesa (Herrich-Schäffer, 1849)\nXestia collina (Boisduval, 1840)\nXestia ochreago (Hübner, 1809)\nXestia stigmatica (Hübner, 1813)\nXestia xanthographa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nXylena solidaginis (Hübner, 1803)\nXylena exsoleta (Linnaeus, 1758)\nXylena lunifera Warren, 1910", "Xylena solidaginis (Hübner, 1803)\nXylena exsoleta (Linnaeus, 1758)\nXylena lunifera Warren, 1910\nXylena vetusta (Hübner, 1813)\nXylocampa mustapha (Oberthur, 1920)", "Nolidae\nBena bicolorana (Fuessly, 1775)\nEarias clorana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nEarias vernana (Fabricius, 1787)\nMeganola albula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMeganola gigantula (Staudinger, 1879)\nMeganola impura (Mann, 1862)\nMeganola kolbi (Daniel, 1935)\nMeganola strigula (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMeganola togatulalis (Hübner, 1796)\nNola aerugula (Hübner, 1793)\nNola chlamitulalis (Hübner, 1813)\nNola cicatricalis (Treitschke, 1835)\nNola confusalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nNola cristatula (Hübner, 1793)", "Nola confusalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)\nNola cristatula (Hübner, 1793)\nNola cucullatella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNola harouni (Wiltshire, 1951)\nNola ronkayorum Beshkov, 2006\nNola squalida Staudinger, 1871\nNola subchlamydula Staudinger, 1871\nNycteola asiatica (Krulikovsky, 1904)\nNycteola columbana (Turner, 1925)\nNycteola revayana (Scopoli, 1772)\nNycteola siculana (Fuchs, 1899)\nPseudoips prasinana (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Notodontidae\nCerura erminea (Esper, 1783)\nCerura vinula (Linnaeus, 1758)\nClostera anachoreta (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nClostera anastomosis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nClostera curtula (Linnaeus, 1758)\nClostera pigra (Hufnagel, 1766)\nDicranura ulmi (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDrymonia dodonaea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDrymonia obliterata (Esper, 1785)\nDrymonia querna (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDrymonia ruficornis (Hufnagel, 1766)\nDrymonia velitaris (Hufnagel, 1766)", "Drymonia ruficornis (Hufnagel, 1766)\nDrymonia velitaris (Hufnagel, 1766)\nFurcula bicuspis (Borkhausen, 1790)\nFurcula bifida (Brahm, 1787)\nFurcula furcula (Clerck, 1759)\nGluphisia crenata (Esper, 1785)\nHarpyia milhauseri (Fabricius, 1775)\nNotodonta dromedarius (Linnaeus, 1767)\nNotodonta tritophus (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nNotodonta ziczac (Linnaeus, 1758)\nParadrymonia vittata (Staudinger, 1892)\nPeridea anceps (Goeze, 1781)\nPeridea korbi (Rebel, 1918)\nPhalera bucephala (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Peridea anceps (Goeze, 1781)\nPeridea korbi (Rebel, 1918)\nPhalera bucephala (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPhalera bucephaloides (Ochsenheimer, 1810)\nPheosia gnoma (Fabricius, 1776)\nPheosia tremula (Clerck, 1759)\nPterostoma palpina (Clerck, 1759)\nPtilodon capucina (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPtilodon cucullina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPtilophora plumigera (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nRhegmatophila alpina (Bellier, 1881)\nSpatalia argentina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nStauropus fagi (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Spatalia argentina (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nStauropus fagi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nThaumetopoea pityocampa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nThaumetopoea processionea (Linnaeus, 1758)\nThaumetopoea solitaria (Freyer, 1838)", "Oecophoridae\nAlabonia staintoniella (Zeller, 1850)\nBatia lunaris (Haworth, 1828)\nBorkhausenia minutella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCrassa tinctella (Hübner, 1796)\nCrossotocera wagnerella Zerny, 1930\nDasycera oliviella (Fabricius, 1794)\nDenisia augustella (Hübner, 1796)\nDenisia stipella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEndrosis sarcitrella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEpicallima formosella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEpicallima icterinella (Mann, 1867)\nFabiola pokornyi (Nickerl, 1864)\nHarpella forficella (Scopoli, 1763)", "Fabiola pokornyi (Nickerl, 1864)\nHarpella forficella (Scopoli, 1763)\nHofmannophila pseudospretella (Stainton, 1849)\nHoloscolia huebneri Kocak, 1980\nMinetia crinitus (Fabricius, 1798)\nMinetia labiosella (Hübner, 1810)\nOecophora bractella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPleurota aristella (Linnaeus, 1767)\nPleurota cumaniella Rebel, 1907\nPleurota metricella (Zeller, 1847)\nPleurota planella (Staudinger, 1859)\nPleurota proteella Staudinger, 1880\nPleurota pungitiella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854", "Pleurota proteella Staudinger, 1880\nPleurota pungitiella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nPleurota pyropella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSchiffermuelleria schaefferella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Opostegidae\nOpostega salaciella (Treitschke, 1833)\nOpostega spatulella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855\nPseudopostega crepusculella (Zeller, 1839)\n\nPeleopodidae\nCarcina quercana (Fabricius, 1775)\n\nPlutellidae\nEidophasia messingiella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1840)\nEidophasia syenitella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854\nPlutella xylostella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nRhigognostis wolfschlaegeri (Rebel, 1940)\n\nPraydidae\nPrays fraxinella (Bjerkander, 1784)", "Praydidae\nPrays fraxinella (Bjerkander, 1784)\n\nProdoxidae\nLampronia morosa Zeller, 1852\nLampronia rupella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Psychidae\nAcanthopsyche ecksteini (Lederer, 1855)\nAnaproutia comitella (Bruand, 1853)\nApterona crenulella (Bruand, 1853)\nApterona helicoidella (Vallot, 1827)\nBacotia claustrella (Bruand, 1845)\nBijugis bombycella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBijugis pectinella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCanephora hirsuta (Poda, 1761)\nDahlica triquetrella (Hübner, 1813)\nDiplodoma laichartingella Goeze, 1783\nEochorica balcanica (Rebel, 1919)\nEpichnopterix kovacsi Sieder, 1955", "Eochorica balcanica (Rebel, 1919)\nEpichnopterix kovacsi Sieder, 1955\nEpichnopterix plumella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEumasia parietariella (Heydenreich, 1851)\nHeliopsychidea graecella (Milliere, 1866)\nLoebelia crassicornis (Staudinger, 1870)\nMegalophanes viciella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOiketicoides lutea (Staudinger, 1870)\nOiketicoides senex (Staudinger, 1871)\nPachythelia villosella (Ochsenheimer, 1810)\nProutia betulina (Zeller, 1839)\nPsyche casta (Pallas, 1767)", "Proutia betulina (Zeller, 1839)\nPsyche casta (Pallas, 1767)\nPsyche crassiorella Bruand, 1851\nPsychidea balcanica (Wehrli, 1933)\nPsychidea nudella (Ochsenheimer, 1810)\nPtilocephala albida (Esper, 1786)\nPtilocephala muscella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPtilocephala plumifera (Ochsenheimer, 1810)\nRebelia herrichiella Strand, 1912\nRebelia perlucidella (Bruand, 1853)\nRebelia sapho (Milliere, 1864)\nReisseronia nigrociliella (Rebel, 1934)\nReisseronia pusilella (Rebel, 1941)\nSterrhopterix fusca (Haworth, 1809)", "Reisseronia pusilella (Rebel, 1941)\nSterrhopterix fusca (Haworth, 1809)\nTaleporia tubulosa (Retzius, 1783)\nTyphonia ciliaris (Ochsenheimer, 1810)", "Pterolonchidae\nPterolonche pulverulenta Zeller, 1847\nPterolonche albescens Zeller, 1847\nPterolonche inspersa Staudinger, 1859", "Pterophoridae\nAdaina microdactyla (Hübner, 1813)\nAgdistis adactyla (Hübner, 1819)\nAgdistis frankeniae (Zeller, 1847)\nAgdistis heydeni (Zeller, 1852)\nAgdistis satanas Milliere, 1875\nAgdistis tamaricis (Zeller, 1847)\nAmblyptilia acanthadactyla (Hübner, 1813)\nAmblyptilia punctidactyla (Haworth, 1811)\nBuszkoiana capnodactylus (Zeller, 1841)\nCalyciphora albodactylus (Fabricius, 1794)\nCalyciphora homoiodactyla (Kasy, 1960)\nCalyciphora nephelodactyla (Eversmann, 1844)\nCalyciphora xanthodactyla (Treitschke, 1833)", "Calyciphora nephelodactyla (Eversmann, 1844)\nCalyciphora xanthodactyla (Treitschke, 1833)\nCapperia britanniodactylus (Gregson, 1867)\nCapperia celeusi (Frey, 1886)\nCapperia fusca (O. Hofmann, 1898)\nCapperia maratonica Adamczewski, 1951\nCapperia trichodactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCnaemidophorus rhododactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCrombrugghia distans (Zeller, 1847)\nCrombrugghia laetus (Zeller, 1847)\nCrombrugghia tristis (Zeller, 1841)\nEmmelina argoteles (Meyrick, 1922)", "Crombrugghia tristis (Zeller, 1841)\nEmmelina argoteles (Meyrick, 1922)\nEmmelina monodactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGeina didactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGillmeria miantodactylus (Zeller, 1841)\nGillmeria ochrodactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGillmeria pallidactyla (Haworth, 1811)\nHellinsia carphodactyla (Hübner, 1813)\nHellinsia didactylites (Strom, 1783)\nHellinsia inulae (Zeller, 1852)\nHellinsia lienigianus (Zeller, 1852)\nHellinsia osteodactylus (Zeller, 1841)\nHellinsia tephradactyla (Hübner, 1813)", "Hellinsia osteodactylus (Zeller, 1841)\nHellinsia tephradactyla (Hübner, 1813)\nMerrifieldia baliodactylus (Zeller, 1841)\nMerrifieldia leucodactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMerrifieldia malacodactylus (Zeller, 1847)\nMerrifieldia tridactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)\nOidaematophorus lithodactyla (Treitschke, 1833)\nOxyptilus chrysodactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nOxyptilus ericetorum (Stainton, 1851)\nOxyptilus parvidactyla (Haworth, 1811)\nOxyptilus pilosellae (Zeller, 1841)", "Oxyptilus parvidactyla (Haworth, 1811)\nOxyptilus pilosellae (Zeller, 1841)\nParaplatyptilia metzneri (Zeller, 1841)\nPlatyptilia calodactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPlatyptilia farfarellus Zeller, 1867\nPlatyptilia gonodactyla (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPlatyptilia nemoralis Zeller, 1841\nPlatyptilia tesseradactyla (Linnaeus, 1761)\nProcapperia linariae (Chretien, 1922)\nPselnophorus heterodactyla (Muller, 1764)\nPterophorus ischnodactyla (Treitschke, 1835)\nPterophorus pentadactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Pterophorus ischnodactyla (Treitschke, 1835)\nPterophorus pentadactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)\nStangeia siceliota (Zeller, 1847)\nStenoptilia aridus (Zeller, 1847)\nStenoptilia bipunctidactyla (Scopoli, 1763)\nStenoptilia coprodactylus (Stainton, 1851)\nStenoptilia graphodactyla (Treitschke, 1833)\nStenoptilia gratiolae Gibeaux & Nel, 1990\nStenoptilia mannii (Zeller, 1852)\nStenoptilia pelidnodactyla (Stein, 1837)\nStenoptilia pneumonanthes (Buttner, 1880)\nStenoptilia pterodactyla (Linnaeus, 1761)", "Stenoptilia pneumonanthes (Buttner, 1880)\nStenoptilia pterodactyla (Linnaeus, 1761)\nStenoptilia stigmatodactylus (Zeller, 1852)\nStenoptilia zophodactylus (Duponchel, 1840)\nStenoptilodes taprobanes (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1875)\nWheeleria ivae (Kasy, 1960)\nWheeleria obsoletus (Zeller, 1841)", "Pyralidae\nAchroia grisella (Fabricius, 1794)\nAcrobasis centunculella (Mann, 1859)\nAcrobasis dulcella (Zeller, 1848)\nAcrobasis glaucella Staudinger, 1859\nAcrobasis obtusella (Hübner, 1796)\nAcrobasis repandana (Fabricius, 1798)\nAcrobasis sodalella Zeller, 1848\nAcrobasis suavella (Zincken, 1818)\nAcrobasis tumidana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAglossa caprealis (Hübner, 1809)\nAglossa pinguinalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAglossa signicostalis Staudinger, 1871\nAncylosis cinnamomella (Duponchel, 1836)", "Aglossa signicostalis Staudinger, 1871\nAncylosis cinnamomella (Duponchel, 1836)\nAncylosis deserticola (Staudinger, 1870)\nAncylosis hellenica (Staudinger, 1871)\nAncylosis maculifera Staudinger, 1870\nAncylosis oblitella (Zeller, 1848)\nAncylosis roscidella (Eversmann, 1844)\nAncylosis sareptalla (Herrich-Schäffer, 1861)\nAphomia sociella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAphomia zelleri de Joannis, 1932\nApomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller, 1839)\nAsalebria florella (Mann, 1862)\nAsarta aethiopella (Duponchel, 1837)", "Asalebria florella (Mann, 1862)\nAsarta aethiopella (Duponchel, 1837)\nAssara terebrella (Zincken, 1818)\nBostra obsoletalis (Mann, 1884)\nBradyrrhoa confiniella Zeller, 1848\nBradyrrhoa gilveolella (Treitschke, 1832)\nCadra cautella (Walker, 1863)\nCadra figulilella (Gregson, 1871)\nCadra furcatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1849)\nCatastia acraspedella Staudinger, 1879\nCatastia marginea (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCorcyra cephalonica (Stainton, 1866)\nCryptoblabes bistriga (Haworth, 1811)", "Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton, 1866)\nCryptoblabes bistriga (Haworth, 1811)\nDelplanqueia dilutella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDenticera divisella (Duponchel, 1842)\nDioryctria abietella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nDioryctria sylvestrella (Ratzeburg, 1840)\nEccopisa effractella Zeller, 1848\nElegia fallax (Staudinger, 1881)\nElegia similella (Zincken, 1818)\nEmatheudes punctella (Treitschke, 1833)\nEndotricha flammealis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEphestia disparella Hampson, 1901", "Endotricha flammealis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEphestia disparella Hampson, 1901\nEphestia elutella (Hübner, 1796)\nEphestia kuehniella Zeller, 1879\nEphestia unicolorella Staudinger, 1881\nEphestia welseriella (Zeller, 1848)\nEpischnia prodromella (Hübner, 1799)\nEpiscythrastis tabidella (Mann, 1864)\nEpiscythrastis tetricella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEtiella zinckenella (Treitschke, 1832)\nEurhodope cirrigerella (Zincken, 1818)\nEurhodope monogrammos (Zeller, 1867)\nEurhodope rosella (Scopoli, 1763)", "Eurhodope monogrammos (Zeller, 1867)\nEurhodope rosella (Scopoli, 1763)\nEuzophera bigella (Zeller, 1848)\nEuzophera cinerosella (Zeller, 1839)\nEuzophera fuliginosella (Heinemann, 1865)\nEuzophera nessebarella Soffner, 1962\nEuzophera pinguis (Haworth, 1811)\nEuzophera pulchella Ragonot, 1887\nEuzopherodes charlottae (Rebel, 1914)\nEuzopherodes lutisignella (Mann, 1869)\nEuzopherodes vapidella (Mann, 1857)\nGalleria mellonella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGymnancyla canella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Galleria mellonella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nGymnancyla canella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nGymnancyla hornigii (Lederer, 1852)\nHomoeosoma calcella Ragonot, 1887\nHomoeosoma inustella Ragonot, 1884\nHomoeosoma nebulella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHomoeosoma nimbella (Duponchel, 1837)\nHomoeosoma sinuella (Fabricius, 1794)\nHypochalcia ahenella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHypochalcia balcanica Ragonot, 1887\nHypochalcia dignella (Hübner, 1796)\nHypochalcia propinquella (Guenee, 1845)", "Hypochalcia dignella (Hübner, 1796)\nHypochalcia propinquella (Guenee, 1845)\nHypotia massilialis (Duponchel, 1832)\nHypsopygia costalis (Fabricius, 1775)\nHypsopygia fulvocilialis (Duponchel, 1834)\nHypsopygia glaucinalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHypsopygia rubidalis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nHypsotropa limbella Zeller, 1848\nInsalebria serraticornella (Zeller, 1839)\nIsauria dilucidella (Duponchel, 1836)\nKhorassania compositella (Treitschke, 1835)\nLamoria anella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Khorassania compositella (Treitschke, 1835)\nLamoria anella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLoryma egregialis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1838)\nMatilella fusca (Haworth, 1811)\nMegasis rippertella (Zeller, 1839)\nMetallosticha argyrogrammos (Zeller, 1847)\nMoitrelia obductella (Zeller, 1839)\nMyelois circumvoluta (Fourcroy, 1785)\nMyelois multiflorella Ragonot, 1887\nNyctegretis ruminella La Harpe, 1860\nOncocera semirubella (Scopoli, 1763)\nOxybia transversella (Duponchel, 1836)\nPempelia alpigenella (Duponchel, 1836)", "Oxybia transversella (Duponchel, 1836)\nPempelia alpigenella (Duponchel, 1836)\nPempelia palumbella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPempeliella alibotuschella (Drenowski, 1932)\nPempeliella ornatella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPempeliella sororiella Zeller, 1839\nPhycita coronatella (Guenee, 1845)\nPhycita meliella (Mann, 1864)\nPhycita metzneri (Zeller, 1846)\nPhycita poteriella (Zeller, 1846)\nPhycita roborella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhycitodes albatella (Ragonot, 1887)", "Phycita roborella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhycitodes albatella (Ragonot, 1887)\nPhycitodes binaevella (Hübner, 1813)\nPhycitodes lacteella (Rothschild, 1915)\nPhycitodes maritima (Tengstrom, 1848)\nPhycitodes saxicola (Vaughan, 1870)\nPlodia interpunctella (Hübner, 1813)\nPsorosa dahliella (Treitschke, 1832)\nPterothrixidia rufella (Duponchel, 1836)\nPyralis farinalis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPyralis regalis Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775\nRaphimetopus ablutella (Zeller, 1839)\nRhodophaea formosa (Haworth, 1811)", "Raphimetopus ablutella (Zeller, 1839)\nRhodophaea formosa (Haworth, 1811)\nSciota insignella (Mann, 1862)\nSciota rhenella (Zincken, 1818)\nSelagia argyrella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSelagia spadicella (Hübner, 1796)\nSelagia subochrella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1849)\nStemmatophora brunnealis (Treitschke, 1829)\nStemmatophora combustalis (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1842)\nStemmatophora honestalis (Treitschke, 1829)\nSynaphe antennalis (Fabricius, 1794)\nSynaphe moldavica (Esper, 1794)", "Synaphe antennalis (Fabricius, 1794)\nSynaphe moldavica (Esper, 1794)\nSynaphe punctalis (Fabricius, 1775)", "Saturniidae\nAglia tau (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSaturnia pavoniella (Scopoli, 1763)\nSaturnia spini (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSaturnia caecigena Kupido, 1825\nSaturnia pyri (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Scythrididae\nEpiscythris triangulella (Ragonot, 1874)\nParascythris muelleri (Mann, 1871)\nScythris aerariella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nScythris anomaloptera (Staudinger, 1880)\nScythris clavella (Zeller, 1855)\nScythris crassiuscula (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nScythris crypta Hannemann, 1961\nScythris cuspidella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScythris fallacella (Schlager, 1847)\nScythris flabella (Mann, 1861)\nScythris flavilaterella (Fuchs, 1886)\nScythris gravatella (Zeller, 1847)", "Scythris flavilaterella (Fuchs, 1886)\nScythris gravatella (Zeller, 1847)\nScythris hungaricella Rebel, 1917\nScythris inertella (Zeller, 1855)\nScythris lafauryi Passerin d'Entreves, 1986\nScythris laminella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nScythris limbella (Fabricius, 1775)\nScythris moldavicella Caradja, 1905\nScythris obscurella (Scopoli, 1763)\nScythris picaepennis (Haworth, 1828)\nScythris platypyga (Staudinger, 1880)\nScythris potentillella (Zeller, 1847)\nScythris productella (Zeller, 1839)", "Scythris potentillella (Zeller, 1847)\nScythris productella (Zeller, 1839)\nScythris pudorinella (Moschler, 1866)\nScythris punctivittella (O. Costa, 1836)\nScythris saxella Bengtsson, 1991\nScythris similis Hannemann, 1961\nScythris subaerariella (Stainton, 1867)\nScythris subschleichiella Hannemann, 1961\nScythris tabidella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)\nScythris tergestinella (Zeller, 1855)\nScythris tributella (Zeller, 1847)\nScythris vittella (O. Costa, 1834)", "Sesiidae\nBembecia albanensis (Rebel, 1918)\nBembecia ichneumoniformis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nBembecia megillaeformis (Hübner, 1813)\nBembecia pavicevici Tosevski, 1989\nBembecia puella Z. Lastuvka, 1989\nBembecia sanguinolenta (Lederer, 1853)\nBembecia scopigera (Scopoli, 1763)\nChamaesphecia albiventris (Lederer, 1853)\nChamaesphecia alysoniformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nChamaesphecia annellata (Zeller, 1847)\nChamaesphecia astatiformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nChamaesphecia bibioniformis (Esper, 1800)", "Chamaesphecia astatiformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nChamaesphecia bibioniformis (Esper, 1800)\nChamaesphecia chalciformis (Esper, 1804)\nChamaesphecia crassicornis Bartel, 1912\nChamaesphecia doleriformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nChamaesphecia dumonti Le Cerf, 1922\nChamaesphecia empiformis (Esper, 1783)\nChamaesphecia euceraeformis (Ochsenheimer, 1816)\nChamaesphecia leucopsiformis (Esper, 1800)\nChamaesphecia masariformis (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nChamaesphecia nigrifrons (Le Cerf, 1911)", "Chamaesphecia masariformis (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nChamaesphecia nigrifrons (Le Cerf, 1911)\nChamaesphecia oxybeliformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nChamaesphecia proximata (Staudinger, 1891)\nChamaesphecia schmidtiiformis (Freyer, 1836)\nChamaesphecia tenthrediniformis (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nChamaesphecia thracica Z. Lastuvka, 1983\nDipchasphecia lanipes (Lederer, 1863)\nParanthrene diaphana Dalla Torre & Strand, 1925\nParanthrene insolitus Le Cerf, 1914\nParanthrene tabaniformis (Rottemburg, 1775)", "Paranthrene insolitus Le Cerf, 1914\nParanthrene tabaniformis (Rottemburg, 1775)\nPennisetia hylaeiformis (Laspeyres, 1801)\nPyropteron leucomelaena (Zeller, 1847)\nPyropteron mannii (Lederer, 1853)\nPyropteron minianiformis (Freyer, 1843)\nPyropteron muscaeformis (Esper, 1783)\nPyropteron triannuliformis (Freyer, 1843)\nSesia apiformis (Clerck, 1759)\nSesia pimplaeformis Oberthur, 1872\nSynanthedon andrenaeformis (Laspeyres, 1801)\nSynanthedon cephiformis (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nSynanthedon conopiformis (Esper, 1782)", "Synanthedon cephiformis (Ochsenheimer, 1808)\nSynanthedon conopiformis (Esper, 1782)\nSynanthedon culiciformis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSynanthedon formicaeformis (Esper, 1783)\nSynanthedon loranthi (Kralicek, 1966)\nSynanthedon melliniformis (Laspeyres, 1801)\nSynanthedon mesiaeformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nSynanthedon myopaeformis (Borkhausen, 1789)\nSynanthedon scoliaeformis (Borkhausen, 1789)\nSynanthedon spuleri (Fuchs, 1908)\nSynanthedon stomoxiformis (Hübner, 1790)\nSynanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck, 1759)", "Synanthedon stomoxiformis (Hübner, 1790)\nSynanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck, 1759)\nSynanthedon vespiformis (Linnaeus, 1761)\nTinthia brosiformis (Hübner, 1813)\nTinthia myrmosaeformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)\nTinthia tineiformis (Esper, 1789)", "Sphingidae\nAcherontia atropos (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAgrius convolvuli (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDaphnis nerii (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDeilephila elpenor (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDeilephila porcellus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nDolbina elegans A. Bang-Haas, 1912\nHemaris croatica (Esper, 1800)\nHemaris fuciformis (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHemaris tityus (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHippotion celerio (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHyles euphorbiae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHyles gallii (Rottemburg, 1775)\nHyles hippophaes (Esper, 1789)\nHyles livornica (Esper, 1780)", "Hyles gallii (Rottemburg, 1775)\nHyles hippophaes (Esper, 1789)\nHyles livornica (Esper, 1780)\nHyles nicaea (de Prunner, 1798)\nHyles vespertilio (Esper, 1780)\nLaothoe populi (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMacroglossum stellatarum (Linnaeus, 1758)\nMarumba quercus (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMimas tiliae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nProserpinus proserpina (Pallas, 1772)\nRethera komarovi (Christoph, 1885)\nSmerinthus ocellata (Linnaeus, 1758)\nSphingoneopsis gorgoniades (Hübner, 1819)\nSphinx ligustri Linnaeus, 1758", "Sphingoneopsis gorgoniades (Hübner, 1819)\nSphinx ligustri Linnaeus, 1758\nSphinx pinastri Linnaeus, 1758\nTheretra alecto (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Thyrididae\nThyris fenestrella (Scopoli, 1763)", "Tineidae\nAteliotum hungaricellum Zeller, 1839\nCephimallota angusticostella (Zeller, 1839)\nCeratuncus danubiella (Mann, 1866)\nElatobia fuliginosella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)\nEudarcia balcanicum (Gaedike, 1988)\nEudarcia forsteri (Petersen, 1964)\nEudarcia granulatella (Zeller, 1852)\nEudarcia kasyi (Petersen, 1971)\nEuplocamus anthracinalis (Scopoli, 1763)\nEuplocamus ophisus (Cramer, 1779)\nHaplotinea ditella (Pierce & Metcalfe, 1938)\nHaplotinea insectella (Fabricius, 1794)\nHapsifera luridella Zeller, 1847", "Haplotinea insectella (Fabricius, 1794)\nHapsifera luridella Zeller, 1847\nInfurcitinea albicomella (Stainton, 1851)\nInfurcitinea finalis Gozmany, 1959\nInfurcitinea kasyi Petersen, 1962\nInfurcitinea rumelicella (Rebel, 1903)\nLichenotinea pustulatella (Zeller, 1852)\nMonopis crocicapitella (Clemens, 1859)\nMonopis imella (Hübner, 1813)\nMonopis laevigella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMonopis monachella (Hübner, 1796)\nMonopis obviella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMonopis weaverella (Scott, 1858)", "Monopis obviella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMonopis weaverella (Scott, 1858)\nMorophaga choragella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nMyrmecozela parnassiella (Rebel, 1915)\nNemapogon clematella (Fabricius, 1781)\nNemapogon cloacella (Haworth, 1828)\nNemapogon granella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNemapogon gravosaellus Petersen, 1957\nNemapogon hungaricus Gozmany, 1960\nNemapogon inconditella (Lucas, 1956)\nNemapogon nigralbella (Zeller, 1839)\nNemapogon ruricolella (Stainton, 1849)\nNemapogon signatellus Petersen, 1957", "Nemapogon ruricolella (Stainton, 1849)\nNemapogon signatellus Petersen, 1957\nNemapogon variatella (Clemens, 1859)\nNemapogon wolffiella Karsholt & Nielsen, 1976\nNemaxera betulinella (Fabricius, 1787)\nNeurothaumasia ankerella (Mann, 1867)\nNiditinea fuscella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nNiditinea striolella (Matsumura, 1931)\nReisserita relicinella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1853)\nTinea columbariella Wocke, 1877\nTinea dubiella Stainton, 1859\nTinea nonimella (Zagulajev, 1955)\nTinea pellionella Linnaeus, 1758", "Tinea dubiella Stainton, 1859\nTinea nonimella (Zagulajev, 1955)\nTinea pellionella Linnaeus, 1758\nTinea semifulvella Haworth, 1828\nTinea trinotella Thunberg, 1794\nTineola bisselliella (Hummel, 1823)\nTriaxomera parasitella (Hübner, 1796)\nTrichophaga bipartitella (Ragonot, 1892)\nTrichophaga tapetzella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Tischeriidae\nCoptotriche marginea (Haworth, 1828)", "Tortricidae\nAbrepagoge treitschkeana (Treitschke, 1835)\nAcleris aspersana (Hübner, 1817)\nAcleris bergmanniana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcleris boscanoides Razowski, 1959\nAcleris forsskaleana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcleris holmiana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcleris laterana (Fabricius, 1794)\nAcleris literana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAcleris quercinana (Zeller, 1849)\nAcleris rhombana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAcleris schalleriana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nAcleris variegana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Acleris schalleriana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nAcleris variegana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAdoxophyes orana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1834)\nAethes bilbaensis (Rossler, 1877)\nAethes caucasica (Amsel, 1959)\nAethes cnicana (Westwood, 1854)\nAethes confinis Razowski, 1974\nAethes deutschiana (Zetterstedt, 1839)\nAethes eichleri Razowski, 1983\nAethes flagellana (Duponchel, 1836)\nAethes francillana (Fabricius, 1794)\nAethes hartmanniana (Clerck, 1759)\nAethes kasyi Razowski, 1962\nAethes margaritana (Haworth, 1811)", "Aethes hartmanniana (Clerck, 1759)\nAethes kasyi Razowski, 1962\nAethes margaritana (Haworth, 1811)\nAethes margaritifera Falkovitsh, 1963\nAethes mauritanica (Walsingham, 1898)\nAethes nefandana (Kennel, 1899)\nAethes rubigana (Treitschke, 1830)\nAethes smeathmanniana (Fabricius, 1781)\nAethes tesserana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAethes tornella (Walsingham, 1898)\nAethes triangulana (Treitschke, 1835)\nAethes williana (Brahm, 1791)\nAgapeta hamana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAgapeta largana (Rebel, 1906)", "Aethes williana (Brahm, 1791)\nAgapeta hamana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAgapeta largana (Rebel, 1906)\nAgapeta zoegana (Linnaeus, 1767)\nAleimma loeflingiana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAncylis achatana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAncylis apicella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAncylis badiana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAncylis comptana (Frolich, 1828)\nAncylis geminana (Donovan, 1806)\nAncylis selenana (Guenee, 1845)\nAncylis unguicella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAphelia viburniana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Ancylis unguicella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAphelia viburniana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nAphelia euxina (Djakonov, 1929)\nAphelia ferugana (Hübner, 1793)\nAphelia paleana (Hübner, 1793)\nApotomis capreana (Hübner, 1817)\nApotomis sauciana (Frolich, 1828)\nApotomis semifasciana (Haworth, 1811)\nArchips crataegana (Hübner, 1799)\nArchips oporana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArchips podana (Scopoli, 1763)\nArchips rosana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArchips xylosteana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArgyroploce arbutella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Archips xylosteana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArgyroploce arbutella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nArgyroploce noricana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nBactra furfurana (Haworth, 1811)\nBactra lancealana (Hübner, 1799)\nBactra robustana (Christoph, 1872)\nBactra venosana (Zeller, 1847)\nCapricornia boisduvaliana (Duponchel, 1836)\nCapua vulgana (Frolich, 1828)\nCelypha aurofasciana (Haworth, 1811)\nCelypha capreolana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nCelypha cespitana (Hübner, 1817)\nCelypha lacunana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "Celypha cespitana (Hübner, 1817)\nCelypha lacunana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCelypha rivulana (Scopoli, 1763)\nCelypha rosaceana Schlager, 1847\nCelypha rufana (Scopoli, 1763)\nCelypha rurestrana (Duponchel, 1843)\nCelypha striana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nChoristoneura diversana (Hübner, 1817)\nChoristoneura hebenstreitella (Muller, 1764)\nChoristoneura murinana (Hübner, 1799)\nClepsis balcanica (Rebel, 1917)\nClepsis burgasiensis (Rebel, 1916)\nClepsis consimilana (Hübner, 1817)", "Clepsis burgasiensis (Rebel, 1916)\nClepsis consimilana (Hübner, 1817)\nClepsis neglectana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nClepsis pallidana (Fabricius, 1776)\nClepsis rurinana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nClepsis senecionana (Hübner, 1819)\nClepsis spectrana (Treitschke, 1830)\nCnephasia asseclana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCnephasia communana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nCnephasia ecullyana Real, 1951\nCnephasia graecana Rebel, 1902\nCnephasia stephensiana (Doubleday, 1849)\nCnephasia abrasana (Duponchel, 1843)", "Cnephasia stephensiana (Doubleday, 1849)\nCnephasia abrasana (Duponchel, 1843)\nCnephasia incertana (Treitschke, 1835)\nCochylidia heydeniana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nCochylidia rupicola (Curtis, 1834)\nCochylidia subroseana (Haworth, 1811)\nCochylimorpha cultana (Lederer, 1855)\nCochylimorpha decolorella (Zeller, 1839)\nCochylimorpha meridiana (Staudinger, 1859)\nCochylimorpha straminea (Haworth, 1811)\nCochylimorpha woliniana (Schleich, 1868)\nCochylis defessana (Mann, 1861)\nCochylis epilinana Duponchel, 1842", "Cochylis defessana (Mann, 1861)\nCochylis epilinana Duponchel, 1842\nCochylis hybridella (Hübner, 1813)\nCochylis nana (Haworth, 1811)\nCochylis pallidana Zeller, 1847\nCochylis posterana Zeller, 1847\nCochylis roseana (Haworth, 1811)\nCochylis salebrana (Mann, 1862)\nCrocidosema plebejana Zeller, 1847\nCryptocochylis conjunctana (Mann, 1864)\nCydia amplana (Hübner, 1800)\nCydia duplicana (Zetterstedt, 1839)\nCydia fagiglandana (Zeller, 1841)\nCydia illutana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nCydia inquinatana (Hübner, 1800)", "Cydia illutana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nCydia inquinatana (Hübner, 1800)\nCydia microgrammana (Guenee, 1845)\nCydia pomonella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nCydia pyrivora (Danilevsky, 1947)\nCydia splendana (Hübner, 1799)\nCydia succedana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nCymolomia hartigiana (Saxesen, 1840)\nDiceratura ostrinana (Guenee, 1845)\nDichelia histrionana (Frolich, 1828)\nDichrorampha acuminatana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)\nDichrorampha alpinana (Treitschke, 1830)\nDichrorampha incognitana (Kremky & Maslowski, 1933)", "Dichrorampha alpinana (Treitschke, 1830)\nDichrorampha incognitana (Kremky & Maslowski, 1933)\nDichrorampha incursana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nDichrorampha infuscata (Danilevsky, 1960)\nDichrorampha ligulana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nDichrorampha montanana (Duponchel, 1843)\nDichrorampha obscuratana (Wolff, 1955)\nDichrorampha plumbagana (Treitschke, 1830)\nDichrorampha plumbana (Scopoli, 1763)\nDichrorampha rilana Drenowski, 1909\nDichrorampha senectana Guenee, 1845\nEana incanana (Stephens, 1852)", "Dichrorampha senectana Guenee, 1845\nEana incanana (Stephens, 1852)\nEana argentana (Clerck, 1759)\nEana canescana (Guenee, 1845)\nEnarmonia formosana (Scopoli, 1763)\nEndothenia ericetana (Humphreys & Westwood, 1845)\nEndothenia gentianaeana (Hübner, 1799)\nEndothenia nigricostana (Haworth, 1811)\nEndothenia oblongana (Haworth, 1811)\nEndothenia quadrimaculana (Haworth, 1811)\nEndothenia ustulana (Haworth, 1811)\nEpagoge grotiana (Fabricius, 1781)\nEpiblema costipunctana (Haworth, 1811)", "Epagoge grotiana (Fabricius, 1781)\nEpiblema costipunctana (Haworth, 1811)\nEpiblema foenella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nEpiblema graphana (Treitschke, 1835)\nEpiblema hepaticana (Treitschke, 1835)\nEpiblema inulivora (Meyrick, 1932)\nEpiblema junctana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1856)\nEpiblema mendiculana (Treitschke, 1835)\nEpiblema sarmatana (Christoph, 1872)\nEpiblema scutulana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEpiblema similana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEpiblema sticticana (Fabricius, 1794)", "Epiblema similana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEpiblema sticticana (Fabricius, 1794)\nEpiblema turbidana (Treitschke, 1835)\nEpinotia abbreviana (Fabricius, 1794)\nEpinotia bilunana (Haworth, 1811)\nEpinotia cruciana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nEpinotia fraternana (Haworth, 1811)\nEpinotia nanana (Treitschke, 1835)\nEpinotia nigristriana Budashkin & Zlatkov, 2011\nEpinotia pygmaeana (Hübner, 1799)\nEpinotia tedella (Clerck, 1759)\nEucosma albidulana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nEucosma aspidiscana (Hübner, 1817)", "Eucosma albidulana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nEucosma aspidiscana (Hübner, 1817)\nEucosma caliacrana (Caradja, 1931)\nEucosma campoliliana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEucosma cana (Haworth, 1811)\nEucosma clarescens Kuznetsov, 1964\nEucosma conformana (Mann, 1872)\nEucosma conterminana (Guenee, 1845)\nEucosma cumulana (Guenee, 1845)\nEucosma metzneriana (Treitschke, 1830)\nEucosma obumbratana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)\nEucosma pupillana (Clerck, 1759)\nEucosmomorpha albersana (Hübner, 1813)", "Eucosma pupillana (Clerck, 1759)\nEucosmomorpha albersana (Hübner, 1813)\nEudemis porphyrana (Hübner, 1799)\nEudemis profundana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nEugnosta lathoniana (Hübner, 1800)\nEupoecilia ambiguella (Hübner, 1796)\nEupoecilia angustana (Hübner, 1799)\nFalseuncaria ruficiliana (Haworth, 1811)\nFulvoclysia nerminae Kocak, 1982\nGrapholita molesta (Busck, 1916)\nGrapholita tenebrosana Duponchel, 1843\nGrapholita coronillana Lienig & Zeller, 1846\nGrapholita fissana (Frolich, 1828)", "Grapholita coronillana Lienig & Zeller, 1846\nGrapholita fissana (Frolich, 1828)\nGrapholita lathyrana (Hübner, 1822)\nGrapholita orobana Treitschke, 1830\nGypsonoma aceriana (Duponchel, 1843)\nGypsonoma dealbana (Frolich, 1828)\nGypsonoma minutana (Hübner, 1799)\nHedya nubiferana (Haworth, 1811)\nHedya ochroleucana (Frolich, 1828)\nHedya pruniana (Hübner, 1799)\nHedya salicella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nHysterophora maculosana (Haworth, 1811)\nIsotrias hybridana (Hübner, 1817)\nLathronympha strigana (Fabricius, 1775)", "Isotrias hybridana (Hübner, 1817)\nLathronympha strigana (Fabricius, 1775)\nLobesia artemisiana (Zeller, 1847)\nLobesia bicinctana (Duponchel, 1844)\nLobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nLobesia indusiana (Zeller, 1847)\nLobesia reliquana (Hübner, 1825)\nLozotaenia forsterana (Fabricius, 1781)\nMetendothenia atropunctana (Zetterstedt, 1839)\nNeosphaleroptera nubilana (Hübner, 1799)\nNotocelia roborana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nNotocelia trimaculana (Haworth, 1811)\nOlethreutes arcuella (Clerck, 1759)", "Notocelia trimaculana (Haworth, 1811)\nOlethreutes arcuella (Clerck, 1759)\nOrthotaenia undulana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPammene amygdalana (Duponchel, 1842)\nPammene christophana (Moschler, 1862)\nPammene fasciana (Linnaeus, 1761)\nPammene mariana (Zerny, 1920)\nPammene oxycedrana (Milliere, 1876)\nPammene regiana (Zeller, 1849)\nPandemis cerasana (Hübner, 1786)\nPandemis chondrillana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1860)\nPandemis cinnamomeana (Treitschke, 1830)\nPandemis corylana (Fabricius, 1794)", "Pandemis cinnamomeana (Treitschke, 1830)\nPandemis corylana (Fabricius, 1794)\nPandemis dumetana (Treitschke, 1835)\nPandemis heparana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nParamesia gnomana (Clerck, 1759)\nPelochrista agrestana (Treitschke, 1830)\nPelochrista caecimaculana (Hübner, 1799)\nPelochrista decolorana (Freyer, 1842)\nPelochrista fusculana (Zeller, 1847)\nPelochrista infidana (Hübner, 1824)\nPelochrista mancipiana (Mann, 1855)\nPelochrista medullana (Staudinger, 1879)\nPelochrista modicana (Zeller, 1847)", "Pelochrista medullana (Staudinger, 1879)\nPelochrista modicana (Zeller, 1847)\nPelochrista mollitana (Zeller, 1847)\nPericlepsis cinctana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhalonidia affinitana (Douglas, 1846)\nPhalonidia contractana (Zeller, 1847)\nPhalonidia gilvicomana (Zeller, 1847)\nPhalonidia manniana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1839)\nPhaneta pauperana (Duponchel, 1843)\nPhiaris stibiana (Guenee, 1845)\nPhiledone gerningana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhiledonides lunana (Thunberg, 1784)", "Philedone gerningana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nPhiledonides lunana (Thunberg, 1784)\nPhtheochroa drenowskyi (Rebel, 1916)\nPhtheochroa inopiana (Haworth, 1811)\nPhtheochroa procerana (Lederer, 1853)\nPristerognatha penthinana (Guenee, 1845)\nPropiromorpha rhodophana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nPseudargyrotoza conwagana (Fabricius, 1775)\nPseudeulia asinana (Hübner, 1799)\nPseudococcyx posticana (Zetterstedt, 1839)\nPseudococcyx tessulatana (Staudinger, 1871)\nPseudosciaphila branderiana (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Pseudococcyx tessulatana (Staudinger, 1871)\nPseudosciaphila branderiana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPtycholoma lecheana (Linnaeus, 1758)\nPtycholomoides aeriferana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)\nRhyacionia buoliana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nRhyacionia hafneri (Rebel, 1937)\nRhyacionia pinivorana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)\nSparganothis pilleriana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSpilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nSyndemis musculana (Hübner, 1799)\nThiodia citrana (Hübner, 1799)", "Syndemis musculana (Hübner, 1799)\nThiodia citrana (Hübner, 1799)\nThiodia lerneana (Treitschke, 1835)\nThiodia major (Rebel, 1903)\nThiodia trochilana (Frolich, 1828)\nTortrix viridana Linnaeus, 1758\nTosirips magyarus Razowski, 1987\nZeiraphera isertana (Fabricius, 1794)\nZeiraphera rufimitrana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)", "Yponomeutidae\nCedestis gysseleniella Zeller, 1839\nKessleria alpicella (Stainton, 1851)\nOcnerostoma piniariella Zeller, 1847\nParaswammerdamia albicapitella (Scharfenberg, 1805)\nParaswammerdamia nebulella (Goeze, 1783)\nPseudoswammerdamia combinella (Hübner, 1786)\nScythropia crataegella (Linnaeus, 1767)\nSwammerdamia caesiella (Hübner, 1796)\nSwammerdamia compunctella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855\nSwammerdamia pyrella (Villers, 1789)\nYponomeuta cagnagella (Hübner, 1813)\nYponomeuta evonymella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Yponomeuta cagnagella (Hübner, 1813)\nYponomeuta evonymella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nYponomeuta irrorella (Hübner, 1796)\nYponomeuta malinellus Zeller, 1838\nYponomeuta padella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nYponomeuta plumbella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nYponomeuta rorrella (Hübner, 1796)\nYponomeuta sedella Treitschke, 1832", "Ypsolophidae\nYpsolopha alpella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nYpsolopha asperella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nYpsolopha chazariella (Mann, 1866)\nYpsolopha falcella (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nYpsolopha horridella (Treitschke, 1835)\nYpsolopha lucella (Fabricius, 1775)\nYpsolopha nemorella (Linnaeus, 1758)\nYpsolopha parenthesella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nYpsolopha persicella (Fabricius, 1787)\nYpsolopha scabrella (Linnaeus, 1761)\nYpsolopha sculpturella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nYpsolopha sequella (Clerck, 1759)", "Ypsolopha sculpturella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)\nYpsolopha sequella (Clerck, 1759)\nYpsolopha sylvella (Linnaeus, 1767)\nYpsolopha ustella (Clerck, 1759)\nYpsolopha vittella (Linnaeus, 1758)", "Zygaenidae\nAdscita albanica (Naufock, 1926)\nAdscita geryon (Hübner, 1813)\nAdscita obscura (Zeller, 1847)\nAdscita statices (Linnaeus, 1758)\nAdscita mannii (Lederer, 1853)\nJordanita chloros (Hübner, 1813)\nJordanita globulariae (Hübner, 1793)\nJordanita graeca (Jordan, 1907)\nJordanita subsolana (Staudinger, 1862)\nJordanita budensis (Ad. & Au. Speyer, 1858)\nJordanita notata (Zeller, 1847)\nRhagades pruni (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTheresimima ampellophaga (Bayle-Barelle, 1808)", "Rhagades pruni (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nTheresimima ampellophaga (Bayle-Barelle, 1808)\nZygaena carniolica (Scopoli, 1763)\nZygaena sedi Fabricius, 1787\nZygaena brizae (Esper, 1800)\nZygaena laeta (Hübner, 1790)\nZygaena minos (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nZygaena punctum Ochsenheimer, 1808\nZygaena purpuralis (Brunnich, 1763)\nZygaena angelicae Ochsenheimer, 1808\nZygaena ephialtes (Linnaeus, 1767)\nZygaena filipendulae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nZygaena lonicerae (Scheven, 1777)", "Zygaena filipendulae (Linnaeus, 1758)\nZygaena lonicerae (Scheven, 1777)\nZygaena loti (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)\nZygaena nevadensis Rambur, 1858\nZygaena osterodensis Reiss, 1921\nZygaena viciae (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775)", "External links\nFauna Europaea\n\nBulgaria, lepid\nLepidoptera\n Bulgaria\nBulgaria\nBulgaria\nFauna of Bulgaria\nBulgaria" ]

[ "Jonathan Zebina (born 19 July 1978) is a French retired professional footballer. Having started his career as a striker, he played right-back for much of his career before being increasingly used as a centre-back. During his playing career, Zebina was an athletic defender, with good man-marking skills. However, Zebina, at times, was criticised throughout his career for being error-prone.", "He spent his club career with several French and Italian clubs, most notably Roma – with whom he won a Serie A title and a Supercoppa Italiana in 2001 – and Juventus. At international level, Zebina obtained his only senior cap for the France national team in 2005.\n\nClub career", "Club career\n\nCannes\nBorn in Paris, France, Zebina began his football career at US Palaiseau, first joining the club when he was seven years old and started out playing as a striker. However, due to competitions in the striker at the club's youth system, he was left out and soon playing in the right–back position. Zebina then played for ES Viry-Châtillon before joining AS Cannes, where he began his professional football career there.", "After progressing through the youth system, Zebina made his debut for AS Cannes, where they were playing in the French Division 1 in a home game against Metz which ended 0–0 on 8 March 1997. He later made six more league appearances at the end of the 1996–97 season. The following year Zebina continued to develop and he made 21 league appearances as Cannes were relegated to Ligue 2.", "Cagliari\nZebina was then signed by Cagliari Calcio, whose president had spotted him during a match against Marseille while scouting Cyril Domoraud.", "He made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Inter Milan in the opening game of the season. Since making his debut for Cagliari, Zebina was given a chance at a right-back position after injuries to two other defenders and soon made the position his own, in the process, he established a reputation as one of the most promising defenders in Europe", ". In the second half of the season, Zebina found himself placed in the substitute bench in a number of matches, at times, he returned to the starting line–up. In the last game of the season against Fiorentina, however, he scored an own goal, in a 1–1 draw. At the end of the 1998–99 season, Zebina went on to make twenty–four appearances in all competitions.", "At the start of the 1999–00 season, Zebina, however, suffered ankle injury that saw him out for the first two months to the season. But he made his first appearance of the season, starting a match and played 76 minutes, in a 2–2 draw against Milan on 17 October 1999. Following his return from injury, Zebina appeared four more matches before being on the sidelines once again for two matches. Following his return, he continued to regain his first team place, playing in the right–back position", ". However, he was unable to help the club, as Cagliari were relegated to Serie B. During his time at the club, Zebina made fifty–eight appearances in all competitions for the Sardinian club between 1998 and 2000.", "Roma", "In June 2000, Zebina moved to A.S. Roma in a co-ownership deal for 9.5 billion Italian lire. Upon joining the club, he linked up with up with countryman and fellow full-back Vincent Candela and said: \"I am very happy to be here. This is a big step for me from a professional point of view. I will try to give the best of myself. It doesn't scare me if I have to start off the bench. It will be a pleasure for me to fight for a place as a starter", ". It will be a pleasure for me to fight for a place as a starter. My goal is to win against Roma and try to become stronger than Thuram.\"", "Zebina made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in a 4–1 win against ND Gorica in the first round of the UEFA Cup. He helped Roma keep a clean sheet in the return leg by beating the opposition team 7–0 to advance to the next round. Zebina followed up by helping the club keep two clean sheets in the next two matches against Bologna and Leece. However, he suffered an injury that saw him miss two matches", ". However, he suffered an injury that saw him miss two matches. But Zebina made his return to the starting line–up against Reggina on 12 November 2000 and helped Roma beat the opposition team 2–1. However, his return was short–lived when he suffered a broken toe during a match against Perugia on 3 December 2000 and was substituted in the 43rd minute, as the club drew 0–0", ". After a month on the sidelines, Zebina returned to the first team against Bari on 14 January 2001, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute, in a 1–1. However, he found himself on the sidelines on four occasions in the next three months. Despite his absence later in the 2000–01 season, Zebina remained in the first team regular, playing in the centre–back position and helped Roma win the Scudetto. In his first season at the club, he made twenty–six appearances in all competitions.", "At the start of the 2001–02 season, Manager Fabio Capello was impressed with Zebina's performances and skills and Roma bought him outright in July 2001. He started in the Italian Supercup against Fiorentina and helped the club keep a clean sheet, in a 3–0 win to win the competition. Since the start of the 2001–02 season, Zebina continued to regain his first team place, rotating in playing either the right–back position or centre–back position", ". He made his UEFA Champions League debut against Real Madrid on 11 September 2001 and won a penalty, which Francesco Totti successfully converted the penalty kick, as Roma lost 2–1. Zebina helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 29 September 2001 and 16 October 2001 against Juventus, Perugia and Lokomotiv Moscow. He, once again, helped Roma keep three clean sheets out of the club's four matches between 16 December 2001 and 6 January 2002", ". However, in the second half of the season, Zebina found himself in and out of the starting line–up for Roma. He was also suspended on three occasions, including one against Inter Milan for slapping Álvaro Recoba, losing 3–0 on 24 March 2002. After serving a three match suspension, Zebina lost his first team place, as the club eventually surrendered their league title to Juventus at the end of the 2001–02 season", ". At the end of the 2001–02 season, he went on to make thirty–seven appearances in all competitions.", "Ahead of the 2002–03 season, Zebina switched number shirt from fifteen to number five. At the start of the 2002–03 season, he was involved in a minor car crash, but escaped with cuts and bruises. The incident led Roma supporters booing him when his name was mentioned in the club's next match. Eventually, Roma supporters apologised for their actions to the player", ". Eventually, Roma supporters apologised for their actions to the player. Following his return, Zebina continued to regain his first team place, rotating in playing either the right–back position, centre–back position or left–back position. He helped Roma keep two consecutive clean sheets between 15 December 2002 and 21 December 2002 against Reggina and Torino. However, the start of the second half of the season saw Zebina suffered a muscular problems and was sidelined for a month", ". But he made his return to the starting line–up against Valencia in the first leg of the UEFA Champions League Group Stage, losing 1–0. However, in a follow–up match against Udinese on 24 February 2003, Zebina was sent–off in the last minutes for a second bookable offence, in a 2–1 loss. After serving a one match suspension, he returned to the starting line–up against rivals, Lazio on 8 March 2003 but suffered a muscle injury and was substituted in the 26th minute, as the club drew 1–1", ". Following this, Zebina was later sidelined on two more occasions for Roma later in the 2002–03 season. Despite this, he played in both legs of the Coppa Italia Final against Milan, as Roma lost 6–3 on aggregate. At the end of the 2002–03 season, Zebina went on to make thirty–one appearances in all competitions.", "At the start of the 2003–04 season, Zebina continued to establish himself in the starting eleven, rotating in playing in either the right–back position or centre–back position. In early–September, Roma began talks with the player over a new contract. He scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–2 draw against Juventus on 21 September 2003. This was followed up by helping Roma keep seven league clean sheets between 28 September 2013 and 23 November 2003", ". However, in the second half of the season, Zebina found his himself sidelined on five occasions, due to injury and suspension. He also was sent–off on two occasions: the first one came against Siena on 22 February 2004 and the second one came against Villarreal on 25 March 2004. Despite this, Zebina helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 8 February 2004 and 22 February 2004", ". Despite being sidelined on two more occasions towards the end of the 2003–04 season, his contributions saw Roma finish in second place in the league behind Milan. At the end of the 2003–04 season, he went on to make thirty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions. During his time at the club between 2000 and 2004, Zebina made 126 appearances and scoring once in all competitions.", "Juventus", "Towards the end of his spell in the Italian capital, Milan began to take notice of Zebina and reported that the player was on the verge of moving to the club as the 2003–04 season was coming to an end. He even rejected a new contract from Roma and was expected to leave the club at the end of the 2003–04 season. On 19 May 2004, however, Zebina elected to join Juventus on a free transfer, where he was reunited with departing Roma manager Capello", ". Zebina revealed that he had rejected moves to Chelsea, Liverpool and Milan in order to join the club. Zebina later explained his decision to join Juventus, saying that AC Milan wanted him to play \"the second of Stam\", while Inter Milan offered the player \"an astonishing contract proposal\", he felt the club \"must have taken him for a young rookie\".", "However, Zebina had to wait for a month to make his debut for the club, due to a serving a suspension in both legs of the UEFA Champions League Play–Offs round against Djurgården that saw Juventus won 6–3 on aggregate to advance to the Group Stage. He made his debut for the club, starting the whole game, in the opening game of the season against Brescia and set up a goal for David Trezeguet, in a 3–0 win. Zebina helped Juventus keep three consecutive clean sheets between 19 October 2004 and 28 October 2004", ". Having found himself in a competition with Gianluca Zambrotta and Alessandro Birindelli, Zebina won a first team place, playing in the right–back position at the start of the 2004–05 season. However, he suffered an injury that saw him out for weeks. But Zebina made his return to the starting line–up against Inter Milan on 28 November 2004 and helped the club draw 2–2. Following his return from injury, he regained his first team place, playing in the right–back position", ". At one point, Zebina played in the right–midfield position on two occasions between 13 February 2005 and 19 February 2005. He helped Juventus keep another three consecutive clean sheets between 9 March 2005 and 19 March 2005. However, in the first leg of the UEFA Champions League quarter–finals against Liverpool on 5 April 2005, Zebina suffered a hamstring injury and was substituted in the 81st minute, as the club lost 2–0", ". After the match, he was sidelined with a hamstring injury for the rest of the 2004–05 season. Despite this, his contributions saw Juventus win the league (which they were later stripped of the league title). In his first season at the club, Zebina made thirty–one appearances in all competitions.", "At the start of the 2005–06 season, Zebina made his first appearance of the season in the Supercoppa Italiana against Inter Milan, starting a match and played 111 minutes, as Juventus lost 1–0. In a follow–up match against Chievo in the opening game of the season, however, he suffered an injury in the 7th minute, as the club won 1–0", ". But Zebina made a quick recovery and returned to the starting line–up against Ascoli on 18 September 2005, only to be substituted in the 3rd minute, due to a hamstring injury, as Juventus won 2–1. Following this, he was sidelined for the rest of the year and had four separate injuries by then. As Zebina was returning from injury, the 2005–06 season was not his finest as a professional due to an argument with the Juventus management over his request for a pay rise", ". This led to rumours linking him with Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur. However, his move to England collapsed after Manager Capello persuaded him to stay. It wasn't until on 22 January 2006 when he made his return from injury against Empoli, coming on as a 62nd-minute substitute, in a 2–1 win. This was follow–up by making his first start since September against his former club, Roma in the first leg of the Coppa Italia first leg, losing 3–2", ". However, in the return leg of the Coppa Italia quarter–finals against Roma, Zebina suffered an injury and was substituted in the 44th minute, as the club won 1–0, only to be eliminated from the tournament through away goal. After the match, he was sidelined for a month. But Zebina made his return to the first team against Milan on 12 March 2006 and started the whole game, as Juventus drew 0–0", ". Despite sidelined on three more occasions, including a red card in Juventus' Champions League quarter-final loss to Arsenal, along with Mauro Camoranesi, he was primarily used as a backup player, occasionally playing in the right-back position. Once again, his contributions to the club saw Juventus claimed the Scudetto to compensate for the European disappointment, but were stripped of their 2005 and 2006 titles title after a match-fixing scandal that saw the club relegated to Serie B", ". At the end of the 2005–06 season, Zebina went on to make fifteen appearances in all competitions.", "Despite coming under fire several times for his perceived inconsistency, Zebina stayed with Juventus following their relegation and was expected to have his first-team opportunities increase after the sale of Zambrotta to FC Barcelona ahead of the 2006–07 season. However at the start of the 2006–07 season, he missed the first months to the season, due to injury", ". Zebina recovered and made his first appearance of the season against Modena on 23 September 2006 and started the match before being substituted at half time, due to an adductor problems, as the club won 4–0. After the match, he was sidelined for two months with adductor problems. It was not until on 11 November 2006 when Zebina made his return to the first team, coming on as a 77th-minute substitute, in a 2–0 win against Pescara", ". Following his return, he found himself, rotating in and out of the first team, fighting for his first team place in the centre–back position. In the 2007 winter transfer window he turned down prospective moves to Marseille or Real Madrid after reports of the player was expected to leave Juventus, but stayed at the club. However, Zebina received a straight red card for hitting Adriano Mezavilla against Cesena on 16 January 2007, as Juventus won 2–1", ". After the match, he was fined by the club and served a three match suspension. Zebina returned to the starting line–up against Crotone on 17 February 2007 and helped Juventus keep a clean sheet, in a 5–0 win. Following his return, his first team opportunities increased and rotating in playing either centre–back position and right–back position. However, his performances was still criticised by Juventus fans following his mistakes in a number of matches", ". Despite suffering from injuries on three occasions later in the 2006–07 season, his contributions saw the club promoted back to Serie A after a 5–1 win against Arezzo on 19 May 2007. At the end of the 2006–07 season, he went on to make twenty–four appearances in all competitions. Following this, Juventus' Serie B title success, Zebina signed a new four-year deal that would keep him at the club until 2011, ending speculation over his future at Juventus.", "Ahead of the 2007–08 season, Zebina faced competition from new signing, Zdeněk Grygera for the right-back position. However, during a 3–2 win against Cagliari on 2 September 2007, he was sent–off for a second bookable offence in the 81st minute and punched a photographer on the way out. For his actions, Zebina was banned for four suspension and ordered to pay a €15,000 fine", ". For his actions, Zebina was banned for four suspension and ordered to pay a €15,000 fine. After serving a four match suspension, he made his return to the first team against Inter Milan on 4 November 2007, coming on as a 78th-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw. Zebina then helped Juventus keep three clean sheets in three matches between 25 November 2007 and 9 December 2007. Since returning from injury, he, at times, made a number of starts for the club in the right–back position", ". However, Zebina had a disagreements with coach Claudio Ranieri that saw him dropped from the squad in a number of matches. He also faced his own injury concerns that saw him sidelined on five occasions later in the 2007–08 season. At the end of the 2007–08 season, Zebina went on to make seventeen appearances in all competitions.", "Ahead of the 2008–09 season, Zebina was linked a move away from Juventus, with several European clubs interested in signing him. However, he suffered an Achilles tendon rupture at the start of 2008–09 season and was sidelined for the rest of the year. By February, Zebina made a recovery and returned to the starting line–up, playing against the club's Primavera against Sampdoria on 28 February 2009, drawing 0–0", ". A week later on 7 March 2009, he made his first league appearance of the season against rivals, Torino, starting a match and played 59 minutes before being substituted, in a 1–0 win. Following this, Zebina continued to compete with Grygera over the right–back position for the rest of the 2008–09 season. At the end of the 2008–09 season, he went on to make eight appearances in all competitions.", "Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Zebina was linked with a possible transfer to Bordeaux during the transfer window but he rejected the move in favour of staying at Juventus. At the start of the 2009–10 season, Zebina lost his starting place to Martín Cáceres that season, despite Cáceres also being seen as inconsistent. He made his first appearance of the season against Bordeaux ironically in the UEFA Champions League group stage match on 15 September 2009, coming on as a 67th-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw", ". After Cáceres' injury, Zebina returned to the starting eleven, regaining his place in the right–back position and remained in the starting eleven ahead of Cáceres despite the latter recovering from injury. He then scored his first goal for the club, in a 3–1 win against Fulham on 11 March 2010 in the first leg of the UEFA Europa League last 16", ". However, in the return leg, Zebina received a straight red card for kicking Damien Duff, as Juventus lost 4–1, resulting in the club's elimination from the tournament. After the match, he apologised for gesturing to Juventus supporters but defended his actions, claiming their behaviour acted inappropriately. Following this, the club faced a landslide slip in their results, as they finished 7th and numbers of players were sold or their contracts were not renewed, including Fabio Cannavaro", ". At the end of the 2009–10 season, Zebina went on to make twenty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions.", "Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Juventus decided not to buy Cáceres outright, but signed Marco Motta from Udinese on loan as new right-back. However, Zebina was included in Juventus's 25-man squad list A for 2010–11 UEFA Europa League play-offs round, due to his suspension from his red card in the qualifying round the end of last campaign. He also did not attend the pre-season camp, due to his international duty which delayed his vacation", ". Motta quickly became the starting right-back for Juventus in the first four matches of the season in the Europa League, and Zebina was not called up for the first Serie A game of the new season. On the last day of transfer window, his contract was mutually terminated along with Mauro Camoranesi, and David Trezeguet after Juventus strengthened their options in defence by signing Arsenal defender Armand Traoré on loan for the rest of the season, with a view to a permanent move.", "Brescia\nOn the same day Zebina was released, he signed a two-year contract with Serie A newcomer Brescia. Zebina was previously linked with a move to Paris Saint-Germain before opting to join Brescia.", "Shortly after signing for the club, he suffered an injury on his knee and had an operation on it which kept him out for about five weeks. After recovering from his knee injury, Zebina finally made his debut for Brescia, starting the whole game, against Udinese in a 1–0 loss on 17 October 2010. Since making his debut for the club, he quickly established himself in the first team, playing in the centre–back position. Unfortunately, Zebina had a frustrating campaign that ended with Brescia being relegated", ". Unfortunately, Zebina had a frustrating campaign that ended with Brescia being relegated. Despite being suspended on two occasions later in the 2010–11 season, Zebina went on to make 28 appearances for the club in all competitions. On 8 July 2011, he and Brescia agreed to mutually terminated his contract.", "Brest\nAfter being released by Brescia, Zebina returned to France for the first time in twelve years, joining Ligue 1 newcomers Brest on 29 July 2011, with an option to extend a one-year contract. Upon joining the club, he explained joining Brest, stating his desire a move to England in the summer but that a lack of interest shown in his services forced him to turn his attentions elsewhere, with Brest, Saint-Étienne and Nice only interested in signing the player.", "After missing the first two matches to the 2011–12 season, Zebina made his debut for the club, coming on as a late substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Lyon on 20 August 2011. Since joining Brest, he quickly established himself in the first team, playing in the centre–back position. His performance at the club attracted interest from Lille in the January transfer window, but Brest refused to let the player go", ". Zebina helped the club keep three consecutive clean sheets between 17 December 2011 and 14 January 2012. However, during a 1–0 loss against Paris Saint-Germain on 28 January 2012, Zebina suffered a back injury and was substituted in the 9th minute as a result. After missing one match, he returned to the starting line–up against Dijon on 11 February 2012 and helped Brest draw 1–1. This was followed up by helping Brest keep another three consecutive clean sheets between 18 February 2012 and 4 March 2012", ". However, during a 4–0 loss against Auxerre on 29 April 2012, Zebina suffered a calf injury and was substituted in the 30th minute. After the match, it was announced that he would be out for the rest of the 2011–12 season. Despite being sidelined on five occasions during the 2011–12 season, which saw the club finish in 15th place, Zebina went on to make twenty–nine appearances in all competitions.", "Following this, Brest announced on 22 May 2012 that he would not extend his contract, which was due to expire at the end of June.\n\nToulouse\n\nAfter leaving Brest, Zebina was linked with a move to Sochaux, Lille and Toulouse. Instead, he joined Toulouse as a replacement for the outgoing Daniel Congré on a free transfer, signing a two–year contract. Upon joining the club, Zebina was given the number 11 jersey, and became the club captain.", "He made his debut for Toulouse against defending champion, Montpellier in the opening game of the season and started the whole game, in a 1–1 draw. However, Zebina suffered a back injury and was sidelined for two months. It was not until on 6 October 2012 when he returned to the starting line–up against Valenciennes and started the whole game, in a 2–2 draw. However, his return was short–lived when Zebina suffered a calf injury that kept him out for weeks", ". However, his return was short–lived when Zebina suffered a calf injury that kept him out for weeks. But he made his return to the first team against Lyon on 25 November 2012, starting the whole game, and kept a clean sheet, in a 3–0 win. In a match against Saint-Étienne on 11 January 2013, however, however, Zebina suffered a thigh injury and was substituted in the 66th minute, as the club drew 2–2. After the match, he was eventually sidelined for two months as a result", ". After the match, he was eventually sidelined for two months as a result. But Zebina made his return to the starting line–up against Bordeaux on 17 March 2013 and helped Toulouse keep a clean sheet, in a 0–0 draw. On 30 March 2013, he scored an own-goal, against Ajaccio, to give the opposition the lead. Eventually, Toulouse would win 3–2 after a comeback fight. However, Zebina, once again, was sidelined once again when he suffered a hamstring injury that saw him out for the rest of the 2012–13 season", ". Despite the injuries, Zebina was still seen as important, and he remained a key member of the squad. However, Zebina was at fault for a few goals in the few matches he played that season. At the end of the 2012–13 season, Zebina went on to make eighteen appearances in all competitions.", "The start of the 2013–14 season continue to see Zebina recovering from a hamstring injury, which he sustained in the pre–season. Zebina made his first appearance of the season, coming on as a late substitute, in a 2–1 win against Saint-Étienne on 20 September 2013. Since returning from injury, he found himself, rotating in and out of the starting line–up and captaining Toulouse in a number of matches, due to competitions in the centre–back position", ". However, in a match against Montpellier on 8 December 2013, Zebina received a red card for a second bookable offence, having came on as a second-half substitute, in a 1–1 draw. After serving a two match suspension, he returned to the starting line–up against Guingamp on 21 December 2013 and helped the club keep a clean sheet, in a 0–0 draw. Following his return, Zebina regained his first team place, playing in the centre–back position for the next three months", ". After being dropped for two matches in mid–February, he spoke about Toulouse's poor form on his social media account on two occasions. However, Zebina injured his right Achilles tendon that saw him sidelined for a month. But he made his return to the starting line–up against Guingamp on 10 May 2014 and played 90 minutes, as the club lost 2–0. In the last game of the season against Valenciennes, Zebina started the whole match as captain and help Toulouse win 3–1 to finish ninth place in the league", ". At the end of the 2013–14 season, he went on to make twenty–three appearances in all competitions.", "It was announced on 25 February 2014 that Zebina hinted of leaving the club at the end of the 2013–14 season. His departure from Toulouse was later confirmed on 21 May 2014 after weeks of uncertainty over his future at the club.\n\nArles-Avignon\nOn 6 October 2014, Zebina joined AC Arles-Avignon on a two–year contract after spending five months as a free agent.", "He made his debut for the club, starting a match and played 80 minutes before being substituted, in a 3–1 loss against Gazélec Ajaccio on 17 October 2014. However, in a follow–up match against Niortais, Zebina suffered a thigh injury that saw him miss one match. But he made his return to the starting line–up against Valenciennes on 7 November 2014, as Arles-Avignon lost 1–0. In a follow–up against Clermont, however, Zebina received a straight red card in the 42nd minute, as the club lost 3–1", ". After serving a two match, he made his return to the starting line–up against US Créteil on 12 December 2014, as Arles-Avignon lost 2–0. Having joined the club in early October 2014, Zebina had his contract terminated at the end of the year. By the time he departed from Arles-Avignon, Zebina made seven appearances in all competitions. Following this, he announced his retirement from professional football.", "International career\nIn 2001, Zebina was called up to the France for the first time by manager Roger Lemerre. For the next four years, having been a regular during his time at Roma and Juventus, he remained in Jacques Santini's plans throughout his tenure.\n\nZebina earned only one cap for France; on 9 February 2005 in a 1–1 draw against Sweden. However, after Santini departed the national side, he was never called up for France again after falling out of favour with new coach Raymond Domenech.", "Personal life\n\nHis father, Denis, is an accountant, who has managed the family finances and his mother, Martine, is a nurse. Zebina has one brother and one sister. He has a diploma in accounting. Zebina said his hobby includes listening to music, watching art-house cinema, and a fan of wine. He is a fan of Aston Martin cars.", "In September 2003, Zebina lost his driver's license after he was convicted of driving under the influence. In October 2005, Zebina once hosted a fashion show event that cost 200,000 euros. Since 2006, he owns a large collection of contemporary art, and owns an art gallery in Milan.", "During his early career in Italy, Zebina spoke about racism in Italian football, saying: \"The tension cannot justify the insults. I'm not speaking as a Romanist but as a human being, if the players start to have the same habits as the racist fans around Europe, we won't go far. In the cold I don't mean nonsense. I'm just saying that players watched from all over the world, like those of Lazio, they cannot give such an unworthy example", ". If one of them says certain things, he doesn't do it out of stupidity, but out of ignorance, which is worse. So what to do?\" On 29 March 2010, Zebina was hit by a fan as he was about to board the team's bus ahead of Juventu's match against Atalanta. Zebina stated: \"Surely it is racism. […] It is a bad thing for the image of Italian football that does not deserve this. The Italian Football Federation has to do something […]\".", "In April 2010, Zebina announced his engagement to Chiara Tortorella, a daughter of magician, Cino Tortorella. In addition to speaking French, he is fluent in Italian since living in the country for two decades and also speaks Spanish and English.", "During his time at Juventus, Zebina was involved in a training scuffle with teammate, Zlatan Ibrahimović. According to his autobiography, I Am Zlatan Ibrahimović, Ibrahimović said: \"He (Zebina) tackled me very severely, I stood in front of him and told him that if he wanted to play hard, he had only to tell me. He hit me with a ball. I didn't have time to think it over, I hit him instantly and he hit the mat just as dry…\", a claim that player denied, suggesting it was a ploy to sell more copies", ". The feud was reignited when Paris Saint-Germain and Toulouse face against each other on 5 October 2013 and after scoring a goal, Ibrahimović mimic pointing a gun in the direction of Zebina at the substitute bench.", "In September 2017, Zebina was convicted of tax evasion, due to not declaring his income between 2011 and 2013. He was given a two–year suspended sentence and fined 10,000 euros.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nClub\n\nInternational\n\nHonours\nRoma\nSerie A: 2000–01\nSupercoppa Italiana: 2001\n\nJuventus\nSerie B: 2006–07\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "Living people\n1978 births\nFootballers from Paris\nMen's association football fullbacks\nFrench men's footballers\nFrench people of Martiniquais descent\nFrance men's international footballers\nLigue 1 players\nLigue 2 players\nSerie A players\nSerie B players\nAS Cannes players\nAS Roma players\nCagliari Calcio players\nJuventus FC players\nBrescia Calcio players\nStade Brestois 29 players\nToulouse FC players\nAC Arlésien players\nFrench expatriate men's footballers\nExpatriate men's footballers in Italy" ]

[ "The political activity of the Knights of Columbus deals with the involvement of the fraternal order in efforts to influence public policy.\n\nThe Knights of Columbus has played an active role in politics ever since its formation. In the years following the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, the earlier focus on protesting discrimination against Catholics shifted to more activity to promote social issues.", "During much of the 20th century and particularly during the era of the Cold War, the Order was politically active in opposing anarchism, communism and socialism, especially within the United States. It was also supportive of trade unionism, the protection of civil rights, and efforts to address racism.", "More recently, it has taken an active stance on social issues and causes, supporting religious freedom and opposing efforts to introduce or promote same-sex marriage, abortion, and mandates that require employers to pay for artificial birth control, even if they violate their religious beliefs. The Order has also taken an interest in the rights of immigrants and refugees, especially those immigrants and refugees who come from Catholic-majority countries.", "Background", "The Knights of Columbus were politically active from an early date. In the years following the Second Vatican Council, however, according to Christopher Kauffman, the Catholic anti-defamation character of the order began to diminish as Catholics became more accepted, and the leadership of the order attempted to stimulate the order's membership to become more aware of the religious and moral issues which the Church was confronting", ". That led to the creation of a \"variety of new programs which reflected the proliferation of the new social ministries of the church.\"", "The Knights of Columbus is classified as a 501(c)(8) fraternal benefit society by the IRS. Unlike the more common 501(c)(3) nonprofits, 501(c)(8)s are allowed to engage in limited direct political activities without jeopardizing their tax exempt status. However, Supreme Knight Carl A. Anderson has said \"One of our most important traditions throughout our 125-year history is that we do not, as an organization, become involved in partisan politics.\"", "Political philosophy", "As a non-profit charitable organization, the order is legally prohibited from endorsing political candidates in the United States, but it is permitted to engage in issue-specific political campaigns. Its political activities are therefore limited to such campaigns, the campaigns typically deal with issues that touch upon Catholic social teaching or insurance issues", ". Kauffman has described the Knights as \"progressive on social issues but conservative on cultural issues,\" positions that are \"a reflection of those expressed by the papacy and the majority of the American hierarchy.\"", "At the 1968 Supreme Convention, Supreme Knight John W. McDevitt posed the question of whether the Knights were conservative or liberal. He answered by saying that the order was \"both progressive and conservative and we are neither.\" The Knights' progressive credentials were rooted in their \"efforts to shake the country free from any prejudice ... to create conditions which will give every American a chance to obtain decent money ... to eliminate poverty ..", "... to eliminate poverty ... [and to foster] interreligious dialogue and interracial understanding.\" Their conservative efforts consisted of their promotion of a Judeo-Christian morality, anti-secularism, patriotism, and their loyalty to the pope and the bishops.", "Leadership", "At times, the leadership of the order has been both liberal and conservative. Martin H. Carmody and Luke E. Hart were both political conservatives, but John J. Phelan was a Democratic politician prior to becoming Supreme Knight, John Swift's \"strong support for economic democracy and social-welfare legislation marks him as a fairly representative New Deal anti-communist,\" and Francis P. Matthews was a civil rights official and a member of Harry Truman's cabinet", ". Matthews was a civil rights official and a member of Harry Truman's cabinet. Anderson previously served in the Office of Public Liaison under Ronald Reagan.", "Military and war\n\nSpanish–American War and American imperialism\nThe Order supported the entrance of the United States into the Spanish–American War. They were critical of the era of American imperialism that followed.\n\nFirst World War", "On 14 April 1917, soon after the United States entered World War I, the board of directors of the Knights passed a resolution which called \"for the active cooperation and patriotic zeal\" of its members as part of the US war effort. The Order subsequently instituted a per capita tax on the membership to raise $1 million to provide for the welfare of troops fighting in Europe. Local councils also undertook their own fundraising drives which resulted in an additional $14 million", ". Canadian knights took up the cause even earlier, reflecting their closer links to Britain.", "In 1918, just before the war ended, the Knights joined other organizations which were raising funds to support the welfare of the troops, both in the US and overseas, which along with the contribution by the National Catholic War Council, totaled $30 million. Staff and Catholic chaplains were sent to all Army camps and cantonments.", "A total of 260 buildings were erected and 1,134 secretaries (of which 1,075 were overseas), staffed them. In Europe, the headquarters of the Order were established in London and Paris under the motto \"Everyone welcome, everything free.\" This continued until November 1919, at which point the federal government took over. The remaining $19 million were used to establish educational programs for returning servicemen.", "According to Supreme Knight Flaherty, the war provided an opportunity to present the Order \"in a most favorable light,\" and to show that Catholics could also be good patriots - avoiding the suspicion that their loyalty lay with the Holy See in Rome.\n\nCristero War", "Following the Mexican Revolution, the new government started to persecute the Catholic Church. Statutes were inserted into the national Constitution, triggering a 10-year-long struggle with Catholic leaders. During this period, thousands of people died, including several priests who were later canonized. The leaders of the Order began to speak out against the Mexican government. Columbia, the official magazine of the Knights, published articles critical of the regime", ". Columbia, the official magazine of the Knights, published articles critical of the regime. After the November 1926 cover showed some knights carrying a banner of liberty and warning of \"The Red Peril of Mexico,\" the Mexican legislature banned both the Order and the magazine.", "In 1926, both the Supreme Council and the Massachusetts State Council passed resolutions opposing the Mexican government and in defense of human rights. Ten days later, State Deputy Edmund J. Brandon sent a telegram to President Calvin Coolidge and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg opposing the deportation of a Mexican archbishop. That same year, a delegation of Supreme Council officers met with President Coolidge to share with him their concerns about the persecution of Catholics in Mexico", ". The delegation did not ask for a military involvement in Mexico, but did express their concerns that the present situation was a result of actions taken by previous American administrations, including the provision of arms to Mexican president Plutarco Elías Calles. As a result, the delegation said, the United States government had a responsibility to aid oppressed Mexicans.", "The order subsequently smuggled into Mexico pamphlets in English and Spanish denouncing the anti-clerical Mexican government and its policies, provoking efforts at the border to stop the flow. So much printed material was smuggled into Mexico that the government directed border guards be aware of women bringing Catholic propaganda into the country hidden in their clothes. Twenty-five martyrs from the conflict would eventually be canonized, including six knights. Supreme Treasurer Daniel J", ". Supreme Treasurer Daniel J. Callahan persuaded Senator William E. Borah to launch an investigation in 1935 into Mexican human rights violations. Pope Pius XI in his encyclical Iniquis afflictisque praised the efforts of the Knights in their resistance. The Knights opposed the Good Neighbor Policy of President Franklin Roosevelt due to the continued suppression of the Catholic Church in Mexico.", "Spanish Civil War", "During the Spanish Civil War, the Catholic Church in the United States supported General Francisco Franco and the other rebels. The Knights, and other Catholic groups, took the same stance. When a group of American intellectuals formed the Board of Guardians for Basque Refugee Children and proposed shipping children from Spain to the United States, the Knights with others opposed the plan. They appealed to President Franklin D", ". They appealed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to keep the children with their families in France, though they were ready to assist those coming to the United States.", "The Knights supported the embargo on all arms into Spain, and appealed to Will H. Hays, chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, to ban or label as propaganda (pro-Marxist and anti-Catholic) loyalist films.", "World War II", "Shortly after entering the Second World War, the Order established a War Activities Committee to keep track of all activities undertaken during the war. They also, in January 1943, established a Peace Program Committee to develop a \"program for shaping and educating public opinion to the end that Catholic principles and Catholic philosophy will be properly represented at the peace table at the conclusion of the present war", ".\" The committee conferred with scholars, theologians, philosophers, and sociologists and proposed a program adopted at the 1943 Supreme Convention.", "Middle East\n\nDuring the Syrian and Iraqi Civil Wars, the Knights lobbied Congress to provide humanitarian relief to persecuted Christians and victims of genocide under the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, and to declare the atrocities a genocide.\n\nTestimony provided by Supreme Knight Anderson before Congress in 2016 formed the \"blueprint\" for the Iraq and Syria Genocide Relief and Accountability Act of 2018.", "Between 2014 and 2017, the Knights' Refugee Relief Fund gave over $20 million for humanitarian relief work in the area. That includes $2 million to rebuild the primarily Christian town of Karamles in Iraq. Such efforts of the Knights have been recognized by church and civil leaders.", "Exhibits and media\nShortly after the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Knights' museum showcased Vatican artifacts highlighting the efforts of Pope John Paul II for world peace. The Order also produced the 2018 film, John Paul II in Ireland: A Plea for Peace.\n\nSocial justice issues\n\nTrade unionism", "In 1914, the order paid the salaries of David Goldstein, who was born Jewish but converted to Catholicism after reading the pro-labor papal encyclical Rerum novarum, and Peter W. Collins, the general secretary of the Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, to lecture around North America. The pair traveled more than 27,000 miles. Local councils were instructed to open up the lectures to the public free of charge. More than 2,000,000 people attended the lectures, and more than 800,000 questions were answered.", "In 1946, in his first address to the Supreme Convention as Supreme Knight, Swift proposed a new program eventually called The Knights of Columbus Crusade for the Preservation and Promotion of American Ideals. It was similar to the 1943 Peace Program, except it highlighted Catholic philosophy and Catholic social teaching regarding the working man. This was one part of a larger Catholic anti-communist effort.", "The crusade listed the workingman's rights as including the right \"to a job, to a family living wage, to collective bargaining and to strike, to Joint-Management, enroute to Joint Ownership of Industry.\" Until joint ownership happened, workers were also entitled to all forms of social security, including unemployment, disability, and old-age insurance, according to the crusade. The crusade's plan also listed 10 \"Abuses of Unrestrained Capitalism.\"", "The crusade officially launched in December 1946 and was endorsed by President Harry Truman. By August 1948, over 1,300 local councils had established discussion groups based on the topics. As part of the crusade, several hundred radio stations played segments produced by the order on the evils of communism and the harshness of life in Russia. It also took out advertisements in newspapers and distributed copies of Fulton Sheen's Communism and the Conscience of the West.", "Social justice", "In the early 1920s, Supreme Knight James Flaherty gave speeches in which he \"lashed out at the social irresponsibility of the moneyed classes.\" During the Great Depression, when President Herbert Hoover established a Commission on Employment, Supreme Knight Martin Carmody wrote to him pledging the services of the Knights. Carmody had already encouraged the 2,600 councils to have \"strong and active employment committees", ". Carmody had already encouraged the 2,600 councils to have \"strong and active employment committees.\" By the end of July 1931, a total of 43,128 unemployed people had been placed into jobs, in addition to those placements made by local councils who were working under the auspices of other organizations. In October of that year, Hoover appointed Carmody to the President's Organization for Unemployment Relief.", "The order launched a Crusade for Social Justice in 1938 as an outgrowth of their anti-communist efforts. It was declared that \"the public must be aroused to realize that only by the application of Christian principles, in private and public affairs, will there be eliminated, so far as humanly possible, the distress and suffering upon which these forces thrive", ".\" Among the social justice issues the Supreme Council recommended local councils take on were a living wage, credit unions, and the cooperative and social responsibilities of employers, bankers, and property owners. The Supreme Council also supplied local councils with a great deal of material to encourage members to study the social encyclicals.", "In 1965, the order co-sponsored a conference on human rights with the Archdiocese of Hartford at Yale University. In collaboration with the John LaFarge Institute, the Knights worked on programs to promote social justice and ecumenical outreach in the 1960s. Through the collaboration, they held high level conferences and then passed the findings down to local council to hold their own study groups", ". At the end of the decade, in 1969, the Knights donated $75,000 to the US Conference of Catholic Bishops' Task Force on Urban Problems. The task force was founded to provide a Catholic response to issues of racism and poverty in America's large cities.", "Anti-communism\nIn the early 1950s, the Supreme Convention adopted several anti-communist resolutions. However, Columbia magazine also published thinly veiled critiques of McCarthyism and the techniques of Senator Joseph McCarthy. The Order also ran a publicicity campaign and organized a speakers bureau to oppose communism.\n\nSupport of immigrants and refugees", "Support of immigrants and refugees\n\nEarly efforts\nFrom the founding of the order to roughly the time of the First World War, \"the Order's goals were most visibly expressed in its assertion of the social legitimacy and patriotic loyalty of Catholic immigrants.\" This opposition to immigration restrictionists would continue through the middle of the 20th century", "In the years prior to World War I, Canadian Knights established an immigrant aid bureau. After the war, and with the Catholic Women's League, they promoted a \"Canadianization of the Newcomer\" program. The Knights have also promoted the idea that being a good Catholic can be reconciled with being a good Canadian, and have helped Catholic immigrants assimilate into wider society.", "In 1921, Edward F. McSweeney, a former Assistant Commissioner of Immigration at Ellis Island and pro-immigrant activist and author, set up the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission to more clearly present the role of Catholic immigrants in particular in the founding and history of the United States. The Commission published the works of intellectuals including George Schuster, Samuel Flagg Bemis, Allan Nevins, and W. E. B. Du Bois.", "The Knights called the tendency to set up a caste system based on when your ancestors arrived in the country \"a travesty of democracy.\" James Malone, then-Kansas State Deputy, argued that those who claimed that immigrants and Catholics were inferior to native-born Americans and protestants were \"bigots.\"", "At the request of the Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America, Supreme Knight Martin Carmody wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1938 to support Jewish refugees seeking refuge in Palestine.\n\n21st century\nOn 9 April 2006 the board of directors commented on the \"U.S. immigration policy [which] has become an intensely debated and divisive issue on both sides of the border between the U.S. and Mexico.\" They called", "During the 2008 International Eucharistic Congress, a donation was made by the Order in Canada to Marc Ouellet's foundation to support long-term programs to aid immigrants and refugees.", "At the Supreme Convention in 2011, Los Angeles Archbishop José Gómez criticized the United States' immigration policy as not being \"worthy of our national character,\" and told the delegates to approach the immigration issue as Catholics, not through political affiliation. \"Our perspective on this issue will change if you begin to see these 'illegals' for who they really are—mothers and fathers, sons and daughters—not much different from yourselves,\" Gomez said.", "In 2013, at the 131st Supreme Convention, Archbishop Gustavo Garcia-Siller of San Antonio, Texas, the site of the convention, quoted Anderson in saying that the city was special because the city's history of \"evangelization, immigration, and the quest for freedom.\" He called on the Knights to bring the light of the Gospel to the \"desolate places\" such as immigrant detention centers.", "Also at the 2013 convention, Supreme Chaplain William Lori said that the Knights' mission in regards to immigration is \"definitely growing.\" He cited their involvement in Ecclesia en America, a summit held in the Vatican in 2012, as a way they protect, love and help immigrants. The Knights see the issue, according to Lori, as \"a partnership of the North and South Church.\" He said the order was working to enact \"immigration laws that are truly just, and truly merciful.\"", "In 2016, the Knights provided funding to the dioceses of Ciudad Juárez and El Paso to facilitate Pope Francis' visit to the US-Mexican border which highlighted the plight of migrants from majority-Catholic Mexico, and the need therefore to work for \"just immigration laws.\"", "At the 2017 convention, Cardinal Daniel DiNardo of Galveston-Houston, president of the U.S. bishops’ conference, said that Christ teaches that \"there is no more boundary when it comes to 'who are you neighbor to?'\" DiNardo added that the Knights live this teaching by helping anyone in need, including immigrants, refugees, and Christians displaced from their homes.", "At the 136th Supreme Convention in 2018, the Order adopted a resolution criticizing the Trump administration family separation policy. The Supreme Council called on the administration to \"equitably balance the legitimate rights of persons to emigrate in order to seek better lives for themselves and their children, with the duty of governments to control migration into their countries so that immigration policy serves the common good.\"", "The Order has also supported the creation of by the Melkite Greek Catholic Church of an Arab Christian Council within Canada as adding \"new meaning to the international fraternal organization’s outreach and support of immigrant communities.\" The council is largely made up of first-generation Canadians from Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, and Iraq.", "Protection of civil rights\nUp until the First World War, the Order were active to reassure that Catholic immigrants to the US could nevertheless be loyal to their new home, and would opposed restrictions to immigration throughout the middle of the 20th century", "During the nadir of American race relations in the 1920s, the state councils initiated letter-writing campaigns and established lobbyists in state capitals and in Washington, D.C., to protect the civil rights of all Catholics within the United States.", "Religious and racial discrimination", "From 1914 until the United States' entrance into the First World War, the Order sponsored the Knights of Columbus Commission on Religious Prejudice. A similar organization, the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission, was created in 1921 to counter racial discrimination and nativism. The Commission published one pamphlet a month for two years to explain historical events that had not, in the view of the Commission, been treated fairly", ". The \"Knights of Columbus Racial Contributions Series\" of books included three titles: The Gift of Black Folk, by W. E. B. Du Bois, The Jews in the Making of America by George Cohen, and The Germans in the Making of America by Frederick Schrader.", "During the First World War, the order established a series of \"huts\" to offer rest and recreational facilities for Allied servicemen under the banner of \"Everyone Welcome, Everything Free.\" Civil rights activist and author Emmett Jay Scott praised the Order, saying that \"to its credit,\" and \"unlike the other social welfare organizations operating in the war, it never drew the color line. ..", ". ... The Negro soldier needs no other countersign than his khaki uniform to gain for him every advantage offered by the Knights service.\"", "In the 1950s, though the Order officially did not discriminate on race, most knights and most councils were white. Given the history of slavery and early development in the U.S., most African-Americans were Protestant, but Church officials and organizations encouraged integration and criticized the segregationist practices within the Order. As membership questions were handled at the local level, black candidates were routinely denied membership in the Order", ". At the 1964 Supreme Convention, membership rules were overhauled after the blackballing of a black applicant led to national news coverage the previous year. Six council officers resigned in protest, and rules were changed to require a third of members to vote to deny membership, instead of just five or more.", "That convention was scheduled to be held at the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. A few days before the Convention, new Supreme Knight John W. McDevitt learned the hotel admitted only white guests. After he threatened to move the Convention to another venue, the hotel changed its policy. The Order participated in the Civil Rights Movement and, in the spring of 1963, Hart attended a conference at the White House led by Knight and President John F. Kennedy to discuss civil rights.", "In 2017, at a time of rising racial tensions in the United States, Anderson, Rev. Eugene Rivers, and others began calling on Americans to adopt Martin Luther King's principles of non-violence. Anderson and Rivers co-authored a piece in Time, and the Knights and Rivers' Seymour Institute for Black Church and Policy Studies sent out letters to religious leaders around the country promoting non-violence", ". The pair also asked them \"to help lead our country away from the precipice of violence and toward a future of honest and open civil discourse and respect for the dignity of each person.\" The two also spoke at a Knights-sponsored gathering of Christian leaders at the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the need for racial harmony", ". Memorial on the need for racial harmony. That same year, the Knights began funding the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops' Ad Hoc Committee Against Racism, and continued to do so during its second three year term.", "Pierce v. Society of Sisters", "After the First World War, many American organizations (including, influentially, the Ku Klux Klan) expressed fears of immigrants and their differences from mainstream America; they wanted public schools to teach children their specific way of being American. Numerous states drafted laws designed to use schools to promote a selected American culture, and in 1922, the voters of Oregon passed the Oregon Compulsory Education Act", ". The law was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools, including Catholic schools. It was promoted by groups such as the Knights of Pythias, the Federation of Patriotic Societies, the Oregon Good Government League, the Orange Order, and the Ku Klux Klan.", "The Oregon Compulsory Education Act required almost all children in Oregon between eight and sixteen years of age to attend public school by 1926. Roger Nash Baldwin, an associate director of the American Civil Liberties Union and a personal friend of then–Supreme Advocate and future Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart, offered to join forces with the order to challenge the law. The Knights of Columbus pledged an immediate $10,000 to fight the law and any additional funds necessary to defeat it.", "The case became known as Pierce v. Society of Sisters, a seminal United States Supreme Court decision that significantly expanded coverage of the Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment. In a unanimous decision, the court held that the act was unconstitutional and that parents, not the state, had the authority to educate children as they thought best. It upheld the right of parents to send their children to religious schools.\n\nSocial issues", "Social issues\n\nMarriage and family life\nThe Knights of Columbus \"promotes the dignity and the irreplaceable value of the family founded on the Church's understanding of marriage as the faithful, exclusive, and lifelong union of one man and one woman joined in an intimate partnership of life and love.\" Since 2005, the Knights have given at least $14 million to legally retain this definition in the United States. In 2008, they were the largest single donor in support of California's Proposition 8.", "In 2012, the Knights and its local councils contributed $1 million to support similar ballot campaigns to effectively block same-sex marriage in Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, and Washington. In Massachusetts, it led the drive to collect the 170,000 petition signatures to amend the Massachusetts Constitution to include this definition", ". Likewise in Canada, in 2005, it attempted to stop the Canadian parliament from legalizing same-sex marriage with the Civil Marriage Act, the Order funded a campaign that included 800,000 postcards encouraging members of parliament to reject the measure.", "The Order also supports the church's teaching on divorce, and the Supreme Council gave their \"strong support\" to a 1976 address by Bishop Daniel A. Cronin in which he denounced the \"increasing practice\" of divorce. The Order has a number of initiatives to support and strengthen families as part of their Building the Domestic Church program. The promotion of fatherhood and marital harmony dates back to the founding era of the Order.\n\nCulture of Life", "Culture of Life\n\nThe Order has been active in promoting a culture of life and opposing any government action or legislation that promotes the destruction of human life at any stage, including abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment. Those \"who do not support the legal protection of unborn children\" cannot be invited to events, or have honors bestowed upon them.", "Additionally the Order has donated significant funds to help women in crisis pregnancies either keep their children or put them up for adoption. For example, as part of their Ultrasound Initiative in the US and Canada, 1,000 ultrasound machines were donated to pregnancy centers between 2009 and 2018. This was done on the basis of research that suggested women would subsequently be less willing to go through with an abortion if they had seen ultrasound images, particularly as part of fetal development.", "In the wake of killings of two men, Alton Sterling and Philando Castile, by police officers in Louisiana and Minnesota, and the subsequent shooting of Dallas police officers, the Order has campaigned for peace. After multiple mass shootings in 2019, the Knights were among a group of Catholic leaders who decried the shootings and urged policy changes.\n,", "United States domestic policy", "During the early part of the 20th century, both the Supreme and local councils found themselves in agreement with the principles of the Progressive movement. Senator Albert J. Beveridge, an intellectual leader of the Progressive movement, was the featured speaker at \"a grand patriotic demonstration\" at Carnegie Hall in 1906, and James C. Monaghan, the Supreme Lecturer, frequently spoke out in favor of progressive causes in Columbiad and elsewhere", ". The Massachusetts State Council was supportive of New Deal policies in 1933.", "In the 1980s, the Knights supported an amendment to the United States Constitution permitting prayer in public school. When president Ronald Reagan attempted to tax fraternal insurance companies such as the Knights of Columbus, then–Supreme Knight Virgil Dechant used White House connections to scuttle the effort. In addition, local councils set up phone banks and letter writing campaigns to oppose the measure, which would have diminished the Knights' ability to make charitable contributions", ". They also ran anti-pornography campaigns and promoted tax breaks for families that sent their children to private schools.", "Pledge of Allegiance", "The Order played a role in the early stages of the movement that eventually led to the decision by the US Congress to add the phrase \"under God\" to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954. Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was actually the first to suggest this addition and it was used in the 1940s at meetings of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution However, the Knights also adopted the practice following the Fourth Degree Assemblies in April 1951", ". Though the words had not yet officially been added nationally, the Order added the phrase to their recitations, the first group to voluntarily do so on a regular basis. Doing so, the Order believed, would acknowledge \"the dependence of our Nation and its people upon the Creator of the Universe.\" The Knights forwarded a resolution advocating for the addition to New York Congressman Edmund Radwan, and Radwan entered it into the Congressional Record on 25 March 1953.", "Rep. Charles Oakman (R-Mich.), introduced a bill into Congress adding the words in 1954. After signing the change into law, President Dwight Eisenhower wrote to Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart thanking the Knights for their part. In 2014, when the American Humanist Association sued to reverse the decision, lawyers from the Knights and other organizations successfully supported schools that used the phrase in the pledge.", "Promotion of Christopher Columbus\nAt the behest of the Knights, the US Congress appropriated $100,000 to construct the Columbus Fountain in front of Union Station in Washington, D.C., in 1912. Similar lobbying convinced many state legislatures to adopt 12 October as Columbus Day, confirmed by President F. D. Roosevelt as a federal holiday in 1937.", "US Senate confirmations", "In December 2018, during the confirmation process of nominee Brian C. Buescher to the U.S. District Court, Senator Mazie K. Hirono characterized the position the Knights of Columbus have taken on social issues as \"extreme\" and asked Buescher, \"If confirmed, do you intend to end your membership with this organization to avoid any appearance of bias?\" Senator Kamala Harris also asked about opinions held by the organization and asked Buescher if he was aware these views when he joined the Knights of Columbus", ". Buescher replied that he was eighteen years old when he joined and did not recall if the Knights had at that time taken any position on those issues with which the Senator now disagreed.", "Writing in the Los Angeles Times, Rabbi Mitchell Rocklin said that the senators approach amounted to a \"religious test\" such as is precluded by Article VI of the Constitution. Rabbi Rocklin said: \"The line of questioning Buescher faced about his affiliation with the Knights of Columbus sets a troubling precedent of intolerance—one that is unconscionable in principle and terrible in practice for people of all faiths who seek a role in public service. ..", ". ...For centuries, many Jews have suffered a similar 'dual loyalty' smear: the anti-Semitic lie that, faced with a choice between country and religion, a Jewish public official will put his faith before his country.\" Micklin noted the anti-Semitism experienced by Justices Louis Brandeis and Benjamin N", ".\" Micklin noted the anti-Semitism experienced by Justices Louis Brandeis and Benjamin N. Cardozo, and further state, \"It is even more absurd for senators to imply that a judge, who cannot propose or enact legislation, would be incapable of setting aside his religious beliefs when interpreting our written laws. ...If sitting lawmakers are allowed to make such assumptions of Catholic nominees, religious minorities could very well be next.\"", "Foreign policy\nDuring the Cold War, the foreign policy of the United States and the Knights' promotion of Catholic Social Teaching frequently intersected. The Knights urged the UN to restrain the Soviet Union during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.\n\nIn the 1950s, the Knights successfully lobbied President Eisenhower to not invite Josip Broz Tito, leader of Yugoslavia, to visit the United States in view of his jailing of Cardinal Aloysius Stepinac.", "At the 1953 Supreme Convention, the delegates adopted a resolution calling for a united Ireland. The Supreme Council adopted a resolution in 1969 endorsing the aims and justice of the Vietnam War, but as the war progressed Columbia magazine began to question the effectiveness of the United States' military effort", ". In Massachusetts, the State Council passed resolutions in the early 1960s calling on the Catholic Church to prevent the spread of communism in Latin America and opposing communist China from joining the United Nations.", "Other countries", "In Canada, by 1910 the Knights were seen as \"those laymen who could successfully defend the Church from external opposition when required and, more importantly, could voice the opinions and teachings of the Church, bringing them to bear of the problems of Canadian society.\" Toronto Council 1388 established a public affairs committee in 1912 that was mandated to increase the interest of Catholics in public affairs and to promote their participation in political life", ". In the Philippines, local Knights campaigned against government sponsored birth control and condom advocacy.", "See also\nConfirmation hearings of judge Brian C. Buescher\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n\nKnights of Columbus\nKnights of Columbus" ]

[ "The sent-down, rusticated, or \"educated\" youth (), also known as the zhiqing, were the young people who—beginning in the 1950s until the end of the Cultural Revolution, willingly or under coercion—left the urban districts of the People's Republic of China to live and work in rural areas as part of the \"Up to the Mountains and Down to the Countryside Movement\".", "The vast majority of young people who went to the rural communities had received elementary to high school education, and only a small minority had matriculated to the post-secondary or university level.\n\nDown to the Countryside Movement", "After the People's Republic of China was established, in order to resolve employment problems in the cities, starting in the 1950s, youth from urban areas were organized to move to the rural countryside, especially in remote towns to establish farms. As early as 1953, the People's Daily published the editorial \"Organize school graduates to participate in agricultural production labor\"", ". In 1955, Mao Zedong asserted that \"the countryside is a vast expanse of heaven and earth, where we can flourish\", which would become the slogan for the Down to the Countryside Movement.", "Beginning in 1955, the Communist Youth League organized farming, and encouraged the youth to cultivate the land. From 1962, it was suggested that the Down to the Countryside Movement be nationally organized, and in 1964, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party established an oversight group. In 1966, under the influence of the Cultural Revolution, university entrance examinations were suspended and until 1968, many students were unable to receive admittance into university or become employed.", "Additionally, the Communist Party leadership sent youths to the countryside to help defuse the student fanaticism set in motion by the student Red Guards movement from 1966 to 1968. On December 22, 1968, Mao directed the People's Daily to publish a piece entitled: \"We too have two hands, let us not laze about in the city\", which quoted Mao as saying \"The intellectual youth must go to the country, and will be educated from living in rural poverty.\" In 1969, many youth were rusticated", ".\" In 1969, many youth were rusticated. High school students were organized and assigned to the countryside on a national level.", "Origins", "In the early days of 1966, when the Cultural Revolution was launched, student Red Guards attacked China’s educational system. On June 6, dozens of seniors from The Beijing No.1 Girls’ Middle School proposed to abolish the college entrance exams. They denounced the “old educational system,” which they regarded as “encouraging bourgeois ideology” and “helping the restoration of capitalism”. These students also sent a public letter to Chairman Mao Zedong, petitioning him to end the college entrance exams", ". In the letter, they wrote:“High school graduates should go to the workers, peasants, and soldiers, to unite with the workers and farmers, and to grow in the wind and waves of the Three Revolutionary Movements……. This is a new road, a new road leading to communism. We must, and will certainly be able to, make our proletariat road. Dear Party, Beloved Chairman Mao, the harshest place needs to be dispatched the youth around Chairman Mao. We are ready to go and are just waiting for your order\"", ". We are ready to go and are just waiting for your order\". More students denounced the college entrance exams and called for their abolishment in the following days. The Chinese Communist Party’s central leadership supported the students’ proposal. In June, China’s State Council published an announcement which said to postpone “higher educational institutions’ work of recruiting new students”", ". On July 24, the State Council issued an additional announcement, “The Announcement on Reforming Higher Educational Institutions’ New Students Recruitment”. The State Council wrote that it decided to cancel college entrance exams in the announcement.", "Because of the student Red Guards’ attacks on schools and the central government’s approval, students who graduated in 1966 from middle schools could not enter high schools, and those who graduated from high schools could not go to universities. Meanwhile, as the chaos in the Cultural Revolution caused the industrial and agricultural productions to plunge, jobs available to these students were minimal", ". The number of students, who graduated from middle or high schools but could not enter higher educational institutions reached 10 million in 1968. Those students, who graduated from middle or high schools in 1966, 1967, and 1968, were referred to as lao sanjie (“old three-classes”老三届). As few employment opportunities were available, they became surplus labor in the cities.", "Two major political events during the Cultural Revolution marked the lives of lao sanjie: the Red Guards movement and the down to the countryside movement. In the second of half of 1966, many student Red Guards, realizing that they could not go on to study at universities, became all the more passionate exploring new opportunities to “unite with the workers and farmers” (与工农相结合). The idea of uniting with the workers and farmers was taught extensively at schools, and the lao sanjie were familiar with it", ". Since 1965, many middle schools had already started to organize students to go to the countryside to work for some time each semester, and government propaganda had been praising youths who labored in the fields. As a result, many lao sanjie initially went to the countryside voluntarily and enthusiastically.", "It is in this context that ten students from the Beijing No.25 High School left Beijing for Inner Mongolia in 1967. On October 9, 1967, right before the ten students’ departure, thousands of people gathered at the Tian’anmen square to send them off. In front of a giant portrait of Chairman Mao, the students pledged their allegiance:“For the great cause to redden the world with Mao Zedong thoughts, we are willing to climb the mountains of sword and go down to the sea of fire", ". We have taken the first step in accordance with your great instruction, that the intellectuals should unite with the workers and farmers. We will continue walking on this revolutionary path, walking to its end and never turning back.”State media, including People’s Daily and Beijing Daily, reported the ten students’ departure from Beijing to Inner Mongolia extensively and approvingly. And the event marked the beginning of the down to the countryside movement.", "Voluntary to mandatory", "The initial phase of the down to the countryside movement, marked by the departure of students from Beijing No.25 High School in October 1967, was voluntary. In Shanghai, in August 1968, forty-five students from the city became the first voluntary delegation who left for the countryside. The Shanghai municipal government arranged a reception for the students, who were named “our city’s little soldiers” by Jiefang Daily, on the morning of their departure", ". The Shanghai government applauded the students’ choice and told them to continue learning from Mao’s works, and to study from the peasants and participate in class struggle.", "However, the number of students, who volunteered to go to the countryside was far smaller than the total number of graduates, who could neither continue their studies nor find a job. In Beijing, the number of lao sanjie was more than 400,000, but until April 1968, only a few thousand of them volunteered to go to the countryside.", "Meanwhile, from late 1967 to spring 1968, other municipal and provincial government offices started encouraging and organizing students to go to the countryside. On December 12, 1967, the municipal government of Qingdao, Shandong province, organized a farewell ceremony to send off the city’s first batch of students to the countryside", ". Less than a month later, on January 4, 1968, the Shandong Provincial Revolutionary Committee held a meeting where it was requested that all educated youth in the cities go to the countryside.[5] In March, the Heilongjiang Provincial Revolutionary Committee published an announcement which explicitly stated that its priority in allocating the graduated students was to send them to the countryside.", "On April 4, 1968, the central government endorsed a second announcement the Heilongjiang Provincial Revolutionary Committee published, which stressed that graduated students should primarily be assigned to go to the countryside", ". The central government and Mao also commented on the announcement, requesting local government offices to assign graduated students to suitable places based on “four directions,” which included the countryside, frontier regions, factories and mines, and “jiceng (grassroots places, 基层).” The central government’s endorsement and commentary precipitated local government offices to make greater efforts sending off school graduates", ". As most factories did not have new jobs available and many had their productions halted because of the Cultural Revolution, local governments mobilized graduates to relocate to the countryside and frontiers.", "On April 21, 1968, the Beijing Municipal Revolutionary Committee made an announcement, requesting schools to strengthen political and ideological education to change the views of those who did not want to go to the countryside. The Committee also set up several new teams to mobilize the students. Meanwhile, mass propaganda had also been launched to expedite the mobilization", ". Meanwhile, mass propaganda had also been launched to expedite the mobilization. In July, several newspapers published the reprints of oil painting “Chairman Mao Going to Anyuan 毛主席去安源,” calling for the students to follow Mao’s revolution. In Shanghai, the municipal city government set up an office in June to supervise the mobilization. In the same month, the Shanghai Party Committee also organized a large-scale rally to persuade middle and high school graduates to go to the countryside.", "On August 18, 1968, People’s Daily published a commentary commemorating the second anniversary since Mao first inspected the Red Guards. The commentary, “Firmly Embarking on the Path of Uniting Workers, Farmers, and Soldiers,” stated that one’s willingness to go to the countryside to unite the farmers and workers showed one’s loyalty to Chairman Mao’s revolution. At the same time, local governments had also been adopting more forceful measures to push students to go to the countryside", ". In Beijing, factories did not receive any new school graduates, and government work teams were assigned to warn the students that they would face the consequences if they refused to go to the countryside. For the families deemed to have political issues, their children must also go to the countryside or frontier regions. Otherwise, the families would be treated as class enemies and be struggled against.", "On December 22, 1968, People’s Daily published an article on its front page praising city residents in Huining County, Gansu province, resettling in the countryside. The editor’s note accompanying the article quoted a directive from Mao. “Chairman Mao has recently instructed us,” the editor’s note went, “that the educated youth must go to the countryside and to receive re-education from the poor, lower and middle peasants", ".” (see also: social structure of China) This directive marked the watershed moment that going to the countryside became mandatory for students who graduated from middle or high schools in the cities. For the rural villages, it also became mandatory for them to receive and allocate these students. With the publication of Mao’s directive, sending educated youth in the cities to the countryside had quickly swept through China. In 1969, more than 2", ". In 1969, more than 2.6 million students from cities were sent to the countryside, making the total number of sent-down youth from 1967 reach almost 4.7 million.", "Hesitant reception", "Although both the central and local governments pushed hard with propaganda campaigns and various strategies to relocate graduated students from the cities to the countryside, some city residents and rural village officials showed ambivalence towards the mandate. Many families in Shanghai tried to negotiate for their children to have the best arrangements. For instance, one father there persuaded the leader of a working team to let the family’s two daughters be sent to the same place in Jiangxi Province", ". Some families in Shanghai tried to have their children sent to nearby provinces in Zhejiang and Jiangsu. And still, some disapproved the down-to-the-countryside mandate. In one factory in Shanghai, 100 study sessions were held in 1969 to persuade the workers to send their children to the countryside. Some Shanghai residents even damaged homes of members of the street party committee who visited families, persuading them to adhere to the mandate", ". In Shanghai, the families with a working-class background and those who lived in shanty housing neighborhoods were the most difficult to persuade to send their children to the countryside. In summer 1969, at the Shanghai Number 11 Textile Mill, 20 percent of the students, who were children of the factory workers, remained home after being requested to go to the countryside.", "One of the reasons it was more difficult to mobilize working-class families was that they had a more privileged class background than the families of intellectuals or those placed into the bad class categories. Their employment at the state-owned factories also gave them more bargaining power because although the factories could pressure them, their jobs were mostly stable", ". It was even more challenging for the local government in Shanghai to persuade families that lived in shanty neighborhoods to send their children to the countryside. One government report written in 1969 documented that, in the Yaoshuilong neighborhood in Jiaozhou district in Shanghai, 70 percent of graduated students refused to go to the countryside. Although most lao sanjie eventually were sent to the countryside, it was difficult to know how many went willingly.", "Like many Shanghai families who were not enthusiastic about sending their children to the countryside, some cadres in rural villages were also not excited about the arrival of the urban youth. Many village officials first learned about the news from radios and broadcasts", ". Many village officials first learned about the news from radios and broadcasts. A senior provincial official from Anhui province, who was sent to the villages to oversee the sent-down youth mobilization, wrote that local county and village officials were unprepared for the task of allocating the urban youth and “were afraid to make mistakes.” In Heilongjiang Province, local village officials scrambled to transport the sent-down youth from train stations to villages", ". In some villages in Heilongjiang, it was also challenging for the local officials to find enough housing and sufficient food to settle many urban youth.", "Apart from the urban residents and the rural village officials’ ambivalent attitudes towards the sent-down youth movement, some local villagers were also unsure how to deal with the urban youth sent to their villages. In the Ganchazi commune in Heilongjiang, eighty-six youth from Shanghai---many who had troubled records and served time in Shanghai’s juvenile detention---were sent there", ". Locals found it challenging to deal with these youth who reportedly fought among themselves, gambled, drank, stole, and killed animals. Local villages in Anhui province that received youth from Shanghai who had criminal records encountered similar issues. The head of the Anhui Provincial Office of Sent-Down Youth reported that the local villagers “hated them, but they were afraid to say anything.”", "Rustication did not end the Cultural Revolution in the minds of many sent-down youth. Many continued to organize study groups on social issues. Some even organized underground cells in case the opportunity for rebellion appeared again, although these groups were the minority.\n\nDevelopment", "Development\n\nFrom 1962 to 1979, no fewer than 16 million youth were displaced (some sources set the minimum at 18 million). Although many were directed to distant provinces such as Inner Mongolia, the usual destinations for the sent-down youth were rural counties in neighboring areas. Many of the Red Guards from Shanghai travelled no further than the nearby islands of Chongming and Hengsha at the mouth of the Yangtze.", "In 1971, numerous problems with the movement began to come to light, at the same time as the Communist Party allocated jobs to the youth who were returning from the country. The majority of these re-urbanized youth had taken advantage of personal relations (guanxi) to leave the countryside. Those involved with the \"Project 571\" coup denounced the entire movement as being disguised penal labor (laogai). In 1976, even Mao realized the severity of the rustication movement and decided to reexamine the issue", ". But in the meantime, over a million youth continued to be rusticated every year. Many students could not deal with the harsh life and died in the process of reeducation.", "The urban-rural gap \nBefore the arrival of the urban youth, many local officials were concerned that the students from the cities would add extra burdens, especially financial ones, to them. For instance, a county official in Huma in Heilongjiang wrote a report to the provincial government that the county did not have enough land and other materials to allocate and support the 6000 youth assigned to live there. The county needed additional financial subsidies to settle them.", "And when many sent-down youth arrived in the rural regions they were assigned to, they were appalled by the poverty and the poor living conditions in many villages. In the case of the Shanghai sent-down youth, the differences between the rural and frontier regions and Shanghai were even more shocking", ". The sent-down youth from Shanghai brought with them clothes, bedding, soap, bowls, food, and when they returned home for a visit each year, they brought back with them more goods, some of which were also wanted by local villagers. In some villages in Yunnan, the Shanghai sent-down youth traded goods they bought in Shanghai, such as clothes, soap, candies, with local villagers in exchange for local agricultural produces.", "But one of the most significant benefits for having sent-down youths from big cities was that local villages and cadres, through connections they made with the sent-down youth and municipal offices, acquired materials, including tools for agricultural work and even for factories. In one case, officials from Heilongjiang went to the Shanghai Sent-down Youth office in fall 1969. They requested that Shanghai dispatch materials to Heilongjiang to accommodate the sent-down youth from Shanghai there", ". And Shanghai municipal government not only sent supplies for the Shanghai sent-down youth in Heilongjiang, but they also sent “two buses, thirteen trucks, nine tractors, thirty-six hand-operated tractors, and several cars, with a total value of 1.06 million yuan” to facilitate with the local government’s allocation of urban youth.", "To help provide more jobs for the sent-down youth in rural regions, the Shanghai municipal government also helped rural places set up factories to allocate the sent-down urban students. For example, local officials in the Jinghong district in Yunnan province proposed to officials in Shanghai that they wanted to build a factory manufacturing wooden products. The factory would provide jobs for the Shanghai sent-down youth there", ". The factory would provide jobs for the Shanghai sent-down youth there. And the Shanghai government provided equipment, loans, and technicians from Shanghai to Jinghong to help build the factory. Like Shanghai, the Beijing municipal government also provided agricultural and industrial equipment, and large quantities of goods, to rural regions to help settle the sent-down youth.", "Many sent-down youths became teachers, ad hoc engineers, or barefoot doctors. Sent-down youth did not typically become very productive as agricultural workers.", "Although it was impossible to quantify how much urban cities’ transfer of goods and equipment and support with building factories helped to drive rural economic growth in the down-to-the countryside movement during the Cultural Revolution, the transfer of goods, money, and technology from urban to rural places---because of the existence of urban sent-down youth in rural regions---nonetheless played a significant role in rural regions’ economic development in this time", ". In the words of scholars Emily Honig and Xiaojian Zhao, the sent-down youth “sometimes unwittingly and sometimes intentionally, created connections that transcended the rural-urban Divide of Maoist China.”", "Gendered experiences\n\nFemale sent-down youth", "Not suitable for agricultural work", "Living conditions in the villages where the urban youth were sent varied, depending on whether they were sent to frontier regions such as Inner Mongolia or Heilongjiang, rural areas not too far from Shanghai or Beijing, or elsewhere in inland provinces. But regardless of the different locations they were sent to, urban youth found it challenging to perform heavy agricultural work alongside the villagers. For female sent-down youth, working in villages was particularly challenging", ". For female sent-down youth, working in villages was particularly challenging. Some villagers listed five types of sent-down youth they did not want, and female ones were listed among the five types. One person in a commune in Heilongjiang commented on the lack of physical strength of sent-down youth, particularly females, to perform agricultural work. The person said: “three sent-down youth cannot match the abilities of one local. And two female sent-down youth cannot match the work of one male.”", "Female sent-down youth lacked physical strength compared to their male counterparts and the villagers performing agricultural work. They also had to deal with illnesses caused by working in unfavorable conditions. According to a report from a county in the northeastern Jilin Province, 70 percent of the female sent-down youth in the county had “female illnesses” after they worked in “wet fields during their menstrual periods", ".” The report blamed the local village officials for requesting the female sent-down youth to do the same work as the male sent-down youth; it also blamed the females themselves for not being aware of their health. Wu Jianping, a female student from Beijing sent to Heilongjiang when she was 16, said that the sent-down students were all very “enthusiastic” working in the fields. Female sent-down youth did not tell others when they menstruated but continued working in the wet fields", ". As a result, many sent-down youth, said Wu, suffered from arthritis when they grew older. Feng Jifang, a female student from Harbin who was sent to a state-owned farm in Bei’an county in Heilongjiang, also when she was 16, said she did not have enough nutritious food to eat despite the heavy farm work she performed. She would not even menstruate because of a lack of nutrition. Feng said that she had arthritis and developed pains in her spine, ankles, and wrists due to working on the farm as a teenager.", "Marriages", "The marriage law that took into effect in the 1950s in the PRC made explicit distinctions between men and women. It requested that the minimum age for marriage for men was twenty, and women eighteen. In the 1970s, the government advocated for late marriages and made distinctions between the urban and the rural when setting the minimum age for marriages. For urban residents, the new minimum age for marriages was set at twenty-eight for men and twenty-five for women", ". For rural residents, the minimum marriage age was twenty-five for men and twenty-three for women. For the female urban youth who went to the villages between 1966 and 1968 and were then categorized as rural residents, they reached the minimum age for late marriages in around 1973. Once one reached the minimum age for marriage, pressures from the society mounted for the youth to get married", ". Some young female sent-down youth from families with problematic class backgrounds also viewed marrying local peasants as a way to mend their bad class background.", "Messages on marriages from the central government concerning the sent-down youth seemed mixed. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the down to the countryside movement was in its prime, propaganda from the news media, to create further momentum for the movement, enthusiastically advocated for the sent-down youth to “put down their roots for the whole life” in the villages, and to get married and settle in the rural regions. But at the same time, the government also campaigned for late marriages", ". But at the same time, the government also campaigned for late marriages. This paradox was reflected in a People’s Daily commentary on June 26, 1969. The commentary, titled “A Wild World with Great Potentials” (guangkuo tiandi dayou zuowei 广阔天地大有作为), in one paragraph called for the sent-down youth to settle their roots in the countryside, and in another stressed that it was important for the youth to get married late", ". Several months later, in March 1970, at a conference held in Beijing about the sent-down youth, attendees again stressed that sent-down youth should get married late.", "Propaganda calling for the sent-down youth to marry late became more intense in the early 1970s. On July 9, 1970, an article published on the People’s Daily stated that whether the sent-down youth married late mattered greatly to class struggle. According to the article, “the poor and middle peasants are educating the sent-down youth to deal correctly with marriage issues and persuade them to marry late. Late marriage must be understood as part of class struggle", ". Late marriage must be understood as part of class struggle. The instances of early marriage reflect class enemies trying to undermine the movement.” At a working meeting discussing the sent-down youth held in 1973, attendees---including former model sent-down youths and premier Zhou Enlai, discussed how much money a sent-down youth couple would need to construct a new house and buy furniture for themselves if they get married", ". Zhou commented at the meeting that the sent-down youth could spend seven to ten years in the countryside until they accumulated more resources, and then with some subsidies, Zhou said, they could get married and build themselves a house.", "Scholars Xiaomeng Liu and Michel Bonnin wrote that the government’s concerns about controlling the population and housing costs were the main reasons behind its push for late marriages among the sent-down youth", ". While scholars Emily Honig and Xiaojian Zhao interpreted that, the government’s late marriage advocacy aiming for sent-down youth were to maintain the urban-rural divide because one character that marked the urban population’s difference from the rural villagers was that the former did not practice early marriages as the latter group did.", "A watershed moment in the development of the marriage policy occurred in early 1974, when Bai Qixian, a college graduate from Hebei who married a local peasant wrote letters to several newspapers. Bai’s family opposed her decision when she married a peasant in the village where she was sent down. Bai shouldered much of the homework and took care of her parents-in-law. Still, the couple fought, and Bai’s husband often beat her. Bai’s marriage was mocked by the villagers frequently", ". Bai’s marriage was mocked by the villagers frequently. Enraged, Bai wrote letters to newspapers at the end of 1973. In the letters, Bai wrote:“Some people say that marrying a peasant is no good, but in my opinion, the kind of people who covet personal enjoyment and look down on farmers are the most pathetic… Some people say that staying behind in the countryside has no future, while I firmly believe that toiling in the vast countryside for one’s whole life is a great accomplishment and has a bright future", ".”When Bai sent her letters, it was when the Maoist left, led by Jiang Qing, was doubling down on the Campaign to Criticize Lin Biao and Confucius. The sent-down youth, especially those who married local peasants and “put down roots” in the villages, were praised as heroes. With this context, Bai’s marriage to the local farmer was set as an example, and state media used her story as propaganda to call for other sent-down youth to follow Bai", ". On January 27, 1974, Hebei Daily published Bai’s letter, praising it as a “model text” to “criticize Lin Biao and Confucius.” Not long after, People’s Daily published an article about Bai. With Bai gaining fame, other local governments also selected sent-down youths who married local farmers as honorary examples. All the models the local governments set up, whom the newspapers often praised for “breaking up completely with the old tradition,” were female sent-down youths.", "From 1974 to 1976, the Maoist left vigorously promoted the sent-down youth to marry local farmers. Marrying villagers was praised as “breaking up completely with the old tradition” and supporting the political campaigns against Lin Biao and Deng Xiaoping. In Baoding in Hebei Province, rough statistics from 1978 showed that, among the sent-down youth who were married, 75.5% married local farmers. And in Jilin province, 74.9% of sent-down youth married local farmers in 1980.", "Sexual violence \nIn some rural regions, sent-down youth were reportedly abused by local officials and villagers. In June 1973, the National Working Conference on Sent-Down Youth was held in Beijing. Before the meeting, which lasted for six weeks, the State Council sent out working teams to 24 provinces to investigate the living conditions of the sent-down youth. The working teams reported that from 1969 to 1973, there were 23,000 incidents in which sent-down youth were mistreated or abused.", "Out of the 23,000 incidents, 70% were about sexual violence committed against female sent-down youth. In the early 1970s, more cases of sexual violence committed against female sent-down youth were reported. In 1972, in Hebei province, out of all the reported claims that the sent-down youth were abused, 94% were about sexual violence committed against female sent-down youth. The percentage number in the same year in Jiangsu and Jilin was about 80%.", "At the Inner Mongolia Production and Construction Corps, 11 such cases were reported in 1969; the number of cases rose to 54 in 1970 and 69 in 1972. From 1969 to 1973, 507 cases of sexual violence were reported in Guangxi Province. At the Heilongjiang Production and Construction Corps, 365 sexual violence cases had been reported from 1968 to 1973. In some reported cases, the female sent-down youth became pregnant after being raped", ". In some reported cases, the female sent-down youth became pregnant after being raped. And in some cases---many of which were committed by local cadres of the villages or Production and Construction Corps, the female sent-down youth who were sexually assaulted suffered from physical or mental illnesses, and some died.", "It was difficult to know how many female sent-down youth suffered from sexual violence. Many kept silent for fear that they might not return to the cities if they said anything. Some did not make their grievances public because victims of sexual violence were still stigmatized. Some who were from families with bad class backgrounds did not dare to report the local cadres who had power to retaliate against them.", "Rural male peasants demonized, female peasants ignored", "Although it was impossible to calculate how many abuse or sexual violence cases were committed against the sent-down youth, its severity prompted the central government to issue a document, Document 21, in 1972. In December 1972, a schoolteacher from Fujian, Li Qinglin, wrote a letter to Mao. Li complained about how local cadres exercised their power over the sent-down youth and the poor living condition of his son, who was sent to a village. Mao wrote back to Li, promising that he would solve the problems", ". Mao wrote back to Li, promising that he would solve the problems. And to address the issue, Zhou Enlai and other top leaders held a meeting and produced Document 21, which stated that those who undermined the down-to-the-countryside movement and abused their power would receive punishment. Soon, a nationwide campaign swept through the country, and local officials felt pressure to produce reports and punish whoever could be categorized as undermining the movement", ". It was in this context that sexual relationships between sent-down youth and local villagers were criminalized.", "Reports from 1973 suggested that languages used in government reports started to shift this year. Sexual relationships---including consensual ones---between female sent-down youth and local male villagers were increasingly described with the word jian, such as tongjian (extramarital sex), youjian (trick someone into sex), and qiangjian (rape)", ". Before the central government held National Working Conference on Sent-Down Youth in June 1973, Zhou Enlai read reports about two severe cases of sexual violence against female sent-down youth; one committed by local state-owned military farm officials in Yunnan and the other local cadres in Heilongjiang", ". Enraged, Zhou ordered the Yunnan report sent to all participants of the National Working Conference on Sent-Down youth and required that attendees carry out comprehensive investigations about sexual violence after returning to their provinces. Other leaders at the conference requested that the cadres at the military farms in Yunnan be executed.", "By the end of the national conference, on August 4, 1973, Document 30, which specifically forbade rape and forced marriage in the sent-down youth movement, was published. Local governments carried out extensive campaigns following Document 30, targeting not only for rape cases but also other forms of sexual assault", ". The campaigns were so intense that local officials, under pressure to produce reports, criminalized many sexual relationships, including consensual ones, between sent-down youth and local villagers. When local officials were still not able to draft up enough reports, in some cases they also dug up incidents from the past to criminalize sexual relationships.", "In reports that concerned sent-down youth from Shanghai, all reports about sexual relationships that were criminalized had local male farmers as perpetrators and female sent-down youth as victims. In some cases, consensual sexual relationships were criminalized. In a few cases, even local farmers who married female sent-down youth were deemed perpetrators of sexual violence against their wives", ". Scholars Emily Honig and Xiaojian Zhao also proposed that, in the reports concerning Shanghai’s sent-down youth, it was plausible to suspect that local male farmers might have been “scapegoated of the powerful cadres accused of sexual assaults.” What was missing in these reports, however, was any mentions of local female farmers or male sent-down youth who might have been involved in sexual violence cases or other sexual relationships that the reports criminalized.", "Although sexual abuse committed against the sent-down youth, predominantly female sent-down youth, was severe and widespread. The criminalization also included other sexual relationships between sent-down youth and local villagers, including consensual ones and even marriages. The reports concerning Shanghai’s sent-down youth showed the unbridgeable gap between the urban and the rural, and they are deeply gendered", ". Rural male peasants were demonized and portrayed as sexual predators, and victims were all urban female sent-down youth. Male sent-down youth who had sexual relationships with other women, including other sent-down youth and local female villagers, was not criminalized. And rural female peasants who might have suffered sexual violence or engaged in sexual relationships with sent-down youth were thoroughly excluded from the reports.", "Rehabilitation\nAfter Mao's death in 1976, many of the rusticated youth remained in the countryside. Some of them had married into their villages. In 1977, university entrance exams were reinstated, inspiring the majority of rusticated youth to attempt to return to the cities. In Yunnan in the winter of 1978, the youth used strikes and petitions to implore the government to hear their plight, which reinforced the pressing nature of the issue to party authorities.", "In 1978 and 1979, approximately 6.5 million sent down youths returned to urban areas, creating employment pressures. Deng and other reformist policy-makers advocated legalization of small-scale private businesses and overcame objections from conservative policy-makers by appealing to the measure's low-cost job creation benefits for returning sent-down youth.", "On March 8, 1980, Hu Yaobang, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, proposed ending rustication. On October 1 of the same year, the party essentially decided to end the movement and allow the youth to return to their families in the cities. In addition, under age and marriage restrictions, one child per family of the rusticated youth was permitted to accompany their parents to their native cities.", "In the late 1970s, the \"scar literature\" included many vivid and realistic descriptions of their experiences, becoming the first public exploration of the cost of the Cultural Revolution. A different kind of rustication literature, more nuanced in its evaluation of the experience, was inaugurated in the 1980s by the Shanghai writer, and former zhiqing, Chen Cun.\n\nSee also \n\n Down to the Countryside Movement\n Cultural Revolution\n Scar literature\n\nReferences", "References\n\nFurther reading\nBernstein, Thomas P. (1977). Up to the Mountains and Down to the Villages: The Transfer of Youth from Urban to Rural China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.\nRene, Helena K. (2013). \"China's Sent-Down Generation: Public Administration and the Legacies of Mao's Rustication Program\". Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. \nYihong Pan. (2003). Tempered in the Revolutionary Furnace: China’s Youth in the Rustication Movement. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.", "Cold War history of China\nMaoist terminology\nCultural Revolution" ]

[ "Estrella TV () is an American Spanish-language broadcast television network owned by the Estrella Media subsidiary of HPS Investment Partners, LLC. The network primarily features programs, the vast majority of which are produced by the network itself, aimed at Hispanic and Latino American audiences – featuring a mix of entertainment series, reality television series, drama series, news, sports, and imported Mexican-produced feature films.", "Estrella TV's programming, production and advertising operations are headquartered in the Los Angeles suburb of Burbank, California. The network's operations are overseen by Estrella Media CEO Peter Markham, who has been in the post since the departure of co-founder Lenard Liberman amid a corporate reorganization in October 2019", ". The network is available in many media markets via low-power and some full-power over-the-air broadcast television stations (many of which carry Estrella TV on their digital subchannels), and on select cable television providers through either a local broadcast affiliate or the network's default national feed.", "History", "Beginnings", "Estrella TV's beginnings trace back to 1998, when Liberman Broadcasting – owner of Spanish language radio stations in several media markets with large Spanish language populations, including four radio stations in the third-largest U.S. market – made its entry into television broadcasting when its founders, Mexican-born media executive Jose Liberman and his son Lenard, purchased KRCA (channel 62) in Los Angeles, California, a television station affiliated with the Shop at Home Network at the time.", "On August 31, 1998, Liberman converted KRCA into an independent station with a dual-ethnic programming format. The station ran a block of Spanish language programs during its daytime schedule – running from 7:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m", ".m. to 5:00 p.m. weekdays – originally consisting largely of dubbed versions of drama series from the Universal Television library (such as Airwolf and Emergency!) and Mexican-produced feature films; the remainder of KRCA's schedule consisted of Asian-imported programming from Japan and various South Asian countries. By 2002, KRCA dropped its Asian-imported programming and became a Spanish language outlet full-time", ". Liberman acquired two additional stations over the next six years; in 2001, the company bought English Shop-at-Home affiliate KZJL (channel 61) in Houston, Texas", ". Then in 2004, it purchased KMPX (channel 29) in Dallas–Fort Worth, which then served as the original flagship owned-and-operated station of religious broadcaster Daystar (which subsequently purchased PBS station KDTN to replace KMPX as its flagship); Liberman also purchased low-power station KSDX-LP (channel 29) in San Diego, California that same year.", "In 1999, the Liberman family hired Miguel Banojian, an ex Vice President of Univision and ex member of Univision's board of directors, to form what became LBI's television division which under such corporate structure, developed a television division under LBI, and subsequently structured the production division within its LBI Media unit to produce original programming content. Such move was the result of Mr", ". Such move was the result of Mr. Banojian understanding of the lack of Mexican programming availability and the need to produce original content under the newly formed LBI studios. Such corporate division was solely supervised and launched by Mr. Banojian, and subsequently later distributed to other stations purchased by LBI MEDIA CORP. LBI STUDIOS went on to produce more than 4,000 hours a year under Mr", ". LBI STUDIOS went on to produce more than 4,000 hours a year under Mr. Banojian's helm at the company, focusing on a mix of variety series, sketch comedy, scripted drama and music programs, talk shows and game shows", ". One of its earliest programs, the reality game show Gana la Verde (\"Win the Green\"), caused controversy after several immigrant advocacy groups (including the American Immigration Lawyers Association, the Central American Resource Center, the Latina Lawyers Bar Association and the Mexican American Bar Association) and California U.S. House Reps", ".S. House Reps. Xavier Becerra, Hilda Solis and Linda Sánchez complained that the format – which debuted in July 2004, and featured Undocumented people competing in extreme Fear Factor-style competitions for the opportunity to win one year of legal assistance from an immigration attorney to help them obtain a green card – put its participants in danger of deportation by immigration authorities aware of the show. Programming production ramped up in 2004 with series that included:", "Estudio 2 (\"Studio 2\"), a variety series conducted from a multi-stage studio that mainly featured performances from Mexican Regional and some contemporary Latin music artists, recurring comedic sketches (primarily featuring established Mexican comic actors such as Luis de Alba and Liliana \"La Chupitos\" Ariaga) and the karaoke-style elimination game \"Aficiandos\";\n José Luis sin Censura (\"José Luis Uncensored\"), a conflict talk show hosted by Jose Luis Gonzalez;", "José Luis sin Censura (\"José Luis Uncensored\"), a conflict talk show hosted by Jose Luis Gonzalez;\n Fábrica de la Risa (\"Laugh Factory\"), featuring various self-contained comedic sketches performed primarily by a troupe of five actors;\n Secretos (\"Secrets\"), a Cheaters-style scripted drama focusing on a team of private investigators tasked with solving mysteries and crimes, and uncovering deceptions by family members and significant others;", "¡A que no puedes! (\"I Bet You Can't!\"), a game show featuring teams of contestants (originally consisting of family members, before shifting towards featuring actors, musicians and models) conducting physical challenges and dares to bank monetary prizes;\n Los Ángeles al Día, a magazine hosted by Penélope Menchaca. \n and El Show de Don Cheto (\"The Don Cheto Show\"), a music- and game-based variety series emceed by comedian/host Juan Razo as his character Don Cheto.", "Recognizing that the independents could not compete in that arena with the two dominant national Spanish language networks, Univision and Telemundo, Liberman opted not to produce or acquire telenovelas for the stations, opting instead to produce lower-cost programming to counterprogram the longer-established networks", ". Although much smaller in size than the parents of Univision and Telemundo, Liberman was more than willing to open its wallets to sign talent from popular Latin American countries to star in its programs, in addition to using performers from the U.S.", "By 2006, the company had adopted a consistent branding for its three television stations under the brand \"Estrella TV\" (or \"Star TV\"). Liberman expanded the Estrella TV format to other markets where it acquired television stations, featuring much of the same programs as those aired by the Los Angeles, Dallas and Houston outlets (some of which aired in different timeslots than they did on KRCA, KMPX and KZJL)", ". On May 30, 2007, Liberman Broadcasting purchased KPNZ (channel 24) in Salt Lake City, Utah from Utah Communications, LLC for $10 million (although it would continue to operate as an English language independent station from after the purchase was finalized that November until February 2008); then on August 18, 2008, the company purchased low-power station KVPA-LP (channel 42) in Phoenix, Arizona from Latin America Broadcasting, Inc. for $1.25 million.", "As Liberman expanded its programming to other O&Os, its mix of programming shifted to appeal towards various Hispanic and Latino audiences (whereas Liberman originally programmed KRCA to cater to Los Angeles' predominately Mexican audience, when it first became a part-time Spanish station) and helped the pseudo-network beat its major competitors", ". In the Los Angeles market, the programs helped KRCA become a strong ratings competitor, even beating Telemundo owned-and-operated station KVEA for second place (ranking behind long-dominant Univision O&O KMEX-TV) among the market's Spanish language stations during the November 2008 sweeps period, at which time KMPX and KZJL also beat the respective Telemundo outlets (KXTX-TV and KTMD) for second in all key adult demographics among the Spanish stations in the Houston and Dallas markets", ". In all five markets, the Estrella TV-branded stations ranked in second place among Hispanic adults in the 18–34, 18-49 and 25-54 demographic, beating Telemundo's ratings by as much as 100% and Telefutura's by as much as 64% during the weekday early fringe and prime time (3:00 to 11:00 p.m.) periods.", "National expansion", "On January 27, 2009, at the National Association of Television Program Executives Convention in Las Vegas, Liberman Broadcasting announced that it would turn the Estrella TV concept into a full-fledged national network that would launch at a then-yet-determined date later that year, which would be targeted at adults between the ages of 18 and 49 years old", ". Liberman had explored the possibility of developing a national network in 2007, when it raised $200 million in capital to acquire additional television stations and expand programming production. LBI Media's decision to launch the network came despite experiencing revenue declines that affected other broadcasting companies during the Great Recession (with LBI's corporate revenues having declined by 16.4%, to $28.4 million, and its operating income down by 5.6%, at $19", ".4%, to $28.4 million, and its operating income down by 5.6%, at $19.2 million, during the second quarter of 2009 over the previous fiscal quarter).", "To counterprogram networks that already established a foothold with the Hispanic and Latino demographic (such as Univision, Telemundo, Telefutura and Azteca América), Liberman chose to maintain the existing format used by the company's independent stations and have Estrella TV rely on the company's extensive library of original programming that originated on the six outlets (which Liberman had also syndicated to broadcasters in Puerto Rico and Latin American countries such as Panama", ", Honduras and El Salvador) as well as newer content for its inaugural schedule – including Estudio 2; Secretos;", "!A Que no Puedes¡; José Luis sin Censura; Los Chuperamigos, a sketch comedy series led by Lilliana Arriaga and a cast of popular Mexican comedic actors including Luis De Alba, Alejandro Suarez, Maribel \"La Pelangocha\" Fernandez and Carlos Bonavides; El Show de Lagrimita y Costel (\"The Lagrimita and Costel Show\"), a variety series hosted by father and son comedians Costel and Guillermo Cienfuegos in clown attire; and two daily news programs (the twice-daily weekday evening national newscast", ", Noticias Estrella TV (\"Estrella TV News\") and Alarma TV (\"Alarm TV\"), a half-hour prime time newsmagazine focusing on caught-on-tape footage)", ". The initial original programming-focused slate made up the majority of its schedule, running for a total of 56 hours per week from early-afternoon through prime time on Monday through Saturday (its Sunday schedule would rely mainly on imported feature films).", "Liberman had set July 1 as the date for Estrella TV's projected national launch by March 2009, however the company ultimately delayed the rollout by 3½ months; the national Estrella TV network formally commenced programming on September 14, 2009", ". On March 8, 2010, Nielsen began to include Estrella TV in the ratings provider's People Meter sample reports, alongside the other major Spanish language broadcast networks; the network was initially not listed in the daily \"Television Index\" reports that incorporate the other networks.", "Over time, Estrella TV made major inroads in approaching viewership parity with Univision, Telemundo and Telefutura. By November 2012, Estrella TV ranked in fourth place in total viewers among all Hispanic broadcast networks, with an average of around 200,000 viewers", ". It was the only Spanish language network to experience an increase in viewership year-over-year during October 2013, the network placed third during prime time in total viewership among Hispanic audiences and in the demographic of Hispanic adults between the ages of 25 and 54, with the newsmagazine Alarma TV and late-evening national newscast Noticiero Enrique Gratas ranking within the 20 highest-rated Spanish-language television programs", ". On January 7, 2014, former Los Angeles mayor Antonio Villaraigosa was appointed by Liberman Broadcasting to serve as a senior advisor for the network, helping provide input in its programming, community and advertiser relations. In hiring Villaraigosa, Liberman CEO Lenard Liberman cited the company's need to \"increase our sensitivity and understanding of the needs of the Hispanic community,\" with Villaraigosa citing in part that he was drawn to the \"human capital\" behind the network.", "On May 15, 2015, Liberman Broadcasting announced that Estrella TV would launch a multichannel production firm, Fenómeno Studios, which would develop programming content targeted at millennials between the ages and 18 and 34", ". The studio, which launched that June, would produce specialized genre-based content (including music, comedy, gaming, lifestyle, do-it-yourself, beauty and sports content) from a facility near Liberman's corporate headquarters and production studios in Burbank, featuring separate production soundstages, edit bays and offices, with the intent to use existing performers from Estrella TV shows with a broad presence on social media (such as singer Luis Coronel", ", who also served as a judge on the talent competition series Tengo Talento, Mucho Talento, and Juan \"Don Cheto\" Razo) and attract existing YouTube talent that would have their content distributed on the Fenómeno online network – with the possibility of some newer talent curated on the Fenómeno networks being considered for program development crossover to the linear Estrella TV network", ". On May 31, 2019, Liberman Broadcasting shut down Fenomeno Studios due to their bankruptcy from the network, its unknown whether or not Fenomeno Studios will return later this year. Estrella TV assumed a permanent channel slot on DirecTV on October 4, 2016, taking over the channel 442 slot previously occupied by Azteca México, which was discontinued by Mexican network TV Azteca in favor of focusing on its domestic Azteca América broadcast network.", "With the demise of Spanish network MundoMax, Estrella TV has seen significant growth when it acquired 2 of the former network's affiliates.", "In 2018, Estrella TV was the only American television network to experience total day ratings growth in cable viewership among viewers over age 12 between the same period in 2016", ". That year saw Estrella TV begin producing new drama and comedy series such as LOL (a Canadian-produced sketch comedy series that foregoes the use of verbal dialogue, performed by comedians across the world) and Tarde lo Conocí (a novela-style drama series focusing on the life of musical superstar Patricia Terehan as she rose from poverty to stardom, while faces tough challenges that take her to path from fame to misfortune)", ". On October 10, 2018, Estrella TV re-ordered the Hispanic television landscape, when it bumped UniMás for third place among the national Spanish language networks in the weeknight prime time (8:00-11:00 p.m.) period, accomplishing a goal that Liberman had wanted for the network since its launch. However, it is unknown whether or not the network is still ranked as third place after it was confirmed that Unimas finished the 2018/2019 season as third.", "On November 21, 2018, Liberman Broadcasting filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection with the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware. The company—which claimed assets worth between $100 million and $500 million and liabilities worth between $500 million and $1 billion—sought to reduce its overall debt by more than $350 million and secured $38 million in debtor-in-possession financing", ". On April 17, 2019, Liberman obtained approval of its reorganization plan from the Delaware bankruptcy court, with the expectation that it would be able to clear its balance sheet within the following several months", ". As a result, Estrella TV suspended production of or cancelled outright several series on its schedule; among them, the talk show Noches con Platanito, which was temporarily replaced by the telenovela La Esclava Blanca for three months beginning on June 20, while its morning news programs Primera Edición and Buenos Dias Familia were discontinued and replaced by a double-run of telenovelas and a rebroadcast of the previous weeknight's edition of Cierre de Edición", ". (The network would later launch a new morning news program, En la Mañana—anchored by Rosy Martell, Thomas Rubio and Natalia Garduño—on November 8.)", "On October 15, 2019, Liberman Broadcasting completed its reorganization plan, turning over ownership of the company—which was formally renamed LBI Media, Inc.—to its first lien lender, private equity firm HPS Investment Partners, LLC, which sponsored the reorganization plan; the reorganization eliminated more than $350 million of debt from its balance sheet", ". As part of the corporate reorganization, co-founder/CEO Lenard Liberman divested his equity in LBI, and was replaced as the company's CEO by former Granite Broadcasting and Communications Corporation of America Chairman Peter Markham", ". On February 3, 2020, LBI Media rebranded as Estrella Media, borrowing its name from the network, with the network and its corporate parent adopting a unified logo brand utilizing a four-pointed star (described as \"a symbol of the brightest star, the four cardinal directions, and a steadfast navigation guide,\" and which replaced the multi-colored star \"e\" logo used since the network's launch)", ". On the same day was the launch of a new late night talk show hosted by popular Mexican YouTuber and voice actor Alex Montiel titled “Nos Cayó la Noche”, which replaces Noches Con Platanito citing updated changes to the network's programming ever since it was under new management. On October 22 Estrella TV premiered another late night talk hosted by Mexican Actor Omar Chaparro replacing Alex Montiel", ". Its predecessor “Nos Cayo la Noche” had confirmed a second season since March but it's likely plans for the second season have been discarded.", "In 2021, Estrella launched two advertising-supported streaming networks, the news channel Estrella News, and the game show-oriented channel Estrella Games. The two networks are also carried on the digital subchannels of Estrella O&Os.\n\nProgramming", ", Estrella TV operates on a 113-hour network programming schedule. Its base programming feed provides various types of general entertainment programming Monday through Fridays from 6:30 a.m. to 12:00 a.m. and Saturdays and Sundays from 12:00 p.m. to 12:00 a.m", ".m. to 12:00 a.m. and Saturdays and Sundays from 12:00 p.m. to 12:00 a.m. Eastern and Pacific Time; the network also carries a half-hour of children's programming – which comply with core programming guidelines defined by the Federal Communications Commission's Children's Television Act – on Monday through Saturday mornings at 8:30 a.m. Eastern and Pacific Time, consisting of dubbed versions of wildlife and nature programs originally produced in English that comply with educational programming", ". All remaining time periods are filled with infomercials that were either originally produced or dubbed into Spanish, a block that had previously made up half the network's broadcast day at its debut, but now is limited to between midnight and 6:00 a.m. ET/PT. The network carries a separate block of additional entertainment programs on Los Angeles flagship station KRCA on Monday through Fridays from 1:00 to 2:30 a.m. and Saturdays and Sundays from 1:00 to 2:00 a.m.", "The majority of Estrella TV's programming schedule relies on the extensive library of originally-produced television programs that are produced the production division of and owned by network parent company LBI Media, incorporating both first-run and archived programs, which comprised a total of more than 5,000 hours of entertainment content at the network's launch. The network's series programming primarily covers formats common in Spanish language television broadcasters in the U.S", ".S. and other countries, consisting of reality, talk and variety programming as well as music, drama and sketch comedy programs, with some programs having originally aired in Los Angeles on KRCA and syndicated to Liberman's Spanish language independent stations prior to the formation of the network.", "Much of Estrella TV's programming consists of variety series (such as Estudio 2, El Show de Don Cheto and Noches Con Platanito (\"Tonight with Platanito\"), a prime time talk-variety show hosted by Sergio Verduzco as his clown character Platanito that is modeled after late-night talk formats), comedy series (such as Los Chuperamigos and Fábrica de la Risa), reality programs (such as Rica Famosa Latina (\"Rich, Famous, Latina\"), a series created by Joyce Giraud", ", Famous, Latina\"), a series created by Joyce Giraud, and modeled after the Real Housewives franchise that Giraud was briefly part of, following the lives of a group of famed Latina entertainers), along with a limited amount of scripted programs (such as Secretos and Historias Delirantes (\"Disturbing Stories\"), an anthology series featuring supernaturally themed storylines)", ".", "On September 14, 2009, the day the network Estrella TV launched, unveils “Estellas Hoy” an entertainment show that offers viewers an exclusive and unprecedented look into the world of top Latino celebrities. The show was previously hosted by Jorge Gomez Haro and Lilli Brillanti. Gino del Corte and Andrea Rincón, and Victoria Del Rosal have been taking the helm of the show until July 27 when the show was cancelled and replaced with a newsmagazine titled “I Testigo”", ". On June 11 the network returned an entertainment news offering with El Mameluco a show similar to Dish Nation focusing on celebrity entertainment news told by their perspective. The shows hosts are Ricardo “Rika” Rubio, Giselle Bravo, Said Garcia, and Stephanie Gerard. The show premiered in select US cities and started making its Television debut on August 6.", "As of 2015, the network's longest-running first-run entertainment program is Tengo Talento, Mucho Talento (\"I Have Talent, Lots of Talent\"), a reality talent competition series similar in format to the Got Talent franchise which debuted on October 5, 2009", ". Among its early program offerings was Estrellitas Del Sabado, a two-hour family variety series featuring talent from children ages 12 and under and hosted by Itatí Cantoral, which was designed to compete with Univision's then-Saturday night stalwart Sabado Gigante; the program was cancelled in 2012, after two seasons", ". The Saturday evening time period has been partly filled since then by Sabados en Concierto (\"Saturdays in Concert\"), a weekly series of concert performances from various traditional and contemporary Latin music artists that is an offshoot of a series of Friday night concert specials that began airing in October 2010", ". The network debuted its first original miniseries on November 15, 2013, Jenni – La Vida de Una Diva (\"Jenni - The Life of a Diva\"), a ten-episode series chronicling the life and career of singer Jenni Rivera (who died in a plane crash near Monterrey, Mexico, en route from a concert performance in December 2012), though it was an unofficial unendorsed miniseries due to Rivera's long-time association with mun2 and Telemundo.", "At its launch, Liberman Broadcasting president/CEO Lenard Liberman cited that it would not carry telenovelas as part of its schedule (either produced by the company or acquired from other distributors), citing the genre's skewing towards an older and more female audience; however, the network would eventually reverse course in 2015, when it began to incorporate acquired telenovelas (such as the Venevision/Univision co-production El Talismán (\"The Talisman\")) as part of its schedule", ", however these programs currently only occupy an hour of the network's weekday daytime schedule", ". The network also regularly airs imported Spanish-language feature films originally produced in Mexico and South American countries on weekday afternoons seven days a week; the film roster does not concentrate on films from any specific era, meaning any film from the black-and-white era to contemporary times, and films made for either domestic theatrical or home video/DVD release can be featured", ". As of 2018, Estrella TV now carries telenovelas and other serialized dramatic series distributed by Caracol Internacional.", "In 2017, Estrella TV launched its first sitcom, Las Vega's, focusing on the lives of four women who uncover secrets of how their husband and father died (though many electronic program guides misidentified it as the 2003 NBC series Las Vegas)", ". On August 6, 2018, the network launched El Mameluco, an hour-long entertainment news program formatted similarly to the English language syndicated program Dish Nation; hosted by veteran radio producer Ricardo Rubio \"El Pinche Rika\", journalist and Radio producer Said Garcia, radio and TV personality Giselle Bravo, and actress/singer/comedienne Stephanie Gerard, El Mameluco originally premiered as a series on Facebook Live in select U.S. cities before making its national television debut", ".S. cities before making its national television debut. As of April 2020, the show is being broadcast remotely on Facebook Live as “El Mameluco Desde Casa” due to the coronavirus pandemic. On June 1, the network is set to debut a new entertainment news show titled “Chismes En Vivo”, hosted by Chisme no Like hosts “Elisa Beristain and Javier Ceriani”, replacing El Mameluco under updated programming changes that are being made ever since the network began being under new management since February 2020", "On October 30, 2018, Estrella TV signed a multi-year agreement with Fremantle North America to broadcast 100 Latinos Dijeron, an American Spanish-language adaptation of Family Feud that previously aired on the now-defunct MundoMax from 2013 to 2016, in early 2019. The program, which is hosted by actor/comedian Armando Hernandez (who replaced original host Marco Antonio Regil), debuted on the network on February 19, 2019", ". During its second season run, the network added actor and comedian Mau Nieto as new host and later became a key figure in ratings success of the show. As of 2020, repeats of the first season run with Armando Hernandez are being aired weekdays at 11 A.M hour. On June 1, 2020, the network bought rights to reruns of the original 2013 version of 100 Latinos Dijeron hosted by Marco Antonio Regil.", "On February 3, 2020, Estrella TV revamped its prime time lineup, adding the talk show Nos Cayó la Noche, hosted by popular Mexican YouTuber Alex Montiel (which replaced and utilizes the late-night format used by its predecessor Noches con Platanito, which ceased production in June 2019 amid corporate cutbacks instituted upon LBI Media's bankruptcy), and added a half-hour version of the Fenomeno Studios web series Pepe's Office (which resulted in the displacement of Alarma TV", ", now serving as the lead-out—instead of lead-in as previous—of its late-evening newscast Cierre de Edición, to late night)", ". On February 20, Alarma TV returned to its regular hour by popular demand, which involved Pepe's Office being replaced by a comedy web series titled Enchufe TV, citing programming changes that made more sense for its television ratings.", "On May 6, 2021, the network announced several new shows to its prime time lineup at its virtual upfront which included the premiere of a dating game show titled “La Mascara del Amor” hosted by multi talented Latin singer and actress Angelica Vale which premiered May 27 of that same year. Other new shows included were two drama shows titled “Encrucijada”, “Tatuajes” and competition shows such as “MasterChef Latinos”, and “Mero Maistros”", ". MasterChef Latinos (originally intended to be a Sunday Night primetime show but instead was moved to Thursday Nights when the network announced the premiere date February 10) is a reality cooking series based on the English version from Fox and Endemol Shine that showcases 50 potential amateur chefs and home cooks preparing their best meals in front of three well recognized MasterChef Latinos judges Chef Benito Molina, Chef Adrián Herrera, and Chef Claudia Sandoval", ". Encrucijada is a one-hour anthology series that premiered September 19, 2021 and airs every Sunday night that focus on the lives of people also known as their road in the fork moment and how the challenges and triumphs of choices in everyday life shape our future.", "On April 19, 2022, TV Azteca had entered into a content and co-production agreement with Estrella TV that will see its news and entertainment programming blended onto the network's schedule.", "News programming", "Estrella TV operates a news division under the umbrella brand Noticias Estrella TV (\"Estrella News\"); the division was formally known as “Noticiero Estrella TV” the same name for the evening newscast which launched with the network on September 14, 2009, with the two flagship half-hour, Monday-through-Friday news programs, Noticiero Estrella TV (Estrella TV News), and Cierre de Edición (\"Final Edition\"), which respectively air at 5:30 and 10:30 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time since their debuts", ".m. Eastern and Pacific Time since their debuts. The division is also joined by a half-hour late-night daily newsmagazine series Alarma TV (\"Alarm TV\"), focusing mainly on caught-on-tape videos and news stories throughout Latin America and across the globe. Estrella TV's news division also broadcasts occasional special news coverage such as U.S. and Mexican elections, and the State of the Union Address", ".S. and Mexican elections, and the State of the Union Address. Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, Noticias Estrella TV has been delivering a complete coverage of all the latest news of this outbreak in a special series titled “Noticiero Estrella TV: Reportaje especial Coronavirus la Pandemia” with three additional news hours from 12:00pm/4:00pm/9:00pm, which lasted from March 16 and concluded on May 29, resuming the networks daily programming a few days later", ". On September 22 the network started launching “Estrella News” a 24-Hour digital news network where Various journalists offer the latest news headlines affecting the community in 24 hours", "On April 13, 2010, Liberman Broadcasting announced that it had reached a deal with veteran journalist Enrique Gratas to join Estrella TV as anchor of a prime time newscast that would serve as the companion to the early-evening broadcast, Noticiero con Enrique Gratas (\"News with Enrique Gratas\"), which debuted six days later on April 19", ". Differing somewhat in tone compared to the early evening edition, the program – which adopted its current title, Cierre de Edición (\"Final Edition\") in 2013, and airs at 10:30 p.m. Eastern Time – provides more in-depth analysis of news stories affecting the U.S. Hispanic community, similar to the late-night newscast that Gratas formerly anchored for Univision from 1999 until he was laid off by that network in 2009, Noticiero Univision: Última Hora", ". Gratas expanded his duties in 2011, with a short-lived weekly investigative newsmagazine El Momento con Enrique Gratas (A Moment with Enrique Gratas). Gratas took a sabbatical from Cierre de Edición in August 2015 due to ongoing health issues, but remained the main anchor of the program until his death from a reported diagnosis of metastatic cancer at age 71 on October 8, 2015", ". Pedro Ferriz Híjar (who joined the network from Mexican cable news channel Efekto TV, where he anchored a prime time newscast) was named anchor of Cierre de Edición and En La Lucha on February 2, 2016, and debuted later that month. Since early 2020, the network hired Legendary News Anchor José Armando Ronstadt after Pedro Ferriz Hijar left the network", "In 2013, Estrella TV hired another veteran of Univision's news division, Myrka Dellanos, to serve as main anchor of its early evening newscast Noticiero Estrella TV, and host a series of interview specials for the network, En Exclusiva con Myrka Dellanos (\"Exclusive with Myrka Dellanos\"). Dellanos left the network on April 24, 2015, and was subsequently replaced on Noticiero Estrella TV by Adriana Ruggiero, a former evening anchor at Los Angeles flagship station KRCA", ". A few months later the network replaced Adriana Ruggiero by Adriana Yanez.", "On June 28, 2015, in the runup to the 2016 Presidential election, the network debuted En La Lucha (\"In the Ring\"), a half-hour Sunday midday political and current affairs program featuring panel discussions on various political and socioeconomic topics of impact to the Latino community in the United States", ". The program was originally hosted by Hernán Molina – who in addition to such roles at Univision, CNN en Español and NTN24, previously served as a political analyst for Los Angeles flagship station KRCA – and also served as the program's co-managing editor until his termination by Liberman in December 2015. During the month of December 2016 the network canceled En la Lucha and replaced it with repeats of classic programming of the network", ". Subsequently, on July 6, the network replaced the cancelled Estrellas Hoy with iTestigo, an hour-long entertainment \"news\" focusing on user-generated citizen journalism content of news events and social issues from around the world. The show had such a long run that lasted until September 3, 2021, when the network decided to cancel the show with their last edition airing on that day due to several problems with the time-slot and possibly low ratings.", "On January 9, 2017, Estrella TV launched two weekday morning news programs: Primera Edicion (\"First Edition\"), which focuses on news affecting the Latino community (anchored originally by Estrella TV personality Anais Salazar, who also served as newsreader for its lead-out program until late 2017), and Buenos Dias Familia (\"Good Morning, Family\"), a two-hour-long program focusing primarily on current events, celebrity interviews", ", Family\"), a two-hour-long program focusing primarily on current events, celebrity interviews, human interest stories and entertainment news (hosted originally by Yul Bürkle, Aylin Mújica and Vanessa Arias)", ". The latter program was originally announced by Liberman Broadcasting CEO Lenard Liberman at the network's May 12, 2014 upfront presentation in New York, originally intending to be a three-hour morning news and lifestyle program described as \"an original alternative\" to morning programs aired on its competitors (including Univision's Despierta América and Telemundo's Un Nuevo Día) and scheduled for a debut that fall; feature films", ", educational programming and a rebroadcast of Cierre de Edición continued to air in the program's intended time period until it formally debuted three years later, when the network overhauled its morning lineup to include repeats of defunct original variety series following Buenos Dias Familia", ". (William Valdés, a former host of the morning show, left in January 2019.) On May 31, 2019, Estrella TV cancelled Buenos Días, Familia and Primera Edicion citing low ratings for both programs, with their last editions airing on that day and their former time slots being filled by a rebroadcast of the previous weeknight's edition of Cierre de Edición and hour-long repeat blocks of telenovelas previously shown on the network in the 7:30 to 10:00 a.m. ET slot", ".m. ET slot. On November 8 of that year, the network resumed a morning news offering with the debut of En La Mañana, a two-hour morning hard news program hosted by Natalia Garduño, Javier Olivares, and Rosy Martell, which focuses on national and world news, weather, entertainment and sports news. On June 22, 2020, the show got revamped with additional new hosts including Tomas Rubio, Giselle Bravo and Said Garcia with News of the day, entertainment, interviews, Sports, weather", ". On July 9, 2021, Estrella TV decided to cancel the Morning news show “En La Mañana” and was replaced with a small entertainment news show titled “En vivo” and a repeat of the weeknight newscast “Cierre de Edición”. On February 27, with a partnership from TV Azteca, the network added Venga La Alegria as part of a new daytime block to better serve the Hispanic with their Mexican culture heritage.", "Locally among the network's station body, Estrella TV has fewer stations that have an independent news operation than those of Univision and Telemundo; these in-house news departments are primarily limited to Estrella TV's owned-and-operated stations, including at Los Angeles flagship station KRCA, which had a news operation at the network's launch", ". On April 29, 2019, Estrella TV started to expand its news operations among its O&Os in three key markets with the premiere of daily evening local newscasts in Houston (KZJL), Dallas–Fort Worth (KMPX-TV), and Miami (WGEN-TV/WVFW-LD); newscasts on those three stations are produced out of the studios of its Dallas-based O&O KMPX, which was established as a production hub for the respective twice-daily programs", ". On November 30, 2021, the Estrella Media decided to cancel all three newscasts produced in Dallas and outsource them to Multimedios in Mexico. 45 people in Dallas lost their jobs as a result of this decision.", "Sports programming", "Estrella TV also operates a sports division Estrella Deportes which also originates from the networks Burbank headquarters. The division, which is responsible for creating sports content on Estrella TV, has produced soccer matches from Major League Soccer including Los Angeles Football Club and FC Dallas for the Los Angeles and Dallas markets until the end of 2022. The network has also produced Liga MX soccer matches involving Dorados de Sinaloa until the end of the 2015–2016 season", ". It has a multi year partnership with the National Football League team Los Angeles Chargers for the Los Angeles station. The network has a Friday night combat sports lineup that includes “Boxeo Estrella TV” showcasing some of the best boxing from Mexico and Latin America. It has an MMA series titled “Naciones MMA” featuring mixed martial art fights from Mexico and Latin America", ". The network recently announced the addition of Lucha Libre AAA to its Friday night combat sports line up featuring wrestling from Mexico. The network is also the Hispanic broadcast home for the Mexican Rodeo Federation also known as Charreada, in a weekly series that airs every Sunday afternoon titled “La Charreada”. Every weekend night, a sports newscast airs on Estrella TV and Estrella News titled “Estrella TV Deportes” hosted by Francisco X Rivera, which highlights some of best moments from past games", ". The division has done television specials involving the Super Bowl.", "On January 29, 2013, Estrella TV acquired its first broadcast television rights to a televised sporting event, when Liberman Broadcasting announced that it had signed an agreement with Alianza F.C. to obtain the exclusive U.S. Spanish broadcast rights to telecast Salvadoran Primera División soccer matches involving the El Salvador-based soccer club. Under the deal, which began with its first game broadcast six days later on February 3, the network would broadcast Alianza F.C", ".C.'s Sunday afternoon matches (although it occasionally airs prime time matches, mainly on Friday evenings), and produce pre-game and post-game analysis programs bookending the telecasts. In May 2014, the network acquired the U.S. broadcast rights to the Liga MX-affiliated Copa Socio MX exhibition tournament, a six-game tournament involving teams within the league that is played in major U.S. venues.", "On July 27, 2015, the network expanded its sports coverage when it reached a three-year programming agreement with Golden Boy Promotions, as the Oscar De La Hoya-founded boxing promotion's exclusive deal with Fox Sports Media Group (in which its fights were broadcast on Fox Sports 1 and Fox Deportes) expired due to Premier Boxing Champions's efforts which had Fox Sports sign with that circuit", ". Under the deal, Estrella TV obtained the rights to broadcast two live evening fight cards two weeks per month under the banner \"Boxeo Estelar\", as well as rights to the Friday night boxing showcase series LA Fight Club – the latter of which aired on the network as its first fight telecast on September 4, 2015. It was unknown whether the boxing series \"Boxeo Estelar\" would return since Golden Boy Promotions ended their deal with Estrella TV in end of 2018 and moved on to an agreement with DAZN", ". On March 25, 2021, the network announced in a press release from its parent company Estrella Media that it is bringing boxing back with a new series titled “Boxeo Estrella TV” thanks to a partnership with Producciones Deportivas in Mexico, where the network will showcase some of the best boxing from Mexico and Latin America and will be scheduled on the last Friday of each month.", "For the 2015–16 season, the network started carrying Liga MX soccer matches involving Dorados de Sinaloa. After the clubs relegation to the Ascenso MX league, the network stopped airing their home matches after the season ended.", "On February 21, 2020, the network bought back soccer programming with a new partnership with (Los Angeles Football Club) the fastest growing franchise in MLS. The Los Angeles station network KRCA 62 broadcast selected home matches of the club’s regular season. The following year on April 6, 2021, the network also announced another partnership with (FC Dallas), where the Dallas station KMPX would televise selected home soccer matches", ". The network ended their contracts at the end of 2022 when Apple announced a multi year partnership with Major League Soccer resulting in regional networks to also cease partnerships with local soccer teams from the league.", "On June 16, Estrella Media announced a licensing multi year partnership with Los Angeles Chargers, in which Estrella TV 62 Los Angeles and Que Buena 105.5/94.3 FM, will be home to Preseason matches and Radio home to all matches through the entire NFL season involving playoffs, with Pre and Post game shows and a weekly Chargers series and news throughout the year.", "Specials\nSince the network's inception, Estrella TV has broadcast Los Premios de la Radio (\"Radio Awards\"), an annual awards ceremony held each November, honoring Mexican Regional music performers from classic and contemporary genres and involving Liebermann's radio stations. The network also holds the broadcast rights to Premios El Don, an award show held in January, awarding the contributions of Latinos in the American film industry.", "On November 18, 2017, Estrella TV became the American Spanish language television broadcaster of Miss World (promoted as Miss Mundial), becoming the only U.S. television network to carry the beauty pageant. (E! had held the English-language telecast rights to the pageant in the U.S., but declined to air it for the 2017 edition.)\n\nStations", "Stations\n\n, Estrella TV has seven owned-and-operated stations, and current and pending affiliation agreements with 45 additional television stations encompassing 50 states and the District of Columbia (including stations in 40 of the 50 largest Nielsen markets); counting only its broadcast stations, the network has an estimated national reach of 39.37% of all households in the United States (or 123,009,970 Americans with at least one television set).", "National advertising sales for the network are handled by the Spanish Media Rep Team (SMRT), an LBI Media-owned sales organization that also sells spot advertising and handles sales representation for national accounts for Estrella TV owned-and-operated and affiliated stations; SMRT and local affiliates share the responsibility of selling advertising inventory, with affiliate stations retaining 40% of the commercial inventory not sold by Liberman", ". Stations are allowed the option to carry local programming – including newscasts, local public affairs programs, local brokered programming and political specials – in place of regular programming or infomercials aired within the base Estrella TV schedule.", "After it announced the expansion of the Estrella TV concept into a national network, Liberman Broadcasting initially planned to launch the national Estrella TV network on all six of its existing independent stations, with company executives also immediately seeking agreements with prospective stations owned by other broadcasting companies to serve as charter affiliates of Estrella TV", ". Although it focused on affiliating with full-power stations (particularly digital subchannels of those already affiliated with other networks), the network ultimately obtained primary channel affiliations in several markets where Liberman did not own a station, mainly via agreements with low-power stations. Liberman estimated that Estrella TV would have an initial market reach covering about 70% of all Hispanic-inhabited U.S. households at its launch.", "On February 2, 2009, eight days after the network's national launch was first announced, Liberman entered into an affiliation agreement with Communications Corporation of America, which launched the network in five of the company's Texas stations; the deal originally encompassed subchannel affiliations for four stations – KTSM-TV in El Paso, KVEO in Brownsville", ", KVEO in Brownsville, KWKT-TV in Waco (as well as its Bryan satellite KYLE-TV) and KETK-TV in Tyler – but later added KPEJ-TV in Odessa as another subchannel-only affiliate through a separate agreement on April 27, 2010", ".", "By the network's launch date in September, Estrella TV had expanded its footprint of charter outlets, signing affiliation agreements with Tribune Broadcasting (for WPIX in New York City); Sinclair Broadcast Group (initially for KVMY in Las Vegas); Sunbeam Television (for WSVN in Miami); Titan Broadcast Management (for KTNC in San Francisco and KFRE-TV in Sanger-Fresno); Belo (for KENS in San Antonio); and Hearst Television (for KOAT in Albuquerque and WPBF in West Palm Beach)", ", helping to give the network affiliates in 68% of all Hispanic television households and nine of the ten largest Hispanic media markets in the U", ".S. Estrella TV debuted with 17 affiliated stations, in addition to the seven Liberman-owned charter stations, reaching near its national coverage goal with a Hispanic market reach of 68% and affiliates in nine of the ten largest Hispanic U.S. markets (including New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, San Antonio and Brownsville).", "In addition, Liberman also purchased additional stations to serve as O&Os of the network, purchasing WASA-LP in Port Jervis, New York from Venture Technologies Group, LLC for $6 million on April 6, 2009 (WPIX relayed its programming on its 11.2 subchannel); KWHD (now KETD) in Denver from LeSEA Broadcasting for $6", ".2 subchannel); KWHD (now KETD) in Denver from LeSEA Broadcasting for $6.5 million on January 28, 2010 (it joined the network on June 1, 2010); and W40BY (now WESV-LD) in Chicago from the Trinity Broadcasting Network (which operated it as a translator of WWTO-TV in LaSalle) on February 22, 2010 (it joined the network on December 7).", "Estrella TV is natively transmitted in the 16:9 aspect ratio, launching high definition operations in mid-2016 in the 720p format, though for the most part this is limited to a few over-the-air stations and cable and satellite providers; most stations carry Estrella TV on a digital subchannel solely in 480i standard definition and scale the signal down for that format", ". Although most series aired on the network produced before 2012 and \"television\" cuts of most films released before 2005 were originally formatted in 4:3, the network presents these programs in anamorphic widescreen by default; however, the network airs most commercials in their original picture format whenever possible. The national cable/satellite feed uses Liberman's Estrella station in Miami, WVFW-LD, as its signal source.", "Although the network prefers traditional over-the-air distribution with supplementary carriage on cable and satellite providers, Estrella TV's programming is available in other areas of the United States through a national cable network feed that is distributed directly to select cable, direct-broadcast satellite and IPTV providers (such as Time Warner Cable, Cablevision", ", direct-broadcast satellite and IPTV providers (such as Time Warner Cable, Cablevision, Charter and Verizon FiOS) – particularly on dedicated Spanish language programming tiers which incorporate other networks that operate direct-to-pay-television feeds (such as UniMás and Azteca) – as an alternative method of distribution in markets without either the availability or the demand for a local owned-and-operated or affiliate station of the network due to its smaller Hispanic population density", ".", "Although most of Estrella TV's local affiliates carry the entire schedule, some pre-empt certain programs within the network's lineup in order to air newscasts or public affairs programs (such as with Los Angeles flagship station KRCA and KXAP-LD in Tulsa, Oklahoma); some also pre-empt paid programs within the network's overnight and early-morning infomercial block (such as with KOCY-LD in Oklahoma City) with other locally produced or brokered programming", ", or to move English-language network programming over due to breaking news situations on the affiliate's main signal (as WSVN in Miami did during Hurricane Irma in 2017 with Fox and Fox Sports programming; as mentioned above, Libermann maintains the owned WVFW-LD to air all network programming in Miami, but continues their affiliation agreement with WSVN-DT2 for full-market coverage)", ".", "Controversies", "Indecency complaints concerning José Luis Sin Censura", "On February 28, 2011, the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) and the National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC) filed a 200-page joint indecency complaint with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) against Liberman Broadcasting and Estrella TV's Los Angeles flagship station KRCA, in response to content featured on the conflict talk show José Luis Sin Censura (or José Luis Uncensored, an hour-long tabloid talk show hosted by José Luis Gonzalez)", ", an hour-long tabloid talk show hosted by José Luis Gonzalez), due to repeated instances of verbal and physical abuse against LGBT and female guests", ".", "The two organizations also provided transcripts, video clips and still photographs allegedly sourced from the program (in more than 20 different episodes that aired between June 18 and December 7, 2010) to help illustrate the allegations described in the complaint, which featured pixellated nudity, various censored and uncensored profanity, anti-gay slurs and violent outbursts from angry audience members", ". GLAAD president Jarrett Barrios said in a statement regarding the offending content: \"For years[,] Liberman has ignored concerns from viewers as well as revenue loss from advertisers pulling spots. This material is some of the most violent and offensive on television today and the FCC should hold the broadcaster responsible for airing material which is putting gay and lesbian people in harm's way", ".\" GLAAD stated that representatives for the LGBT advocacy organization had met with Liberman executives in 2005, about excising the profanity, slurs and violent acts, but did not have their request granted, and acknowledged that several advertisers pulled advertising from the program following the previous campaign to tone down the content", ". Following the FCC filing, GLAAD subsequently partnered with the Women's Media Center to launch an online campaign to urge supporters of the complaint to e-mail the Commission in support of or to file their own individual complaints. In referencing to the extremity of the content, NHMC president Alex Nogales referred in an announcement of the complaint, \"José Luis makes Jerry Springer look like Mr. Rogers", ". Rogers.\" More than 30 organizations also responded in the demand for Liberman to take action in regards of the program. According to GLAAD President Jarrett Barrios, \"This show serves no role except to fuel a climate of intolerance and violence against our community. The FCC has an obligation to stand up against this offensive program, which has no place on our airwaves.\"", "The groups subsequently launched a boycott against companies that maintained advertising sponsorships for José Luis Sin Censura, and created a petition on Change.org urging Liberman to take action regarding the show and its content. In response to the controversy, AT&T and Time Warner Cable withdrew their advertising from the program. In addition, Miami affiliate WSVN opted to pre-empt José Luis Sin Censura from its Estrella TV feed on digital channel 7", ".2, while KCTU-LD in Wichita, Kansas disaffiliated the network from one of its subchannels in late 2010, with the station's general manager Ron Nutt citing the network's programming in general \"was so objectionable that, at one point or another, half of its viewership had called us with a complaint. They are going for sensationalism. If an English-language network put out this content, they would be asking for trouble", ". If an English-language network put out this content, they would be asking for trouble.\" On August 8, 2012, Estrella TV agreed to officially cancel José Luis Sin Censura, immediately pulling the show from its schedule.", "On November 15, 2013, the FCC's Enforcement Bureau filed an indecency enforcement action against Liberman Broadcasting, in which the company voluntarily agreed to pay $110,000 to settle the indecency complaints filed by GLAAD, the NHMC and others as part of a consent decree.", "Carriage dispute with Comcast", "In February 2015, during negotiations to renew its carriage agreement for Estrella TV's owned-and-operated stations in Denver (KETD), Houston (KZJL) and Salt Lake City (KPNZ), Liberman Broadcasting entered into a carriage dispute with Comcast over carriage fees and expanded distribution to all markets served by the provider's Xfinity service in 13 other markets", ". Chief executive officer Lenard Liberman cited that it was seeking to switch from must carry status for the network's carriage to a retransmission consent compensation model; he also cited concerns that Comcast's since-aborted merger with Time Warner Cable would result in the provider exerting too much leverage in programming deals", ", resulting in it favoring networks the company owns (such as Telemundo) over minority-owned networks (an issue cited in a $20 billion racial discrimination lawsuit filed by Entertainment Studios and the National Association of African-American Owned Media that month over its alleged favoring of The Africa Channel, a minority-owned founded by former Comcast/NBCUniversal executive Paula Madison, over other black-owned networks)", ". Estrella TV launched an on-air and social media campaign on February 7, asking viewers to urge Comcast to continue carrying the network; however, representatives for Comcast countered that it expanded distribution of 60 independently operated Hispanic-focused networks (such as Galavisión known as a univision network, HITN and Azteca) across its systems (as part of an agreement resulting from its 2011 merger with Telemundo parent NBCUniversal), and while it was negotiating in good faith with Liberman", ", and while it was negotiating in good faith with Liberman, it did not want to raise subscriber rates to carry a network with \"limited [viewer] appeal\"", ".", "In response, on February 11, California Rep. Tony Cárdenas circulated a letter to other U.S. House members, asking them to write to the Federal Communications Commission and the U.S. Department of Justice to ensure that independent programmers would not be harmed should the Comcast-TWC merger receive federal approval. KETD, KZJL and KPNZ were all removed from Comcast's systems in the respective markets upon the agreement's expiration at 12:00 a.m", ".m. Eastern Time on February 20; however, its stations in the 13 other markets where Comcast serves as a major cable provider (including New York City, Chicago, Miami and Fresno) were unaffected due to separate carriage agreements.", "References\n\nExternal links\n \n Estrella Media corporate website \n Estrella TV YouTube channel\n\nTelevision channels and stations established in 2009\nCompanies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2018\nSpanish-language television networks in the United States\nTelevision networks in the United States" ]

[ "Coquitlam ( ) is a city in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, Canada. Mainly suburban, Coquitlam is the sixth-largest city in the province, with a population of 148,625 in 2021, and one of the 21 municipalities comprising Metro Vancouver. The mayor is Richard Stewart.", "Simon Fraser explored the region in 1808, encountering the Indigenous Coast Salish peoples. Europeans started settling in the 1860s. Fraser Mills, a lumber mill on the north bank of the Fraser River was constructed in 1889, and by 1908 there were 20 houses, a store, post office, hospital, office block, barber shop, pool hall, and a Sikh temple.", "History \nThe Coast Salish people were the first to live in this area, and archaeology confirms continuous occupation of the territory for at least 9,000 years. The name Kwikwetlem is said to be derived from a Coast Salish term \"kʷikʷəƛ̓əm\" meaning \"red fish up the river\".", "Explorer Simon Fraser came through the region in 1808, and in the 1860s Europeans gradually started settling the area. Coquitlam began as a \"place-in-between\" with the construction of North Road in the mid-19th century to provide Royal Engineers in New Westminster access to the year-round port facilities in Port Moody.", "The young municipality got its first boost in 1889 when Frank Ross and James McLaren opened what would become Fraser Mills, a $350,000, then state-of-the-art lumber mill on the north bank of the Fraser River. The Corporation of the District of Coquitlam was incorporated in 1891. By 1908, a mill town of 20 houses, a store, post office, hospital, office block, barber shop, pool hall and Sikh temple had grown around the mill. A mill manager's residence was built that would later become Place des Arts.", "Over the next two years, several contingents of French Canadian mill workers arrived from Quebec, and Maillardville was born. Named for Father Edmond Maillard, a young Oblate from France, it became the largest Francophone centre west of Manitoba. Maillardville's past is recognized today in street names, the Francophone education system and French immersion programs, French-language Girl Guides and scouts, and celebrations such as Festival du Bois.", "Following World War II, Coquitlam and the rest of the Lower Mainland experienced substantial population growth that continues today. The opening of Lougheed Highway in 1953 made the city more accessible and set the stage for residential growth. In 1971, Coquitlam and Fraser Mills were amalgamated, which gave the city a larger industrial base. The mill closed in 2001, and is now currently the subject of a proposed waterfront community.", "Geography \nCoquitlam is situated some east of Vancouver, where the Coquitlam River connects with the Fraser River and extends northeast along the Pitt River toward the Coquitlam and Pitt lakes. Coquitlam borders Burnaby and Port Moody to the west, New Westminster to the southwest, and Port Coquitlam to the southeast. Burke Mountain, Eagle Ridge, and tall Coquitlam Mountain form the northern boundary of the city. Coquitlam's area, , is about six times larger than either Port Moody or Port Coquitlam.", "Coquitlam is in the Pacific Time Zone (winter UTC−8, summer UTC−7), and the Pacific Maritime Ecozone.\n\nNeighbourhoods \n\nCoquitlam's geographic shape can be thought of as a tilted hourglass, with two larger parcels of land with a smaller central section connecting them.", "Southwest Coquitlam comprises the original core of the city, with Maillardville and Fraser River industrial sector giving way to the large, elevated, flat-plateaued residential areas of Austin Heights. These older residences, with larger property dimensions, are increasingly being torn down and replaced with newer and larger homes", ". The Poirier Street area was the city's original recreational centre with the Coquitlam Sports Centre, Chimo Aquatic and Fitness Centre, and sports fields located there, while City Hall was previously located further south in Maillardville.", "The Austin Heights area contains Como Lake, a renowned urban fishing and recreation area, and headwaters for the Como watershed. The watershed represents one of the last urban watersheds in the Tri-Cities that supports wild stocks of coho salmon as well as other species at risk such as coastal cutthroat trout (both sea-run and resident) and bird species such as the great blue heron and green heron. It also contains Mundy Park, one of the largest urban parks in the Metro Vancouver area.", "In 1984, the provincial government sold formerly attached to Riverview Hospital to Molnar Developments. Shortly afterward, this land was subdivided and became Riverview Heights, with about 250 single-family homes. The remaining of this still-active mental health facility has been the subject of much controversy amongst developers, environmentalists, and conservationists", ". In 2005, the city's task force on the hospital lands rejected the idea of further housing on the lands and declared that the lands and buildings should be protected and remain as a mental health facility. In May 2021, the Government of British Columbia announced that the Riverview lands had been renamed səmiq̓wəʔelə (pronounced suh-MEE-kwuh-EL-uh), meaning \"The Place of the Great Blue Heron\". The kʷikʷəƛ̓əm Nation and BC Housing are working on a long-term master plan for development of the site.", "Coquitlam Town Centre, was designated as a \"Regional Town Centre\" under the Metro Vancouver's Livable Region Strategic Plan. The concept of a town centre for the area dates back to 1975, and is intended to have a high concentration of high-density housing, offices, cultural, entertainment and education facilities to serve major growth areas of the region, served by rapid transit service", ". It is in the town centre that many public buildings can be found, including City Hall, a branch of the Coquitlam Public Library, an R.C.M.P. station, Coquitlam's main fire hall, the David Lam Campus of Douglas College, the Evergreen Cultural Centre, City Centre Aquatic Complex, Town Centre Park and Percy Perry Stadium.", "In 1989, the provincial government sold of second-growth forested land on the south slope of Eagle Mountain, known locally as Eagle Ridge, to developer Wesbild. This resulted in the closure of Westwood Motorsport Park in 1990, and the creation of Westwood Plateau, which was developed into 4,525 upscale homes, as well as two golf courses.", "With development on Westwood Plateau completed and the opening of the David Avenue Connector in 2006, Coquitlam's primary urban development has now shifted to Burke Mountain in the northeastern portion of the city.", "With new development of the Evergreen Extension of the Millennium Line of the SkyTrain rapid transit system which began operation in December 2016, Coquitlam's urban development area has again shifted to Burquitlam and secondly Burke Mountain. The Burke Mountain area plan is now divided into 4 new neighbourhood plans: Lower Hyde Creek Neighbourhood, Upper Hyde Creek Neighbourhood, Partington Creek, and Smiling Creek.", "Climate", "Like much of Metro Vancouver, Coquitlam has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate type Cfb), experiencing mild temperatures and high precipitation; warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters. However, compared to most other cities in the area, precipitation is especially heavy in Coquitlam due to its proximity to the mountain slopes", ". With westward air moving off the Pacific Ocean, the air is forced to flow up the Coast Mountains causing it to cool and condense and fall as precipitation, this process is known as orographic precipitation. The orographic effect is mainly responsible for the massive annual average precipitation that Coquitlam receives each year, with most falling as rainfall in the fall and winter months, with in November; the summer is usually sunny with minimal precipitation with in July", ". Although the mild temperatures allow for mostly rain to fall during the winter months, occasionally snow will fall. With a slightly higher elevation compared to the rest of Metro Vancouver, Coquitlam receives an average of of snow each year, with it rarely staying on the ground for a few days, adding to a very intermittent snow cover during the winter season.", "Coquitlam is also located in one of the warmest regions in Canada where average mean annual temperature is . Temperatures are warm during the summer months with an average high of , and an average low of in August. During the winter months, the average high is , and the average low is in December", ". During the winter months, the average high is , and the average low is in December. This relatively mild climate, by Canadian standards, is caused by the warm Alaska Current offshore and the many mountain ranges preventing the cold arctic air from the rest of Canada from reaching the southwest corner of British Columbia.", "On June 28, 2021, Coquitlam reached an all-time high temperature reading of , shattering the previous record of .\n\nDemographics \n\nIn the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Coquitlam had a population of 148,625 living in 55,949 of its 58,683 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 139,284. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.", "According to the 2016 Census, 47% of households contained a married couple with children, 30% contained a married couple without children, and 22% were one-person households. Of the 40,085 reported families: 76% were married couples with an average of 3.0 persons per family, 15% were lone-parents with an average of 2.5 persons per family, and 9% were common-law couples with an average of 2.6 persons per family. The median age of Coquitlam's population was 41", ".6 persons per family. The median age of Coquitlam's population was 41.1 years, slightly younger than the British Columbia median of 43.0 years. Coquitlam had 85.6% of its residents 15 years of age or older, less than the provincial average of 87.5%.", "According to the 2016 census, about 44% of Coquitlam residents were foreign-born, much higher than the 28% foreign-born for the whole of British Columbia. The same census documented the median income in 2015 for all families was $65,020, compared to the provincial average of $61,280. 58.2% of respondents 15 years of age and older claim to have a post-secondary certificate, diploma or degree, compared to 55% province-wide. Lastly, also as of the 2016 census, only 23", ". Lastly, also as of the 2016 census, only 23.4% of Coquitlam residents who work outside the home work within the city of Coquitlam itself, just less than half the provincial average of 48.9% of residents who work within their own municipality, yet 22.2% of Coquitlam residents take public transit, bicycle or walk to work, close to the provincial average of 22.4%.", "Ethnicity\n\nLanguages \nThe 2016 census found that English was spoken as the mother tongue of 50.47% of the population. The next most common mother tongue language was Mandarin, spoken by 9.66% of the population, followed by Cantonese at 6.43%. The south slope of Coquitlam, which includes Maillardville, has a pocket of French speakers.", "Religion \nAccording to the 2021 census, religious groups in Coquitlam included:\n Irreligion (73,945 persons or 50.1%)\n Christianity (55,150 persons or 37.4%)\n Islam (9,315 persons or 6.3%)\n Buddhism (3,110 persons or 2.1%)\n Hinduism (1,955 persons or 1.3%)\n Sikhism (1,855 persons or 1.3%)\n Judaism (405 persons or 0.3%)\n Indigenous Spirituality (45 persons or <0.1%)", "Economy", "As a bedroom community, the majority of Coquitlam residents commute to work in Vancouver, Burnaby, and other Metro Vancouver suburbs. Coquitlam's main industrial area lies in the southern Maillardville/Fraser Mills area near the Fraser River. Among the largest employers within Coquitlam are the City of Coquitlam with approximately 850 employees, Art in Motion with approximately 750 employees, and Hard Rock Casino with approximately 600 employees", ". Other major employers include Coca-Cola, Sony, and the Marine Propulsion division of Rolls-Royce.", "In 2007, there were 610 retail businesses in Coquitlam, and these provided 8,765 jobs (27% of all jobs) within the city. Most retail businesses are concentrated around Coquitlam Centre in the Town Centre area, and big-box retailers such as IKEA and The Home Depot in the Pacific Reach areas, with the remainder of the city's retail outlets centered around the Austin Heights and North Road sectors.", "The Tri-Cities Chamber of Commerce has over 900 members including businesses, professionals, residents and other community groups, governed by a 14-person volunteer Board of Directors.\n\nArts and culture\nBeing in close proximity to Vancouver and surrounded by the rest of the Lower Mainland, Coquitlam residents have access to virtually unlimited choice in cultural and leisure activities. Within the city itself are numerous venues that bring these choices closer to home.", "Coquitlam was designated as a Cultural Capital of Canada in 2009 by the Department of Canadian Heritage.\n\nArts and entertainment \nThe Molson Canadian Theatre, a 1,074-seat multi-purpose venue, opened as part of a $30 million expansion to Coquitlam's Hard Rock Casino in 2006, while Cineplex Entertainment operates the 4,475-seat SilverCity Coquitlam movie complex with 20 screens.", "A partnership of the city, the arts community, private business and senior governments, the Evergreen Cultural Centre in the Town Centre area is a venue for arts and culture, a civic facility designed to host a wide variety of community events. It features a 264-seat black box theatre, rehearsal hall, art studios and art gallery. Evergreen serves as the home venue for the Pacific Symphonic Wind Ensemble, the Coastal Sound Music Academy, the Coquitlam Youth Orchestra, and the Stage 43 Theatrical Society", ". Nearby proscenium theatres include the 336-seat Terry Fox Theatre in Port Coquitlam, and the 206-seat Inlet Theatre in Port Moody.", "Numerous yearly festivals are staged at various locations throughout Coquitlam, including Festival du Bois (first full weekend in March), the Water's Edge Festival (third full weekend in March), Como Lake Fishing Derby (last Sunday in May), BC Highland Games (last Saturday in June), a Canada Day Celebration at Town Centre Park, the BC Dumpling Festival (mid-August), and the Blue Mountain Music Festival (mid-July).\n\nAttractions\n\nParks and community", "Coquitlam has a considerable number of open green spaces, with the total area of over . There are over 80 municipal parks and natural areas, with Mundy Park located roughly in the centre of the city being the biggest, and Ridge Park located in the highlands near the city's northern edge", ". Pinecone Burke Provincial Park, Minnekhada Regional Park, and Pitt Addington Marsh are on the northern and eastern border of the city, while the restricted area of the Metro Vancouver's Coquitlam watershed border Coquitlam to the north. Colony Farm is a 404-hectare park that straddles the Coquitlam and Port Coquitlam boundaries, offering walking trails rich with wildlife and gardens", ". Town Centre Park is a large city park located in the central area of the city, it provides city residents with many recreational activities. Como Lake Park and Glen Park are also popular with local residents.", "Place des Arts is a non-profit teaching arts centre in Maillardville founded in 1972, offering programs in visual arts, music, acting, and dance. It features specialized programs for school students and home learners, and presents concerts and exhibitions for the public. Studios are offered for pottery, fibre arts, yoga, ballet, drama, piano, drawing and painting. Place des Arts offers four faculty concerts throughout the year, as well as numerous recitals and presentations by students on an ongoing basis.", "Place Maillardville is a community centre providing leisure activities for all age groups, with programs on French language, culture, as well as physical activities. Heritage Square offers visitors a wealth of historic sites, gardens, a bike path, and an outdoor amphitheatre; it is also home to the Mackin Heritage Home & Toy Museum.", "The city is responsible for the maintenance of numerous sports and recreation fields, including 40 grass/sand/soil sports fields, five FieldTurf fields, 35 ball diamonds, several all-weather surfaces, a bowling green, a croquet/bocce court, and a cricket pitch. The city also operates Percy Perry Stadium and the Poirier Sport & Leisure Complex. Privately owned Planet Ice features 4 additional ice rinks, and more rinks are found throughout the Tri-Cities.", "Sports\nProfessional sports teams in the area include the Vancouver Canucks (National Hockey League), BC Lions (Canadian Football League), Vancouver Whitecaps FC (Major League Soccer), Vancouver Warriors (National Lacrosse League), and the Vancouver Canadians (Northwest League baseball). The 2010 Winter Olympics were also staged in the Metro Vancouver and Whistler areas.", "There exists many opportunities for a wide variety of activities in Coquitlam:", "Baseball – The Coquitlam Reds of the B.C. Premier Baseball League play their home games at Mundy Park; the Reds' most famous alumnus is former Major League All-Star and National League MVP Larry Walker. Coquitlam is also home to Coquitlam Little League, which has been part of Little League International since 1955; Coquitlam finished 3rd at the 1984 Little League World Series. In 2008, Coquitlam hosted the Junior League Canadian Championships.", "Basketball – Coquitlam is home to the Tri-City Youth Basketball Association; formed in 1999, it serves the Tri-Cities with over 1,400 players from grades 2 to 9. The program is part of the Steve Nash Youth Basketball program administered by Basketball BC. It is open to both boys and girls, and operates out of school gyms across the Tri-Cities area.\nCrossFit – The regional CanWest CrossFit games have been held in the Percy Perry Stadium since 2016.", "Cricket – Coquitlam is home to the Windies Cricket Club. The club consists of over 40 members with 3 adult teams playing in the Premier, Second & Fifth Divisions. The club is affiliated with the British Columbia Mainland Cricket League and games are played at Mackin Park. A youth Kanga Cricket Program was formed with the aim of promoting and growing the game of cricket in Coquitlam. The SuperStrikers cricket team is open to boys and girls aged 6 – 16.", "Football – Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Minor Football Association, which is a member of the Vancouver Mainland Football League. CMFA players range from 6 to 18 years of age, and play against teams from the Lower Mainland and Vancouver Island. Coquitlam was also the home of the Tri-City Bulldogs of the Canadian Junior Football League from 1991 to 2004.", "Golf – In addition to courses in neighbouring communities in the Tri-Cities, Coquitlam itself is home to several golf facilities. The Vancouver Golf Club, located in southwest Coquitlam, has hosted four major LPGA tour events as well as one Senior PGA Tour event. The Westwood Plateau Golf & Country Club is one of the highest rated golf courses in Canada. Both the Westwood Plateau Golf Academy and Eaglequest Golf Centre are designed as executive learning courses.", "Hockey – Founded in 2001, the Coquitlam Express of the British Columbia Hockey League play at the Poirier Sport & Leisure Complex. Coquitlam is also home to the Coquitlam Minor Hockey Association, a AAA club in the Greater Vancouver area in the Pacific Coast Division, with almost 1000 members from Initiation Hockey 1 to Juvenile.", "Lacrosse – Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Adanacs of the Western Lacrosse Association, who play at the Poirier Sport & Leisure Complex, and to the Coquitlam Minor Lacrosse Association. In July 2008, Percy Perry Stadium hosted the 2008 ILF Under-19 World Lacrosse Championships.", "Motorsports – Coquitlam was formerly home to Westwood Motorsport Park, Canada's first purpose-built permanent road course, located on what is now Westwood Plateau. The first race was held in 1959, and over the years hosted many different professional series including Formula Atlantic and Trans-Am. Notable drivers to have raced at Westwood include Formula One World Champion Keke Rosberg, Indianapolis 500 winners Bobby Rahal and Danny Sullivan, Gilles Villeneuve and Michael Andretti, and Greg Moore", ". The track finally closed in 1990 due to encroaching development, and racing moved to Mission Raceway Park.", "Softball – Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Minor Softball Association. This association consists of about 300 registered players, predominantly females between the ages of 5 – 19 years of age. Most of the games are held at Mundy Park, Riverview Park, and Hillcrest Park. The CMSA is home to the Coquitlam Classics competitive rep program.", "Rugby – The city is home to the United Rugby Club which claimed the BC Rugby Under 23 championship in 2018. The club has two senior men's team and one senior women's team, as well, the team has age grade programs from its mini's program for elementary school children to U-16 and U-19 teams.", "Soccer – The city is home to two major soccer associations, including the Coquitlam Metro-Ford Soccer Club which has over 2500 players that range from Under-5 to adult teams including the Women's Premier team which plays in the Pacific Coast Soccer League, and the North Coquitlam United Soccer Club.", "Swimming – City Centre Aquatic Complex is an indoor aquatic centre built in the Town Centre area at a cost of $8.2 million and opened in 1994. It features a 50m Olympic size swimming pool, wave pool, waterslide, fitness centre, and physiotherapy clinic. The Chimo Aquatic and Fitness Centre (CAFC) opened in 2008 in the Austin Heights area at a cost of $19.5 million, replacing the older Chimo Pool nearby. It features a 25m swimming pool, a 20m lap pool, leisure pool, and fitness room", ". It features a 25m swimming pool, a 20m lap pool, leisure pool, and fitness room. Coquitlam also operates three outdoor swimming pools (Eagle Ridge, Rochester, Spani), two outdoor wading pools (Blue Mountain, Mackin), and three outdoor splash pads (Blue Mountain, Panorama, Town Centre).", "Track and field – Coquitlam is home to the Coquitlam Cheetahs track and field club, who train at Percy Perry Stadium, which was named after their former coach who died in 2005.", "Water Polo – Coquitlam is home to a number of water polo clubs. In the summer the Coquitlam Sharks, members of the BCSSA, have a water polo component, and during the year, from October to April, the Coquitlam Lions, a recreational water polo club, have practices at the various pools from October to April: CCAC, Poirier and Eagle Ridge. In addition, Pacific Storm, a high performance water polo club, also holds some of its practices at CCAC.", "Government\n\nFederal \nCoquitlam is represented by two federal MPs in the Parliament of Canada. Bonita Zarillo (NDP) represents the Port Moody—Coquitlam riding, while Ron McKinnon (Liberal Party) represents Coquitlam—Port Coquitlam.", "Provincial \nCoquitlam is represented by three provincial MLAs in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia. Rick Glumac (British Columbia NDP) represents the Port Moody-Coquitlam riding, while Joan Isaacs (BC Liberals) represents Coquitlam-Burke Mountain, and Selina Robinson (BC NDP) represents Coquitlam-Maillardville.", "Municipal", "In the 2018 civic election, Richard Stewart was reelected as mayor of Coquitlam, and Craig Hodge, Chris Wilson, Teri Towner, Bonita Zarillo, Brent Asmundson, Dennis Marsden, Trish Mandewo and Steve Kim were all elected to Coquitlam City Council. Coquitlam contracts out garbage and recycling services to International Paper Industries for city residents, but local businesses are responsible for their own garbage and recycling arrangements", ". Coquitlam Lake provides residents with a mountain-fed water source, while the city maintains its own sewage management system.", "Judicial \nThe nearest Supreme Court of British Columbia venue is the New Westminster Law Courts. Provincial Court of British Columbia cases were formerly handled through the Coquitlam Provincial Court, but this was closed in 1996 and moved to the new Port Coquitlam Provincial Court.\n\nTransportation \n\nCoquitlam is served by TransLink, which is responsible for both public transit and major roads.", "Coquitlam is served by TransLink, which is responsible for both public transit and major roads.\n\nThe city has four SkyTrain stations on the Millennium Line that are a part of the long Evergreen Extension. With a project cost of $1.4 billion, the line runs from the Coquitlam City Centre area, through Coquitlam Central Station and into Port Moody, re-entering Coquitlam on North Road and finally joining the existing Millennium Line at Lougheed Town Centre.", "There is regular bus service on numerous lines running throughout the city and connecting it to other municipalities in Metro Vancouver, with a major exchange at Coquitlam Central Station.", "The West Coast Express, with a stop at Coquitlam Central Station, provides commuter rail service west to downtown Vancouver and east as far as Mission. WCE operates Monday to Friday only (excluding holidays), with five trains per day running to Vancouver in the morning peak hours and returning through Coquitlam in the evening peak hours.", "For motorists, the Trans-Canada Highway provides freeway access to Burnaby, Vancouver, Surrey, and other municipalities in the Lower Mainland. Lougheed Highway is an alternative route to the Trans-Canada, entering Coquitlam through Maillardville, past the Riverview Hospital area, up to Coquitlam Centre where it turns sharply east to Port Coquitlam. Barnet Highway begins at the Coquitlam Centre area and heads directly east through Port Moody and on to Burnaby and downtown Vancouver.", "Coquitlam has 60 km of bike routes, including dedicated bike lanes on Guildford Way, David Avenue, United Boulevard, Mariner Way, Chilko Drive and others, plus additional routes through city parks.", "Coquitlam is served by two international airports. Vancouver International Airport, located on Sea Island in the city of Richmond to the west, is the second busiest in Canada and provides most of the air access to the region. Abbotsford International Airport, located to the east, is the seventeenth busiest airport in Canada. Nearby Pitt Meadows Airport provides services for smaller aircraft and there are also Boundary Bay Airport and Langley Airport for small aircraft.", "Residents and visitors wishing to travel to Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and other destinations along the Inside Passage may use the BC Ferries car and passenger ferry service from two terminals in the communities of Tsawwassen and Horseshoe Bay, south and north of Vancouver respectively. BC Ferries operates the Queen of Coquitlam, a C-class ferry capable of carrying 362 cars and 1,466 passengers, which was launched in 1976", ". She received an $18 million rehabilitation in November 2002, and currently operates as a secondary vessel on the Departure Bay-Horseshoe Bay route.", "Infrastructure\n\nHealth care", "Coquitlam is served by Fraser Health, which operates the 106-bed Eagle Ridge Hospital on the Port Moody/Coquitlam city boundary. ERH opened its doors in 1984 and operates a 24-hour emergency department, ambulatory, long-term care and acute care programs. It is a Centre of Excellence for elective surgery for urology, gynaecology, plastics and orthopedics", ". The hospital also offers public education clinics for asthma, diabetes, rehabilitation services and programs for cardiology, children's grief recovery, youth crisis response and early psychosis prevention.", "Fraser Health also operates the 352-bed Royal Columbian Hospital just south of Coquitlam in New Westminster. Coquitlam residents are also served by many privately owned health care clinics, while Tri-Cities Health Services operates 653 residential care beds.", "Coquitlam is also the home of Riverview Hospital, a large mental health facility, operating under the governance of BC Mental Health & Addiction Services. Riverview opened in 1913 and had 4,630 patients at its peak, but advances in treatment and cutbacks in funding have resulted in fewer people receiving mental health care, and much of the facility has closed over the last few decades.\n\nPolice, fire, emergency services", "Police, fire, emergency services \n\nCoquitlam contracts out its police service to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, with the main police station adjacent to City Hall at Coquitlam Town Centre and community police stations in the Austin Heights and Burquitlam areas. The Coquitlam RCMP detachment also serves the municipalities of Anmore, Belcarra, and Port Coquitlam.", "Coquitlam has its own fire service, known as Coquitlam Fire/Rescue, with four fire halls. Coquitlam uses names, not numbers for their halls. The fire halls are Town Centre, Austin Heights, Mariner Way, near Mundy Park and Burke Mountain.\n\nLike all other municipalities in British Columbia, Coquitlam's ambulance service is run by the British Columbia Ambulance Service.", "Coquitlam Search and Rescue is a volunteer search and rescue team operating under the Provincial Emergency Program. Coquitlam SAR is responsible for urban and wilderness search and rescue for the area between Indian Arm and Pitt Lake, and encompasses the local communities of Coquitlam, Burnaby, Port Coquitlam, Port Moody, New Westminster, Belcarra and Anmore. The SAR team is based at Town Centre Fire Hall.", "Community centres\nThe city manages four all-age community centres (Centennial, Pinetree, Poirier, Summit), and two senior community centres (Dogwood Pavilion, Glen Pine Pavilion).\n\nEducation \n\nCoquitlam is served by School District 43 Coquitlam, and offers four public secondary schools, seven middle schools, and dozens of elementary schools. Francophone education in the Tri-Cities is offered by Conseil Scolaire Francophone de la Colombie-Britannique.", "Coquitlam Town Centre is home to the 4,000-student David Lam Campus of Douglas College, which offers university transfer, career-training and academic-upgrading programs. Therapeutic Recreation, Hotel and Restaurant Management, and Animal Health Technology programs are housed in the original main campus building. The $39 million Health Sciences Centre opened in 2008, with state-of-the-art facilities for Nursing, Psychiatric Nursing and other health-career programs.", "There are two major universities, University of British Columbia and Simon Fraser University, located in the nearby municipalities. The British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT) in neighbouring Burnaby provides polytechnic education and grants degrees in several fields. Vancouver is also home to the Emily Carr University of Art and Design and the Vancouver Film School.", "The Coquitlam Public Library has two branches: City Centre and Poirier. The library has a circulation of over 1.1 million items, and an annual budget of over $5 million.\n\nMedia \n\nIn addition to the other Metro Vancouver media outlets, CKPM-FM was the first radio station dedicated to the Tri-Cities area when it took to the air in 2009.\n\nCoquitlam is served by the bi-weekly Tri-City News newspaper.", "A significant number of movie and television productions have been partly or completely filmed in Coquitlam in recent years, including a significant portion of 2018's Deadpool 2, 2014's Godzilla, both New Moon and Eclipse from the Twilight series, The X-Files, Juno, Smallville, Psych, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants, Dark Angel, The Day the Earth Stood Still, Romeo Must Die, Stargate SG1, Riverdale, and Watchmen", ". The city maintains the Coquitlam Film Office to coordinate permits, traffic and crowd control, and insurance for film and television productions.", "Sister cities \nCoquitlam currently has sister city relationships with the following:\n Foshan, People's Republic of China\n Paju, South Korea\n\nIn November 2017, the city stated that they had ended sister city relationships with Laizhou, Tochigi, Ormoc and San Juan.", "Notable people", "Juno Award-winning rock musician Matthew Good is from Coquitlam. He graduated from Centennial Secondary in 1989, and became lead singer for the Matthew Good Band, one of Canada's most successful alternative rock bands in the 1990s. Centennial Secondary was featured in the \"Alert Status Red\" video, and its cheerleading squad recorded for \"Giant\". The Matthew Good Band was dissolved in 2002, and Good has since pursued a solo career and established himself as a political activist, blogger, and author.", "Actor Taylor Kitsch graduated from Gleneagle Secondary in 1999, and went on to star in movies such as John Carter and Battleship as well as the television series Friday Night Lights.", "Former FA Premier League goalkeeper Craig Forrest is from Coquitlam and attended Centennial Secondary. Forrest appeared in 263 games for Ipswich Town, 30 games for West Ham United, and three games for Chelsea. Forrest also earned 56 caps for the Canadian national soccer team, the most of any goalkeeper in team history, and earned the most clean sheets in the country's history. Forrest was elected to Canada's Soccer Hall of Fame in 2007", ". Forrest was elected to Canada's Soccer Hall of Fame in 2007. Former Canadian national soccer team midfielder Jeff Clarke and Canadian women's national soccer player Brittany Timko also both attended Centennial Secondary.", "Former National Basketball Association player Lars Hansen was raised in Coquitlam and played his high school basketball at Centennial Secondary. He was a member of the Seattle SuperSonics 1979 NBA Championship team, and was elected to the Canadian Basketball Hall of Fame in 2008.\n\nModel and host of MTV Select and G4techTV Amanda MacKay also attended Centennial Secondary where she started her journalism career writing for the school's student newspaper.", "American political analyst and former Fox News co-host Rachel Marsden was raised in Northeast Coquitlam's Burke Mountain area.\n\nFormer BC Lions placekicker Lui Passaglia has resided in Coquitlam for over 20 years. Passaglia is a member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame, and his #5 jersey is one of eight numbers retired by the Lions. Passaglia was voted #30 of the CFL's Top 50 players of the modern era by Canadian sports network TSN.", "Playboy Playmate and actress Dorothy Stratten was raised in Coquitlam and attended Centennial Secondary School. Stratten was Playmate of the Year for 1980. She appeared in several movies, including Peter Bogdanovich's They All Laughed, then she was murdered by her estranged husband. Stratten was portrayed twice in biographies of her life, by Jamie Lee Curtis in Death of a Centerfold: The Dorothy Stratten Story and by Mariel Hemingway in Star 80.", "Actress and voice actress Lalainia Lindbjerg was born in Coquitlam and now resides in Vancouver. She's best known as the voice of Bulma in the Ocean dub of Dragon Ball Z.\n\nSpoken word poet Chris Tse was raised in Coquitlam though he is based in Ottawa. He was captain of the Ottawa spoken word team that won the Canadian Festival of Spoken Word championships and placed second overall in the Poetry Slam World Cup in Paris, France.", "Filipino pop and jazz singer, musician, lyricist, and songwriter Joey Albert is a Coquitlam resident.\n\nHockey players Mathew Barzal of the New York Islanders and Vincent Iorio of the Washington Capitals were born and raised in Coquitlam.\n\nScience fiction novelist Dennis E. Taylor is a Coquitlam resident.\n\nSee also \n\n Coat of arms of Coquitlam\n Tri-Cities\n Metro Vancouver\n Lower Mainland\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n \n \n\n \nCities in British Columbia\nPopulated places in Greater Vancouver" ]

[ "Schenkerian analysis is a method of analyzing tonal music based on the theories of Heinrich Schenker (1868–1935). The goal is to demonstrate the organic coherence of the work by showing how the \"foreground\" (all notes in the score) relates to an abstracted deep structure, the Ursatz. This primal structure is roughly the same for any tonal work, but a Schenkerian analysis shows how, in each individual case, that structure develops into a unique work at the foreground", ". A key theoretical concept is \"tonal space\". The intervals between the notes of the tonic triad in the background form a tonal space that is filled with passing and neighbour tones, producing new triads and new tonal spaces that are open for further elaborations until the \"surface\" of the work (the score) is reached.", "The analysis uses a specialized symbolic form of musical notation. Although Schenker himself usually presents his analyses in the generative direction, starting from the Ursatz to reach the score and showing how the work is somehow generated from the Ursatz, the practice of Schenkerian analysis more often is reductive, starting from the score and showing how it can be reduced to its fundamental structure. The graph of the Ursatz is arrhythmic, as is a strict-counterpoint cantus firmus exercise", ". The graph of the Ursatz is arrhythmic, as is a strict-counterpoint cantus firmus exercise. Even at intermediate levels of reduction, rhythmic signs (open and closed noteheads, beams and flags) display not rhythm but the hierarchical relationships between the pitch-events.", "Schenkerian analysis is an abstract, complex, and difficult method, not always clearly expressed by Schenker himself and not always clearly understood. It mainly aims to reveal the internal coherence of the work – a coherence that ultimately resides in its being tonal. In some respects, a Schenkerian analysis can reflect the perceptions and intuitions of the analyst.\n\nFundamentals", "Goals", "Schenker intended his theory as an exegesis of musical \"genius\" or the \"masterwork\", ideas that were closely tied to German nationalism and monarchism", ". The canon represented in his analytical work therefore is almost entirely made up of German music of the common practice period (especially that of Johann Sebastian Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, and Johannes Brahms), and he used his methods to oppose more modern styles of music such as that of Max Reger and Igor Stravinsky", ". This led him to seek the key to an understanding of music in the traditional disciplines of counterpoint and figured bass, which was central to the compositional training of these composers. Schenker's project was to show that free composition (freier Satz) was an elaboration, a \"prolongation\", of strict composition (strenger Satz), by which he meant species counterpoint, particularly two-voice counterpoint", ". He did this by developing a theory of hierarchically organized levels of elaboration (Auskomponierung), called prolongational levels, voice-leading levels (Stimmführungsschichten), or transformations (Verwandlungen), the idea being that each of the successive levels represents a new freedom taken with respect to the rules of strict composition.", "Because the first principle of the elaboration is the filling in of the tonal space by passing notes, an essential goal of the analysis is to show linear connections between notes which, filling a single triad at a given level, remain closely related to each other but which, at subsequent levels, may become separated by many measures or many pages as new triads are embedded in the first one. The analyst is expected to develop a \"distance hearing\" (Fernhören), a \"structural hearing\".", "Harmony\nThe tonic triad, that from which the work as a whole arises, takes its model in the harmonic series. However,\nthe mere duplication of nature cannot be the object of human endeavour. Therefore ... the overtone series ... is transformed into a succession, a horizontal arpeggiation, which has the added advantage of lying within the range of the human voice. Thus the harmonic series is condensed, abbreviated for the purposes of art\".", "Linking the (major) triad to the harmonic series, Schenker merely pays lip service to an idea common in the early 20th century. He confirms that the same derivation cannot be made for the minor triad:", "Any attempt to derive even as much as the first foundation of this [minor] system, i.e., the minor triad itself, from Nature, i.e., from the overtone series, would be more than futile. ... The explanation becomes much easier if artistic intention rather than Nature herself is credited with the origin of the minor mode.\".", "The basic component of Schenkerian harmony is the Stufe (scale degree, scale-step), i.e. a chord having gained structural significance. Chords arise from within chords, as the result of the combination of passing notes and arpeggiations: they are at first mere embellishments, mere voice-leading constructions, but they become tonal spaces open for further elaboration and, once elaborated, can be considered structurally significant: they become scale-steps properly speaking", ". Schenker recognizes that \"there are no rules which could be laid down once and for all\" for recognizing scale-steps, but from his examples one may deduce that a triad cannot be recognized as a scale-step as long as it can be explained by passing or neighboring voice-leading.", "Schenkerian analyses label scale-steps with Roman numerals, a practice common in 19th- and 20th-century Vienna, developed by the theoretic work of Georg Joseph Vogler and his student Gottfried Weber, transmitted by Simon Sechter and his disciple Anton Bruckner, the classes of whom Schenker had followed in the Konservatorium in Vienna.", "Schenker's theory is monotonal: the Ursatz, as the diatonic unfolding of the tonic triad, by definition cannot include modulation. Local \"tonicisation\" may arise when a scale-step is elaborated to the point of becoming a local tonic, but the work as a whole projects a single key and ultimately a single Stufe (the tonic).", "Counterpoint, voice-leading\nTwo-voice counterpoint remains for Schenker the model of strict writing. Free composition is a freer usage of the laws of strict counterpoint. One of the aims of the analysis is to trace how the work remains subject to these laws at the deepest level, despite the freedom taken at subsequent levels.", "One aspect of strict, two-voice writing that appears to span Schenker's theory throughout the years of its elaboration is the rule of \"fluent melody\" (fließender Gesang), or \"melodic fluency\". Schenker attributes the rule to Luigi Cherubini, who would have written that \"fluent melody is always preferable in strict counterpoint.\" Melodic fluency, the preference for conjunct (stepwise) motion, is one of the main rules of voice leading, even in free composition", ". It avoids successive leaps and produces \"a kind of wave-like melodic line which as a whole represents an animated entity, and which, with its ascending and descending curves, appears balanced in all its individual component parts\". This idea is at the origin of that of linear progression (Zug) and, more specifically, of that of the Fundamental Line (Urlinie).", "Ursatz", "Ursatz (usually translated as \"fundamental structure\") is the name given by Schenker to the underlying structure in its simplest form, that from which the work as a whole originates. In the canonical form of the theory, it consists of the Urlinie, the \"fundamental line\", supported by the Bassbrechung, the \"arpeggiation of the bass\". The fundamental structure is a two-voice counterpoint and as such belongs to strict composition", ". The fundamental structure is a two-voice counterpoint and as such belongs to strict composition. In conformity with the theory of the tonal space, the fundamental line is a line starting from any note of the triad and descending to the tonic itself. The arpeggiation is an arpeggiation through the fifth, ascending from I to V and descending back to I. The Urlinie unfolds the tonal space in a melodic dimension, while the Bassbrechung expresses its harmonic dimension.", "The theory of the fundamental structure is the most criticized aspect of Schenkerian theory: it has seemed unacceptable to reduce all tonal works to one of a few almost identical background structures. This is a misunderstanding: Schenkerian analysis is not about demonstrating that all compositions can be reduced to the same background, but about showing how each work elaborates the background in a unique, individual manner, determining both its identity and its \"meaning\"", ". Schenker has made this his motto: Semper idem, sed non eodem modo, \"always the same, but never in the same manner\".", "Fundamental line", "The idea of the fundamental line comes quite early in the development of Schenker's theory. Its first printed mention dates from 1920, in the edition of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 101, but the idea obviously links with that of \"fluent melody\", ten years earlier. Schenker first conceived the Urlinie, the \"fundamental line\", as a kind of motivic line characterized by its fluency, repeated under different guises throughout the work and ensuring its homogeneity", ". He later imagined that a musical work should have only one fundamental line, unifying it from beginning to end. The realization that such fundamental lines usually were descending led him to formulate the canonical definition of the fundamental line as necessarily descending. It is not that he rejected ascending lines, but that he came to consider them hierarchically less important. \"The fundamental line begins with , or and moves to via the descending leading tone \"", ". \"The fundamental line begins with , or and moves to via the descending leading tone \". The initial note of the fundamental line is called its \"head tone\" (Kopfton) or \"primary tone\". The head note may be elaborated by an upper neighbour note, but not a lower one. In many cases, the head note is reached through an ascending line (Anstieg, \"initial ascent\") or an ascending arpeggiation, which do not belong to the fundamental structure properly speaking.", "Arpeggiation of the bass and the divider at the fifth", "The arpeggiation through the fifth is an imitation of the overtone series, adapted to man [sic] \"who within his own capacities can experience sound only in a succession\". The fifth of the arpeggiation coincides with the last passing note of the fundamental line. This at first produces a mere \"divider at the fifth\", a complex filling in of the tonal space", ". This at first produces a mere \"divider at the fifth\", a complex filling in of the tonal space. However, as a consonant combination, it defines at a further level a new tonal space, that of the dominant chord, and so doing opens the path for further developments of the work", ". It would appear that the difference between the divider at the fifth and the dominant chord properly speaking really depends on the level at which the matter is considered: the notion of the divider at the fifth views it as an elaboration of the initial tonal space, while the notion of dominant chord conceives it as a new tonal space created within the first. But the opinions of modern Schenkerians diverge on this point.", "Schenkerian notation", "Graphic representations form an important part of Schenkerian analyses: \"the use of music notation to represent musical relationships is a unique feature of Schenker's work\". Schenkerian graphs are based on a \"hierarchic\" notation, where the size of the notes, their rhythmic values and/or other devices indicate their structural importance", ". Schenker himself, in the foreword to his Five Graphic Analyses, claimed that \"the presentation in graphic form has now been developed to a point that makes an explanatory text unnecessary\"", ". Even so, Schenkerian graphs represent a change of semiotic system, a shift from music itself to its graphical representation, akin to the more usual change from music to verbal (analytic) commentary; but this shift already exists in the score itself, and Schenker rightly noted the analogy between music notation and analysis", ". One aspect of graphic analyses that may not have been enough stressed is the desire to abolish time, to represent the musical work as something that could be apprehended at a glance or, at least, in a way that would replace a \"linear\" reading by a \"tabular\" one.", "The first step of the analytic rewriting often takes the form of a \"rhythmic\" reduction, that is one that preserves the score, but \"normalizes\" its rhythm and its voice-leading content. This type of reduction has a long tradition, not only in counterpoint treatises or theory books, but also in the simplified notation of some Baroque works, e.g. the Prelude to Händel's Suite in A major, HWV 426, or early versions of Bach's C major Prelude of Book I of the Well Tempered Keyboard", ". One indirect advantage of rhythmic reduction is that it helps reading the voice leading: Czerny's example hereby transforms Chopin's arpeggios into a composition in four (or five) voices. Edward Aldwell and Carl Schachter write that the first rewriting should \"produce a setting that is reasonably close to note-against-note", ".\" Allen Cadwallader and David Gagné suggest a special type of rhythmic reduction that they call \"imaginary continuo\", stressing the link between the rhythmic reduction and a notation as a melody with figured bass. Basically, it consists in imagining a figured bass line for the work analyzed, and writing a chordal realization of it.", "Schenker himself usually began his analyses with a rhythmic reduction that he termed Urlinietafel. From 1925 onwards, he complemented these with other levels of representation, corresponding to the successive steps leading to the fundamental structure. At first, he mainly relied on the size of the note shapes to denote their hierarchic level, but later abandoned this system as it proved too complex for contemporary techniques of musical engraving", ". Allen Cadwallader and David Gagné propose a description of Schenker's system of graphic notation which, they say, \"is flexible, enabling musicians to express in subtle (and sometimes different) ways what they hear and how they interpret a composition\"", ". They discuss open noteheads, usually indicating the highest structural level, and filled-in noteheads for tones of lower levels; slurs, grouping tones in an arpeggio or in linear motions with passing or neighbor tones; beams, for linear motions of higher structural level or for the arpeggiation of the bass; broken ties, for repeated or sustained tones; diagonal lines to realign displaced notes; diagonal beams, connecting successive notes that belong to the same chord (\"unfolding\"); etc.", "Techniques of prolongation\n\nThe meat of a Schenkerian analysis is in showing how a background structure expands until it results in the succession of musical events on the surface of the composition itself. Schenker refers to this process under the term Auskomponierung, literally \"composing out\", but more often translated as \"elaboration\". Modern Schenkerians usually prefer the term \"prolongation\", stressing that elaborations develop the events along the time axis.", "Schenker writes:\nIn practical art the main problem is how to realize the concept of harmony in a live content. In Chopin's Prelude, Op. 28, No 6, thus, it is the motif \nthat gives life to the abstract concept of the triad, B, D, F-sharp.", "The elaboration of the triad, here mainly in the form of an arpeggio, loads it with \"live content\", with meaning. Elaborations take the form of diminutions, replacing the total duration of the elaborated event by shorter events in larger number. By this, notes are displaced both in pitch and in rhythmic position. The analysis to some extent aims at restoring displaced notes to their \"normal\" position and explaining how and why they were displaced.", "One aspect of Schenkerian analysis is that it does not view the work as built from a succession of events, but as the growth of new events from within events of higher level, much as a tree develops twigs from its branches and branches from its trunk: it is in this sense that Schenkerian theory must be considered organicist", ". The example shown here may at first be considered a mere elaboration of an F major chord, an arpeggiation in three voices, with passing notes (shown here in black notes without stem) in the two higher voices: it is an exemplification of the tonal space of F major. The chord labelled (V) at first merely is a \"divider at the fifth\"", ". The chord labelled (V) at first merely is a \"divider at the fifth\". However, the meeting of the fifth (C) in the bass arpeggiation with the passing notes may also be understood as producing a dominant chord, V, arising from within the tonic chord I. This is the situation found at the beginning of Haydn's Sonata in F major, Hob. XVI:29, where the (incomplete) dominant chord appears at the very end of bar 3, while the rest of the fragment consists of arpeggios (with neighbor notes) of the F chord:", "Arpeggiation, neighbour note, passing note", "Arpeggiation is the simplest form of elaboration. It delimits a tonal space for elaboration, but lacks the melodic dimension that would allow further developments: it \"remains a harmonic phenomenon\". From the very structure of triads (chords), it follows that arpeggiations remain disjunct and that any filling of their space involves conjunct motion", ". Schenker distinguishes two types of filling of the tonal space: 1) neighbor notes (Nebennoten), ornamenting one single note of the triad by being adjacent to it. These are sometimes referred to generically as \"adjacencies\";", "2) passing notes, which pass by means of stepwise motion from one note to another and fill the space in between, and are thus sometimes referred to as \"connectives\".", "Both neighbor notes and passing notes are dissonances. They may be made consonant by their coinciding with other notes (as in the Haydn example above) and, once consonant, may delimit further tonal spaces open to further elaborations. Insofar as chords consist of several voices, arpeggiations and passing notes always involve passing from one voice to another.", "Linear progression", "A linear progression (Zug) is the stepwise filling of some consonant interval. It usually is underlined in graphic analyses with a slur from the first note of the progression to the last.", "The most elementary linear progressions are determined by the tonal space that they elaborate: they span from the prime to the third, from the third to the fifth or from the fifth to the octave of the triad, in ascending or descending direction. Schenker writes: \"there are no other tonal spaces than those of 1–3, 3–5, and 5–8", ". Schenker writes: \"there are no other tonal spaces than those of 1–3, 3–5, and 5–8. There is no origin for passing-tone- progressions, or for melody\" Linear progressions, in other words, may be either third progressions (Terzzüge) or fourth progressions (Quartzüge); larger progressions result from a combination of these.", "Linear progressions may be incomplete (deceptive) when one of their tones is replaced by another, but nevertheless suggested by the harmony. In the example below, the first bars of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 109, the bass line descends from E3 to E2. F2 is replaced by B1 in order to mark the cadence, but it remains implicit in the B chord. In addition, the top voice answers the bass line by a voice exchange, E4–F4–G4 above G2–(F2)–E2, in bar 3, after a descending arpeggio of the E major chord", ". The bass line is doubled in parallel tenths by the alto voice, descending from G4 to G3, and the tenor voice alternatively doubles the soprano and the bass, as indicated by the dotted slurs. It is the bass line that governs the passage as a whole: it is the \"leading progression\", on which all the other voices depend and which best expresses the elaboration of the E major chord.", "Schenker describes lines covering a seventh or a ninth as \"illusory\", considering that they stand for a second (with a register transfer): they do not fill a tonal space, they pass from one chord to another.", "Lines between voices, reaching over", "Passing tones filling the intervals of a chord may be considered forming lines between the voices of this chord. At the same time, if the chord tones themselves are involved in lines from one chord to another (as usually is the case), lines of lower level unfurl between lines of higher level. The most interesting case is when the lines link an inner voice to the upper voice", ". The most interesting case is when the lines link an inner voice to the upper voice. This may happen not only in ascending (a case usually described as a \"line from an inner voice\"), but also in descending, if the inner voice has been displaced above the upper line by a register transfer, a case known as \"reaching over\" (Übergreifen, also translated as superposition or overlapping)", ". In the example from Schubert's Wanderers Nachtlied below, the descending line G–F–E–D at the end of the first bar may be read as a reaching over.", "Unfolding", "Unfolding (Ausfaltung) is an elaboration by which several voices of a chord or of a succession of chords are combined in one single line \"in such a manner that a tone of the upper voice is connected to a tone of the inner voice and then moves back, or the reverse\". At the end of Schubert's Wanderers Nachtlied op. 4 no", ". At the end of Schubert's Wanderers Nachtlied op. 4 no. 3, the vocal melody unfolds two voices of the succession I–V–I; the lower voice, B–A–G, is the main one, expressing the tonality of G major; the upper voice, D–C–B, is doubled one octave lower in the right hand of the accompaniment:", "In his later writings (from 1930 onwards), Schenker sometimes used a special sign to denote the unfolding, an oblique beam connecting notes of the different voices that are conceptually simultaneous, even if they are presented in succession in the single line performing the unfolding.", "Register transfer, coupling", "\"Register transfer\" is the motion of one or several voices into a different octave (i.e. into a different register). Schenker considers that music normally unfolds in one register, the \"obligatory register\" (Ger. Obligate Lage), but at times is displaced to higher or lower registers. These are called, respectively, \"ascending register transfer\" (Ger. Höherlegung) and \"descending register transfer\" (Ger. Tieferlegung)", ". Höherlegung) and \"descending register transfer\" (Ger. Tieferlegung). Register transfers are particularly striking in piano music (and that for other keyboard instruments), where contrasts of register (and the distance between the two hands) may have a striking, quasi orchestral effect.", "\"Coupling\" is when the transferred parts retain a link with their original register. The work, in this case, appears to unfold in two registers in parallel.", "Voice exchange\n\nVoice exchange is a common device in counterpoint theory. Schenkerians view it as a means of elaborating a chord by modifying its position. Two voices exchange their notes, often with passing notes in between. At the end of the example of Beethoven's Op. 109 above, the bass and soprano exchange their notes: G is transferred from bass to soprano, while E is transferred from soprano to bass. The exchange is marked by crossed lines between these notes.", "Elaboration of the fundamental structure\nThe elaborations of the fundamental structure deserve a specific discussion because they may determine the form of the work in which they occur.\n\nInitial ascent, initial arpeggiation", "The starting point of the fundamental line, its \"head note\" (Kopfton), may be reached only after an ascending motion, either an initial ascending line (Anstieg) or an initial arpeggiation, which may take more extension than the descending fundamental line itself. This results in melodies in arch form. Schenker decided only in 1930 that the fundamental line should be descending: in his earlier analyses, initial ascending lines often are described as being part of the Urlinie itself.", "First-order neighbor note\nSchenker stresses that the head note of the fundamental line often is decorated by a neighbor note \"of the first order\", which must be an upper neighbor because \"the lower neighboring note would give the impression of the interruption\". The neighbor note of the first order is –– or ––: the harmony supporting it often is the IVth or VIth degree, which may give rise to a section of the work at the subdominant.", "Articulation of the span from I to V in the bass arpeggiation\nThe canonic form of the bass arpeggiation is I–V–I. The second interval, V–I, forms under – the perfect authentic cadence and is not susceptible of elaboration at the background level. The first span, I–V, on the other hand, usually is elaborated. The main cases include:", "I–III–V\nThis is the complete arpeggiation of the triad. Once elaborated, it may consist in a succession of three tonalities, especially in pieces in minor. In these cases, III stands for a tonicisation of the major relative. This often occurs in Sonata forms in minor, where the first thematic group elaborates degree I, the second thematic group is in the major relative, degree III, and the development leads to V before the recapitulation in the tonic key.\n\nI–IV–V or I–II–V", "Even though he never discussed them at length, these elaborations occupy a very special place in Schenker's theory. One might even argue that no description of an Ursatz properly speaking is complete if it does not include IV or II at the background level. Schenker uses a special sign to denote this situation, the double curve shown in the example hereby, crossing the slur that links IV (or II) to V", ". That IV (here, F) is written as a quarter note indicates that it is of lower rank than I and V, notated as half notes. Here there is an unexpected link between Schenkerian theory and Riemann's theory of tonal functions, a fact that might explain Schenker's reluctance to be more explicit about it", ". In modern Schenkerian analysis, the chord of IV or II is often dubbed the \"predominant\" chord, as the chord that prepares the dominant one, and the progression may be labelled \"T–P–D–T\", for tonic–predominant–dominant–tonic.", "I–II–III–IV–V\nThe dominant chord may be linked to the tonic by a stepwise linear progression. In such case, one of the chords in the progression, II, III or IV, usually takes preeminence, reducing the case to one or the other described above.", "Interruption", "The interruption (Unterbrechung) is an elaboration of the fundamental line, which is interrupted at its last passing note, , before it reaches its goal. As a result, the bass arpeggiation itself is also interrupted at the divider at the fifth (V). Both the fundamental line and the bass arpeggiation are bound to return to their starting point and the fundamental structure repeats itself, eventually reaching its goal", ". The interruption is the main form-generating elaboration: it often is used in binary forms (when the first part ends on the dominant) or, if the elaboration of the \"dividing dominant\", above V, takes some importance, it may produce ternary form, typically sonata form.", "Mixture\nSchenker calls \"mixture\" (Mischung) the change of mode of the tonic, i.e. the replacement of its major third by the minor one, or of its minor third by the major one. The elaboration of the resulting chord may give rise to a section in minor within a work in major, or the reverse.", "Transference of the fundamental structure", "The forms of the fundamental structure may be repeated at any level of the work. \"Every transferred form [of the fundamental structure] has the effect of a self-contained structure within which the upper and lower voices delimit a single tonal space\". That is to say that any phrase in a work could take the form of a complete fundamental structure. Many classical themes (e.g. the theme to the set of variations in Mozart's K. 331 piano sonata) form self-contained structure of this type", ". 331 piano sonata) form self-contained structure of this type. This resemblance of local middleground structures to background structures is part of the beauty and appeal of Schenkerian analysis, giving it the appearance of a recursive construction.", "Legacy and responses", "Europe before World War II", "Schenker himself mentioned in a letter of 1927 to his student Felix-Eberhard von Cube that his ideas continued \"to be felt more widely: Edinburgh [with John Petrie Dunn], (also New York [probably with George Wedge]), Leipzig [with Reinhard Oppel], Stuttgart [with Herman Roth], Vienna (myself and [Hans] Weisse), [Otto] Vrieslander in Munich […], yourself [von Cube] in Duisburg, and [August] Halm [in Wickersdorf, Thuringia]", ".\" Von Cube, with Moritz Violin, another of Schenker's students, founded the Schenker Institut in Hamburg in 1931. Oswald Jonas published Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerkes in 1932, and Felix Salzer Sinn und Wesen des Abendländischen Mehrstimmigkeits in 1935, both based on Schenkerian concepts. Oswald Jonas and Felix Salzer founded and edited together the short-lived Schenkerian journal Der Dreiklang (Vienna, 1937–1938).", "World War II brought European studies to a halt. Schenker's publications were placed under Nazi ban and some were confiscated by the Gestapo. It is in the United States that Schenkerian analysis knew its first important developments. This history has been contextualized by comments on both sides of the Atlantic, notably by Martin Eybl and Philip A. Ewell.", "Early reception in the US", "George Wedge taught some of Schenker's ideas as early as 1925 in the Institute of Musical Arts, New York. Victor Vaughn Lytle, who had studied with Hans Weisse in Vienna, wrote what may be the earliest English-language essay dealing with Schenkerian concepts, \"Music Composition of the Present\" (The American Organist, 1931), without however really crediting Schenker for them", ". Weisse himself, who had studied with Schenker at least from 1912, immigrated to the United States and began teaching Schenkerian analysis at the Mannes School of Music in New York in 1931. One of his students, Adele T", ". One of his students, Adele T. Katz, devoted an article to \"Heinrich Schenker's Method of Analysis\" in 1935, then an important book, Challenge to Musical Tradition, in 1945, in which she applied Schenkerian analytical concepts not only to some of Schenker's favorite composers, Johann Sebastian and Philipp Emmanuel Bach, Haydn and Beethoven, but also to Wagner, Debussy, Stravinsky and Schoenberg: this certainly represents one of the earliest attempts to widen the corpus of Schenkerian analysis.", "The opinions of the critics were not always positive, however", ". Roger Sessions published in Modern Music 12 (May–June 1935) an obituary article under the title \"Heinrich Schenker's Contribution\" where, after having recognized some of Schenker's achievements, he criticizes the development of the last years, until Der freie Satz (which he admits is not yet available in the US) and concludes that \"It is precisely when Schenker's teachings leave the domain of exact description and enter that of dogmatic and speculative analysis that they become essentially sterile\"", ". The most raging attack against Schenker came in the \"Editorial\" that Paul Henry Lang devoted in The Musical Quarterly 32/2 (April 1946) to the recently published book by Adele Katz, Challenge to Musical Tradition, which he opposed to Donald Tovey's Beethoven, also published in 1945; his attacks also target Schenker's followers, probably the American ones. He writes:", "Schenker's and his disciples' musical theory and philosophy is not art, its whole outlook – at least as expressed in their writings – lacks feeling. There was seldom a colder spirit than theirs; the only warmth one feels is the warmth of dogmatism. Music interests them only insofar as it fits into their system ... In reality music serves only to furnish grist for the mill of their insatiable theoretical mind, not for their heart or imagination", ". There is no art, no poetry, in this remarkable system which deals with the raw materials of music with a virtuoso hand. Schenker and his disciples play with music as others play chess, not even suspecting what fantasy, what sentimental whirlpools lie at the bottom of every composition. They see lines only, no colors, and their ideas are cold and orderly. But music is color and warmth, which are the values of a concrete art.", "After World War II", "Translations\nSchenker left about 4000 pages of printed text, of which the translations at first were astonishingly slow. Nearly all have been translated into English, and the project Schenker Documents Online is busy with the edition and translation of more than 100 000 manuscript pages. Translations in other languages remain slow.\n 1904 Ein Beitrag zur Ornamentik.\n 1976 Transl. by H. Siegel, Music Forum 4, pp. 1–139.\n 1979 Japanese translation by A. Noro and A. Tamemoto.\n 1906 Harmonielehre.", "1979 Japanese translation by A. Noro and A. Tamemoto.\n 1906 Harmonielehre.\n 1954 Harmony, transl. by Elisabeth Mann Borgese, edited and annotated by Oswald Jonas (with editorial cuts in text and music examples)\n 1990 Spanish transl. by R. Barce.\n 1910 Kontrapunkt I.\n 1987 Counterpoint I, transl. by J. Rothgeb and J. Thym.\n 1912 Beethovens neunte Sinfonie, 1912", "1987 Counterpoint I, transl. by J. Rothgeb and J. Thym.\n 1912 Beethovens neunte Sinfonie, 1912\n 1992 Beethoven's Ninth Symphony: a Portrayal of its Musical Content, with Running Commentary on Performance and Literature as well, transl. by J. Rothgeb, 1992.\n 2010 Japanese transl. by H. Nishida and T. Numaguchi.\n 1913 Beethoven, Sonate E dur op. 109 (Erläuterungsausgabe).\n 2012 Japanese transl. by M. Yamada, H. Nishida and T. Numaguchi.\n 2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.", "2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.\n 1914 Beethoven, Sonate As dur op. 110 (Erläuterungsausgabe).\n 2013 Japanese transl. by M. Yamada, H. Nishida and T. Numaguchi.\n 2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.\n 1915 Beethoven, Sonate C moll op. 111 (Erläuterungsausgabe).\n 2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.\n 1920 Beethoven, Sonate A dur op. 101 (Erläuterungsausgabe).\n 2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.\n 1921–1924 Der Tonwille (10 vols.)\n 2004–2005 Der Tonwille, transl. under the direction of William Drabkin.", "2004–2005 Der Tonwille, transl. under the direction of William Drabkin.\n 1922 Kontrapunkt II.\n 1987 Counterpoint II, transl. by J. Rothgeb and J. Thym.\n 1922 \"Haydn: Sonate Es-Dur\", Der Tonwille III, pp. 3–21.\n 1988 Transl. by W. Petty, Theoria 3, pp. 105–160.\n 1923 \"J. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien Nr. 2 [BWV 939]\", Der Tonwille IV, 1923, p. 7.\n [2007] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1923 \"J. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien Nr. 5 [BWV 926]\", Der Tonwille V, pp. 8–9.\n [2006] French transl. by N. Meeùs.", "[2006] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1924 \"Mendelssohn: Venetianisches Gondellied, op. 30, Nr. 6\", Der Tonwille X, pp. 25–29.\n [2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1924 \"Schumann: Kinderszenen Nr. 1, Von fremden Ländern und Menschen\", Der Tonwille X, pp. 34–35.\n [2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1924 \"Schumann: Kinderszenen op. 15, Nr. 9, Träumerei\", Der Tonwille X, pp. 36–39.\n [2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.", "[2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1925 Beethovens V. Sinfonie. Darstellung des musikalischen Inhaltes nach der Handschrift unter fortlaufender Berücksichtigung des Vortrages und der Literatur, Vienne, Tonwille Verlag and Universal Edition. Reprint 1970.\n 1971 Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony N. 5 in C minor, partial transl. by E. Forbes and F. J. Adams jr., New York, Norton, 1971 (Norton Critical Score 9), pp. 164–182. \n 2000 Japanese transl. by T. Noguchi.\n 1925–1930 Das Meisterwerk in der Musik, 3 vols.", "2000 Japanese transl. by T. Noguchi.\n 1925–1930 Das Meisterwerk in der Musik, 3 vols.\n 1998 transl. under the direction of William Drabkin.\n 1925 \"Die Kunst der Improvisation\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 9–40.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1925 \"Weg mit dem Phrasierungsbogen\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 41–60.", "1925 \"Weg mit dem Phrasierungsbogen\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 41–60.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1925 \"Joh. S. Bach: Sechs Sonaten für Violine. Sonata III, Largo\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 61–73.", "1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1976 Transl. by J. Rothgeb, The Music Forum 4, pp. 141–159.\n 1925 \"Joh. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien, Nr. 6 [BWV 940]\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 99–105.\n [2010] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1925 \"Joh. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien, Nr. 12 [BWV 942]\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, 1925, pp. 115–123.", "[2006] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1925 \"Domenico Scarlatti: Keyboard Sonata in D minor, [L.413]\", Das Meisterwerk in der Music I, pp. 125–135.\n 1986 Transl. by J. Bent, Music Analysis 5/2-3, pp. 153–164.\n 1925 \"Domenico Scarlatti: Keyboard Sonata in G major, [L.486]\", Das Meisterwerk in der Music I, pp. 137–144.\n 1986 Transl. by J. Bent, Music Analysis 5/2-3, pp. 171–179.\n 1925 \"Chopin: Etude Ges-Dur op. 10, Nr. 5\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 161–173.", "1925 \"Chopin: Etude Ges-Dur op. 10, Nr. 5\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 161–173.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1925 \"Erläuterungen\", Das Meisterwerk in der Music I, pp. 201–205. (Also published in Der Tonwille 9 and 10 and in Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II.)", "1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1986 Transl. by J. Bent, Music Analysis 5/2-3, pp. 187–191.\n [2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.\n 1926 \"Fortsetzung der Urlinie-Betrachtungen\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 9–42.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.", "1926 \"Vom Organischen der Sonatenform\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 43–54.\n 1968 Transl. by O. Grossman, Journal of Music Theory 12, pp. 164–183, reproduced in Readings in Schenker Analysis and Other Approaches, M. Yeston ed., New Haven, 1977, pp. 38–53.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.", "1926 \"Das Organische der Fuge, aufgezeigt an der I. C-Moll-Fuge aus dem Wohltemperierten Klavier von Joh. Seb. Bach\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 55–95\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1926 \"Joh. Seb. Bach: Suite III C-Dur für Violoncello-Solo, Sarabande\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, 1926, pp. 97–104.\n 1970 Transl. by H. Siegel, The Music Forum 2, pp. 274–282.", "1970 Transl. by H. Siegel, The Music Forum 2, pp. 274–282.\n \"Mozart: Sinfonie G-Moll\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 105–157.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n \"Haydn: Die Schöpfung. Die Vorstellung des Chaos\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 159–170.", "\"Haydn: Die Schöpfung. Die Vorstellung des Chaos\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 159–170.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n \"Ein Gegenbeispiel: Max Reger, op. 81. Variationen und Fuge über ein Thema von Joh. Seb. Bach für Klavier\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 171–192.", "1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1930 \"Rameau oder Beethoven? Erstarrung oder geistiges Leben in der Musik?\", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik III, pp. 9–24.\n 1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, \"Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation,\" PhD diss., Northwestern University.\n 1932 Fünf Urlinie-Tafeln.", "1932 Fünf Urlinie-Tafeln.\n 1933 Five Analyses in Sketch Form, New York, D. Mannes Music School.\n 1969 New version with a glossary by F. Salzer: Five Graphic Music Analyses, New York, Dover.\n 1935/1956 Der freie Satz. Translations of the 2nd edition, 1956.\n 1979 Free Composition, transl. by E. Oster, 1979.\n 1993 L'Écriture libre, French transl. by N. Meeùs, Liège-Bruxelles, Mardaga.\n 1997 Chinese translation by Chen Shi-Ben, Beijing, People's Music Publications.", "1997 Chinese translation by Chen Shi-Ben, Beijing, People's Music Publications.\n 2004 Russian transl. by B. Plotnikov, Krasnoyarsk Academy of Music and Theatre.", "Textbooks\n Oswald Jonas, Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerks, Wien, Universal, 1934; revised edition, Einführung in die Lehre Heinrich Schenkers. Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerkes, Wien, Universal, 1972. English translation of the revised edition, Introduction to the Theory of Heinrich Schenker: The Nature of the Musical Work of Art, transl. J. Rothgeb, New York and London, Longman, 1982; 2d [revised and expanded] edition, Ann Arbor, Musicalia Press, 2005.", "Felix Salzer, Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music, 2 vols., New York, Charles Boni, 1952. Reprint, 2 vols. bound as one, New York, Dover, 1982.\n Allen Forte and Steven E. Gilbert, Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis and Instructor's Manual for Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis, New York, London, Dover, 1982.\n Allen Cadwallader and David Gagné, Analysis of Tonal Music. A Schenkerian Approach, New York, Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 2011 (1st edition, 1998).", "Edward Aldwell and Carl Schachter, Harmony and Voice Leading, Boston, Schirmer, Cengage Learning, 4th edition (with Allen Cadwallader), 2011 (1st edition, 2003).\n Tom Pankhurst, Schenkerguide. A Brief Handbook and Website for Schenkerian Analysis, New York and London, Routledge, 2008 Schenkerguide website.\n William Renwick and David Walker, Schenkerian Analysis Glossary.\n Larry J. Solomon, A Schenkerian Primer.", "Larry J. Solomon, A Schenkerian Primer.\n Nicolas Meeùs, Análise schenkeriana, Portuguese (Brasil) translation from the French by L. Beduschi, 2008.\n Luciane Beduschi and Nicolas Meeùs, Analyse schenkérienne (in French), 2013; several earlier versions archived on the same page. Albanian translation by Sokol Shupo, available on the same webpage.", "See also\nMusic Forum (1967–1987), music theory and analysis academic journal\nGlossary of Schenkerian analysis\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "Blasius, Leslie D. (1996). Schenker's Argument and the Claims of Music Theory, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. .\n Brown, Matthew (2005). Explaining Tonality: Schenkerian Theory and Beyond. University of Rochester Press. .", "Berry, David Carson(2004). A Topical Guide to Schenkerian Literature: An Annotated Bibliography with Indices. Hillsdale, New York: Pendragon Press; . A thorough documentation of Schenker-related research and analysis. The largest Schenkerian reference work ever published, it has 3600 entries (2200 principal, 1400 secondary) representing the work of 1475 authors", ". It is organized topically: fifteen broad groupings encompass seventy topical headings, many of which are divided and subdivided again, resulting in a total of 271 headings under which entries are collected.", "Cook, Nicholas (2007). The Schenker Project: Culture, Race, and Music Theory in Fin-de-siècle Vienna. Oxford University Press. .\n Eybl, Martin and Fink-Mennel, Evelyn, eds. (2006). Schenkerian traditions. A Viennese school of music theory and its international dissemination. Vienna, Cologne, Weimar: Böhlau. .", "Jonas, Oswald (1982). Introduction to the theory of Heinrich Schenker: the nature of the musical work of art. , translated by John Rothgeb. New York and London: Longman. \"Most complete discussion of Schenker's theories.\"", "Essays on the dissemination of Schenkerian thought in the U.S. by David Carson Berry:\n\nSummaries\n\nKatz, Adele T. (1945). Challenge to Musical Tradition. A New Concept of Tonality, New York, Alfred A. Knopf. (2011 reprint)", "Pedagogical works\nForte, Allen and Gilbert, Steven E. (1982). Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis. W. W. Norton & Company. . Schenker never presented a pedagogical presentation of his theories, this being the first according to its authors.\nSnarrenberg, Robert (1997). \"Schenker's Interpretive Practice.\" Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .", "Cadwallader, Allen and Gagné, David (1998). Analysis of Tonal Music: A Schenkerian Approach, Oxford: Oxford University Press, . The second major English-language textbook on Schenkerian analysis\"\nKalib, Sylvan (1973). Thirteen Essays from The Three Yearbooks “Das Meisterwerk in Der Musik,” by Heinrich Schenker: An Annotated Translation. (Vols. I–III). Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University.\nWestergaard, Peter (1975). An Introduction to Tonal Theory. New York: W.W. Norton.", "Westergaard, Peter (1975). An Introduction to Tonal Theory. New York: W.W. Norton. \nAldwell, Edward, and Schachter, Carl (2003). Harmony and Voice Leading. Schirmer. 2nd ed. 2008; 3rd ed. (with Allen Cadwallader), 2011. .\nPankhurst, Tom (2008), SchenkerGUIDE: A Brief Handbook and Web Site for Schenkerian Analysis, New York: Routledge. – an introduction for those completely new to the subject.", "Expansions\nEpstein, David (1979). Beyond Orpheus – Studies in Musical Structure. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.\nSalzer, Felix (1952). Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music. New York: Charles Boni. \"The first book to present a reorganization (as well as modification and expansion) of Schenker's writings from a pedagogical standpoint.\" \nWestergaard, Peter (1975). An Introduction to Tonal Theory. New York: W.W. Norton.", "Westergaard, Peter (1975). An Introduction to Tonal Theory. New York: W.W. Norton.\nYeston, Maury, ed. (1977). Readings in Schenker Analysis and Other Approaches. New Haven: Yale University Press.", "Post-tonal expansions\n\nRhythmic expansions\nKomar, Arthur (1971/1980). Theory of Suspensions: A Study of Metrical Pitch Relations in Tonal Music. Princeton: Princeton University Press/Austin, Texas: Peer Publications. \nYeston, Maury (1976). The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Haven: Yale University Press.", "Political issues\nClark, Suzannah (2007). \"The Politics of the Urlinie in Schenker's Der Tonwille and Der freie Satz\", Journal of the Royal Musical Association 132/1, pp. 141–164.\nCook, Nicholas (2007). The Schenker Project: Culture, Race, and Music Theory in Fin-de-siècle Vienna. Oxford University Press.\nEybl, Martin (1995). Ideologie und Methode. Zum ideengeschichtlichen Kontext von Schenkers Musiktheorie. Tutzing, Hans Schneider.", "Federhofer, Hellmut Federhofer (1985). Heinrich Schenker. Nach Tagebüchern und Briefen in der Oswald Jonas Memorial Collection, Chapter V, Schenkers Weltanschauung''. Hildesheim, Olms, pp. 324–330.", "Criticisms\n\nExternal links\n\n Schenker Guide by Tom Pankhurst\n List of Schenker's writings concerning analysis on the Schenkerian site of Luciane Beduschi and Nicolas Meeùs (Paris)\n Yale University's Gilmore Music Library provides an introduction to primary and secondary sources" ]

[ "The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the agricultural policy of the European Union. It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost (from 73% in 1985, to 37% in 2017) and consider rural development in its aims. It has however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost, its environmental, and humanitarian effects.\n\nOverview", "The CAP is often explained as the result of a political compromise between France and Germany: German industry would have access to the French market; in exchange, Germany would help pay for France's farmers. The CAP has always been a difficult area of EU policy to reform; it is a problem that began in the 1960s and one that has continued to the present, albeit less severely", ". Changes to the CAP are proposed by the European Commission, after a public consultation, which then sends its proposals to the Council and to the European Parliament. Both the Council and the European Parliament have to agree to any changes. The Parliament was involved in the process of change for the first time in 2013. The involvement of the Parliament, which represents the citizens, increases the democratic legitimacy of the CAP", ". Outside Brussels proper, the farming lobby power has been a factor in determining EU agricultural policy since the earliest days of integration.", "In recent times change has been more forthcoming because of external trade demands and intrusion in agricultural affairs by other parts of the EU policy framework, such as consumer advocate working groups and the environmental departments of the Union. In addition, Euroscepticism in states such as Denmark (and formerly the UK) is fed in part by the CAP, which Eurosceptics consider detrimental to their economies.", "Proponents claim that the CAP is an exceptional economic sector as it protects the \"rural way of life\" although it is recognized that it affects world poverty.\nThe policy has evolved significantly since it was created by the Treaty of Rome (1957). Substantial reforms over the years have moved the CAP away from a production-oriented policy.", "CAP has been divided into two 'pillars':\n Agricultural production support and common organization of markets (I pillar, known otherwise earlier as the 'agricultural guarantee' section)\n Rural development policy (II pillar, otherwise the 'agricultural structural policy' pillar, known earlier as the 'agricultural guidance' section).", "Accordingly, the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) of the EU, which initially used to fund the CAP as a whole, has been replaced in 2007 with two separate funds, one for each of the two pillars:\n the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF) and\n the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD, a structural fund).", "CAP reforms have steadily lowered its share in the EU budget: in 1980 it accounted for more than 70% of the EU expenditure while in 2021 it accounted for less than 25%. In 2019 France was the biggest beneficiary of the policy by 17.3%, followed by Spain with 12.4% and Germany (11.2%), Italy (10.4%), Poland (8.1%) and the UK (7.2%). The 2003 reform introduced the Single Payment Scheme (SPS) or as it is known as well the Single Farm Payment (SFP)", ". The most recent reform was made in 2013 by Commissioner Dacian Ciolos and applies for the period 2014 to 2020.", "Since 1970, a separate Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) has been in place for the EU fisheries and fish market, with its own separate structural policy fund established as a spin-off from the EAGGF in 1993 (currently operating under the name European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund or EMFAF), while the fish market interventions have remained financed from the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund.", "Agricultural production support and common organization of markets (I pillar)", "This part of CAP is financed from the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF). Each country can choose if the payment will be established at the farm level or at the regional level. Farmers receiving the SFP have the flexibility to produce any commodity on their land except fruit, vegetables and table potatoes. In addition, they are obliged to keep their land in good agricultural and environmental condition (cross-compliance)", ". Farmers have to respect environmental, food safety, phytosanitary and animal welfare standards. This is a penalty measure: if farmers do not respect these standards, their payment will be reduced.", "The direct aids and market related expenditure made up 31% of the total EU budget in 2010. Together with 11% for Rural Development, the total CAP budget took 42% of the total EU budget The CAP budget shrank relatively from 75% in 1984 to 37% of the total EU budget in 2017.", "Intervention mechanisms diminished significantly, for instance the Commission only intervened on: common wheat, butter, and skimmed milk powder. The Health Check of the CAP agreed in November 2008 added on a number of measures to help the farmers to respond better to signals from the markets and to face new challenges", ". Among a range of measures, the agreement abolished arable set-aside, increased milk quotas gradually leading up to their abolition in 2015, and converted market intervention into a genuine safety net. Ministers also agreed to increase modulation, whereby direct payments to farmers were reduced and the money transferred to the Rural Development Fund.", "Milk quotas expired in April 2015. To prepare the dairy farmers for this transition, a 'soft landing' was ensured by increasing quotas by one per cent every year between 2009–10 and 2013–14. For Italy, the 5 per cent increase was introduced immediately in 2009–10. In 2009–10 and 2010–11, farmers who exceed their milk quotas by more than 6 per cent had to pay a levy 50 per cent higher than the normal penalty.", "Production and market sectors covered by the CAP\nThe common agricultural policy price intervention covers only certain agricultural products:\n cereal, rice, potatoes and flour\n cooking oil\n energy crops, vegetable oil fuel, biodiesel, bioethanol\n animal feed stuffs and dried fodder\n milk and milk products (such as condensed milk, powder milk, butter, cheese, whey, buttermilk, cream, yoghurt, kefir)\n grapes, wine, vinegar, cider\n honey", "grapes, wine, vinegar, cider\n honey\n beef and veal, poultry meat and eggs, pig meat, sheep / lamb meat and goat meat\n sugar\n fruit and vegetables (including cultivated mushrooms)\n cotton\n peas, chickpea, lentil, field beans, soybean\n sweet lupins\n olives\n flax seeds\n flax fibers\n silkworms\n hemp\n tobacco\n hops\n seeds\n animal semen, egg cells and embryos\n flowers and live plants", "Fish, Molluscs and crustaceans are covered by the separate Common Fisheries Policy.\n\nThe coverage of products in the external trade regime is more extensive than the coverage of the CAP regime. This is to limit competition between EU products and alternative external goods (for example, lychee juice could potentially compete with orange juice).", "Objectives\nThe objectives, set out in Article 39 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, are as follows:\n to increase productivity, by promoting technical progress and ensuring the optimum use of the factors of production, in particular labor;\n to ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural Community;\n to stabilize markets;\n to secure availability of supplies;\n to provide consumers with food at reasonable prices.", "The CAP recognized the need to take account of the social structure of agriculture and of the structural and natural disparities between the various agricultural regions and to effect the appropriate adjustments by degrees.", "CAP is an integrated system of measures that works by maintaining commodity price levels within the EU and by subsidizing production. There are a number of mechanisms:\nImport levies are applied to specified goods imported into the EU. These are set at a level to raise the World market price up to the EU target price. The target price is chosen as the maximum desirable price for those goods within the EU.", "Import quotas are used as a means of restricting the amount of food being imported into the EU. Some non-member countries have negotiated quotas allowing them to sell particular goods within the EU without tariffs. This notably applies to countries that had a traditional trade link with a member country.", "An internal intervention price is set. If the internal market price falls below the intervention level then the EU will buy up goods to raise the price to the intervention level. The intervention price is set lower than the target price. The internal market price can only vary in the range between the intervention price and target price.", "Direct subsidies are paid to farmers. This was originally intended to encourage farmers to choose to grow those crops attracting subsidies and maintain home-grown supplies. Subsidies were generally paid on the area of land growing a particular crop, rather than on the total amount of crop produced. Reforms implemented from 2005 are phasing out specific subsidies in favour of flat-rate payments based only on the area of land in cultivation, and for adopting environmentally beneficial farming methods", ". The change is intended to give farmers more freedom to choose for themselves those crops most in demand and reduce the economic incentive to overproduce.", "Production quotas and 'set-aside' payments were introduced in an effort to prevent overproduction of some foods (for example, milk, grain, wine) that attracted subsidies well in excess of market prices. The need to store and dispose of excess produce was wasteful of resources and brought the CAP into disrepute. A secondary market evolved, especially in the sale of milk quotas, while some farmers made imaginative use of 'set-aside', for example, setting aside land that was difficult to farm", ". Currently set-aside has been suspended, subject to further decision about its future, following rising prices for some commodities and increasing interest in growing bio-fuels.", "The change in subsidies is intended to be completed by 2011, but individual governments have some freedom to decide how the new scheme will be introduced. The UK government has decided to run a dual system of subsidies in England, each year transferring a larger proportion of the total payment to the new scheme. Payments under the old scheme were frozen at their levels averaged over 2002–2003 and reduce each subsequent year", ". This allows farmers in England a period where their income is maintained, but which they can use to change farm practices to accord with the new regime. Other governments have chosen to wait, and change the system in one go at the latest possible time. Governments also have limited discretion to continue to direct a small proportion of the total subsidy to support specific crops", ". Alterations to the qualifying rules meant that many small landowners became eligible to apply for grants and the Rural Payments Agency in England received double the previous number of applications (110,000).", "The CAP also aims to promote legislative harmonization within the Community. Differing laws in member countries can create problems for anyone seeking to trade between countries. Examples are regulations on permitted preservatives or Food coloring, labelling regulations, use of hormones or other drugs in livestock intended for human consumption and disease control, animal welfare regulations. The process of removing all hidden legislative barriers to trade is still incomplete.", "Rural development policy (structural policy, II pillar)", "Since 2000, the \"second pillar\" of the CAP, the EU rural development policy has been in effect, financed since 2007 from the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development, one of the five European Structural and Investment Funds. This policy aims to promote the economic, social and environmental development of the countryside. Its budget, 11% of the total EU budget, has been allocated along three axes", ". Its budget, 11% of the total EU budget, has been allocated along three axes. The first axis focuses on improving the competitiveness of the farm and forestry sector through support for restructuring, development and innovation. The second one concerns the improvement of the environment and the countryside through support for land management as well as helping to fight climate change", ". Such projects could for example concern preserving water quality, sustainable land management, planting trees to prevent erosion and floods. The third axis concerns improving the quality of life in rural areas and encouraging diversification of economic activity. The policy also provided support to the Leader rural development methodology, under which Local Action Groups designed and carried out local development strategies for their area", ". Member States distribute \"second pillar\" funds through actions of national and regional rural development programmes.", "Rural development, the second pillar of CAP, is a vitally important policy area in the European Union. It works to improve aspects of the economic, environmental and social situation of the EU's rural areas. Rural regions cover 57% of the EU territory and 24% of the EU population. Together with intermediate regions they comprise 91% of the EU territory and 59% of the total EU population", ". Across the EU, the dimensions of the rural-urban territorial vary – from countries with an explicitly defined rural character (such as Ireland, Sweden, Finland, etc.) to Member States that tend to be more urbanised (such as the Benelux countries, Malta).", "The policy works essentially through seven-year rural development programmes (RDPs) – which operate at either national or regional level. These are funded from the EU budget, national/regional budgets and private sources. Rural Development policy targets rural areas as a whole, with a focus on ensuring the competitiveness of farms and forestry, delivering sustainable management of natural resources and climate action as well as create growth and jobs in rural areas.", "Budget \nRural development policy is financed by three categories of funding:\n public money from the EU budget – i.e. from the EAFRD\n public money from national/regional budgets – depending on whether the programme is national or regional\n private money – in some cases, beneficiaries have to provide some funding themselves (from their own resources, a bank loan etc.)", "The expected total public spending (EU + national + regional) on rural development policy in the period between 2014 and 2020 is EUR 161 billion.", "Rural development objectives and priorities 2014–2020 \nThe three objectives and overall purpose of the CAP include:\n fostering the competitiveness of agriculture;\n ensuring the sustainable management of natural resources, and climate action;\n achieving a balanced territorial development of rural economies and communities, including the creation and maintenance of employment.", "However, in practical terms RDPs are drawn up with reference to six more specific priorities, which are further divided into more detailed focus areas.", "Knowledge transfer & innovation in agriculture, forestry & rural areas\n Farm viability / competitiveness, sustainable management of forests\n Food chain organization, animal welfare, risk management in agriculture\n Ecosystems related to agriculture and forestry\n Resource efficiency, low-carbon / climate-resilient economy\n Social inclusion, poverty reduction, economic development", "National and regional rural development programs \nThere is a total of 118 Rural Development Programs(RDP) in the EU. In most Member States there is a national program which covers the entire territory but in some countries there are several programs, most often linked to regions: France (30), Spain(22), Italy(23), Germany(15), Portugal(3), United Kingdom(4), Belgium(2), Finland(2).", "Designing rural development programs \nA given RDP links the priorities of rural development policy to the situation on its territory via a SWOT analysis. \nThe RDP then sets out a selection of measures drawn from the Rural Development Regulation to address the priorities in the appropriate way.\n\nA measure is essentially a set of one types of activity, project, investment etc. which may be funded within a RDP to achieve the priorities of rural development policy.", "For example, the measure Investments in physical assets as set out in the Rural Development Regulation allows support for:\n Investments in farms to improve their performance;\n Investments in processing and marketing (i.e. not necessarily only for farmers);\n Investments in farm- or forest-level infrastructure; and", "Investments in farm- or forest-level infrastructure; and\n \"Non-productive\" (i.e. primarily environmental) investments. Measure descriptions in the EU Rural Development Regulation give information of varying detail (according to the measure) about who is potentially eligible for support, what sorts of activity etc. can be supported, and whether there are limits on how much support may be offered.", "MS follow the rules for a given measure but, within this framework, still enjoy considerable flexibility about how they use it. For example, a MS might choose to make the measure Investments in physical assets available in its RDP, but only with regard to environmental investments.", "Use of targets \nIn explaining how it will use the various measures together to address the priorities / focus areas of rural development policy within its RDP, the MS / region set various targets against these.", "The nature of the target varies according to the focus area. For example, against focus area 5A – Increasing efficiency in water use by agriculture – the standard target indicator is the percentage of the Irrigation area in the program area which is expected to switch to more efficient irrigation equipment as a result of rural development support.", "Development, approval and amendments \nA MS / region draws up its RDP in close consultation with a wide range of interested parties, including bodies representing Civil society.\nThe MS / region submits its RDP to the Commission for analysis. The Commission approves the RDP when satisfied concerning its legality and quality (usually after several months of detailed discussion with the MS concerned).", "RDPs usually need to be amended several times during their seven-year life, to keep them as relevant, effective and efficient as possible – in light of changing circumstances and the findings of monitoring and evaluation. Program amendments which go beyond surface details require the Commission's approval.", "Project selection \nWhen a RDP has been drawn up and approved, it is advertised.\nPeople, businesses etc. which would like to receive support for projects apply for it. Provided that they are eligible for the type of support in question (according to the RDP), they may be selected for support on the basis of objective selection criteria .", "Example: In a given RDP, a MS has decided to offer support for environmental investments in forests under the measure \"Investments in forest area development\". The measure as set out in the Rural Development Regulation allows a wide range of entities to be eligible for support. The MS decides to keep this broad approach in terms of eligibility, but to give priority to \"private forest-holders\"", ". At the moment when projects are selected for support, therefore, extra selection \"points\" will be awarded to applications from private forest-holders. This approach would be announced in overview in the RDP itself, but worked out in detail in subsequent national implementing rules.", "Monitoring and evaluation \nMonitoring is essentially about tracking how fast, and in what way, RDPs are being implemented – with reference to financial data and other indicators.\nRDPs are monitored continuously. Within this process, program authorities must each send an annual implementation report for each program by 30 June every year, starting in 2016 and ending in 2024.\nEvaluation involves rather deeper analysis (especially of effectiveness, efficiency and impact). The key stages are:", "Ex ante evaluation: Drawn up under the responsibility of the relevant program authority, this is submitted to the Commission at the same time as the program, and assesses the program's quality.\n Evaluation during the programming period (in enhanced Annual Implementation reports 2017 and 2019 in particular): MS arrange for this to be done on the basis of an evaluation plan. The Commission may also carry out evaluations if it wishes.", "Ex post evaluation: Drawn up under the responsibility of the relevant program authority, this is submitted to the Commission by the end of 2024.\n Synthesis of evaluations: Syntheses at Union level of the ex ante and ex post evaluations are undertaken under the responsibility of the Commission and completed by 31 December of the year following the submission of the relevant evaluations.", "The monitoring and evaluation processes draw on a range of indicators concerning financial execution, outputs, results and impact.", "Ex ante conditionalities \nEx ante conditionalities (EACs) help to ensure that MS have set the right background conditions for spending funds effectively and efficiently through their program.\nSome EACs are \"general\" in the sense that they apply to all of the European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIFs).", "Example: MS must have in place arrangements for applying EU public procurement law in the fields covered by the ESIF Funds. This is important because many program will allocate significant sums to projects covered by public procurement rules.\n Other EACS are \"fund-specific\" (they do not apply to all ESIF Funds). The EAFRD has its own EACs. \n Example: MS must have set out standards for Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition (GAEC) in national law and must specify them in their RDPs.", "MS declare their fulfilment or non-fulfilment of EACs in their programs, and summaries it in their Partnership Agreement. The Commission checks this information.", "When a MS does not meet some or all EACs, usually the MS is required to follow an action plan which allows it to meet the EAC by the end of 2016.\nIn more exceptional cases – if failure to meet a given EAC is deemed to cause \"significant prejudice\" to the achievement of certain objectives – payments related to the priority concerned within that program may be partly or wholly suspended until the problem is resolved.", "Performance reserve \n6% of the EAFRD financial resources allocated to a given RDP are placed in a performance reserve, which is provisionally divided up between some or all of the rural development priorities.\nAfter receipt of the 2019 annual implementation reports, the Commission checks which priorities have \"performed well\" – i.e. against which priorities particular \"milestones\" (key targets) have been met.", "Where the milestones of a given priority have been met, the sum from the performance reserve initially allocated to that priority is confirmed.\nWhere the milestones of a given priority have not been met, the sum initially allocated from the performance reserve is transferred to priorities whose milestones have been met. This approach is intended to focus minds more sharply on achieving results.", "Criticism\nThe CAP has been roundly criticized by many diverse interests since its inception. Criticism has been wide-ranging, and even the European Commission has long acknowledged the numerous defects of the policy. In May 2007, Sweden became the first EU country to take the position that all EU farm subsidies should be abolished, except those related to environmental protection.", "Anti-development\nMany developing countries are highly dependent on agriculture. The FAO finds that agriculture provides for the livelihood of 70% of the world's poorest people. As such, the subsidies in the CAP are charged with preventing developing countries from exporting agricultural produce to the EU on a level playing field. The WTO Doha Development Round, which intended to increase global development, has stalled due to the developed countries' refusal to remove agricultural subsidies.", "A review of post-2013 proposal by Prof. Alan Matthews underlines the lack of ambition in tackling the issue. \"This CAP reform was not intended to address the trade barriers used to keep some EU market prices higher than world market levels. The EU has reduced the effect of these barriers for a number of developing countries through extending the scope of preferential access under various trade agreements, and a further reduction is being negotiated in the WTO Doha Round", ". Nonetheless, developing countries will be disappointed that the opportunity was not taken in this reform to set a final date for the ending of export subsidies. A more ambitious CAP reform, in which the targeting of direct payments was pursued more insistently and coupled payments were phased out, would also have a greater effect in removing the remaining distortions caused by the CAP to world markets.\" In another study, Prof", ".\" In another study, Prof. Matthews showed how linking EU farm subsidies to goals such as environmental protection could help farmers in poor countries, although much depends on the size of the payments and how they are made.", "At the same time, however, the EU remains the world's biggest importer of farm products from developing countries. On average, over the period 2006–2008, the EU has imported €53 billion worth of goods. This is more than the US, Japan, Canada, Australia and New Zealand combined. This is further encouraged by a preferential market access agreement for products from developing countries. Today, around 71% of the EU's agricultural imports originate from developing countries", ". Today, around 71% of the EU's agricultural imports originate from developing countries. The 'Everything but Arms' program, gives the world's 49 least-developed countries duty-free and quota-free access to the EU market. Under the Economic Partnership Agreements, countries from the African, Caribbean and Pacific group enjoy full duty-free and quota free access.", "Oversupply and its redistribution", "To perpetuate the viability of European agriculture in its current state, the CAP-mandated demand for certain farm produce is set at a high level compared with demand in the free market (see ). This leads to the European Union purchasing millions of tons of surplus output every year at the stated guaranteed market price, and storing this produce in large quantities (leading to what critics have called 'butter mountains' and 'wine lakes'), before selling the produce wholesale to developing nations", ". In 2007 in response to a parliamentary written question the UK government revealed that over the preceding year the EU Public Stock had amassed \"13,476,812 tones of cereal, rice, sugar and milk products and 3,529,002 hectoliters of alcohol/wine\", although the EU has claimed this level of oversupply is unlikely to be repeated. This point was actually proven in January 2009, where the EU had a store of 717,810 tons of cereals, 41,422 tons of sugar and a 2", ".3 million hectoliter wine surplus, showing that the stocks had diminished dramatically.", "The food crisis in 2008, which saw the stocks empty out and the prices skyrocket, even introduced a popular demand for the introduction of emergency stocks of agricultural produce in the EU, which would help stabilize prices both on the very volatile markets", ". In 2010, the European Commission announced its intention to sell out of its cereal stocks to stabilize the situation after a Russian grain export ban had stung world markets, sending wheat prices to two-year highs and sparked worries of a crisis in global food supplies that could spark widespread strains and protests.", "In 2010, the EU decided to use existing intervention stocks (cereals, milk powder and limited quantities of butter) for its \"Food Aid for the Needy\" scheme for 2011. An estimated 13 million poor Europeans benefit from this scheme.", "Parts of the EU stocks are exported with the use of export subsidies. It is argued that many African and Asian dairy, tomato, grain and poultry farmers cannot keep up with cheap competition from Europe, thus their incomes can no longer provide for their families. At the same time, many urbanized families in the developing world benefit from the relatively cheaper products stemming from Europe.", "For dairy products, export subsidies rose in 2009 after having been stopped in 2008. In 2009, the main recipients of dairy products that benefited from export subsidies were: Russia, Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Nigeria.\n\nAccording to the 2003 Human Development Report the average dairy cow in the year 2000 under the European Union received $913 in subsidies annually, while an average of $8 per human being was sent in aid to Sub-Saharan Africa.", "The 2005 Human Development Report states \"The basic problem to be addressed in the WTO negotiations on agriculture can be summarized in three words: rich country subsidies. In the last round of world trade negotiations rich countries promised to cut agricultural subsidies. Since then, they have increased them\". Several reports from the latest negotiations in the WTO, however, contradict the theory of the 2005 HDR report", ". On 29 July 2008, the WTO negotiations in the Doha round finally collapsed because of differences between the US, India and China over agricultural trade.", "Artificially high food prices", "CAP price intervention has been criticized for creating artificially high food prices throughout the EU. High import tariffs (estimated at 18–28%) have the effect of keeping prices high by restricting competition by non-EU producers. It is estimated that public support for farmers in OECD countries costs a family of four on average nearly US$1,000 per year in higher prices and taxes", ". The European Commission has responded that the average EU household today spends 15% of its budget on food, compared to 30% in 1960.", "The recent moves away from intervention buying, subsidies for specific crops, reductions in export subsidies, have changed the situation somewhat. In the past years intervention has been reduced or abolished in all sectors. After two decades of significant CAP reforms, farmers can now respond to market signals and increase production to react to the higher prices", ". Although the new decoupled payments were aimed at environmental measures, many farmers have found that without these payments their businesses would not be able to survive. With food prices dropping over the past thirty years in real terms, many products have been making less than their cost of production when sold at the farm gate.", "Public health at the peril of agricultural policies", "Public health professionals have also leveled criticism at the CAP and its support regimes, arguing that agricultural policy often disregards health. It is evident that supply outputs are generating widespread public health issues of obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as cardio-vascular disease (CVD), cancer and type II diabetes", ". Diet is one of the major modifiable determinants in promoting or preventing chronic disease, and agricultural products have a major influence on the disease risk factors.", "Initial criticism emerged in the early 2000s regarding the production orientation of the CAP and the need for decoupling due to the disjointed nature of agricultural production policy in relation to consumption (and thus nutrition). The arguments were re-enforced at the 2001 European Health Forum Gastein on the CAP, which made explicit – to policy makers – the link between nutrient quality of diets and agricultural policy", ". The Forum also identified opportunities to align the CAP to health objectives, more specifically by encouraging changes to dietary behaviour through adjusting CAP support.", "Since 2008, under the leadership of the European Public Health and Agriculture Consortium (EPHAC), the public health nutrition narrative has gained traction in policy circles. Although agricultural policy-makers are beginning to realize the arguments for upstream health intervention, practical measures remain politically unpalatable", ". EPHAC maintains that agricultural policies can be used to internalize the health externalities of diet-related ill-health and improve population, society-wide public health nutrition.", "Health groups have become increasingly vocal in their call for agricultural policies to contribute towards resolving the consumption problems of food; such as, excessive intake of saturated fatty acids (FSA), sugar and salt, or under-consumption of vitamins (leading to hypovitaminosis) and minerals", ". More attention should be paid, it is argued, on intervention policies upstream, at the primary food production and processing stages, to influence nutritional quality and the structural determinants of food choice, including; availability, accessibility and price.", "Hurting smaller farms", "Although most policy makers in Europe agree that they want to promote \"family farms\" and smaller scale production, the CAP in fact rewards larger producers. Because the CAP has traditionally rewarded farmers who produce more, larger farms have benefited much more from subsidies than smaller farms. For example, a farm with 1000 hectares, earning an additional €100 per hectare will make an additional €100,000, while a 10 hectare farm will only make an extra €1000, disregarding economies of scale", ". As a result, most CAP subsidies have made their way to large scale farmers.", "Since the 2003 reforms subsidies have been linked to the size of farms, so farmers get the same for a hectare of land regardless of how much land they own. So while subsidies allow small farms to exist, large farms tend to get the larger share of the subsidies. With the 2008 Health Check of the CAP, a first step was taken towards limiting CAP payments to very large landowners.", "The European Commissioner responsible for Agriculture and Rural Development Dacian Cioloş in his Public Hearing upon his nomination has showed his concern in small farms: \"small holdings represent an important share, not only in the new Member States but also in South Europe\". He has emphasized that a structural policy is needed \"to modernize\" small farms and to \"develop existing opportunities in local markets\", where there is \"high demand for local products\".", "Environmental problems", "A common view is that the CAP has traditionally promoted a large expansion in agricultural production. At the same time it has allowed farmers to employ unecological ways of increasing production, such as the indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides, with serious environmental consequences. However, a total re-focusing of the payment scheme in 2004 now puts the environment at the centre of farming policy", ". By linking the payments to farmers to a number of strict environmental standards (among others) in the so-called cross compliance scheme, farmers will have to face cuts in their subsidy levels if they don't meet the strict environmental requirements.", "In 2010, the EU announced that 31% of the €5 billion that was earmarked the new (mainly environmental) challenges in agriculture would be spent on protecting and promoting biodiversity in the European countryside. This money is part of the EU rural development policy, which is supporting agri-environmental projects throughout the Member States.", "The CAP has furthermore been criticized due to its effect on farmland bird populations. Between 1980 and 2009, the farmland bird population has decreased from 600 million to 300 million, implying a loss of 50%. Among the species that have been hit hardest are the starling and the tree sparrow, which have both declined by 53%", ". The removal of hedgerows and ploughing over meadows are two significant factors that may have contributed to more efficient farming, but that also caused a decrease in farmland birds' habitats.", "In England, farmers have been lauded by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds because the five most threatened bumblebees have made a comeback to the English nature due to the agri-environmental schemes. In Germany, support for extensive farming and biotope management helps maintain habitat for rare species such as orchids and butterflies", ". In Hungary, a special scheme was launched to protect the great bustard, maybe the world's heaviest flying bird, which needs areas with minimal disturbance and an abundant supply of insects to breed. In Cyprus, agri-environment schemes support the maintenance of traditional trees and bushes that are a natural habitat for the islands and likely to be of benefit to farmland birds in Cyprus.", "Rules instituted in 2015 barring or reducing payments for farmed land above threshold densities of trees or canopy cover have been attacked as having perverse consequences for mature trees, biodiversity, soil erosion and downstream flooding.\n\nEquity among member states", "Some countries in the EU have larger agricultural sectors than others, notably France and Spain, and consequently receive more money under the CAP. Countries such as the Netherlands and the United Kingdom have particularly urbanized populations and rely very little on agriculture as part of their economy (in the United Kingdom agriculture employs 1.6% of the total workforce and in the Netherlands 2.0%)", ".6% of the total workforce and in the Netherlands 2.0%). The UK therefore receives less than half what France gets, despite a similar sized economy and population. Other countries receive more benefit from different areas of the EU budget. Overall, certain countries make net contributions, notably Germany (the largest contribution overall) and the Netherlands (the biggest contribution per person), but also the UK and France. The largest per capita beneficiaries are Greece and Ireland.", "Another aspect is difference between older Western European and newer Central and Eastern member states, due to transitional arrangements the latter received smaller payments. In 2013 payments per hectare were 527 euros in Greece and only 89 euros in Latvia. In compensation the newer members were allowed to provide national farm aid", ". In compensation the newer members were allowed to provide national farm aid. In March 2018 EU agriculture ministers failed to achieve consensus on a declaration about future of CAP, with ministers of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovakia demanding fully equal subsidies across the union.", "Cotton subsidies\nIn spite of these declarations, the EU Commission proposed the continuation of cotton subsidies, coupled to production. The coupling of the subsidy means that they will continue to have significant trade-distorting effect, most notably on West African farmers who are unable to compete with subsidised cotton.", "The Communication on the future of the CAP does not mention the cotton sector. Nevertheless, the most trade-distorting subsidies to cotton production have already been eliminated in the 2004 reform. The current EU cotton production corresponds to 1% of global cotton production and its effect on the evolution of world market prices is therefore negligible. On the other hand, the EU is by far the largest provider of development assistance to cotton", ". On the other hand, the EU is by far the largest provider of development assistance to cotton. In the framework of the EU-Africa Partnership on Cotton the EU has made available more than €320 million. The EU market for cotton is already duty-free and quota-free and there are no export subsidies for cotton.", "UK rebate and the CAP\nThe UK would have been contributing more money to the EU than any other EU member state, except that the UK government negotiated a special annual UK rebate in 1984. Due to the way the rebate is funded, France pays the largest share of the rebate (31%), followed by Italy (24%) and Spain (14%).", "The discrepancy in CAP funding is a cause of some consternation in the UK. , France received more than double the CAP funds received by the UK (see diagram). This is a net benefit to France of €6.37 billion, compared to the UK. This is largely a reflection of the fact that France has more than double the land area of the UK. In comparison, the UK budget rebate for 2005 is scheduled to be approx. €5.5 billion", ". In comparison, the UK budget rebate for 2005 is scheduled to be approx. €5.5 billion. The popular view in the UK (as, for example, set forth in the tabloid press) is that if the UK rebate were reduced with no change to the CAP, then the UK would be paying money to keep the French farming sector in business – to many people in the UK, this would be seen as unfair.", "If the rebate were removed without changes to the CAP then the UK would pay a net contribution of 14 times that of the French (In 2005 EU budget terms). The UK would make a net contribution of €8.25 billion compared to the current contribution of €2.75 billion, versus a current French net contribution of €0.59 billion.", "In December 2005 the UK agreed to give up approximately 20% of the rebate for the period 2007–2013, on condition that the funds did not contribute to CAP payments, were matched by other countries' contributions and were only for the new member states. Spending on the CAP remained fixed, as had previously been agreed. Overall, this reduced the proportion of the budget spent on the CAP. It was agreed that the European Commission should conduct a full review of all EU spending.", "Economic sustainability\nExperts such as Prof. Alan Matthews believed 'greening' measures in the EU's proposed €418-billion post-2013 farm policy could lower the bloc's agricultural production potential by raising farm input costs by €5 billion, or around 2 per cent.", "Target population\nOnly 5.4% of EU's population works on farms, and the farming sector is responsible for 1.6% of the GDP of the EU (2005). The number of European farmers is decreasing every year by 2%. Additionally, most Europeans live in cities, towns, and suburbs, not rural areas.", "The 2007-2008 world food price crisis renewed calls for farm subsidies to be removed in light of evidence that farm subsidies contribute to rocketing food prices, which has a particularly detrimental effect on developing countries.\n\nOrigins and history", "Origins", "In the late 1950s to late 1960s, there was no example of a successful agricultural integration in Europe. There were only a few pre-existing legal stipulations that were considered, \"weak, vague and highly underdeveloped\". As part of building a common market, tariffs on agricultural products would have to be removed", ". As part of building a common market, tariffs on agricultural products would have to be removed. However, the political clout of farmers, and the sensitivity of the issue in nations that still remembered severe food shortages during and after the Second World War, delayed the CAP and its implementation for many years. Nevertheless, the European Economic Community (EEC) offered an integrated agriculture policy to France, to help France to ratify the Treaty of Rome", ". In due course, article 39 was created in a set of five social and economic objectives.", "The Spaak Report of 1956 stated that a European common market that excluded agriculture was unthinkable. It argued that security of food supply was paramount and raised a series of questions about agriculture that needed to be answered by policy-makers. The Treaty of Rome, signed in March 1957, established the European Economic Community (EEC) and it was mainly due to the French pressure that the Treaty included agriculture", ". However, due to disagreements within the Six over agricultural policy, the articles on agriculture were vague and policy making was left until after the Treaty had been signed.", "Article 39.1 of the Treaty set out the objectives of the CAP: to increase productivity through technical progress and the best use of the factors of production (such as labour); to ensure a fair standard of living for communities employed in agriculture; to stabilize markets; to secure the availability of supplies; and to enforce fair prices. Article 39", ". Article 39.2 stated that policy makers must take into account three factors: the circumstances of each agricultural activity due to the social structure of agricultural communities and the inequalities between richer and poorer regions; the need to act gradually to allow agriculture sufficient time to adjust; and to remember that agriculture was heavily integrated in the wider economy.", "Article 40 provided for the common organisation of markets and common prices, along with a fund to pay for it. Article 41 allowed for the introduction of additional measures to implement Article 39, such as the co-ordination of vocational education and research, the \"dissemination of agricultural knowledge\" and the encouragement of consumption of certain goods. Article 42 allowed the Council of the Community to decide how far the regulations on competition could apply to agriculture", ". This Article also allowed them to grant aid.", "During 3–12 July 1958 in Stresa, the Community held an agricultural conference attended by agricultural ministers from member states and the President of the European Commission, Walter Hallstein, along with observers representing agriculture. Three working parties at the conference investigated: the current state of agriculture and the agricultural policies of member states; the short-term effects of the implementation of the Rome Treaty; and the long-term aims of the CAP", ". In a speech to the conference, Hallstein complained of urbanisation that was leading to rural depopulation and he lamented the \"clash of cultures\" in which rural life and rural values were considered inferior. Hallstein also reflected on the Cold War threat from communism:", "It is the core of Europe's achievements which is under threat: a whole civilization which rests on the inalienable freedom and dignity of the individual...this tragedy of liberty is also a tragedy of the rural class. Let us look around us, and, alas, we have not far to look; the rural class is its first victim. It is for this reason that we are convinced that the European rural class will count among the most trustworthy pillars of our unified European market", ". Because its fate is also at stake, and is one of the first threatened. In this room there is no one whose family tree doesn't reach back, sooner or later, to farming roots. We know what the rural class means to Europe, not only through its economic values, but also by its moral and social values.", "The conference's Final Resolution argued for the vital importance of agriculture in economic and social life and expressed their unanimous wish to preserve the character of European farming, which was predominately based on small-size, family holdings. They agreed that it was necessary to help these farms increase their economic capacity and competitiveness. They also advocated structural changes to rationalize and cheapen production, which was intended to improve productivity", ". The Resolution also included a commitment to a price policy.", "Therefore, during 1958–1959, the Commission drafted the CAP and the Assembly commissioned reports into agriculture. The Commission submitted draft proposals in November 1959 (which were debated in the Assembly and by the Economic and Social Committee) and its final report in June 1960. In December the Council agreed to a system of import levies (for grain, sugar, pork, eggs and poultry) and to commodity regimes for agricultural produce", ". They also introduced the principle of Community Preference in the implementation of the levies and for the negotiation of commercial treaties with outside countries; this ensured that any trade concession granted to an outside country could not weaken the European producer in the Community market.", "Initial years", "In 1962 the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund was founded to provide money for the CAP's market regimes. A year later, two arms of the Fund were established, the Guarantee side implemented market and price support and the Guidance part supplied structural aid. A Community regulation of 1964 provided detailed arrangements for the working of the Fund, including for estimating export refunds, the Community's main tool for controlling the market", ". Market regimes had been implemented for most agricultural produce by the end of the decade. An agreement in 1966 facilitated the completion of the single market for agriculture (which came into effect a year later), a single price support system and uniform protection against imports from outside countries. Hallstein hailed this agreement as the single most important stage in forging European unity because it helped to complete the CAP.", "The six member states individually strongly intervened in their agricultural sectors, in particular with regard to what was produced, maintaining prices for goods and how farming was organised. The intervention posed an obstacle to free trade in goods while the rules continued to differ from state to state since freedom of trade would contradict the intervention policies", ". Some members, particularly France, and all farming professional organisations wanted to maintain strong state intervention in agriculture. That could not be achieved unless policies were harmonized and transferred to the European Community level.", "By 1962, three major principles had been established to guide the CAP: market unity, community preference and financial solidarity. Since then, the CAP has been a central element in the European institutional system.", "In June 1965 negotiations on the CAP came to halt in Brussels when the French delegation of the EEC, under the direction of Charles de Gaulle, decided to pull out of further discussion on the use of foreign levies and national budgets to support a budget for the Community. This was known as the Empty Chair Crisis", ". This was known as the Empty Chair Crisis. Talks resumed after January 1966, but the issue of the Community's own resources was only finalized three years later in the agricultural marathon 19–22 December 1969 when the Council adopted that agricultural levies would be allocated to the Community in their entirety and customs duties would be allocated progressively to the Community, in order to avoid excessive disruption of national budgets.", "Early attempts at reform (Mansholt Plan)\nOn 21 December 1968, Sicco Mansholt, the European Commissioner for Agriculture, sent a memorandum to the Council of Ministers concerning agricultural reform in the European Community. This long-term plan, also known as the '1980 Agricultural Programme' or the 'Report of the Gaichel Group', named after the village in Luxembourg in which it had been prepared, laid the foundations for a new social and structural policy for European agriculture.", "The Mansholt Plan noted the limits to a policy of price and market support. It predicted the imbalance that would occur in certain markets unless the Community undertook to reduce its land under cultivation by at least five million hectares. Mansholt also noted that the standard of living of farmers had not improved since the implementation of the CAP despite an increase in production and permanent increases in Community expenditure", ". He, therefore, suggested that production methods should be reformed and modernised and that small farms, which were bound to disappear sooner or later, according to Community experts, should be increased in size. The aim of the Plan was to encourage nearly five million farmers to give up farming. That would make it possible to redistribute their land and increase the size of the remaining family farms", ". Farms were considered viable if they could guarantee for their owners an average annual income comparable to that of all the other workers in the region. In addition to vocational training measures, Mansholt also provided for welfare programmes to cover retraining and early retirement. Finally, he called on the Member States to limit direct aid to unprofitable farms.", "Faced with the increasingly angry reaction of the agricultural community, Mansholt was soon forced to reduce the scope of some of his proposals. Ultimately, the Mansholt Plan was reduced to just three European directives, which, in 1972, concerned the modernisation of agricultural holdings, the cessation of certain agricultural activity and the training of farmers.", "Between Mansholt and MacSharry\nHurt by the failure of Mansholt, would-be reformers were mostly absent throughout the 1970s, and reform proposals were few and far between. A system called \"Agrimoney\" was introduced as part of the fledgling EMU project but was deemed a failure and did not stimulate further reforms.", "The 1980s was the decade that saw the first true reforms of the CAP, foreshadowing further development from 1992 onwards. The influence of the farming bloc declined, and with it, reformers were emboldened. Environmentalists garnered great support in reforming the CAP, but it was financial matters that ultimately tipped the balance: due to huge overproduction the CAP was becoming expensive and wasteful", ". There was the introduction of a quota on dairy production in 1984 and, in 1988, a ceiling on EU expenditure to farmers. However, the basis of the CAP remained in place and it was not until 1992 that CAP reformers began to work in earnest.", "Modern reforms\nThe current reform issues in EU agriculture are: lowering prices, ensuring food safety and quality, and guaranteeing stability of farmers' incomes. Other issues are environmental pollution, animal welfare and finding alternative income opportunities for farmers. Some of these issues are the responsibility of the member states.", "The MacSharry reforms (1992)\nIn 1992, the MacSharry reforms (named after the European Commissioner for Agriculture, Ray MacSharry) were created to limit rising production, while at the same time adjusting to the trend toward a more free agricultural market. The reforms reduced levels of support by 29% for cereals and 16% for beef. They also created 'set-aside' payments to withdraw land from production, payments to limit stocking levels, and introduced measures to encourage retirement and afforestation.", "Since the MacSharry reforms, cereal prices have been closer to the equilibrium level, there is greater transparency in costs of agricultural support and the 'decoupling' of income support from production support has begun. However, the administrative complexity involved was seen as inviting fraud, and the associated problems of the CAP were far from being corrected.", "One of the factors behind the 1992 reforms was the need to reach agreement with the EU's external trade partners at the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) talks with regards to agricultural subsidies.", "Agenda 2000 (1999)", "The 'Agenda 2000' reforms divided the CAP into two 'Pillars': production support and rural development. Several rural development measures were introduced including diversification, setting up producer groups and support for young farmers. Agri-environment schemes became compulsory for every Member State. The market support prices for cereals, milk and milk products and beef and veal were step-wise reduced while direct coupled payments to farmers were increased", ". Payments for major arable crops as cereals and oil-seeds were harmonized.", "The introduction of the euro in 1999 also ended the use of green exchange rates such as the green pound.", "European Commission Report and decoupling (2003)", "A 2003 report, commissioned by the European Commission, by a group of experts led by Belgian economist André Sapir stated that the budget structure was a \"historical relic\". The report suggested a reconsideration of EU policy, redirecting expenditure towards measures intended to increase wealth creation and cohesion of the EU. As a significant proportion of the budget is currently spent on agriculture and there is little prospect of the budget being increased, that would require reducing CAP expenditure", ". The report largely concerned itself to discussing alternative measures more useful to the EU, rather than discussing the CAP, but it also suggested that farm aid would be administered more effectively by member countries on an individual basis.", "The report's findings were largely ignored. Instead, CAP spending was kept within the remit of the EU, and France led an effort to agree a fixed arrangement for CAP spending that would not be changed until 2012. It was made possible by advance agreement with Germany", ". It was made possible by advance agreement with Germany. It is that agreement that the UK currently wishes to see reopened, both in its efforts to defend the UK position on the UK rebate and also given that the UK is in favour of lowering barriers to entry for developing nations that are agricultural exporters.", "On 26 June 2003, EU farm ministers adopted a fundamental reform of the CAP, based on \"decoupling\" subsidies from particular crops. (Member states could choose to maintain a limited amount of specific subsidy.) The new \"single farm payments\" were subject to \"cross-compliance\" conditions relating to environmental, food safety and animal welfare standards. Many of them were already either good practice recommendations or separate legal requirements regulating farm activities", ". The aim was to make more money available for environmental quality or animal welfare programmes. The political scientist Peter Nedergaard analysed the 2003 reform on the basis of rational choice theory and stated that, \"In order to arrive at an adequate explanation, an account of the policy entrepreneurship on the part of Commissioner Franz Fischler must be given.\"", "Details of the UK scheme were still being decided at its introductory date of May 2005. Details of the scheme in each member country could be varied subject to outlines issued by the EU. In England, the Single Payment Scheme provided a single flat rate payment of around £230 per hectare for maintaining land in cultivatable condition. In Scotland, payments were based on a historical basis and could vary widely", ". In Scotland, payments were based on a historical basis and could vary widely. This scheme allowed for much wider non-production use of land that might still receive the environmental element of the support. Additional payments were available if land was managed in a prescribed environmental manner.", "The overall EU and national budgets for subsidy were capped. That prevented the EU being required to spend more on the CAP than its limited budget.\n\nThe reforms entered into force in 2004–2005. (Member states could apply for a transitional period delaying the reform in their country to 2007 and phasing in reforms until 2012)\n\nSugar regime reform (2005–2006)", "Sugar regime reform (2005–2006)\n\nOne of the crops subsidized by the CAP was sugar produced from sugar beet; the EU was by far the largest sugar beet producer in the world, with annual production at 17 million metric tons in 2017. That compared to levels produced by Brazil and India, the two largest producers of sugar from sugar cane.", "Sugar was to be included in the 1992 MacSherry reform or in the 1999 Agenda 2000 decisions; sugar was also subject to a phase in (to 2009) under the Everything But Arms trade deal giving tariff- and quota-free market access to least developed countries. As of 21 February 2006, the EU decided to reduce the guaranteed price of sugar by 36% over four years, starting in 2006. European production was projected to fall sharply", ". European production was projected to fall sharply. According to the EU, this was the first serious reform of sugar under the CAP for 40 years. Under the Sugar Protocol to the Lome Convention, nineteen ACP countries export sugar to the EU and would be affected by price reductions on the EU market.", "These proposals followed the WTO Appellate Body, largely upholding on 28 April 2005 the initial decision against the EU sugar regime.\n\nThe EU abolished sugar quotas in September 2017.", "Reform package 2014\nIn 2010 the European Commission discussed the next reform of the CAP, which would coincide with the next financial perspectives package, as from 2014. The Commissioner responsible for Agriculture and Rural Development Dacian Cioloş, outlined seven major challenges that the future CAP needed to address: food production, globalization, the environment, economic issues, a territorial approach, diversity and simplification. The cited reasons for reform plans included:", "a need to respond to the economic, environmental and territorial challenges faced by agricultural and rural areas today and in the future, and in doing so to better align the CAP to the Europe 2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.\n a need to make the policy more efficient and effective, as well as to further simplify it while maintaining sound financial management and controllability", "making CAP support more equitable and balanced between Member States and farmers and better targeted at active farmers.", "The Commission launched the CAP reform process with an extensive public debate on the future of the Cap between April and June 2010, followed by a public conference in July 2010, with around 600 participants. The purpose of the debate was to have different sectors of society taking part. \"The Common Agricultural Policy is not just a matter for experts. It's a policy for all Europeans\", said Commissioner Cioloş", ". It's a policy for all Europeans\", said Commissioner Cioloş. Based on the wide-ranging public debate, on 18 November 2010, the Commission presented a Communication on \"The CAP towards 2020\" The Communication Paper outlined three options for the future CAP and launched a consultation with other institutions and stakeholders. Over 500 contributions were received, 44% of which came from the farming and processing sector. These contributions form an integral part of the Impact Assessment of the legal proposals", ". These contributions form an integral part of the Impact Assessment of the legal proposals. The impact assessment evaluates alternative scenarios for the evolution of the policy on the basis of extensive quantitative and qualitative analysis", "On 12 October 2011 the Commission presented a set of legal proposals to reform the common agricultural policy (CAP) after 2013. Its stated aim is to guarantee European citizens healthy and quality food production, while preserving the environment", ". According to the proposal, the three broad objectives of the future CAP are: \"Viable food production\", \"Sustainable management of natural resources\" and \"Balanced territorial development\", which respond directly to the economic, environmental and territorial balance challenges identified in the Communication and which guide the proposed changes to the CAP instruments.", "The Lisbon Treaty, which came into force on 1 December 2009, has extended the legislative powers of the European Parliament on agricultural matters, with the EP deciding together with the Council in a procedure known as the co-decision procedure. For the first time both institutions (European Parliament and the council) decided on an equal footing on the new agriculture legislative package. The European Parliament and the council, debated the text", ". The European Parliament and the council, debated the text. The approval of the different regulations and implementing acts was received by mid-2013. On 26 June 2013 agreement was reached between the European Commission, the Council and the EU Parliament on a new CAP. The CAP reform came into force as from 1 January 2014.", "New design of direct payments\nDirect payments contribute to keeping farming in place throughout the EU territory by supporting and stabilizing farmers' income, thereby ensuring the longer-term economic viability of farms and making them less vulnerable to fluctuations in prices. They also provide basic public goods through their link with cross compliance.", "The legal proposals aim to move away from the different systems of the Single Payments Scheme in the EU-15 (which allows for historical references, or a payment per hectare, or a \"hybrid\" combination of the two) and the Single Area Payments Scheme (SAPS) in most of the EU-12, a new \"Basic Payment Scheme\" will apply after 2013", ". This will be subject to \"cross compliance\" (respecting certain environmental, animal welfare & other rules), as at present, although there are various simplifications to the current requirement. It intends to reduce significantly the discrepancies between the levels of payments obtained between farmers, between regions and between Member States. All Member States will be obliged to move towards a uniform payment per hectare at national or regional level by the start of 2019", ". In line with the Commission proposals within the Multi-Annual Financial Framework, the national envelopes for direct payments will be adjusted so that those that receive less than 90% of the EU average payment per hectare will receive more. The gap between the amounts currently foreseen and 90% of the EU-27 average is reduced by one-third.", "The reform of direct payments was intended to make them better suited with regard to:", "\"Greening\": The legal proposals propose new concepts. Among them is the \"greening\" of direct payment. To strengthen the environmental sustainability of agriculture and enhance the efforts of farmers, the Commission is proposing to spend 30% of direct payments specifically for the improved use of natural resources. Farmers would be obliged to fulfill certain criteria such as crop diversification, maintenance of permanent pasture, the preservation of environmental reservoirs and landscapes.", "Young farmers: To attract young people (under 40 years) into the farming business, the Commission is proposing that the Basic Payment to new entrant Young Farmers should be topped up by an additional 25% for the first 5 years of installation.", "Small farmers: Any farmer wishing to participate in the Small Farmers Scheme will receive an annual payment fixed by the Member State of between €500 and €1,000, regardless of the farm's size. (The figure will either be linked to the average payment per beneficiary, or the national average payment per hectare for 3 ha.). Participants will face less stringent cross-compliance requirements, and be exempt from greening.", "Active farmers: This new definition is aimed to exclude payments to applicants who exercise no real or tangible agricultural activity on their land. The Commission is proposing that payments would not be granted to applicants whose CAP direct payments are less than 5% of total receipts from all non-agricultural activities. This doesn't apply to farmers who receive less than €5,000 in direct payments.", "\"Capping\": In the autumn of 2007 the European Commission was reported to be considering a proposal to limit subsidies to individual landowners and factory farms to around £300,000. Some factory farms and large estates would be affected in the UK, as there are over 20 farms/estates receiving £500,000 or more from the EU. Similar attempts have been unsuccessful in the past and were opposed in the UK by two strong lobbying organisations the Country Land and Business Association and the National Farmers Union", ". Germany, which had large collective farms still in operation in what was East Germany, also vigorously opposed changes marketed as \"reforms\". The proposal was reportedly submitted for consultation with EU member states on 20 November 2007. In the finally adopted rules, the amount of support that any individual farm can receive will be limited to €300,000 per year", ". However, to take employment into account, the holding can deduct the costs of salaries in the previous year (including taxes & social security contributions) before these reductions are applied. The funds \"saved\" will be transferred to the Rural Development envelope in the given country.", "Cross compliance: All payments will continue to be linked to the respect of a number of baseline requirements relating to environment, animal welfare and plant & animal health standards. However, cross compliance will be greatly simplified.", "See also\n Common Fisheries Policy\n Agriculture and Fisheries Council (Council of the European Union)\n Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development\n European Commissioner for Agriculture and Rural Development\n European Parliament Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development\n European Union Association Agreement\n Environmental effects of soybean imports to EU\n Land Allocation Decision Support System\nSpanish Agricultural Guarantee Fund\n Lobbying in the United Kingdom", "Spanish Agricultural Guarantee Fund\n Lobbying in the United Kingdom\n Protected Geographical Status Designation of Origin\n United States farm bill – American equivalent", "References\n\nFurther reading\nAkrill, Robert, The Common Agricultural Policy (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000).\n\nFennell, Rosemary, The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Community (London: HarperCollins, 1979; 2nd. ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 1988).\nGrant, Wyn, The Common Agricultural Policy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997).\nHarris, Simon and Swinbank, Alan and Wilkinson, Guy, The Food and Farm Policies of the European Community (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1983).", "Knudson, Ann-Christina L., Farmers on Welfare: The Making of Europe's Common Agricultural Policy (Cornell University Press, 2009).\nNeville-Rofle, Edmund, The Politics of Agriculture in the European Community (Policy Studies Institute, European Centre, 1984).\n\n rpa.gov.uk past and present UK subsidy schemes", "Opinions\n EU Report on effects of expansion of the EU on farm production\n A public health point of view on CAP\n CAP Reform Debate: Commissioner Cioloş vs Paolo De Castro MEP\n New Zealand's hardy farm spirit from BBC correspondent John Pickford\n Green and Pleasant Land\n CAP Health Check CAP reform: Analysis and opinion from European researchers, academics and policy-makers", "Is the EU CAP boosting deforestation? Some background info on why the EU is lacking creditability in case of its programs to combat deforestation and illegal logging", "External links\nThe CAP reform, Council of the European Union\n \n Archival Sources relating to the history of the Common Agricultural Policy can be consulted at the Historical Archives of the European Union in Florence\n Statistics on CAP objectives published by the European Commission\nEc.europa.eu\nEnrd.ec.europa.eu\nEc.europa.eu\nGoogle Books\nDelorsinstitute.eu\n\nAgricultural economics\nAgricultural policy\nAgricultural subsidies\nEuropean Union economic policy\nEuropean Union and agriculture" ]

[ "Chesham (, , or ) is a market town and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England, United Kingdom south-east of the county town of Aylesbury, north-west of central London, and part of the London commuter belt. It is in the Chess Valley, surrounded by farmland. The earliest records of Chesham as a settlement are from the second half of the 10th century, although there is archaeological evidence of people in this area from around 8000 BC. Henry III granted a royal charter for a weekly market in 1257.", "Chesham is known for its four Bs boots, beer, brushes and Baptists. In the face of fierce competition from both home and abroad during the later 19th and early 20th centuries, the three traditional industries rapidly declined. The ready availability of skilled labour encouraged new industries to the town both before and after the Second World War. Today, employment in the town is provided mainly by small businesses engaged in light industry, technology and professional services.", "From the early part of the 20th century, Chesham has experienced a considerable expansion, with new housing developments and civic infrastructure. Chesham has become a commuter town with improved connection to London via the London Underground and road networks. The town centre has been progressively redeveloped since the 1960s and has been pedestrianised since the 1990s. The population at the 2021 census was 23,008.", "History", "There is archaeological evidence of the earliest settlement during the Late Mesolithic period around 5000 BC in East Street, Chesham where a large quantity of flint tools were found. The earliest farming evidence from the Neolithic era around 2500 BC. Bronze Age tribes settled in the valley around 1800 BC and they were succeeded by Iron Age Belgic people of the Catuvellauni tribe around 500 BC", ". Between 150 and 400 AD, there is evidence of Romano-British farming, and nearby at Latimer, there is archaeological evidence of a Roman villa and the planting of grapevines. However, the area was then deserted until the Saxon period around the 7th century.", "Contrary to popular belief, the town is not named after the river; rather, the river is named after the town. The first recorded reference to Chesham is under the Old English name , meaning \"the river-meadow at the pile of stones\" around 970 in the will of Lady Ælfgifu, who has been identified with the former wife of King Eadwig. She held an estate here which she bequeathed to Abingdon Abbey.", "Prior to 1066 there were three adjacent estates which comprised Caestreham which are briefly recorded in the Domesday Book as being of , 4 and hides, having four mills. The most important of these manors was held by Queen Edith, the widow of Edward the Confessor. Other land having been returned to the Crown it was in the hands of Harold Godwinson and his brother Leofwine Godwinson. Part of these later became Chesham Bois parish", ". Part of these later became Chesham Bois parish. After 1066 Edith kept her lands and William the Conqueror divided royal lands between his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and Hugh de Bolbec.", "The land owners of Chesham\nThe Domesday Book records that there were three manors in Cestreham and one at nearby Latimer. William the Conqueror shared out the estates between four of his dependants. The vast majority of land was granted to Hugh de Bolebec and smaller parcels to Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, Toustain Mantel and Alsi.", "Before the 13th century, the three Cestreham manors were known as Chesham Higham, Chesham Bury and Chesham Bois. In the 14th century they were first recorded as 'the manors of Great Chesham'. Collectively they extended beyond the current Chesham town boundary. Together with the manor at Latimer they were held by the Earls of Oxford and Surrey. During the 16th century Greater Chesham was owned by the Seymour family who disposed of it to the Cavendish family who were the Earls and later Dukes of Devonshire", ". It is from the 15th century that the earliest surviving properties survive and are to be found close by the church in an area called the Nap, and along part of the present-day Church Street. Though gradually disposing of land the Cavendishes maintained an influence in the town until the 19th century. The Lowndes family started purchasing land from the 16th century. William Lowndes was an influential politician and Secretary to the Treasury during the reigns of Mary II, William III and Queen Anne", ". He rebuilt the original Bury and manor house of Great Chesham in 1712. The Lowndes family settled in Chesham and over the next 200 years became equally influential both nationally through politics and the law and locally within the town as its principal benefactors.", "Ecclesiastical history", "No evidence remains of any church prior to the Norman Conquest. However, the siting of puddingstones beneath the present-day church suggests a wooden church was constructed on the site during the Anglo-Saxon period. During the 12th century two families of Norman descent, the de Bolebecs and the Sifrewasts, each held a share of the advowson assigned to the adjacent manors of Chesham Higham and Chesham Bury respectively for the Church at Chesham which it is evidenced from about 1154 was dedicated to St Mary", ". These moieties were subsequently given by the families to two monasteries. In 1194 the de Bolbecs bestowed their advowson to the abbot and monks of Woburn Abbey and henceforth the parish of Chesham Higham was renamed 'Chesham Woburn'. Meanwhile, and sometime before 1199, the Sifrewast family granted their advowson to the convent of St Mary's de Pré Leicester. As a consequence the advowson for the parish of Chesham Bury became known as 'Chesham Leicester'", ". As a consequence the advowson for the parish of Chesham Bury became known as 'Chesham Leicester'. In 1536 Henry VIII seized control of church property as part of the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Subsequently, during Edward VI and Elizabeth I's reigns, first Chesham Woburn and then Chesham Leicester advowsons became part of the estates of the Dukes of Bedford. Though there were originally two vicars appointed to the parish church of St Mary's, from the 17th century a single incumbent was appointed", ". Jurisdiction was still shared between both advowsons and two parsonages, an 'upper' and 'lower', continued to be maintained until the 18th century when both were superseded by a single new parsonage. The Duke of Bedford subsequently consolidated the moieties by Act of Parliament in 1767", ". The Duke of Bedford subsequently consolidated the moieties by Act of Parliament in 1767. To accommodate the increasing population during the 19th century, a new parish church was built in 1867; Christ Church at Waterside, and further churches were built at Ashley Green and Bellingdon, which were at the time both within the civil parish of Chesham.", "Religious dissent and nonconformity", "Chesham is noted for the religious dissent which dominated the town from the 15th century. In 1532 Thomas Harding was burnt at the stake in the town for being a Lollard and heretic. From the 17th century, Chesham was a focus for those dissenting from mainstream religion. Quakers met in the late 17th century in Chesham and in 1798 they built the current meeting house. The first Baptists' meeting dates back to about 1640 and a place was registered for services in 1706", ". The first chapel was opened in 1712, one of many to be built for the various Baptist groups during the 18th and 19th centuries. John Wesley preached in Chesham in the 1760s and a Wesleyan Methodist society existed in the town. In more recent time a Wesleyan Methodist chapel was opened in 1897. The Christian Brethren which date back in Chesham to 1876, opened their Gospel Hall in 1895, which closed in December 2008", ". Broadway Baptist church had congregations at the Vale, Hawridge, Ashley Green and Chartridge; only the one at Chartridge survives. Trinity Baptist church had congregations at Hyde Heath, Ley Hill and Whelpley Hill; only the one at Hyde Heath survives. The Congregational Church had congregations at Asheridge and Pond Park.", "Emigration to the American colonies", "In 1630 Aquila Chase left Chesham to join the colony, settling first at Hampton (now New Hampshire), then Newbury, Massachusetts. Descendants of Aquila became influential in shaping political, legislative and commercial matters from the colonial period until after the Declaration of Independence. For example, Salmon P. Chase was the United States Treasury Secretary and Chief Justice in the 1870s. The Chase Manhattan Bank is named after him (although Chase did not have any connection with the bank).", "Industrial development", "The primary industries of the town in medieval times were flour production, woodworking and weaving of wool. There were four mills built along the Chess which was diverted to generate sufficient power. Surplus flour was supplied to London. The number of clothworkers, including spinners and those associated with dying (fullers), grew rapidly between 1530 and 1730 and became the major industry in the town prior to a period of rapid decline", ". Between 1740 and 1798, mills were converted to produce paper (pulp), responding to London's insatiable demand for paper. However, technological developments in paper-making elsewhere rendered the mills unprofitable and they reverted to flour production in the 1850s.", "New industries emerged from the 16th century onwards. The woodlands had been a source of firewood for London during the mediaeval period. A small-scale woodenware industry making shovels, brooms, spoons and chairs, began around 1538 and its expansion was accompanied by the planting of beechwoods between the 17th and 19th centuries. Straw plaiting was seen as home-based work for the wives and daughters of labourers from the 18th century", ". Straw was also imported from Italy to produce the superior 'Tuscan plait' traded at a Saturday market for the Luton and Dunstable hat trade and remained the major cottage industry until around 1860, providing employment for women and girls, some of whom attended a 'plait-school' in Waterside. Lace making developed in the 16th century as a cottage industry and was valued for its quality. Chesham specialised in black lace. The industry declined in the 1850s due to mechanisation in Nottingham", ". The industry declined in the 1850s due to mechanisation in Nottingham. Between 1838 and 1864 silk-spinning, powered by a steam-driven mill in Waterside, was started to make use of unemployed lace workers. This trend was relatively short-lived as changes in fashion and the growth of the railways resulted in competition from elsewhere for the valuable London markets", ". However one exception was the firm of George Tutill which specialised in high-quality banners and was responsible for three-quarters of those made for trade unions. The firm is still a going concern, specialising in flags and banners.", "Three of the four Bs that have shaped Chesham's history relate to its industries. Brush making was introduced around 1829 to make use of the off-cuts from woodworking. Boot and shoe making which started as a cottage industry later expanding through small workshops, thrived following the opening of tanneries around 1792 which also supplied leather for saddle making and gloves", ". By the mid-19th century both brushmaking and footwear manufacture became major industries in the town with production concentrated in large factories. The industry declined in the early-20th century as the market for heavy boots declined. Beer brewing grew rapidly around the town centre in the 19th century again declining at the start of the 20th century. These traditional industries were succeeded by smaller but more commercial enterprises which took advantage of the available skilled labour", ". For example, in 1908 the Chiltern Toy Works was opened by Joseph Eisenmann on Bellingdon Road, later moving to the 'new' industrial estate in Waterside, making high quality teddy bears. The works finally closed in 1960. Post Second World War industry has ranged from the manufacture of glue (Industrial Adhesives) to aluminium-based packaging (Alcan), Aluminium Castings & Bronze Castings (Draycast Foundries Limited), balloons (B-Loony) and household cleaning products (Kilrock).", "The town in times of war\nHenry VIII imposed a tax on the town to pay for his wars against Scotland and France.", "In common with the majority of communities in Buckinghamshire, Chesham's Lollard heritage and puritan traditions ensured it would vehemently resist King Charles I's demand for Ship Money; a tax on tradesmen and landowners. In 1635 the townsfolk of Chesham protested to the Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, Sir Peter Temple, who was reluctantly enforcing a writ requiring payment of a levy to the King", ". Not surprisingly given the local allegiances to John Hampden, the towns' people largely sided with the Parliamentarians at the outbreak of the English Civil War. During 1642 the influential Parliamentarians John Pym and Earl of Warwick were headquartered in the town along with large numbers of troops. There are records of skirmishes in the area during 1643 when Prince Rupert was stationed near Aylesbury and dispatched Robert Dormer, 1st Earl of Carnarvon to pillage nearby towns, such as Wendover", ". Heading toward Chesham a company of horse of the Parliamentary Army from the town met them outside Great Missenden where a skirmish took place ending with the Parliamentary force being driven back.", "The records of the Posse Comitatus for Chesham in 1798 recorded over 800 men between the ages of 16 and 60 enrolled in a militia to defend the town in the event of invasion by Napoleon I or to deal with civil unrest. Less than 50 years later, in 1846, a similar register of 22 able-bodied men had been assembled to form the Chesham troop of the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry which coincided with the billeting of troops from the 7th Queen's Own Hussars passing through the town on their way to Ireland.", "During the First World War, 188 servicemen from Chesham lost their lives (see Landmarks). Alfred Burt, a corporal in the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment from Chesham, received the Victoria Cross for his actions in September 1915. The town provided temporary quarters for several regiments including the Kings Royal Rifles and the Royal Engineers honed their bridge building skills in local parks", ". In 1919, two 'Victory Oaks' were planted in the town: one was planted by Margot Cavendish, Lady Chesham of Latimer House, Latimer, Buckinghamshire, and Major Lionel de Rothschild; the other by Mr. and Mrs. Lowndes (former owners of Lowndes Park), and Mr. and Mrs. Byrne (the chairman of Chesham Urban District Council and his wife).", "Over the duration of the Second World War, 80 servicemen lost their lives. Air raid shelters were built by the Council in 1940, although the official view was that its not being a strategic location the town was unlikely to be targeted. In fact at the end of the war it was estimated that 45 bombs fell in the Chesham area and it is known that nine people were killed.", "Social history\nA Chesham workhouse for 90 paupers was operating in Germain Street as early as 1777. New legislation transferred the control of the Chesham institution to Amersham Poor Law Union in 1835. However, there were long-standing rivalries between the locals of both towns and in July that year violence broke out when an order was given to remove the paupers to Amersham. The Riot Act was read out to an angry crowd of 500 and arrests followed.", "Publicly funded education started with the opening of a British School in 1825 followed by a National School in 1845, an Infants' School in 1851 and the first Elementary School for girls in 1864. Chesham Building Society opened for business in 1845 and continued to operate until June 2010, when it was taken over by the Skipton Building Society. Other public institutions also started at this time, with a Fire Brigade being established in 1846, the first cemetery in 1858 and a police station built in 1861.", "Chesham cottage hospital, built for £865 17s 11d on land provided by Lord Chesham, opened in October 1869, just ahead of an outbreak of typhoid in 1871. Despite a local campaign to save the hospital it closed in 2005. In September 2010 the derelict hospital building was severely damaged by a fire caused by arsonists, according to police reports", ". The Council commissioned a waterworks to be built in 1875 in Alma Road and mains drainage in the town and a sewage works was opened adjacent to the Chess, downstream in 1887. A gasworks was constructed on the southern part of the town in 1847. Bathing in the Chess at Waterside was an old tradition which became increasingly popular in the 19th century. Complaints that it had become a nuisance led to the Urban District Council surrounding the site with a concrete wall", ". This further increased its popularity and an open-air pool was built by the council in 1912.", "Transport connections have always come late to the town. The Metropolitan Railway eventually reached Chesham in July 1889. Electrification was not to come until the 1960s. Between the two world wars and in the 1950s and 60s there was much expansion in the town with new public housing developments along the Missenden Road, at Pond Park and at Botley.", "The first public viewings of cinema films in Chesham were provided by travelling showmen around 1900 and attracted large crowds. The first purpose-built cinema, The Empire Picture Hall, opened in Station Road in 1912 and in 1914 The Chesham Palace started up in The Broadway. Both showed silent films. By 1920 the Empire had closed", ". Both showed silent films. By 1920 the Empire had closed. In 1930 the Chesham Palace was refurbished to show the new 'talkies' and reopened as The Astoria which remained in business until 1959 when the arrival of television forced it to close. The Embassy in Germain Street opened in 1935 and survived until 1982, closing due to competition from cinemas in nearby towns", ". The Elgiva Theatre, completed in 1976 beside St Mary's Way, was equipped to show films and on moving to a new site just across the road in 1998 state of the art projection equipment was installed in the new theatre (see image below).", "Geography\nThe town is in the Chess Valley 13 miles south-east of the county town Aylesbury and is 25 miles (40 km) north west of central London. It is the fourth largest town in the ceremonial county of Buckinghamshire and the largest in Chiltern District, with a population of some 20,343 people behind Milton Keynes with 184,500, High Wycombe with 118,200 and Aylesbury with 69,200. Nearby Amersham has 17,719.", "Topography and geology", "Chesham is in the Chiltern Hills and from its lowest point of above sea level rises up valley sides. It lies at the confluence of four dry valleys formed by the meltwater at the end of the last ice age which deposited onto the bed rock of chalk, alluvial gravels, silts, on which the town now sits. Subsequent periods of subsidence and submergence deposited clays and flints", ". Subsequent periods of subsidence and submergence deposited clays and flints. The River Chess is a chalk-stream which rises from three springs; to the north-west along the Pednor Vale at Frogmoor, at Higham Mead to the north of the town, and to the west near the Amersham Road which converge in the town near to East Street", ". The river was known as the Isen from at least the 12th century when it is found contributing to the name of the nearby hamlet of Isenhampstead, later to divide and become the manors of Isenhampstead Chenies and Isenhampstead Latimer and persisting until the 19th century", ". It has been suggested, but not established, that the old name 'Isen', which derives from the Anglo-Saxon word for iron, refers to the chalybeate or iron-charged spring waters which feed the river Today the streams are culverted and conducted below street level before emerging at Waterside and flowing in a south easterly direction towards Latimer. From there it flows to the north of Chenies and on towards Rickmansworth after which it joins the River Colne.", "Built environment and social geography", "Chesham developed as a market town which prospered through its manufacturing industries fuelled by a series of mills which sprung up along the River Chess. Until the 19th century the town was centred to the south-eastern end of the present High Street. Most of the present-day town centre's development took place during Victorian times. The 'old town', particularly Church and Germain Street, has been well preserved and now designated a conservation area", ". It includes a number of impressive residential, institutional and commercial buildings that largely survived Victorian 'improvement'. The 12th century St Mary's Church, which underwent refurbishment and redesign by George Gilbert Scott in the 19th century. 'The Bury', a Queen Anne town house was built in 1712 for William Lowndes Secretary to the Treasury. Chesham had two workhouses, both buildings survived and are located in Germain Street", ". Chesham had two workhouses, both buildings survived and are located in Germain Street. In June 2009 the Chesham town centre and old town conservation area was placed on the English Heritage Conservation Areas at Risk register which the District Council commented was due to the misinterpretation of its responses to the conservation body's questionnaire. Due to the pattern of the town's expansion there are several centres of employment which are interspersed with residential housing", ". Industrial buildings on the north side of the town have been redeveloped into offices in recent years.", "The town had a population of 2,425 by 1841. This had increased to more to 9,000 by the end of the 19th century. As a consequence the centre of the town shifted to the east as shops, workshops and cottages sprung up along the High Street and Berkhampstead Road. In the period after the Second World War the town centre was progressively redeveloped", ". In the period after the Second World War the town centre was progressively redeveloped. In the 1960s St Mary's Way was constructed, rerouting the A416 around the congested High Street which avoided the need to widen the street, conserved its character and allowed for its pedestrianisation during the 1990s. Industrial development became centred on two areas", ". Industrial development became centred on two areas. At the southern end of the town at Waterside which was the site of the first mills and factories in the 18th and 19th centuries there is a mixture of original and newly constructed industrial units and at the northern end along the Asheridge Vale there is a further development of generally small commercial business units.", "Compared to other towns in south Buckinghamshire, there are fewer detached and owner-occupied houses and a higher proportion of social rental accommodation. Expansion in housing has occurred in several phases mainly to the east of the old town where artisan's housing sprung up along Berkhamsted Road and subsequently along the many steep valley sides", ". Initially this development was as a consequence of the extension of the railway to the town in the 1880s, subsequently the promotion of Metroland during the 1920s and the electrification of the Metropolitan line in the 1960s. Pond Park estate was built in the 1930s. The population grew fast after the Second World War as workers followed employers who moved out from London", ". The population in 1951 was 11,500 leading to the building of the Chessmount and Hilltop estates by speculative developers in the 1950s and '60s. By 1971 the population had reached 20,000 since when it has only increased slightly", ". By 1971 the population had reached 20,000 since when it has only increased slightly. The growing popularity of the Chilterns as a place to live from the latter part of the 20th century onwards led to restrictions on housing and industrial development in the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and has sustained the demand for further house building in the town", ". Today an increasing number of those in employment find work outside the town, commuting by car or train as well as an increasing number who are home or office-based using technology to make a living.", "Climate", "Chesham experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to almost all of the United Kingdom, although the lower parts of the valley have significant frost hollow characteristics – being several degrees colder than surrounding areas on clear, calm nights and so have much lower average minimum temperatures than shown in the table. The lowest recorded temperature in Chesham was on 20 December 2010 at a private weather station, which was also the coldest place in the UK on that date", ". On 12 February 2012, the coldest day in Britain since December 2010, temperatures in Chesham fell to again the lowest in the country on that date.", "Neighbourhoods and wards\nThe town comprises the following communities:\n Asheridge Vale, stretches along Asheridge Road on the north-west edge of the town. The large housing development was built during the mid 20th century along with an industrial estate comprising manufacturing and light industrial units which has since undergone diversification into offices and small businesses. Also a town council ward.", "Botley, a hamlet located to the east of the town of Chesham between Lye Green and Ley Hill (the latter in Latimer parish). Part of Townsend ward.\n Chesham Vale, area on the northern edge of the town on the road to the villages of Hawridge and Cholesbury. Also a town council ward called Vale.\n Chessmount, area to the east of the town centre. Part of Waterside ward.", "Chessmount, area to the east of the town centre. Part of Waterside ward.\n Codmore, ancient hamlet located to the north-east of the town centre, at the junction between the roads to Lye Green and Botley. Part of Hilltop ward.\n Great Hivings, an area to the north of Chesham on the road to Bellingdon (the latter in Chartridge parish). Part of the ward called Ridgeway.", "Hilltop, residential area to the north-east of the town built on steeply sloping ground. Consists primarily of steel framed bungalows. Also the name of a town council ward.\n Lye Green, hamlet located to the north east of the main town. Part of Newtown ward.\n Lowndes, residential area which includes the Chiltern Hills Academy School, close to the centre of the town, adjacent to Lowndes Park. Also a town council ward.", "Newtown, late Victorian housing development to the north of the town, now incorporated into the enlarged townscape. Also a town council ward.\n Old Town, until the arrival of the Metropolitan Railway in the 19th century was the town's centre. Today, St Mary's Church, the historic houses and streetscape are part of a designated Conservation Area lying to the south of the present town centre with which it comprises St. Mary's ward.", "Pednormead End, an area to the west of the main town, along Missenden Road. Part of St. Mary's ward.\n Pond Park, an area comprising post Second World War housing to the north of the town. Part of the Ridgeway Ward.\n Townsend, Victorian extension to the town comprising commercial premises, later 20th century residential developments and Chesham Grammar School. Also a town council ward.", "Waterside, once a hamlet located just south of the town centre. Several mills sprung up along the River Chess which flows through the area as well as factories. It still retains a distinct character with a large open space known as the Moor. Also a town council ward.", "Landmarks\n\nClock tower\nA clock tower constructed in 1992 stands in Market Square on the site of Chesham's 18th-century town hall demolished in 1965. The turret is a reconstruction of the one built onto the original town hall in the 19th century and features the original glass-dialled clock face and clock mechanism from the mid 19th century.", "War memorial\nChesham war memorial stands in a landscaped garden in the Broadway. It depicts an infantryman with his rifle inverted and commemorates those who fell during the First and Second World Wars. It was designed by the sculptor Arthur George Walker and unveiled in 1921. The inscription reads:- To The Glorious Memory Of The Men Of The Town Who Gave Their Lives And To Honour: All Who Served Or Suffered In Cause Of God King And Country Their Deeds Live After Them Faithful Unto Death.\n\nEconomy", "Agriculture", "There is evidence during the pre-Norman period of common fields being divided into parcels and strips of land. The Domesday Book records Chesham with sufficient arable land to support four water-powered corn mills on the River Chess producing a surplus of flour exported to London. There was woodland to feed over 1600 pigs and supply timber for local manufacturing of farm tools (ploughshares)", ". Field enclosure started in the early 16th century and although almost completed by the mid 19th century the productivity of Chesham farms provided work for over 450 agricultural labourers. Sheep that grazed on the hillside fields around Chesham provided wool for the cloth making and dying cottage industry which, due to the town's proximity to London, thrived until the 18th century when Yorkshire mills out-competed them.", "Industrial Revolution", "Until the 18th century, the economic activity of Chesham had remained largely unchanged since the granting of its town charter in 1257. The commercial planting of beechwoods established Chesham as one of a number of local centres in the Chilterns for the production of turned furniture components and other wooden items often called bodging, produced in local workshops", ". Mills along the Chess concerned with papermaking and silk weaving continued to operate until the middle of the 19th century, as did 'outworkers' engaged in lace making and straw plaiting, whose employment was impacted on by changes in fashion and due to mechanisation and from cheaper imports from the continent", ". The mineral-laden, unpolluted water of the Chess made it ideal for growing watercress and this industry flourished in Chesham in the Victorian era, with beds extending along the Chess towards Latimer, which continued in operation until after the Second World War.", "Manufacturing and brewing", "In the 18th century, home-based leather trade workers moved to the newly opened Barnes Boot factory, and to the Britannia Boot and Shoe Works towards the end of the 19th century. By this time, there were eight major manufacturers and many small workshops. In 1829 Beechwoods brushmaking factory was opened. At its height there were around 12 factories specialising in brushes made from locally grown beech, with bristles imported mainly from across Asia", ". The adoption of nylon for brushes was the cause of the downturn with only one manufacturer remaining today, Russell's Brushes.", "Nash's Chesham Brewery opened in the High Street in 1841. Two other notable rivals were Darvell's Brewery and Sarah Howe and Sons. Competition led to amalgamations around the start of the 20th century although brewing continued at Chesham Brewery until the 1950s.\n\nCommerce today", "Today Chesham has a diverse economic base comprising many typically small-medium-sized enterprises representing all business sectors. Within the two industrial parks light engineering and fabrication industry is to be found alongside printers and graphic designers or other technology-based firms, wholesalers, distribution and courier businesses. As elsewhere, there has been an expansion of professional business services and consultancies", ". As elsewhere, there has been an expansion of professional business services and consultancies. The pedestrianised High Street retains some of the character of the old market town with some long-established traditional family retailers and also features a street market on Wednesdays and Saturdays. This individuality was recognised in a survey of town 'high streets' which gave Chesham good marks for its distinctiveness", ". There are two of the 'big five' supermarkets present which have impacted on the town's independent stores and all retail outlets have also to compete with other nearby town centres, at Amersham, Berkhamsted and Tring as well as the large shopping centres in High Wycombe, Watford and Milton Keynes.", "Governance\n\nParliamentary representation\n\nThe town was part of the Aylesbury constituency from 1885 to 1974. Since the boundary changes that were made ahead of the February 1974 general election, Chesham has been in the Chesham & Amersham constituency. The constituency was traditionally solidly Conservative; it never returned a non-Tory candidate until a by-election in June 2021 following the death of previous MP Cheryl Gillan returned the present Liberal Democrat MP, Sarah Green.", "Local government\nChesham has two tiers of local government: Chesham Town Council and Buckinghamshire Council. Chesham Town Council is based at Chesham Town Hall.", "The parish of Chesham was made a Local Government District in 1884, governed by a local board, which then became Chesham Urban District Council in 1894. The urban district council was abolished in 1974, merging with the neighbouring Amersham Rural District to become Chiltern District, whilst Chesham Town Council was established as a successor parish covering the area of the abolished urban district", ". Chiltern District was abolished in 2020, merging with the other Buckinghamshire authorities to become a unitary authority called Buckinghamshire Council.", "Coat of arms\nChesham Urban District Council was granted a coat of arms in 1961, which subsequently transferred to Chesham Town Council. The colours are the same as those of Buckinghamshire County arms. The Chiltern woodlands are denoted by two beech trees. The river Chess is recognised in the black and white chequers and rooks. The swan is inherited from the Dukes of Buckingham. The lilies relate to St Mary, patron saint of the parish church.", "The buck's head is borrowed from the arms of The Cavendish family, which owned most of the parish lands. The motto is from the Epistle to the Galatians, Chapter V, Verse 13.", "Public services\n\nEmergency services", "Thames Valley Police headquartered in Kidlington, Oxfordshire is accountable for the delivery of policing through the town's three Neighbourhood Policing Teams. Buckinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service based in Aylesbury oversees the town's fire and rescue services. There is a fire station located in Bellingdon Road which is supplemented by services from the station at Amersham and other nearby towns. Ambulance services are managed by South Central Ambulance Service NHS Trust based in Bicester, Oxford", ". The nearest ambulance station is located in Amersham.", "Health services", "Buckinghamshire NHS Primary Care Trust has overall responsibility for the provision of health services to the local community. Since the closure of the town's cottage hospital in 2004, the nearest hospitals are Amersham Hospital, Wycombe Hospital and Stoke Mandeville Hospital. After several years of uncertainty, in 2008 the PCT confirmed it was proceeding with the Chesham Healthzone Project", ". Planning approval was granted by the district council in June 2009 for the purpose-built health facility comprising, two GP practices, a pharmacy, consulting, clinical and treatment rooms. Originally scheduled to open in 2010, phase 1 of the Chess Medical Centre opened in December 2011.", "Utilities\nVeolia Water Central supplies drinking water to the town extracted from the River Chess and Misbourne and from aquifers in the Chiltern Hills. Thames Water undertakes waste water treatment and has a sewage treatment works beside the River Chess on Latimer Road to the south of the town. Chiltern District Council is responsible for waste management and collection and disposal is currently carried out on its behalf by Serco. EDF Energy provides electricity supply for the town.\n\nReligion", "The oldest church building in Chesham is St. Mary's Church which dates from at least the 12th century. Chesham has a long history of religious dissent, such as the persecuted Lollards, followers of the John Wycliffe tradition. One of them, Thomas Harding, was martyred on White Hill, near Dungrove Farm, in 1532. The Amersham Martyrs Memorial commemorates the execution of local Lollards in Amersham, and there are memorials to Thomas Harding in the churchyard and on White Hill", ". The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the rapid growth of non-conformism especially Baptists. During the English civil war there were groups of Quakers, Baptists and Presbyterians. Broadway Baptist Church dates back to at least 1706 and had its 300th anniversary celebrations in Chesham in 2006. Its roots are in the Chesham and Berkhamsted Baptist Church which dates back to 1640.", "In the present day, Chesham has four Baptist churches (Broadway Baptist, Trinity Baptist and Newtown Baptist) and four Anglican churches (St Mary's, Christ Church in Waterside, Hope Church, formerly called Hiving's Free Church, in Upper Belmont Road and Emmanuel in Newtown)", ". There is a United Reformed Church, formerly called the Congregational Church, in The Broadway, there was a Gospel Hall in Station Road (which closed at the end of 2008), a Roman Catholic church (St Columba's) in Berkhampstead Road (built in 1960), a Methodist chapel in Bellingdon Road, a Salvation Army Citadel in Broad St (closed in 2015), an historic Quaker Friends Meeting House in Bellingdon Road, The King's Church charismatic fellowship which meets at Chesham Park Community College", ". Almost all of the Christian churches of Chesham work collectively as part of the Churches Together for Chesham (CTfC) group, which has 16 churches in membership. Other religious groups include Chesham Spiritualist Church in Higham Road and the Jehovah's Witnesses off Bellingdon Road.", "During the Second World War, the first recorded Jewish congregation was founded by families evacuated from London who used to meet at the cricket pavilion. After the war, they combined with the Jewish community in Amersham which met at the synagogue in Amersham-on-the-Hill until 1968. This was succeeded by a Liberal Jewish community formed in 1990 which now meets at Chesham Grammar School.", "During the second half of the 20th century, a sizeable Muslim community became established in the town. Chesham Mosque, the first purpose-built mosque, was completed in 2005 and is located in Bellingdon Road.\n\nDemography", "Demographics based on 2011 census for the population of Chesham\n Population of Chesham parish in 2011 was 21,483 comprising 10,600 male and 10,883 female\n Status = 51.2% Married, 0.2% Civil p,ship, 34.5% Single (incl widowed, divorced etc.)\n Housing = 67.6% owner occ'd, 0.9% shared ownership, 20.6% rented (pub) 10.1% rented (private)\n Car ownership = 83% of households in the town own a car.\n Work/studying = 54% employed, 13.2% self-employed, 2.4% Studying,", "Work/studying = 54% employed, 13.2% self-employed, 2.4% Studying,\n Not working = 12.9% retired, 5.9% unemployed, 5.0% caring for family, 2.8% = unable to work\n Travel to work = 66.0% car, 11.5% train, 2.4% bus, 1.8% motor/bi cycle, 10.0% on foot, 6.8% at home.", "† prior to boundary changes in 1974 reducing size of Chesham Town area\n\nTransport", "Rail", "Chesham tube station, close to the town centre, is the terminus for the Chesham branch, a single-track spur off the London Underground Metropolitan line connecting to Chalfont & Latimer station. The station was opened on 8 July 1889 by the Metropolitan Railway (MR). The line had been intended to extend to Tring with connections to the London and North Western Railways West Coast Main Line", ". However, the MR chose an alternative route across the Chilterns and so the idea was abandoned and the Metropolitan line continued to Aylesbury via Amersham. There were some sizeable goods yards beyond the station, which were closed and now function as Waitrose's car park except for one portion occupied by coal merchants.", "In 1959 electrification of the Metropolitan line to Chesham provided a more reliable connection to London. Following the cessation of London Underground services to Aylesbury in 1961 and the closure of Ongar in 1994, Chesham has become the furthest location served from central London, in terms of both distance and travelling time. Prior to December 2010, apart from a few direct trains to London at peak times, a shuttle service operated to and from Chalfont & Latimer", ". Since then the town has benefited from direct trains to London all day.", "The nearest National Rail connections are at Amersham, although the LU line also connects directly to Chalfont & Latimer station, from where the Metropolitan line and Chiltern Railways provide a joint service with Metropolitan line trains travelling to Baker Street and Aldgate and Chiltern Railways trains travelling to Marylebone. There is also access to London via Berkhamsted railway station on the West Coast Main Line.", "Roads", "In contrast to other towns in south Buckinghamshire, Chesham historically was not well served by road transport links. The stage coach bypassed the town and, unlike Amersham, there were no turnpikes and consequently roads were poorly maintained. Significant change occurred in the post Second World War period with the opening of the M1 motorway. The A416 now runs through the town, from Amersham to Berkhamsted, and connects the town to the more recently upgraded A41", ". The A416 was diverted around the High Street and later upgraded to be dual-lane. Although these improvements enable more through traffic, traffic congestion has increased. Chesham's High Street was pedestrianised in 1990 and the benefits to the High Street have been felt ever since. Whilst some of the previous bustle has been lost, the impact of pedestrianisation has generally been positive.", "Bus services\nBus companies running local services include Arriva, Carousel Buses, Red Rose, Redline and Red Eagle.\n\nResidential areas of the town are connected with the central shopping-area. Chesham is also connected by services to nearby Amersham, and further afield to High Wycombe, Hemel Hempstead, and Uxbridge.\nLess frequent services run to Aylesbury and to surrounding villages.", "Car usage and parking\nThere are six pay and display car parks in the town, managed by Chiltern District Council. This demand for parking reflects the relatively high car usage, a result of both affluence and the limited public transport provision in rural areas. As a consequence\nChiltern District has the 4th highest carbon footprint of all local authorities.", "Cycling\nThere is limited provision for cycle use within the town. The town is one setting off point for exploring the Chilterns and cycling heritage trails have been developed by the district authority, two of which are centred on countryside around Chesham.\n\nAir transport\nLuton airport is 15 miles away and Heathrow airport 22 miles away. The Bovingdon stack is directly above the town.\n\nEducation", "Primary education", "Between the 1960s and the mid-1990s Primary education provision in Chesham was organised into First (ages 4–8) and Middle (ages 8 – 12) with some Combined Schools taking pupils across the whole age range (4 -12). In 1996 the arrangements were modified and the age of transfer to Secondary education was changed to age 11. The schools still retain some elements of the previous arrangement reflected in their names", ". The schools still retain some elements of the previous arrangement reflected in their names. There are six Primary Schools within Chesham with catchment areas based on post codes: – Elmtree First School, Newtown Infant School, Brushwood Junior School, Thomas Harding Junior School, Ivingswood Academy (previously Little Spring Primary School), Waterside Combined School. Attendance by Chesham children at some of the village schools close to the town is popular.", "Secondary education", "At secondary level, Buckinghamshire continues to operate a system of selective education with pupils sitting the eleven plus exam to determine entry to either a Grammar school or Secondary Modern School (also known locally as an Upper School)", ". Two Secondary Schools are located in the town: – Chiltern Hills Academy, a co-educational Church of England Academy, previously known as Chesham Park Community College which was formed from the merger of Lowndes School and Cestreham School) and Chesham Grammar School, a co-educational grammar school, which until May 2010 was called Chesham High School", ". Chesham also falls within the catchment areas of two further grammar schools, Dr Challoner's Grammar School for boys' in Amersham and Dr Challoner's High School for girls in Little Chalfont.", "In the Chiltern and South Bucks area around Chesham and over the county border in Hertfordshire there are also a number of independent fee-paying schools providing education between ages 4–13 and up to age 18. Chesham Preparatory School is an independent school which opened in 1938 in the town and shortly after relocated to the outskirts of Chesham at Orchard Leigh, providing fee-paying and scholarship-supported education.", "Special, further and adult education provision\nChesham is the location of a nationally renowned Special school, Heritage House School which first opened in April 1968 and caters for pupils between the ages of 2 and 19 with severe learning difficulties.", "A Further education college Amersham & Wycombe College was founded in 1973 and has one of its four campuses in the town on the former Cestreham Senior Boys School at Lycrome Road. The college caters for a range of student cohorts with 2000 students on full-time courses and 5000 on a part-time bases.", "Adult learning comprising a range of provision including academic, vocational and leisure courses, is provided a four sites in the town. Chesham Adult Learning Centre in Charteridge Lane, ElmTree School, ElmTree Hill, The Douglas McMinn Centre in East Street and The White Hill Centre White Hill.\nThe Chess Valley section of the Chiltern University of the Third Age (U3A) was formed in October 2008 in response to increasing demand for activities in the area and meets at St Mary's Church.", "Culture and recreation\n\nCommunity facilities", "The Elgiva Hall opened on its original location in 1976. In 1998, having made way for an enlarged supermarket development the Elgiva was rebuilt as a purpose-built theatre on its current site and reopened as the New Elgiva. Now rebranded The Elgiva it is a 300 seated/400 standing capacity theatre, with a Dolby Digital 35mm cinema and is owned and managed by Chesham Town Council", ". The Elgiva presents a wide-ranging programme of professional and amateur theatre productions, musicals, comedy, dance, one night shows and concerts, pantomimes, films, exhibitions and other public and private events by both professional and community organisations. The Little Theatre by the Park is a facility owned by the Town Council and leased to the Little Theatre Trustees", ". It is the home to the Chesham Bois Catholic Players and used by other local theatre companies and is used for dance and exercise groups.", "Chesham Museum is a newly established museum for the town and surrounding area which opened in 2004 having first been conceived in 1981. Initially it was housed in temporary premises at The Stables behind the Gamekeeper's Lodge Pub in Bellingdon Road. Since October 2009 it has been located at 15 Market Square. There is also an annual Schools of Chesham carnival, Beer festival and bi-annual Chesham festival.", "Chesham Library opened in Chesham in 1923 in a room at Cemetery Lodge on Berkhamsted Road. In 1927, it moved into new premises at 33 High Street on the Broadway which it shared with Chesham Urban District Council. After the war it expanded. A children's section was added in 1952. In 1971 the library moved to Elgiva Lane, a site it shared with the Elgive Theatre prior to the latter's relocation to new premises", ". Since then it has been updated to provide better access and improved internal facilities including the evolution of the reference library into a Study Centre. It also houses a special collection of Victorian era children's books including some previously owned by Florence Nightingale.", "The White Hill Centre, the site of an old school, is run by Chesham and District Community Association and since 1976 has provided educational, recreational social activities and facilities for societies and the local community to meet.", "Opposite the town centre is Lowndes Park, a large park with playgrounds and formerly an open air paddling pool. There is a large pond in the park, known as Skottowe's Pond. Lowndes Park was donated to the town of Chesham in 1953. Prior to this it was part of the garden that belonged to the Lowndes family", ". Prior to this it was part of the garden that belonged to the Lowndes family. The Moor, originally an island created by the diversion of the Chess to power mills is today an open space used for recreation and the location for travelling fairs which moved from their traditional location in the town centre in 1938. There are two public swimming pools in the town. An outdoor pool at the Moor in Waterside and a roofed pool (and leisure centre), next to Chesham Grammar School at the top of White Hill", ". The Town Council manages 227 allotments spread across three sites. There are 135 footpaths in the Chesham area and in May 2010 the town became the first in the Chilterns to be recognised as a \"Walkers are Welcome Town\".", "Sport", "Chesham United F.C. is the local football club which plays in the Southern League .v At the end of the 2009–2010 season it was promoted to the Premier Division. It was formed in 1917 through the merger of Chesham Generals (the team of the Chesham General Baptist church now called Broadway Baptist Church), which was founded in 1887, and Chesham Town FC (started as the football team of Christ Church, Waterside), a founding member of the Southern League which started out in 1894 as Chesham FC", ". The club's most successful period was during the 1967–68 season when it reached the final of the FA Amateur Cup at Wembley but lost out to Leytonstone F.C. 1–0 in front of a crowd of 54,000. The club has struggled financially and performance-wise over recent years but has recently had a cash injection from a new financial backer.", "Chesham cricket club was founded in 1848 and is one of the oldest clubs in the Thames Valley Cricket League. Its home ground is at Amy Lane. In addition to four senior Saturday XIs it also runs two Sunday XIs and a women's side. Chesham also has a Junior section, which competes in Buckinghamshire and national competitions.", "Chesham Rugby union Club ('The Stags'), was founded in 1980 and play rugby for boys, girls and adult men and women at Chiltern Hills Academy. The Stags also run netball teams playing in local leagues for girls and women.", "Town twinning and cultural exchanges", "Chesham has twinned with three towns in other countries. It is organised by the Chesham Town Twinning Association. The first link-up was in 1980 with Friedrichsdorf, at the foot of the Taunus Hills near Frankfurt, Germany. Next followed the association with Houilles, a commune of Paris, France, in 1986 and thirdly, in 1995 a tie-up with Archena, in the Murcia region of Spain.", "Some organisations also have international links. Emmanuel Church is linked with a church in Prague, Czech Republic. Chesham British Legion is linked with its Canadian equivalent in Buckingham, Quebec. Ley Hill Methodist Church is linked with Skopje Methodist Church in Macedonia.", "Media, communications and filmography\n\nLocal news media\nThe local newspaper covering Chesham and the surrounding area, although it no longer has an office based in the town, is the Buckinghamshire Examiner founded in 1889. Another Buckinghamshire newspaper with a circulation area covering Chesham is the Bucks Free Press.\n\nLocal Radio\nRadio stations are BBC Three Counties Radio and Heart London. \n\nThe Ofcom licensed community radio station for the Chilterns is Chiltern Voice, which broadcasts on 107.4fm.", "TV and mobile phone signals", "Due to its position in a fold in the hill, TV and radio reception in Chesham can be poor and the town now has its own TV mast. In the 1970s, Chesham was one of the last towns in the south east to receive BBC2, and parts of it still cannot receive Channel 5", ". Houses taking their TV reception from the Chesham transmitter have vertically polarised aerials, whilst those in a good enough position receive their signal from the Crystal Palace Transmitter in London with horizontally polarised aerials – they always could receive BBC2 (and indeed Channel 4 & Channel 5). Digital terrestrial television coverage is patchy for much the same reason. Mobile phone reception can be poor in the steeper parts of Chesham and outlying villages.", "Filmography\nThe following TV series and episodes included filming in Chesham's Old Town and pedestrianised High Street:\nThe Professionals Close Quarters (1978) – Hundridge Manor\nHammer House of Horror: Carpathian Eagle (1980) – Lowndes Park: The Silent Scream (1980) – 68 Broad Street\nInspector Morse The Day of the Devil (1993) – High Street", "Inspector Morse The Day of the Devil (1993) – High Street\nMidsomer Murders: The Axeman Cometh (2007) – Market Sq; Written in Blood (1997) – High St and Old Town; Sins of Commission – High St; Things that Go Bump in the Night (2004) – Market Sq; The Black Book – 15 Market Sq (2009); The Sword of Guillaume (2010) High St, Broadway War Memorial\nNuzzle and Scratch (2009) – CBeebies programme, Toy Shop episode filmed on the high street outside Harvey Johns\nScoop (2009) – High Street and Town", "Scoop (2009) – High Street and Town\nChucklevision Well Suited (2000) – High Street (opening scene)\nBlack Mirror: \"The National Anthem\" (2011) – desolate shots of the High Street and of an area near The Vale are shown near the end\nThe Imitation Game – 73 Church Street appears as Alan Turing's lodging house in Bletchley, and also appears briefly in Dirk Bogarde vehicle The Password Is Courage (1962)\nDoctor Foster – The Chess Medical Centre", "Notable people\nLeonard James Ashton, (27 June 1915 – 19 January 2001) was an English Anglican bishop and military chaplain. He was the inaugural Bishop in Cyprus and the Gulf, lived in Chesham.\nAneurin \"Nye\" Bevan, Labour politician and father of the National Health Service, moved to Asheridge Farm near Chesham, where he died on 6 July 1960.\nVal Biro children's author of the Gumdrop books lived in Chesham from 1955 to 1969. He died in 2014 aged 92.", "Alfred Alexander Burt served in the Great War and 'for most conspicuous bravery at Cuinchy, France on 27 September 1915 was a recipient of the Victoria Cross. He lived in the town until his death, in 1962, aged 67.\nThomas Pownall Boultbee d.1884 was a clergyman who on his death was buried in the town where he and his son both preached.\nAlice Connor, actress, attended Chartridge Combined School in Chesham.", "Alice Connor, actress, attended Chartridge Combined School in Chesham.\nRoger Crab, who lived in what is now The Drawingroom Art Gallery and Restaurant, in Francis Yard was an eccentric who Lewis Carroll is supposed to have based his \"Mad Hatter\" character from Alice in Wonderland on.\nAndrew Davis b.1944 is a British conductor who was born in nearby Asheridge and grew up in the town.\nEdward Field b.1828 in Chesham was a Rear Admiral in the Royal Navy and later a member of parliament.", "Stephen Fry spent part of his childhood in Chesham, attending Chesham Prep School as detailed in his autobiography Moab is my Washpot. He lived in Stanley Avenue.\nJoan Gardner b.1911 in Chesham became an actress of stage and screen.", "Joan Gardner b.1911 in Chesham became an actress of stage and screen.\nThomas Harding, 16th-century English religious dissident. He was from Chesham and was executed as a Lollard in 1532. He fought for the right to read the scriptures in English. He was accused of heresy and interrogated in Chesham parish church. He was found guilty and was burnt at the stake in 1532, at Chesham in the Pell, near Botley.\nCharles Townsend Harrison art historian and critic was born in Chesham in 1942.", "Charles Townsend Harrison art historian and critic was born in Chesham in 1942.\nRob Hoey, comedian, actor and musician, lives in Chesham.", "Eddie Howe, the manager of the Champions League soccer team Newwcastle United F.C. was born in neighbouring Amersham but grew up in Chesham.\nAlex Horne, standup comedian currently lives in Chesham.\nArthur Lasenby Liberty, founder of the famous Liberty store in London, lived in a house next to the George & Dragon in the High Street.\nWilliam Lowndes (1652–1724) British Politician and Secretary to the Treasury who built and lived at Bury House as did many of his relatives and descendants", "Harold Mattingly d.1964 was a historian and numismatist who lived and is buried in the town.\nMargaret Mee, (1909–1988) was born in the town and attended Dr Challoner's Grammar School, Amersham. Studied art, and with her husband, Greville Mee moved to Brazil where she taught art and became a renowned botanical artist, particularly the flora of the Amazon rainforest.", "Arthur T. F. Reynolds (1909–2001) was born in the town and later became a Protestant missionary in China and Japan. He was the author or translator of a number of books.\nMilton Rosmer, film actor, director and screenwriter was living in the town at the time of his death in 1971.\nIrene Rooke, theatre and film actress, married to Milton Rosmer, lived the latter period of her life until her death in 1958 in the town.", "Ghayasuddin Siddiqui, leading Islamic intellectual and community leader. Founder and director of the Muslim Institute and of the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain. Lives in Chesham.\nGuy Siner, who starred in 'Allo 'Allo! currently resides in Chesham.\nFrancis Wilson, TV weatherman. Used to live in Chesham.", "Freedom of the Town\nThe following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Chesham.\n\nIndividuals\n Vincent Crompton: 14 May 2015.\n Katherine Merchant: 9 May 2019.\n Rocky Clarke MBE: 9 May 2019. \n Mora Walker: 9 May 2019.\n Rod Culverhouse: 9 May 2019.\n Philip Folly.\n Helen Salisbury: 27 September 2021\n\nMilitary Units\n\nSee also\nNearby towns, villages and hamlets", "Military Units\n\nSee also\nNearby towns, villages and hamlets\n\nAmersham\nAsheridge\nAshley Green\nBallinger\nBellingdon\nBuckland Common\nChartridge\nChesham Bois\nCholesbury\nFlaunden\nHawridge\nHyde Heath\nLatimer\nLey Hill\nLye Green\nPednor\nSt Leonards\nWhelpley Hill\n\nOther articles\nLord Chesham\n\nFurther reading\n\nBaines, Arnold & Foxell, Shirley. \"The Life & Times of Thomas Harding, Chesham's Lollard Martyr\" Clive Foxell 2010", "Foxell, Clive \"The Lowndes Chesham Estate- the early photographs\" Clive Foxell 2011\nFoxell, Clive \"The Ten Cinemas of Chesham\" Clive Foxell 2010\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nChesham Town Council\nChesham Museum\nThe Chesham Society\n\n \nTowns in Buckinghamshire\nMarket towns in Buckinghamshire\nCivil parishes in Buckinghamshire" ]

[ "Dilophosaurus ( ) is a genus of theropod dinosaurs that lived in what is now North America during the Early Jurassic, about 186 million years ago. Three skeletons were discovered in northern Arizona in 1940, and the two best preserved were collected in 1942. The most complete specimen became the holotype of a new species in the genus Megalosaurus, named M. wetherilli by Samuel P. Welles in 1954. Welles found a larger skeleton belonging to the same species in 1964", ". Welles in 1954. Welles found a larger skeleton belonging to the same species in 1964. Realizing it bore crests on its skull, he assigned the species to the new genus Dilophosaurus in 1970, as Dilophosaurus wetherilli. The genus name means \"two-crested lizard\", and the species name honors John Wetherill, a Navajo councilor. Further specimens have since been found, including an infant. Footprints have also been attributed to the animal, including resting traces", ". Footprints have also been attributed to the animal, including resting traces. Another species, Dilophosaurus sinensis from China, was named in 1993, but was later found to belong to the genus Sinosaurus.", "At about in length, with a weight of about , Dilophosaurus was one of the earliest large predatory dinosaurs and the largest known land-animal in North America at the time. It was slender and lightly built, and the skull was proportionally large, but delicate. The snout was narrow, and the upper jaw had a gap or kink below the nostril. It had a pair of longitudinal, arched crests on its skull; their complete shape is unknown, but they were probably enlarged by keratin", ". The mandible was slender and delicate at the front, but deep at the back. The teeth were long, curved, thin, and compressed sideways. Those in the lower jaw were much smaller than those of the upper jaw. Most of the teeth had serrations at their front and back edges. The neck was long, and its vertebrae were hollow, and very light. The arms were powerful, with a long and slender upper arm bone", ". The arms were powerful, with a long and slender upper arm bone. The hands had four fingers; the first was short but strong and bore a large claw, the two following fingers were longer and slenderer with smaller claws; the fourth was vestigial. The thigh bone was massive, the feet were stout, and the toes bore large claws.", "Dilophosaurus has been considered a member of the family Dilophosauridae along with Dracovenator, a group placed between the Coelophysidae and later theropods, but some researchers have not found support for this grouping. Dilophosaurus would have been active and bipedal, and may have hunted large animals; it could also have fed on smaller animals and fish. Due to the limited range of movement and shortness of the forelimbs, the mouth may instead have made first contact with prey", ". The function of the crests is unknown; they were too weak for battle, but may have been used in visual display, such as species recognition and sexual selection. It may have grown rapidly, attaining a growth rate of per year early in life. The holotype specimen had multiple paleopathologies, including healed injuries and signs of a developmental anomaly. Dilophosaurus is known from the Kayenta Formation, and lived alongside dinosaurs such as Scutellosaurus and Sarahsaurus", ". It was designated as the state dinosaur of Connecticut based on tracks found there. Dilophosaurus was featured in the novel Jurassic Park and its movie adaptation, wherein it was given the fictional abilities to spit venom and expand a neck frill, as well as being smaller than the real animal.", "History of discovery", "In the summer of 1942, the paleontologist Charles L. Camp led a field party from the University of California Museum of Paleontology (UCMP) in search of fossil vertebrates in Navajo County in northern Arizona. Word of this was spread among the Native Americans there, and the Navajo Jesse Williams brought three members of the expedition to some fossil bones he had discovered in 1940. The area was part of the Kayenta Formation, about north of Cameron near Tuba City in the Navajo Indian Reservation", ". Three dinosaur skeletons were found in purplish shale, arranged in a triangle, about long at one side. The first was nearly complete, lacking only the front of the skull, parts of the pelvis, and some vertebrae. The second was very eroded, included the front of the skull, lower jaws, some vertebrae, limb bones, and an articulated hand. The third was so eroded that it consisted only of vertebral fragments", ". The third was so eroded that it consisted only of vertebral fragments. The first good skeleton was encased in a block of plaster after 10 days of work and loaded onto a truck, the second skeleton was easily collected, as it was almost entirely weathered out of the ground, but the third skeleton was almost gone.", "The nearly complete first specimen was cleaned and mounted at the UCMP under supervision of the paleontologist Wann Langston, a process that took three men two years. The skeleton was wall-mounted in bas relief, with the tail curved upwards, the neck straightened, and the left leg moved up for visibility, but the rest of the skeleton was kept in its burial position. As the skull was crushed, it was reconstructed based on the back of the skull of the first specimen and the front of the second", ". The pelvis was reconstructed after that of Allosaurus, and the feet were also reconstructed. At the time, it was one of the best-preserved skeletons of a theropod dinosaur, though incomplete. In 1954, the paleontologist Samuel P. Welles, who was part of the group who excavated the skeletons, preliminarily described and named this dinosaur as a new species in the existing genus Megalosaurus, M. wetherilli", ". wetherilli. The nearly complete specimen (catalogued as UCMP 37302) was made the holotype of the species, and the second specimen (UCMP 37303) was made the paratype. The specific name honored John Wetherill, a Navajo councilor whom Welles described as an \"explorer, friend of scientists, and trusted trader\". Wetherill's nephew, Milton, had first informed the expedition of the fossils. Welles placed the new species in Megalosaurus due to the similar limb proportions of it and M", ". Welles placed the new species in Megalosaurus due to the similar limb proportions of it and M. bucklandii, and because he did not find great differences between them. At the time, Megalosaurus was used as a \"wastebasket taxon\", wherein many species of theropods were placed, regardless of their age or locality.", "Welles returned to Tuba City in 1964 to determine the age of the Kayenta Formation (it had been suggested to be Late Triassic in age, whereas Welles thought it was Early to Middle Jurassic), and discovered another skeleton about south of where the 1942 specimens had been found. The nearly complete specimen (catalogued as UCMP 77270) was collected with the help of William J. Breed of the Museum of Northern Arizona and others", ". Breed of the Museum of Northern Arizona and others. During preparation of this specimen, it became clear that it was a larger individual of M. wetherilli, and that it would have had two crests on the top of its skull. Being a thin plate of bone, one crest was originally thought to be part of the missing left side of the skull, which had been pulled out of its position by a scavenger", ". When it became apparent that it was a crest, it was also realized that a corresponding crest would have been on the left side, since the right crest was right of the midline, and was concave along its middle length. This discovery led to re-examination of the holotype specimen, which was found to have bases of two thin, upwards-extended bones, which were crushed together. These also represented crests, but they had formerly been assumed to be part of a misplaced cheek bone", ". The two 1942 specimens were also found to be juveniles, while the 1964 specimen was an adult, about one-third larger than the others. Welles later recalled that he thought the crests were as unexpected as finding \"wings on a worm\".", "New genus and subsequent discoveries", "Welles and an assistant subsequently corrected the wall mount of the holotype specimen based on the new skeleton, by restoring the crests, redoing the pelvis, making the neck ribs longer, and placing them closer together. After studying the skeletons of North American and European theropods, Welles realized that the dinosaur did not belong to Megalosaurus, and needed a new genus name", ". At that time, no other theropods with large longitudinal crests on their heads were known, and the dinosaur had therefore gained the interest of paleontologists. A mold of the holotype specimen was made, and fiberglass casts of it were distributed to various exhibits; to make labeling these casts easier, Welles decided to name the new genus in a brief note, rather than wait until the publication of a detailed description", ". In 1970, Welles coined the new genus name Dilophosaurus, from the Greek words di (δι) meaning \"two\", lophos (λόφος) meaning \"crest\", and sauros () meaning \"lizard\": \"two-crested lizard\". Welles published a detailed osteological description of Dilophosaurus in 1984, but did not include the 1964 specimen, since he thought it belonged to a different genus. Dilophosaurus was the first well-known theropod from the Early Jurassic, and remains one of the best-preserved examples of that age.", "In 2001, the paleontologist Robert J. Gay identified the remains of at least three new Dilophosaurus specimens (this number is based on the presence of three pubic bone fragments and two differentially sized femora) in the collections of the Museum of Northern Arizona. The specimens were found in 1978 in the Rock Head Quadrangle, away from where the original specimens were found, and had been labeled as a \"large theropod\"", ". Though most of the material is damaged, it is significant in including elements not preserved in the earlier specimens, including part of the pelvis and several ribs. Some elements in the collection belonged to an infant specimen (MNA P1.3181), the youngest known example of this genus, and one of the earliest known infant theropods from North America, only preceded by some Coelophysis specimens. The juvenile specimen includes a partial humerus, a partial fibula, and a tooth fragment", ". The juvenile specimen includes a partial humerus, a partial fibula, and a tooth fragment. In 2005, paleontologist Ronald S. Tykoski assigned a specimen (TMM 43646-140) from Gold Spring, Arizona, to Dilophosaurus, but in 2012, paleontologist Matthew T. Carrano and colleagues found it to differ in some details.", "In 2020, the paleontologists Adam D. Marsh and Timothy B. Rowe comprehensively redescribed Dilophosaurus based on the by then known specimens, including specimen UCMP 77270 which had remained undescribed since 1964. They also removed some previously assigned specimens, finding them too fragmentary to identify, and relocated the type quarry with the help of a relative of Jesse Williams", ". In an interview, Marsh called Dilophosaurus the \"best worst-known dinosaur\", since the animal was poorly understood despite having been discovered 80 years earlier. A major problem was that previous studies of the specimens did not make clear which parts were original fossils and which were reconstructed in plaster, yet subsequent researchers only had Welles' 1984 monograph to rely on for subsequent studies, muddling understanding of the dinosaur's anatomy", ". Marsh spent seven years studying the specimens to clarify the issues surrounding the dinosaur, including two specimens found two decades earlier by Rowe, his Ph.D. advisor.", "Formerly assigned species", "In 1984, Welles suggested that the 1964 specimen (UCMP 77270) did not belong to Dilophosaurus, but to a new genus, based on differences in the skull, vertebrae, and femora. He maintained that both genera bore crests, but that the exact shape of these was unknown in Dilophosaurus. Welles died in 1997, before he could name this supposed new dinosaur, and the idea that the two were separate genera has generally been ignored or forgotten since", ". In 1999, amateur paleontologist Stephan Pickering privately published the new name Dilophosaurus \"breedorum\" based on the 1964 specimen, named in honor of Breed, who had assisted in collecting it. This name is considered a nomen nudum, an invalidly published name, and Gay pointed out in 2005 that no significant differences exist between D. \"breedorum\" and other D. wetherilli specimens", ". \"breedorum\" and other D. wetherilli specimens. In 2012, Carrano and colleagues found differences between the 1964 specimen and the holotype specimen, but attributed them to variation between individuals rather than species. Paleontologists Christophe Hendrickx and Octávio Mateus suggested in 2014 that the known specimens might represent two species of Dilophosaurus based on different skull features and stratigraphic separation, pending thorough description of assigned specimens", ". Marsh and Rowe concluded in 2020 that there was only one taxon among known Dilophosaurus specimens, and that differences between them were due to their different degree of maturity and preservation. They did not find considerable stratigraphic separation between the specimens either.", "A nearly complete theropod skeleton (KMV 8701) was discovered in the Lufeng Formation, in Yunnan Province, China, in 1987. It is similar to Dilophosaurus, with a pair of crests and a gap separating the premaxilla from the maxilla, but differs in some details. The paleontologist Shaojin Hu named it as a new species of Dilophosaurus in 1993, D. sinensis (from Greek Sinai, referring to China). In 1998, the paleontologist Matthew C. Lamanna and colleagues found D", ". In 1998, the paleontologist Matthew C. Lamanna and colleagues found D. sinensis to be identical to Sinosaurus triassicus, a theropod from the same formation, named in 1940. This conclusion was confirmed by paleontologist Lida Xing and colleagues in 2013, and though paleontologist Guo-Fu Wang and colleagues agreed the species belonged in Sinosaurus in 2017, they suggested it may be a separate species, S. sinensis.", "Description", "Dilophosaurus was one of the earliest large predatory dinosaurs, a medium-sized theropod, though small compared to some of the later theropods. It was also the largest known land-animal of North America during the Early Jurassic. Slender and lightly built, its size was comparable to that of a brown bear. The largest known specimen weighed about , measured about in length, and its skull was long. The smaller holotype specimen weighed about , was long, with a hip height of about , and its skull was long", ". A resting trace of a theropod similar to Dilophosaurus and Liliensternus has been interpreted by some researchers as showing impressions of feathers around the belly and feet, similar to down. Other researchers instead interpret these impressions as sedimentological artifacts created as the dinosaur moved, though this interpretation does not rule out that the track-maker could have borne feathers.", "Skull", "The skull of Dilophosaurus was large in proportion to the overall skeleton, yet delicate. The snout was narrow in front view, becoming narrower towards the rounded top. The premaxilla (front bone of the upper jaw) was long and low when seen from the side, bulbous at the front, and its outer surface became less convex from snout to naris (bony nostril). The nostrils were placed further back than in most other theropods", ". The nostrils were placed further back than in most other theropods. The premaxillae were in close articulation with each other, and while the premaxilla only connected to the maxilla (the following bone of the upper jaw) at the middle of the palate, with no connection at the side, they formed a strong joint through the robust, interlocking articulation between the hindwards and forwards directed processes of these bones", ". Hindwards and below, the premaxilla formed a wall for a gap between itself and the maxilla called the subnarial gap (also termed a \"kink\"). Such a gap is also present in coelophysoids, as well as other dinosaurs. The subnarial gap resulted in a diastema, a gap in the tooth row (which has also been called a \"notch\"). Within the subnarial gap was a deep excavation behind the toothrow of the premaxilla, called the subnarial pit, which was walled by a downwards keel of the premaxilla.", "The outer surface of the premaxilla was covered in foramina (openings) of varying sizes. The upper of the two backward-extending processes of the premaxilla was long and low, and formed most of the upper border of the elongated naris. It had a dip towards the font, which made the area by its base concave in profile. The underside of the premaxilla containing the alveoli (tooth sockets) was oval", ". The underside of the premaxilla containing the alveoli (tooth sockets) was oval. The maxilla was shallow, and was depressed around the antorbital fenestra (a large opening in front of the eye), forming a recess that was rounded towards the front, and smoother than the rest of the maxilla. A foramen called the preantorbital fenestra opened into this recess at the front bend. Large foramina ran on the side of the maxilla, above the alveoli", ". Large foramina ran on the side of the maxilla, above the alveoli. A deep nutrient groove ran backward from the subnarial pit along the base of the interdental plates (or rugosae) of the maxilla.", "Dilophosaurus bore a pair of high, thin, and arched (or plate-shaped) crests longitudinally on the skull roof. The crests (termed the nasolacrimal crests) began as low ridges on the premaxillae and were mainly formed by the upwards expanded and . These bones were coossified together (fusion during bone tissue formation), so the sutures between them cannot be determined", ". The lacrimal bone expanded into a thick, rugose boss, forming an arc at the upper front border of the orbit (eye socket), and supported the bottom of the back of the crest. Uniquely for this genus, the rim above the orbit continued hindwards and ended in a small, almost triangular process behind the orbit, which curved slightly outwards. Since only a short part of the upper surface of this process is unbroken, the rest of the crest may have risen above the skull over a distance of ~", ". The preserved part of the crest in UCMP 77270 is tallest around the midpoint of the antorbital fenestra's length. UCMP 77270 preserves the concave shelf between the bases of the crests, and when seen from the front, they are projected upwards and to the sides at an ~80° angle. Welles found the crests reminiscent of a double-crested cassowary, while Marsh and Rowe stated they were probably covered in keratin or keratinized skin", ". They pointed out that by comparison with helmeted guineafowl, the keratin on the crests of Dilophosaurus could have enlarged them much more than what is indicated by the bone. As only one specimen preserves much of the crests, whether they differed between individuals is unknown. CT scans show that air sacs (pockets of air that provide strength for and lighten bones) were present in the bones that surrounded the brain, and were continuous with the sinus cavities in the front of the skull", ". The antorbital fenestra was continuous with the side of the crests, which indicates the crests also had air sacs (a ridge of bone forms a roof over the antorbital fenestrae in most other theropods).", "The orbit was oval, and narrow towards the bottom. The jugal bone had two upwards-pointing processes, the first of which formed part of the lower margin of the antorbital fenestra, and part of the lower margin of the orbit. A projection from the quadrate bone into the lateral temporal fenestra (opening behind the eye) gave this a reniform (kidney-shaped) outline", ". The foramen magnum (the large opening at the back of the braincase) was about half the breadth of the occipital condyle, which was itself cordiform (heart-shaped), and had a short neck and a groove on the side. The mandible was slender and delicate at the front, but the articular region (where it connected with the skull) was massive, and the mandible was deep around the mandibular fenestra (an opening on its side)", ". The mandibular fenestra was small in Dilophosaurus, compared to that of coelophysoids, and reduced from front to back, uniquely for this genus. The dentary bone (the front part of the mandible where most of the teeth there were attached) had an up-curved rather than pointed chin. The chin had a large foramen at the tip, and a row of small foramina ran in rough parallel with the upper edge of the dentary", ". On the inner side, the mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the lower jaw connected) was flat and smooth, and showed no sign of being fused with its opposite half. A Meckelian foramen ran along the outer side of the dentary. The side surface of the had a unique pyramidal process in front of the articulation with the quadrate, and this horizontal ridge formed a shelf. The retroarticular process of the mandible (a backwards projection) was long.", "Dilophosaurus had four teeth in each premaxilla, 12 in each maxilla, and 17 in each dentary. The teeth were generally long, thin, and recurved, with relatively small bases. They were compressed sideways, oval in cross-section at the base, lenticular (lens-shaped) above, and slightly concave on their outer and inner sides. The largest tooth of the maxilla was either in or near the fourth alveolus, and the height of the tooth crowns decreased hindwards", ". The first tooth of the maxilla pointed slightly forwards from its alveolus because the lower border of the premaxilla process (which projected backward towards the maxilla) was upturned. The teeth of the dentary were much smaller than those of the maxilla. The third or fourth tooth in the dentary of Dilophosaurus and some coelophysoids was the largest there, and seems to have fit into the subnarial gap of the upper jaw", ". Most of the teeth had serrations on the front and back edges, which were offset by vertical grooves, and were smaller at the front. About 31 to 41  serrations were on the front edges, and 29 to 33 were on the back. At least the second and third teeth of the premaxilla had serrations, but the fourth tooth did not. The teeth were covered in a thin layer of enamel, thick, which extended far towards their bases", ". The teeth were covered in a thin layer of enamel, thick, which extended far towards their bases. The alveoli were elliptical to almost circular, and all were larger than the bases of the teeth they contained, which may therefore have been loosely held in the jaws. Though the number of alveoli in the dentary would seem to indicate that the teeth were very crowded, they were rather far apart, due to the larger size of their alveoli. The jaws contained replacement teeth at various stages of eruption", ". The jaws contained replacement teeth at various stages of eruption. The interdental plates between the teeth were very low.", "Postcranial skeleton", "Dilophosaurus had 10 cervical (neck), 14 dorsal (back), and 45 caudal (tail) vertebrae, and air sacs grew into the vertebrae. It had a long neck, which was probably flexed nearly 90° by the skull and by the shoulder, holding the skull in a horizontal posture. The cervical vertebrae were unusually light; their centra (the \"bodies\" of the vertebrae) were hollowed out by pleurocoels (depressions on the sides) and centrocoels (cavities on the inside)", ". The arches of the cervical vertebrae also had pneumatic fossae (or chonoses), conical recesses so large that the bones separating them were sometimes paper-thin. The centra were plano-concave, flat to weakly convex at the front and deeply cupped (or concave) at the back, similar to Ceratosaurus. This indicates that the neck was flexible, though it had long, overlapping cervical ribs, which were fused to the centra. The cervical ribs were slender and may have bent easily.", "The atlas bone (the first cervical vertebra which attaches to the skull) had a small, cubic centrum, and had a concavity at the front where it formed a cup for the occipital condyle (protuberance that connects with the atlas vertebra) at the back of the skull", ". The axis bone (the second cervical vertebra) had a heavy spine, and its postzygapophyses (the processes of the vertebrae that articulated with the prezygapophyses of a following vertebrae) were met by long prezygapophyses that curved upwards from the third cervical vertebra", ". The centra and neural spines of the cervical vertebrae were long and low, and the spines were stepped in side view, forming \"shoulders\" at the front and back, as well as taller, central \"caps\" that gave the appearance of a Maltese cross (cruciform) when seen from above, distinctive features of this dinosaur. The posterior centrodiapophyseal lamina of the cervicals showed serial variation, bifurcating and reuniting down the neck, a unique feature", ". The neural spines of the dorsal vertebrae were also low and expanded front and back, which formed strong attachments for ligaments. Uniquely for this genus, additional laminae emanated from the middle trunk vertebrae's anterior centrodiapophyseal laminae and posterior centrodiapophyseal laminae. The sacral vertebrae which occupied the length of the ilium blade did not appear to be fused. The rib of the first sacral vertebra articulated with the preacetabular process of the ilium, a distinct feature", ". The centra of the caudal vertebrae were very consistent in length, but their diameter became smaller towards the back, and they went from elliptical to circular in cross-section.", "The scapulae (shoulder blades) were moderate in length and concave on their inner sides to follow the body's curvature. The scapulae were wide, particularly the upper part, which was rectangular (or squared off), a unique feature. The coracoids were elliptical, and not fused to the scapulae. The lower hind portions of the coracoids had a \"horizontal buttress\" next to the biceps tuber, unique for this genus", ". The arms were powerful, and had deep pits and stout processes for attachment of muscles and ligaments. The humerus (upper arm bone) was large and slender, and the ulna (lower arm bone) was stout and straight, with a stout olecranon. The hands had four fingers: the first was shorter but stronger than the following two fingers, with a large claw, and the two following fingers were longer and slenderer, with smaller claws. The claws were curved and sharp", ". The claws were curved and sharp. The third finger was reduced, and the fourth was vestigial (retained, but without function).", "The crest of the ilium was highest over the ilial peduncle (the downwards process of the ilium), and its outer side was concave. The foot of the pubic bone was only slightly expanded, whereas the lower end was much more expanded on the ischium, which also had a very thin shaft. The hind legs were large, with a slighter longer femur (thigh bone) than tibia (lower leg bone), the opposite of, for example, Coelophysis", ". The femur was massive; its shaft was sigmoid-shaped (curved like an 'S'), and its greater trochanter was centered on the shaft. The tibia had a developed tuberosity and was expanded at the lower end. The astragalus bone (ankle bone) was separated from the tibia and the calcaneum, and formed half of the socket for the fibula. It had long, stout feet with three well-developed toes that bore large claws, which were much less curved than those of the hand", ". The third toe was the stoutest, and the smaller first toe (the hallux) was kept off the ground.", "Classification", "Welles thought Dilophosaurus a megalosaur in 1954, but revised his opinion in 1970 after discovering that it had crests. By 1974, Welles and the paleontologist Robert A. Long found Dilophosaurus to be a ceratosauroid. In 1984 Welles found that Dilophosaurus exhibited features of both Coelurosauria and Carnosauria, the two main groups into which theropods had hitherto been divided, based on body size, and he suggested this division was inaccurate", ". He found Dilophosaurus to be closest to those theropods that were usually placed in the family Halticosauridae, particularly Liliensternus.", "In 1988, paleontologist Gregory S. Paul classified the halticosaurs as a subfamily of the family Coelophysidae, and suggested that Dilophosaurus could have been a direct descendant of Coelophysis. Paul also considered the possibility that spinosaurs were late-surviving dilophosaurs, based on similarity of the kinked snout, nostril position, and slender teeth of Baryonyx. In 1994, paleontologist Thomas R. Holtz placed Dilophosaurus in the group Coelophysoidea, along with but separate from the Coelophysidae", ". He placed the Coelophysoidea in the group Ceratosauria. In 2000, paleontologist James H. Madsen and Welles divided Ceratosauria into the families Ceratosauridae and Dilophosauridae, with Dilophosaurus as the sole member of the latter family.", "Lamanna and colleagues pointed out in 1998 that since Dilophosaurus was discovered to have had crests on its skull, other similarly crested theropods have been discovered (including Sinosaurus), and that this feature is, therefore, not unique to the genus, and of limited use for determining interrelationships within their group. Paleontologist Adam M. Yates described the genus Dracovenator from South Africa in 2005, and found it closely related to Dilophosaurus and Zupaysaurus", ". His cladistic analysis suggested they did not belong in the Coelophysoidea, but rather in the Neotheropoda, a more derived (or \"advanced\") group. He proposed that if Dilophosaurus was more derived than the Coelophysoidea, the features it shared with this group may have been inherited from basal (or \"primitive\") theropods, indicating that theropods may have passed through a \"coelophysoid stage\" in their early evolution.", "In 2007, paleontologist Nathan D. Smith and colleagues found the crested theropod Cryolophosaurus to be the sister species of Dilophosaurus, and grouped them with Dracovenator and Sinosaurus. This clade was more derived than the Coelophysoidea, but more basal than the Ceratosauria, thereby placing basal theropods in a ladder-like arrangement", ". In 2012, Carrano and colleagues found that the group of crested theropods proposed by Smith and colleagues was based on features that relate to the presence of such crests, but that the features of the rest of the skeleton were less consistent. They instead found that Dilophosaurus was a coelophysoid, with Cryolophosaurus and Sinosaurus being more derived, as basal members of the group Tetanurae.", "Paleontologist Christophe Hendrickx and colleagues defined the Dilophosauridae to include Dilophosaurus and Dracovenator in 2015, and noted that while general uncertainty exists about the placement of this group, it appears to be slightly more derived than the Coelophysoidea, and the sister group to the Averostra", ". The Dilophosauridae share features with the Coelophysoidea such as the subnarial gap and the front teeth of the maxilla pointing forwards, while features shared with Averostra include a fenestra at the front of the maxilla and a reduced number of teeth in the maxilla. They suggested that the cranial crests of Cryolophosaurus and Sinosaurus had either evolved convergently, or were a feature inherited from a common ancestor", ". The following cladogram is based on that published by Hendrickx and colleagues, itself based on earlier studies:", "In 2019, paleontologists Marion Zahner and Winand Brinkmann found the members of the Dilophosauridae to be successive basal sister taxa of the Averostra rather than a monophyletic clade (a natural group), but noted that some of their analyses did find the group valid, containing Dilophosaurus, Dracovenator, Cryolophosaurus, and possibly Notatesseraeraptor as the basal-most member. They therefore provided a diagnosis for the Dilophosauridae, based on features in the lower jaw", ". They therefore provided a diagnosis for the Dilophosauridae, based on features in the lower jaw. In the phylogenetic analysis accompanying their 2020 redescription, Marsh and Rowe found all specimens of Dilophosaurus to form a monophyletic group, sister to Averostra, and more derived than Cryolophosaurus. Their analysis did not find support for Dilophosauridae, and they suggested cranial crests were a plesiomorphic (ancestral) trait of Ceratosauria and Tetanurae.", "Ichnology", "Various ichnotaxa (taxa based on trace fossils) have been attributed to Dilophosaurus or similar theropods. In 1971, Welles reported dinosaur footprints from the Kayenta Formation of northern Arizona, on two levels and below where the original Dilophosaurus specimens were found", ". The lower footprints were tridactyl (three-toed), and could have been made by Dilophosaurus; Welles created the new ichnogenus and species Dilophosauripus williamsi based on them, in honor of Williams, the discoverer of the first Dilophosaurus skeletons. The type specimen is a cast of a large footprint catalogued as UCMP 79690-4, with casts of three other prints included in the hypodigm. In 1984, Welles conceded that no way had been found to prove or disprove that the footprints belonged to Dilophosaurus", ". In 1996, the paleontologists Michael Morales and Scott Bulkey reported a trackway of the ichnogenus Eubrontes from the Kayenta Formation made by a very large theropod. They noted it could have been made by a very large Dilophosaurus individual, but found that unlikely, as they estimated the trackmaker would have been tall at the hips, compared to the of Dilophosaurus.", "The paleontologist Gerard Gierliński examined tridactyl footprints from the Holy Cross Mountains in Poland and concluded in 1991 that they belonged to a theropod like Dilophosaurus. He named the new ichnospecies Grallator (Eubrontes) soltykovensis based on them, with a cast of footprint MGIW 1560.11.12 as the holotype. In 1994 Gierliński also assigned footprints from the Höganäs Formation in Sweden discovered in 1974 to G. (E.) soltykovensis", ". (E.) soltykovensis. In 1996, Gierliński attributed track AC 1/7 from the Turners Falls Formation of Massachusetts, a resting trace he believed to show feather impressions, to a theropod similar to Dilophosaurus and Liliensternus, and assigned it to the ichnotaxon Grallator minisculus. The paleontologist Martin Kundrát agreed that the track showed feather impressions in 2004, but this interpretation was disputed by the paleontologist Martin Lockley and colleagues in 2003 and the paleontologist Anthony J", ". Martin and colleagues in 2004, who considered them as sedimentological artifacts. Martin and colleagues also reassigned the track to the ichnotaxon Fulicopus lyellii. Gierliński and Karol Sabath responded at a conference talk in 2005, pointing out that the algae mat imprint would not only have been present on the stomach, but also the footprints", ". Based on detailed photos and experiments, they found the traces similar to those left by the fibrous feathers (semiplumes) of modern birds, and different from those left by a scaly body.", "The paleontologist Robert E. Weems proposed in 2003 that Eubrontes tracks were not produced by a theropod, but by a sauropodomorph similar to Plateosaurus, excluding Dilophosaurus as a possible trackmaker. Instead, Weems proposed Kayentapus hopii, another ichnotaxon named by Welles in 1971, as the best match for Dilophosaurus", ". The attribution to Dilophosaurus was primarily based on the wide angle between digit impressions three and four shown by these tracks, and the observation that the foot of the holotype specimen shows a similarly splayed-out fourth digit. Also in 2003, paleontologist Emma Rainforth argued that the splay in the holotype foot was merely the result of distortion, and that Eubrontes would indeed be a good match for Dilophosaurus.", "The paleontologist Spencer G. Lucas and colleagues stated in 2006 that virtually universal agreement existed that Eubrontes tracks were made by a theropod like Dilophosaurus, and that they and other researchers dismissed Weems' claims.", "In 2006, Weems defended his 2003 assessment of Eubrontes, and proposed an animal like Dilophosaurus as the possible trackmaker of numerous Kayentapus trackways of the Culpeper Quarry in Virginia. Weems suggested rounded impressions associated with some of these trackways to represent hand impressions lacking digit traces, which he interpreted as a trace of quadrupedal movement", ". Milner and colleagues used the new combination Kayentapus soltykovensis in 2009, and suggested that Dilophosauripus may not be distinct from Eubrontes and Kayentapus. They suggested that the long claw marks that were used to distinguish Dilophosauripus may be an artifact of dragging. They found that Gigandipus and Anchisauripus tracks may likewise also just represent variations of Eubrontes", ". They pointed out that differences between ichnotaxa may reflect how the trackmaker interacted with the substrate rather than taxonomy. They also found Dilophosaurus to be a suitable match for a Eubrontes trackway and resting trace (SGDS 18.T1) from the St. George dinosaur discovery site in the Moenave Formation of Utah, though the dinosaur itself is not known from the formation, which is slightly older than the Kayenta Formation", ". Weems stated in 2019 that Eubrontes tracks do not reflect the gracile feet of Dilophosaurus, and argued they were instead made by the bipedal sauropodopormph Anchisaurus.", "Paleobiology\n\nFeeding and diet", "Welles found that Dilophosaurus did not have a powerful bite, due to weakness caused by the subnarial gap. He thought that it used its front premaxillary teeth for plucking and tearing rather than biting, and the maxillary teeth further back for piercing and slicing. He thought that it was probably a scavenger rather than a predator, and that if it did kill large animals, it would have done so with its hands and feet rather than its jaws", ". Welles did not find evidence of cranial kinesis in the skull of Dilophosaurus, a feature that allows individual bones of the skull to move in relation to each other. In 1986, the paleontologist Robert T. Bakker instead found Dilophosaurus, with its massive neck and skull and large upper teeth, to have been adapted for killing large prey, and strong enough to attack any Early Jurassic herbivores", ". In 1988, Paul dismissed the idea that Dilophosaurus was a scavenger, and claimed that strictly scavenging terrestrial animals are a myth. He stated that the snout of Dilophosaurus was better braced than had been thought previously, and that the very large, slender maxillary teeth were more lethal than the claws. Paul suggested that it hunted large animals such as prosauropods, and that it was more capable of snapping small animals than other theropods of a similar size.", "A 2005 beam-theory study by the palaeontologist François Therrien and colleagues found that the bite force in the mandible of Dilophosaurus decreased rapidly hindwards in the tooth-throw. This indicates that the front of the mandible, with its upturned chin, \"rosette\" of teeth, and strengthened symphysal region (similar to spinosaurids), was used to capture and manipulate prey, probably of relatively smaller size", ". The properties of its mandibular symphysis were similar to those of felids and crocodilians that use the front of their jaws to deliver a powerful bite when subduing prey. The loads exerted on the mandibles were consistent with struggle of small prey, which may have been hunted by delivering slashing bites to wound it, and then captured with the front of the jaws after being too weakened to resist", ". The prey may then have been moved further back into the jaws, where the largest teeth were located, and killed by slicing bites (similar to some crocodilians) with the sideways-compressed teeth. The authors suggested that if Dilophosaurus indeed fed on small prey, possible hunting packs would have been of limited size.", "Milner and paleontologist James I. Kirkland suggested in 2007 that Dilophosaurus had features that indicate it may have eaten fish. They pointed out that the ends of the jaws were expanded to the sides, forming a \"rosette\" of interlocking teeth, similar to those of spinosaurids, known to have eaten fish, and gharials, which is the modern crocodile that eats the most fish", ". The nasal openings were also retracted back on the jaws, similar to spinosaurids, which have even more retracted nasal openings, and this may have limited water splashing into the nostrils during fishing. Both groups also had long arms with well-developed claws, which could help when catching fish", ". Both groups also had long arms with well-developed claws, which could help when catching fish. Lake Dixie, a large lake that extended from Utah to Arizona and Nevada, would have provided abundant fish in the \"post-cataclysmic\", biologically more impoverished world that followed the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (wherein about three quarters of life on Earth vanished), 5 to 15 million years before Dilophosaurus appeared.", "In 2018, Marsh and Rowe reported that the holotype specimen of the sauropodomorph Sarahsaurus bore possible tooth marks scattered across the skeleton that may have been left by Dilophosaurus (Syntarsus was too small to have produced them) scavenging the specimen after it died (the positions of the bones may also have been disturbed by scavenging)", ". An example of such marks can be seen on the left scapula, which has an oval depression on the surface of its upper side, and a large hole on the lower front end of the right tibia. The quarry where the holotype and paratype specimens of Sarahsaurus were excavated also contained a partial immature Dilophosaurus specimen", ". Marsh and Rowe suggested in 2020 that many of the features that distinguished Dilophosaurus from earlier theropods were associated with increased body size and macropredation (preying on large animals)", ". While Marsh and Rowe agreed that Dilophosaurus could have fed on fish and small prey in the fluvial system in its environment, they pointed out that the articulation between the premaxilla and maxilla of the upper jaw was immobile and much more robust than previously thought, and that large-bodied prey could have been grasped and manipulated with the forelimbs during predation and scavenging", ". They considered the large bite marks on Sarahsaurus specimens alongside shed teeth and the presence of a Dilophosaurus specimen within the same quarry as support for this idea.", "In a 2021 article, paleontologist Matthew A. Brown and Rowe stated that these remains showed that Dilophosaurus had jaws strong enough to puncture bone. The fleshy air sacs from its respiratory system that grew into the vertebrae both strengthened and lightened the skeleton, and allowed unidirectional airflow through its lungs, similar to birds and crocodiles, and thereby more oxygen than a bidirectional respiratory system of mammals (wherein the air flows in and out of the lungs)", ". Unidirectional breathing indicates relatively high metabolic rates and therefore high levels of activity, indicating that Dilophosaurus was likely a fast, agile hunter. Brown and Rowe considered Dilophosaurus to have been an apex predator in its ecosystem, and not a scavenger.", "Motion", "Welles envisioned Dilophosaurus as an active, clearly bipedal animal, similar to an enlarged ostrich. He found the forelimbs to have been powerful weapons, strong and flexible, and not used for locomotion. He noted that the hands were capable of grasping and slashing, of meeting each other, and reaching two-thirds up the neck. He proposed that in a sitting posture, the animal would rest on the large \"foot\" of its ischium, as well as its tail and feet", ". In 1990, paleontologists Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas suggested that the weak pelvis of Dilophosaurus could have been an adaptation for an aquatic lifestyle, where the water would help support its weight, and that it could have been an efficient swimmer. They found it doubtful that it would have been restricted to a watery environment, though, due to the strength and proportions of its hind limbs, which would have made it fleet-footed and agile during bipedal locomotion", ". Paul depicted Dilophosaurus bouncing on its tail while lashing out at an enemy, similar to a kangaroo.", "In 2005, paleontologists Phil Senter and James H. Robins examined the range of motion in the forelimbs of Dilophosaurus and other theropods. They found that Dilophosaurus would have been able to draw its humerus backward until it was almost parallel with the scapula, but could not move it forwards to a more than vertical orientation. The elbow could approach full extension and flexion at a right angle, but not achieve it completely", ". The fingers do not appear to have been voluntarily hyperextensible (able to extend backwards, beyond their normal range), but they may have been passively hyperextensible, to resist dislocation during violent movements by captured prey. A 2015 article by Senter and Robins gave recommendations for how to reconstruct the fore limb posture in bipedal dinosaurs, based on examination of various taxa, including Dilophosaurus", ". The scapulae were held very horizontally, the resting orientation of the elbow would have been close to a right angle, and the orientation of the hand would not have deviated much from that of the lower arm.", "In 2018, Senter and Corwin Sullivan examined the range of motion in the fore limb joints of Dilophosaurus by manipulating the bones, to test hypothesized functions of the fore limbs. They also took into account that experiments with alligator carcasses show that the range of motion is greater in elbows covered in soft tissue (such as cartilage, ligaments, and muscles) than what would be indicated by manipulation of bare bones", ". They found that the humerus of Dilophosaurus could be retracted into a position that was almost parallel with the scapula, protracted to an almost vertical level, and elevated 65°. The elbow could not be flexed past a right angle to the humerus. Pronation and supination of the wrists (crossing the radius and ulna bones of the lower arm to turn the hand) was prevented by the radius and ulna joints not being able to roll, and the palms, therefore, faced medially, towards each other", ". The inability to pronate the wrists was an ancestral feature shared by theropods and other dinosaur groups. The wrist had limited mobility, and the fingers diverged during flexion, and were very hyperextensible.", "Senter and Sullivan concluded that Dilophosaurus was able to grip and hold objects between two hands, to grip and hold small objects in one hand, to seize objects close beneath the chest, to bring an object to the mouth, to perform a display by swinging the arms in an arc along the sides of the ribcage, to scratch the chest, belly, or the half of the other forelimb farthest from the body, to seize prey beneath the chest or the base of the neck, and to clutch objects to the chest", ". Dilophosaurus was unable to perform scratch-digging, hook-pulling, to hold objects between two fingertips of one hand, to maintain balance by extending the arms outwards to the sides, or to probe small crevices like the modern aye aye does. The hyperextensibility of the fingers may have prevented the prey's violent struggle from dislocating them, since it would have allowed greater motion of the fingers (with no importance to locomotion)", ". The limited mobility of the shoulder and shortness of the forelimbs indicates that the mouth made first contact with the prey rather than the hands. Capture of prey with the forelimbs would only be possible for seizing animals small enough to fit beneath the chest of Dilophosaurus, or larger prey that had been forced down with its mouth. The great length of the head and neck would have enabled the snout to extend much further than the hands.", "The Dilophosauripus footprints reported by Welles in 1971 were all on the same level, and were described as a \"chicken yard hodge-podge\" of footprints, with few forming a trackway. The footprints had been imprinted in mud, which allowed the feet to sink down . The prints were sloppy, and the varying breadth of the toe prints indicates that mud had clung to the feet", ". The impressions varied according to differences in the substrate and the manner in which they were made; sometimes, the foot was planted directly, but often a backward or forward slip occurred as the foot came down. The positions and angles of the toes also varied considerably, which indicate they must have been quite flexible. The Dilophosauripus footprints had an offset second toe with a thick base, and very long, straight claws that were in line with the axes of the toe pads", ". One of the footprints was missing the claw of the second toe, perhaps due to injury. In 1984, Welles interpreted the fact that three individuals were found close together, and the presence of criss-crossed trackways nearby, as indications that Dilophosaurus traveled in groups. Gay agreed that they may have traveled in small groups, but noted that no direct evidence supported this, and that flash floods could have picked up scattered bones from different individuals and deposited them together.", "Milner and colleagues examined the possible Dilophosaurus trackway SGDS 18.T1 in 2009, which consists of typical footprints with tail drags and a more unusual resting trace, deposited in lacustrine beach sandstone", ". The trackway began with the animal first oriented approximately in parallel with the shoreline, and then stopping by a berm with both feet in parallel, whereafter it lowered its body, and brought its metatarsals and the callosity around its ischium to the ground; this created impressions of symmetrical \"heels\" and circular impressions of the ischium. The part of the tail closest to the body was kept off the ground, whereas the end further away from the body made contact with the ground", ". The fact that the animal rested on a slope is what enabled it to bring both hands to the ground close to the feet. After resting, the dinosaur shuffled forwards, and left new impressions with its feet, metatarsals, and ischium, but not the hands. The right foot now stepped on the print of the right hand, and the second claw of the left foot made a drag mark from the first resting position to the next", ". After some time, the animal stood up and moved forwards, with the left foot first, and once fully erect, it walked across the rest of the exposed surface, while leaving thin drag marks with the end of the tail.", "Crouching is a rarely captured behavior of theropods, and SGDS 18.T1 is the only such track with unambiguous impressions of theropod hands, which provides valuable information about how they used their forelimbs. The crouching posture was found to be very similar to that of modern birds, and shows that early theropods held the palms of their hands facing medially, towards each other. As such a posture therefore evolved early in the lineage, it may have characterized all theropods.", "Theropods are often depicted with their palms facing downwards, but studies of their functional anatomy have shown that they, like birds, were unable to pronate or supinate their arms. The track showed that the legs were held symmetrically with the body weight distributed between the feet and the metatarsals, which is also a feature seen in birds such as ratites", ". Milner and colleagues also dismissed the idea that the Kayentapus minor track reported by Weems showed a palm imprint made by a quadrupedally walking theropod. Weems had proposed the trackmaker would have been able to move quadrupedally when walking slowly, while the digits would have been habitually hyperextended so only the palms touched the ground. Milner and colleagues found the inferred pose unnecessary, and suggested the track was instead made in a similar way as SGDS 18", ".T1, but without leaving traces of the digits.", "Crest function", "Welles conceded that suggestions as to the function of the crests of Dilophosaurus were conjectural, but thought that, though the crests had no grooves to indicate vascularization, they could have been used for thermoregulation. He also suggested they could have been used for species recognition or ornamentation.", "The Czerkas pointed out that the crests could not have been used during battle, as their delicate structure would have been easily damaged. They suggested that they were a visual display for attracting a mate, and even thermoregulation. In 1990, paleontologist Walter P. Coombs stated that the crests may have been enhanced by colors for use in display.", "In 2011 the paleontologists Kevin Padian and John R. Horner proposed that \"bizarre structures\" in dinosaurs in general (including crests, frills, horns, and domes) were primarily used for species recognition, and dismissed other explanations as unsupported by evidence. They noted that too few specimens of cranially ornamented theropods, including Dilophosaurus, were known to test their evolutionary function statistically, and whether they represented sexual dimorphism or sexual maturity", ". In a response to Padian and Horner the same year, the paleontologists Rob J. Knell and Scott D. Sampson argued that species recognition was not unlikely as a secondary function for \"bizarre structures\" in dinosaurs, but that sexual selection (used in display or combat to compete for mates) was a more likely explanation, due to the high cost of developing them, and because such structures appear to be highly variable within species.", "In 2013, paleontologists David E. Hone and Darren Naish criticized the \"species recognition hypothesis\", and argued that no extant animals use such structures primarily for species recognition, and that Padian and Horner had ignored the possibility of mutual sexual selection (where both sexes are ornamented). Marsh and Rowe agreed in 2020 that the crests of Dilophosaurus likely had a role in species identification or intersexual/intrasexual selection, as in some modern birds", ". It is unknown if the air sacs in the crests supported such functions.", "Development", "Welles originally interpreted the smaller Dilophosaurus specimens as juveniles, and the larger specimen as an adult, later interpreting them as different species. Paul suggested that the differences between the specimens was perhaps due to sexual dimorphism, as was seemingly also apparent in Coelophysis, which had \"robust\" and \"gracile\" forms of the same size, that might otherwise have been regarded as separate species", ". Following this scheme, the smaller Dilophosaurus specimen would represent a \"gracile\" example.", "In 2005 Tykoski found that most Dilophosaurus specimens known were juvenile individuals, with only the largest an adult, based on the level of co-ossification of the bones. In 2005 Gay found no evidence of the sexual dimorphism suggested by Paul (but supposedly present in Coelophysis), and attributed the variation seen between Dilophosaurus specimens to individual variation and ontogeny (changes during growth)", ". There was no dimorphism in the skeletons, but he did not rule out that there could have been in the crests; more data was needed to determine this. Based on the tiny nasal crests on a juvenile specimen, Yates had tentatively assigned to the related genus Dracovenator, he suggested that these would have grown larger as the animal became adult.", "The paleontologist J.S. Tkach reported a histological study (microscopical study of internal features) of Dilophosaurus in 1996, conducted by taking thin-sections of long bones and ribs of specimen UCMP 37303 (the lesser preserved of the two original skeletons). The bone tissues were well vascularized and had a fibro-lamellar structure similar to that found in other theropods and the sauropodomorph Massospondylus", ". The plexiform (woven) structure of the bones suggested rapid growth, and Dilophosaurus may have attained a growth rate of per year early in life.", "Welles found that the replacement teeth of Dilophosaurus and other theropods originated deep inside the bone, decreasing in size the farther they were from the alveolar border. There were usually two or three replacement teeth in the alveoli, with the youngest being a small, hollow crown. The replacement teeth erupted on the outer side of the old teeth. When a tooth neared the gum line, the inner wall between the interdental plates was resorbed and formed a nutrient notch", ". As the new tooth erupted, it moved outwards to center itself in the alveolus, and the nutrient notch closed over.", "Paleopathology", "Welles noted various paleopathologies (ancient signs of disease, such as injuries and malformations) in Dilophosaurus. The holotype had a sulcus (groove or furrow) on the neural arch of a cervical vertebra that may have been due to an injury or crushing, and two pits on the right humerus that may have been abscesses (collections of pus) or artifacts. Welles also noted that it had a smaller and more delicate left humerus than the right, but with the reverse condition in its forearms", ". In 2001, paleontologist Ralph Molnar suggested that this was caused by a developmental anomaly called fluctuating asymmetry. This anomaly can be caused by stress in animal populations, for example due to disturbances in their environment, and may indicate more intense selective pressure. Asymmetry can also result from traumatic events in early development of an animal, which would be more randomly distributed in time", ". A 2001 study conducted by paleontologist Bruce Rothschild and colleagues examined 60 Dilophosaurus foot bones for signs of stress fractures (which are caused by strenuous, repetitive actions), but none were found. Such injuries can be the result of very active, predatory lifestyles.", "In 2016 Senter and Sara L. Juengst examined the paleopathologies of the holotype specimen and found that it bore the greatest and most varied number of such maladies on the pectoral girdle and forelimb of any theropod dinosaur so far described, some of which are not known from any other dinosaur. Only six other theropods are known with more than one paleopathology on the pectoral girdle and forelimbs", ". The holotype specimen had eight afflicted bones, whereas no other theropod specimen is known with more than four. On its left side, it had a fractured scapula and radius, and fibriscesses (like abscesses) in the ulna and the outer phalanx bone of the thumb. On the right side it had torsion of its humeral shaft, three bony tumors on its radius, a truncated articular surface of its third metacarpal bone, and deformities on the first phalanx bone of the third finger", ". This finger was permanently deformed and unable to flex. The deformities of the humerus and the third finger may have been due to osteodysplasia, which had not been reported from non-avian dinosaurs before, but is known in birds. Affecting juvenile birds that have experienced malnutrition, this disease can cause pain in one limb, which makes the birds prefer to use the other limb instead, which thereby develops torsion.", "The number of traumatic events that led to these features is not certain, and it is possible that they were all caused by a single encounter, for example by crashing into a tree or rock during a fight with another animal, which may have caused puncture wounds with its claws. Since all the injuries had healed, it is certain that the Dilophosaurus survived for a long time after these events, for months, perhaps years", ". The use of the forelimbs for prey capture must have been compromised during the healing process. The dinosaur may therefore have endured a long period of fasting or subsisted on prey that was small enough for it to dispatch with the mouth and feet, or with one forelimb.", "According to Senter and Juengst, the high degree of pain the dinosaur might have experienced in multiple locations for long durations also shows that it was a hardy animal. They noted that paleopathologies in dinosaurs are underreported, and that even though Welles had thoroughly described the holotype, he had mentioned only one of the pathologies found by them", ". They suggested that such features may sometimes be omitted because descriptions of species are concerned with their characteristics rather than abnormalities, or because such features are difficult to recognize. Senter and Sullivan found that the pathologies significantly altered the range of motion in the right shoulder and right third finger of the holotype, and that estimates for range of motion may therefore not match those made for a healthy forelimb.", "Paleoenvironment", "Dilophosaurus is known from the Kayenta Formation, which dates to the Sinemurian?-Toarcian stages of the Early Jurassic, approximately 196–186 million years ago (187–190 mya has also been suggested, and the age of the Kayenta is considered complex). As Dilophosaurus is known from the base to the middle of the formation, which is Pliensbachian in age, the taxon had a chronostratigraphic range of 15 million years", ". The Kayenta Formation is part of the Glen Canyon Group that includes formations in northern Arizona, parts of southeastern Utah, western Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico. It is composed mostly of two facies, one dominated by siltstone deposition and the other by sandstone. The siltstone facies is found in much of Arizona, while the sandstone facies is present in areas of northern Arizona, southern Utah, western Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico", ". The formation was primarily deposited by rivers, with the siltstone facies as the slower, more sluggish part of the river system. Kayenta Formation deposition was ended by the encroaching dune field that would become the Navajo Sandstone. The environment was seasonally dry, with sand dunes migrating in and out of the wet environments where animals lived, and has been likened to a river oasis; a waterway lined with conifers and surrounded by sand.", "The Kayenta Formation has yielded a small but growing assemblage of organisms. Most fossils are from the siltstone facies. Most organisms known so far are vertebrates. Non-vertebrates include microbial or \"algal\" limestone, petrified wood, plant impressions, freshwater bivalves and snails, ostracods, and invertebrate trace fossils. Vertebrates are known from both body fossils and trace fossils", ". Vertebrates are known from both body fossils and trace fossils. Vertebrates known from body fossils include hybodont sharks, indeterminate bony fish, lungfish, salamanders, the frog Prosalirus, the caecilian Eocaecilia, the turtle Kayentachelys, a sphenodontian reptile, lizards, and several early crocodylomorphs including Calsoyasuchus, Eopneumatosuchus, Kayentasuchus, and Protosuchus, and the pterosaur Rhamphinion", ". Apart from Dilophosaurus, several dinosaurs are known, including the theropods Megapnosaurus, and Kayentavenator, the sauropodomorph Sarahsaurus, a heterodontosaurid, and the thyreophoran Scutellosaurus. Synapsids include the tritylodontids Dinnebitodon, Kayentatherium, and Oligokyphus, morganucodontids, the possible early true mammal Dinnetherium, and a haramiyid mammal. The majority of these finds come from the vicinity of Gold Spring, Arizona", ". The majority of these finds come from the vicinity of Gold Spring, Arizona. Vertebrate trace fossils include coprolites and the tracks of therapsids, lizard-like animals, and several types of dinosaur.", "Taphonomy", "Welles outlined the taphonomy of the original specimens, changes that happened during their decay and fossilization. The holotype skeleton was found lying on its right side, and its head and neck were recurvedcurved backwardsin the \"death pose\" in which dinosaur skeletons are often found. This pose was thought to be opisthotonus (due to death-spasms) at the time, but may instead have been the result of how a carcass was embedded in sediments", ". The back was straight, and the hindmost dorsal vertebrae were turned on their left sides. The caudal vertebrae extended irregularly from the pelvis, and the legs were articulated, with little displacement. Welles concluded that the specimens were buried at the place of their deaths, without having been transported much, but that the holotype specimen appears to have been disturbed by scavengers, indicated by the rotated dorsal vertebrae and crushed skull", ". Gay noted that the specimens he described in 2001 showed evidence of having been transported by a stream. As none of the specimens were complete, they may have been transported over some distance, or have lain on the surface and weathered for some time before transport. They may have been transported by a flood, as indicated by the variety of animals found as fragments and bone breakage.", "Cultural significance", "According to Navajo myth, the carcasses of slain monsters were \"beaten into the earth\", but were impossible to obliterate, and fossils have traditionally been interpreted as their remains. While Navajo people have helped paleontologists locate fossils since the 19th century, traditional beliefs suggest that the ghosts of the monsters remain in their partially buried corpses, and have to be kept there through potent rituals", ". Likewise, some worry that the bones of their relatives would be dug up along with dinosaur remains, and that removing fossils shows disrespect to the past lives of these beings. In 2005, the historian Adrienne Mayor stated Welles had noted that during the original excavation of Dilophosaurus, the Navajo Williams disappeared from the excavation after some days, and speculated this was because Williams found the detailed work with fine brushes \"beneath his dignity\"", ". Mayor instead pointed out that Navajo men do occupy themselves with detailed work, such as jewellery and painting, and that the explanation for Williams' departure may instead have been traditional anxiety as the skeletons emerged and were disturbed. Mayor also pointed to an incident in the 1940s when a Navajo man helped excavate a Pentaceratops skeleton as long as he did not have to touch the bones, but left the site when only a few inches of dirt were left covering them", ". In a 1994 book, Welles said Williams had come back some days later with two Navajo women saying \"that's no man's work, that's squaw's work\".", "The cliffs in Arizona that contained the bones of Dilophosaurus also have petroglyphs by ancestral Puebloans carved onto them, and the criss-crossing tracks of the area are called Naasho'illbahitsho Biikee by the Navajo, meaning \"big lizard tracks\". According to Mayor, Navajos used to hold ceremonies and make offerings to these monster tracks. Tridactyl tracks were also featured as decorations on the costumes and rock art of the Hopi and Zuni, probably influenced by such dinosaur tracks", ". In 2017 Dilophosaurus was designated as the state dinosaur of the US state of Connecticut, to become official with the new state budget in 2019. Dilophosaurus was chosen because tracks thought to have been made by similar dinosaurs were discovered in Rocky Hill in 1966, during excavation for the Interstate Highway 91. The six tracks were assigned to the ichnospecies Eubrontes giganteus, which was made the state fossil of Connecticut in 1991", ". The area they were found in had been a Triassic lake, and when the significance of the area was confirmed, the highway was rerouted, and the area made a state park named Dinosaur State Park. In 1981 a sculpture of Dilophosaurus, the first life-sized reconstruction of this dinosaur, was donated to the park.", "Dilophosaurus was proposed as the state dinosaur of Arizona by a nine-year-old boy in 1998, but lawmakers suggested Sonorasaurus instead, arguing that Dilophosaurus was not unique to Arizona", ". A compromise was suggested that would recognize both dinosaurs, but the bill died when it was revealed that the Dilophosaurus fossils had been taken without permission from the Navajo Reservation, and because they did not reside in Arizona anymore (an 11-year-old boy again suggested Sonorasaurus as Arizona's state dinosaur in 2018). Navajo Nation officials subsequently discussed how to get the fossils returned", ". Navajo Nation officials subsequently discussed how to get the fossils returned. According to Mayor, one Navajo stated that they do not ask to get the fossils back anymore, but wondered why casts had not been made so the bones could be left, as it would be better to keep them in the ground, and a museum built so people could come to see them there. Further field work related to Dilophosaurus in the Navajo Nation was conducted with permission from the Navajo Nation Minerals Department.", "Jurassic Park", "Dilophosaurus was featured in the 1990 novel Jurassic Park, by the writer Michael Crichton, and its 1993 movie adaptation by the director Steven Spielberg. The Dilophosaurus of Jurassic Park was acknowledged as the \"only serious departure from scientific veracity\" in the movie's making-of book, and as the \"most fictionalized\" of the movie's dinosaurs in a book about Stan Winston Studios, which created the animatronics effects", ". For the novel, Crichton invented the dinosaur's ability to spit venom (explaining how it was able to kill prey, in spite of its seemingly weak jaws). The art department added another feature, a neck frill or cowl folded against its neck that expanded and vibrated as the animal prepared to attack, similar to that of the frill-necked lizard. To avoid confusion with the Velociraptor as featured in the movie, Dilophosaurus was presented as only tall, instead of its assumed true height of about", ". Nicknamed \"the spitter\", the Dilophosaurus of the movie was realized through puppeteering, and required a full body with three interchangeable heads to produce the actions required by the script. Separate legs were also constructed for a shot where the dinosaur hops by. Unlike most of the other dinosaurs in the movie, no computer-generated imagery was employed when showing the Dilophosaurus.", "The geologist J. Bret Bennington noted in 1996 that though Dilophosaurus probably did not have a frill and could not spit venom like in the movie, its bite could have been venomous, as has been claimed for the Komodo dragon. He found that adding venom to the dinosaur was no less allowable than giving a color to its skin, which is also unknown", ". If the dinosaur had a frill, there would have been evidence for this in the bones, in the shape of a rigid structure to hold up the frill, or markings at the places where the muscles used to move it were attached. He also added that if it did have a frill, it would not have used it to intimidate its meal, but rather a competitor (he speculated it may have responded to a character in the movie pulling a hood over his head)", ". In a 1997 review of a book about the science of Jurassic Park, the paleontologist Peter Dodson likewise pointed out the wrong scale of the film's Dilophosaurus, as well as the improbability of its venom and frill. Bakker pointed out in 2014 that the movie's Dilophosaurus lacked the prominent notch in the upper jaw, and concluded that the movie-makers had done a good job at creating a frightening chimaera of different animals, but warned it could not be used to teach about the real animal", ". Brown and Marsh stated that while these traits were fictitious, they were made believable by being based on the biology of real animals. Welles himself was \"thrilled\" to see Dilophosaurus in Jurassic Park: he noted the inaccuracies, but found them minor points, enjoyed the movie, and was happy to find the dinosaur \"an internationally known actor\".", "References\n\nExternal links\n \n\nPrehistoric neotheropods\nEarly Jurassic genus first appearances\nEarly Jurassic genus extinctions\nEarly Jurassic dinosaurs of North America\nFossils of the United States\nKayenta Formation\nFossil taxa described in 1970\nTaxa named by Samuel Paul Welles" ]

[ "The following is a list of Acts of Parliament in Malaysia by citation number. The list includes all principal laws of Malaysia enacted after 1969 and pre-1969 laws which have been revised by the Commissioner of Law Revision under the authority of the Revision of Laws Act 1968.\n\nRepealed Acts and Acts not yet in force are stricken through.\n\nList", "1 – 100\n2nd Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 12)\nRevision of Laws Act 1968 [Act 1]\nMinisterial Functions Act 1969 [Act 2]\nCivil Aviation Act 1969 [Act 3]\nEmployees' Social Security Act 1969 [Act 4]\nElection Offences Act 1954 [Act 5]\nFinance Companies Act 1969 [Act 6] ( Repealed by the Banking and Financial Institutions Act 1989 [Act 372] )\nRegistration of Criminals and Undesirable Persons Act 1969 [Act 7]\nLembaga Urusan dan Tabung Haji Act 1969 [Act 8] ( Repealed by the Tabung Haji Act 1995 [Act 535] )", "Lembaga Urusan dan Tabung Haji Act 1969 [Act 8] ( Repealed by the Tabung Haji Act 1995 [Act 535] )\nBank Pertanian Malaysia Act 1969 [Act 9] ( Repealed by the Bank Pertanian Malaysia Berhad Act 2008 [Act 684] )\nCopyright Act 1969 [Act 10] ( Repealed by the Copyright Act 1987 [Act 332] )\nMalaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute Act 1969 [Act 11]\nInternational Monetary Fund (Ratification of Amendments to the Articles of Agreement) Act 1969 [Act 12]\nParliament was suspended (Total: 8)", "Parliament was suspended (Total: 8)\nStatutory Declarations Act 1960 [Act 13] ( Superseded by the Statutory Declarations Act 1960 [Act 783] )\nNurses Act 1950 [Act 14]\nSedition Act 1948 [Act 15]\nCensus Act 1960 [Act 16]\nExchange Control Act 1953 [Act 17] ( Repealed by the Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 758] )\nHousing Trust Act 1950 [Act 18] ( Repealed by the Housing Trust (Dissolution) Act 1976 [Act A339] )\nElections Act 1958 [Act 19]", "Elections Act 1958 [Act 19]\nTelecommunications Act 1950 [Act 20] ( Repealed by the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 [Act 588] )\n3rd Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 130)\nAge of Majority Act 1971 [Act 21]\nTunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj Pension Act 1971 [Act 22]\nMembers of the Administration and Members of Parliament (Pensions and Gratuities) Act 1971 [Act 23] ( Repealed by the Members of Parliament (Remuneration) Act 1980 [Act 237] )", "Free Trade Zone Act 1971 [Act 24] ( Repealed by the Free Zones Act 1990 [Act 438] )\nSummonses and Warrants (Special Provisions) Act 1971 [Act 25]\nLegal Aid Act 1971 [Act 26]\nPrivate Agencies Act 1971 [Act 27]\nKootu Funds (Prohibition) Act 1971 [Act 28]\nNational Sports Council of Malaysia Act 1971 [Act 29]\nUniversities and University Colleges Act 1971 [Act 30]\nElection Commission Act 1957 [Act 31]\nNational Language Act 1963/67 [Act 32]\nBankers' Books (Evidence) Act 1949 [Act 33]", "National Language Act 1963/67 [Act 32]\nBankers' Books (Evidence) Act 1949 [Act 33]\nMaintenance Orders (Facilities for Enforcement) Act 1949 [Act 34]\nFilms (Censorship) Act 1952 [Act 35] ( Repealed by the Film Censorship Act 2002 [Act 620] )\nSynod of the Diocese of West Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1971 [Act 36]\nFirearms (Increased Penalties) Act 1971 [Act 37]\nFinance (Estate Duty) Act 1971 [Act 38] ( Repealed by the Finance Act 1992 [Act 476] )\nInheritance (Family Provision) Act 1971 [Act 39]", "Inheritance (Family Provision) Act 1971 [Act 39]\nMetric Weights and Measures Act 1971 [Act 40] ( Repealed by the Weights and Measures Act 1972 [Act 71] )\nLoan (International Tin Buffer Stock) Act 1971 [Act 41]\nHousing Loans Fund Act 1971 [Act 42]\nPrivate Hospitals Act 1971 [Act 43] ( Repealed by the Private Healthcare Facilities and Services Act 1998 [Act 586] )\nFishermen’s Associations Act 1971 [Act 44]\nJudges' Remuneration Act 1971 [Act 45]", "Fishermen’s Associations Act 1971 [Act 44]\nJudges' Remuneration Act 1971 [Act 45]\nPerbadanan Pembangunan Bandar Act 1971 [Act 46] ( Repealed by the Perbadanan Pembangunan Bandar (Dissolution) Act 1996 [Act 547] )\nLembaga Padi dan Beras Negara Act 1971 [Act 47] ( Repealed by the Control of Padi and Rice Act 1994 [Act 522] )", "National Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research (Incorporation) Act 1971 [Act 48] ( Repealed by the Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1975 [Act 157] )\nLembaga Kemajuan Ikan Malaysia Act 1971 [Act 49]\nMedical Act 1971 [Act 50]\nDental Act 1971 [Act 51]\nMalaria Eradication Act 1971 [Act 52] ( Repealed by the Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases Act 1988 [Act 342] )\nIncome Tax Act 1967 [Act 53]", "Income Tax Act 1967 [Act 53]\nSupplementary Income Tax Act 1967 [Act 54] ( Repealed by the Finance Act 1993 [Act 497] )\nSubordinate Courts Rules Act 1955 [Act 55]\nEvidence Act 1950 [Act 56]\nPrevention of Corruption Act 1961 [Act 57] ( Repealed by the Anti-Corruption Act 1997 [Act 575] )\nPrinting Presses Act 1948 [Act 58] ( Repealed by the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 [Act 301] )\nCity of Kuala Lumpur Act 1971 [Act 59]\nLegitimacy Act 1961 [Act 60]\nFinancial Procedure Act 1957 [Act 61]", "Legitimacy Act 1961 [Act 60]\nFinancial Procedure Act 1957 [Act 61]\nAudit Act 1957 [Act 62]\nControl of Imported Publications Act 1958 [Act 63] ( Repealed by the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 [Act 301] )\nSales Tax Act 1972 [Act 64] ( Repealed by the Goods And Services Tax Act 2014 [Act 762] )\nGaming Tax Act 1972 [Act 65]\nLoan Guarantee Act 1972 [Act 66]\nCivil Law Act 1956 [Act 67]", "Gaming Tax Act 1972 [Act 65]\nLoan Guarantee Act 1972 [Act 66]\nCivil Law Act 1956 [Act 67]\nLembaga Kemajuan Pahang Tenggara Act 1972 [Act 68] ( Repealed by the Lembaga Kemajuan Pahang Tenggara (Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 569] )\nKemubu Agricultural Development Authority Act 1972 [Act 69]\nMuda Agricultural Development Authority Act 1972 [Act 70]\nWeights and Measures Act 1972 [Act 71]", "Muda Agricultural Development Authority Act 1972 [Act 70]\nWeights and Measures Act 1972 [Act 71]\nTourist Development Corporation of Malaysia Act 1972 [Act 72] ( Repealed by the Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board Act 1992 [Act 481] )\nLembaga Kemajuan Perusahaan Haiwan Negara Act 1972 [Act 73] ( Repealed by the Lembaga Kemajuan Ternakan Negara (Dissolution) Act 1983 [Act 292] )\nSt. John Ambulance of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1972 [Act 74]\nLembaga Kemajuan Johor Tenggara Act 1972 [Act 75]", "Lembaga Kemajuan Johor Tenggara Act 1972 [Act 75]\nProtection of Wild Life Act 1972 [Act 76] ( Repealed by the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] )\nArmed Forces Act 1972 [Act 77]\nNational Registration Act 1959 [Act 78]\nBanishment Act 1959 [Act 79] ( Repealed by the Banishment (Repeal) Act 2011 [Act 735] )\nNational Library Act 1972 [Act 80]\nPawnbrokers Act 1972 [Act 81]\nInternal Security Act 1960 [Act 82] ( Repealed by the Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 [Act 747] )", "Continental Shelf Act 1966 [Act 83]\nMalaysian Rubber Exchange and Licensing Board Act 1972 [Act 84] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551] )\nRubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority Act 1972 [Act 85]\nSuperior of the Institute of the Congregation of the Brothers of Mercy (Incorporation) Act 1972 [Act 86]\nTrade Descriptions Act 1972 [Act 87] ( Repealed by the Trade Descriptions Act 2011 [Act 730] )\nOfficial Secrets Act 1972 [Act 88]", "Official Secrets Act 1972 [Act 88]\nInsurance Act 1963 [Act 89] ( Repealed by the Insurance Act 1996 [Act 553] )\nJuvenile Courts Act 1947 [Act 90] ( Repealed by the Child Act 2001 [Act 611] )\nCourts of Judicature Act 1964 [Act 91]\nSubordinate Courts Act 1948 [Act 92]\nArbitration Act 1952 [Act 93] ( Repealed by the Arbitration Act 2005 [Act 646] )\nAccountants Act 1967 [Act 94]\nPetroleum Mining Act 1966 [Act 95]\nLoans Guarantee (Bodies Corporate) Act 1965 [Act 96]\nProbate and Administration Act 1959 [Act 97]", "Loans Guarantee (Bodies Corporate) Act 1965 [Act 96]\nProbate and Administration Act 1959 [Act 97]\nSmall Estates (Distribution) Act 1955 [Act 98]\nReciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1958 [Act 99]\nTrust Companies Act 1949 [Act 100]", "101 – 200\nTabung Angkatan Tentera Act 1973 [Act 101]\nBanking Act 1973 [Act 102] ( Repealed by the Banking and Financial Institutions Act 1989 [Act 372] )\nEntertainments Duty Act 1953 [Act 103]\nLembaga Kemajuan Terengganu Tengah Act 1973 [Act 104]\nMalaysian Timber Industry Board (Incorporation) Act 1973 [Act 105]\nWomen and Girls Protection Act 1973 [Act 106] ( Repealed by the Child Act 2001 [Act 611] )", "Women and Girls Protection Act 1973 [Act 106] ( Repealed by the Child Act 2001 [Act 611] )\nCity of Kuala Lumpur (Planning) Act 1973 [Act 107] ( Repealed by the Federal Territory (Planning) Act 1982 [Act 267] )\nGood Shepherd Nuns (Incorporation) Act 1973 [Act 108]\nFarmers' Organization Act 1973 [Act 109]\nFarmers' Organization Authority Act 1973 [Act 110]\nNational Tobacco Board (Incorporation) Act 1973 [Act 111] ( Repealed by the National Kenaf and Tobacco Board Act 2009 [Act 692] )", "Securities Industry Act 1973 [Act 112] ( Repealed by the Securities Industry Act 1983 [Act 280] )\nPost Office Savings Bank Act 1948 [Act 113] ( Repealed by the Bank Simpanan Nasional Act 1974 [Act 146] )\nJudicial Proceedings (Regulation of Reports) Act 1962 [Act 114]\nNotaries Public Act 1959 [Act 115]\nElectricity Act 1949 [Act 116] ( Repealed by the Electricity Supply Act 1990 [Act 447] )\nArchitects Act 1967 [Act 117]\nHousing Development (Control and Licensing) Act 1966 [Act 118]", "Architects Act 1967 [Act 117]\nHousing Development (Control and Licensing) Act 1966 [Act 118]\nCommissions of Enquiry Act 1950 [Act 119]\nGovernment Contracts Act 1949 [Act 120]\nPrice Control Act 1946 [Act 121]\nControl of Supplies Act 1961 [Act 122]\nBiro Siasatan Negara Act 1973 [Act 123] ( Repealed by the Anti-Corruption Agency Act 1982 [Act 271] )\nLocal Government (Temporary Provisions) Act 1973 [Act 124] ( Repealed by the Local Government Act 1976 [Act 171] )", "Companies Act 1965 [Act 125] ( Repealed by the Companies Act 2016 [Act 777] )\nLand Speculation Tax Act 1974 [Act 126] ( Repealed by the Real Property Gains Tax Act 1976 [Act 169] )\nEnvironmental Quality Act 1974 [Act 127]\nPetroleum and Electricity (Control of Supplies) Act 1974 [Act 128]\nGeological Survey Act 1974 [Act 129]\nHuman Tissues Act 1974 [Act 130]", "Geological Survey Act 1974 [Act 129]\nHuman Tissues Act 1974 [Act 130]\nRoman Catholic Bishops (Change of Name and Incorporation) Act 1974 [Act 131] ( Repealed by the Roman Catholic Bishops (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 492] )\nIncome Tax (Tin Buffer Stock Contributions and Repayments) Act 1974 [Act 132]\nStreet, Drainage and Building Act 1974 [Act 133]\nAboriginal Peoples Act 1954 [Act 134]\nPartnership Act 1961 [Act 135]\nContracts Act 1950 [Act 136]\nSpecific Relief Act 1950 [Act 137]", "Partnership Act 1961 [Act 135]\nContracts Act 1950 [Act 136]\nSpecific Relief Act 1950 [Act 137]\nRegistration of Engineers Act 1967 [Act 138]\nFactories and Machinery Act 1967 [Act 139]\nPenang Port Commission Act 1955 [Act 140]\nFederal Agricultural Marketing Authority Act 1965 [Act 141]\nKootu Funds (Validation) Act 1974 [Act 142]\nScouts Association of Malaysia Act 1974 [Act 143]\nPetroleum Development Act 1974 [Act 144]\nPoliteknik Ungku Omar Act 1974 [Act 145]\nBank Simpanan Nasional Act 1974 [Act 146]", "Politeknik Ungku Omar Act 1974 [Act 145]\nBank Simpanan Nasional Act 1974 [Act 146]\nVeterinary Surgeons Act 1974 [Act 147]\nCarriage by Air Act 1974 [Act 148]\nPesticides Act 1974 [Act 149]\nPassports Act 1966 [Act 150]\n4th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 55)\nService Tax Act 1975 [Act 151] ( Repealed by the Goods And Services Tax Act 2014 [Act 762] )\nRegistration of Births and Deaths (Special Provisions) Act 1975 [Act 152]\nIslamic Development Bank Act 1975 [Act 153]", "Islamic Development Bank Act 1975 [Act 153]\nDestruction of Disease-Bearing Insects Act 1975 [Act 154]\nImmigration Act 1959/63 [Act 155]\nIndustrial Co-ordination Act 1975 [Act 156]\nStandards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1975 [Act 157] ( Repealed by the Standards of Malaysia Act 1996 [Act 549] )\nChemists Act 1975 [Act 158]\nEmployment Information Act 1953 [Act 159]\nMalaysian Currency (Ringgit) Act 1975 [Act 160]\nRubber Price Stabilization Act 1975 [Act 161]", "Malaysian Currency (Ringgit) Act 1975 [Act 160]\nRubber Price Stabilization Act 1975 [Act 161]\nMalaysian Red Cross Society (Change of Name) Act 1975 [Act 162]\nExtra-territorial Offences Act 1976 [Act 163]\nLaw Reform (Marriage and Divorce) Act 1976 [Act 164]\nLaw Reform (Eradication of Illicit Samsu) Act 1976 [Act 165]\nLegal Profession Act 1976 [Act 166]\nPlant Quarantine Act 1976 [Act 167]\nAntiquities Act 1976 [Act 168] ( Repealed by the National Heritage Act 2005 [Act 645] )", "Antiquities Act 1976 [Act 168] ( Repealed by the National Heritage Act 2005 [Act 645] )\nReal Property Gains Tax Act 1976 [Act 169]\nMartial Arts Societies Act 1976 [Act 170]\nLocal Government Act 1976 [Act 171]\nTown and Country Planning Act 1976 [Act 172]\nUniversiti Teknologi MARA Act 1976 [Act 173]\nEducational Institutions (Discipline) Act 1976 [Act 174]\nTrade Marks Act 1976 [Act 175]\nExcise Act 1976 [Act 176]\nIndustrial Relations Act 1967 [Act 177]\nTun Razak Foundation Act 1976 [Act 178]", "Industrial Relations Act 1967 [Act 177]\nTun Razak Foundation Act 1976 [Act 178]\nPalm Oil Registration and Licensing Authority (Incorporation) Act 1976 [Act 179] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board Act 1998 [Act 582] )\nMedical Assistants (Registration) Act 1977 [Act 180]\nRevenue Growth Grants Act 1977 [Act 181]\nTheatres and Places of Public Amusement (Federal Territory) Act 1977 [Act 182] ( Repealed by the Entertainment (Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur) Act 1992 [Act 493] )", "Destitute Persons Act 1977 [Act 183]\nInternational Monetary Fund (Ratification of Second Amendment to the Articles of Agreement) Act 1977 [Act 184]\nStatutory and Local Authorities Superannuation Fund Act 1977 [Act 185]\nPublic Service Tribunal Act 1977 [Act 186] ( Repealed by the Public Service Tribunal (Dissolution) Act 2000 [Act 604] )\nLoans (Islamic Development Bank) Act 1977 [Act 187]\nTreasury Bills (Local) Act 1946 [Act 188]\nSecond-Hand Dealers Act 1946 [Act 189]\nFederal Capital Act 1960 [Act 190]", "Second-Hand Dealers Act 1946 [Act 189]\nFederal Capital Act 1960 [Act 190]\nAbduction and Criminal Intimidation of Witnesses Act 1947 [Act 191]\nEmergency Powers (Kelantan) Act 1977 [Act 192] ( Repealed by the Emergency Powers (Repeal of Emergency Powers (Kelantan) Act 1977) Order 1978 [P.U.(A)46/1978] )\nNational Emblems (Control of Display) Act 1949 [Act 193]\nOaths and Affirmations Act 1949 [Act 194]\nWages Councils Act 1947 [Act 195] ( Repealed by the National Wages Consultative Council Act 2011 [Act 732] )", "Trusts (State Legislatures Competency) Act 1949 [Act 196]\nRegistration of Businesses Act 1956 [Act 197]\nPublic Authorities Protection Act 1948 [Act 198]\nInvestment Incentives Act 1968 [Act 199] ( Repealed by the Promotion of Investments Act 1986 [Act 327] )\nHouse to House and Street Collections Act 1947 [Act 200]", "201 – 300\nBetting and Sweepstake Duties Act 1948 [Act 201]\nBank Kerjasama Rakyat Malaysia Berhad (Special Provisions) Act 1978 [Act 202]\nLembaga Kemajuan Kelantan Selatan Act 1978 [Act 203]\nBills of Exchange Act 1949 [Act 204]\nPresumption of Survivorship Act 1950 [Act 205]\n5th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 68)\nArms Act 1960 [Act 206]\nExplosives Act 1957 [Act 207]\nTrustee Act 1949 [Act 208]\nFees Act 1951 [Act 209]\nFisheries Act 1963 [Act 210] ( Repealed by the Fisheries Act 1985 [Act 317] )", "Fisheries Act 1963 [Act 210] ( Repealed by the Fisheries Act 1985 [Act 317] )\nPost Office Act 1947 [Act 211] ( Repealed by the Postal Services Act 1991 [Act 465] )\nHire-Purchase Act 1967 [Act 212]\nDewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Act 1959 [Act 213]\nUnited Kingdom Designs (Protection) Act 1949 [Act 214] ( Repealed by the Industrial Designs Act 1996 [Act 552] )\nRegistration of United Kingdom Patents Act 1951 [Act 215] ( Repealed by the Patents Act 1983 [Act 291] )\nEmergency (Essential Powers) Act 1979 [Act 216]", "Emergency (Essential Powers) Act 1979 [Act 216]\nDeclaration of an Area in the Bintulu District to be a Federal Port Act 1979 [Act 217]\nPalm Oil Research and Development Act 1979 [Act 218] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board Act 1998 [Act 582] )\nFinance (Estate Duty) Act 1979 [Act 219] ( Repealed by the Finance Act 1992 [Act 476] )\nWeekly Holidays Act 1950 [Act 220]\nCivil Defence Act 1951 [Act 221]\nPerbadanan Kemajuan Kraftangan Malaysia Act 1979 [Act 222]", "Civil Defence Act 1951 [Act 221]\nPerbadanan Kemajuan Kraftangan Malaysia Act 1979 [Act 222]\nSpecial Pensions (Raja Permaisuri Agong) Act 1979 [Act 223] ( Repealed by the Istana Negara (Royal Allowances) Act 1982 [Act 270] )\nFinance (Estate Duty) Act 1980 [Act 224] ( Repealed by the Finance Act 1992 [Act 476] )\nMalaysian Examinations Council Act 1980 [Act 225]\nNational Parks Act 1980 [Act 226]\nPensions Act 1980 [Act 227]\nPensions Re-computation Act 1980 [Act 228]", "Pensions Act 1980 [Act 227]\nPensions Re-computation Act 1980 [Act 228]\nCommodities Trading Act 1980 [Act 229] ( Repealed by the Commodities Trading Act 1985 [Act 324] )\nState Water Supply Fund (Financial and Accounting Procedure) Act 1980 [Act 230]\nHighway Authority Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1980 [Act 231]\nChildren and Young Persons Act 1947 [Act 232] ( Repealed by the Child Protection Act 1991 [Act 468] )\nLand and Mining Plans and Documents (Photographic Copies) Act 1950 [Act 233]", "Land and Mining Plans and Documents (Photographic Copies) Act 1950 [Act 233]\nDangerous Drugs Act 1952 [Act 234]\nCustoms Act 1967 [Act 235]\nTreasury Deposit Receipts Act 1952 [Act 236]\nMembers of Parliament (Remuneration) Act 1980 [Act 237]\nPensions Adjustment Act 1980 [Act 238]\nStatutory and Local Authorities Pensions Act 1980 [Act 239]\nStatutory Bodies (Accounts and Annual Reports) Act 1980 [Act 240]\nFinance Act 1981 [Act 241]\nValuers, Appraisers and Estate Agents Act 1981 [Act 242]", "Finance Act 1981 [Act 241]\nValuers, Appraisers and Estate Agents Act 1981 [Act 242]\nBintulu Port Authority Act 1981 [Act 243]\nPerbadanan Kemajuan Filem Nasional Malaysia Act 1981 [Act 244]\nState Grants (Maintenance of Local Authorities) Act 1981 [Act 245]\nPrivate Employment Agencies Act 1981 [Act 246]\nPublic Trustee Act 1950 [Act 247] ( Repealed by the Public Trust Corporation Act 1995 [Act 532] )\nInnkeepers Act 1952 [Act 248]\nLembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Kedah Act 1981 [Act 249]", "Innkeepers Act 1952 [Act 248]\nLembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Kedah Act 1981 [Act 249]\nFederation Light Dues Act 1953 [Act 250]\nPlanters' Loans Fund (Dissolution) Act 1981 [Act 251]\nSocial and Welfare Services Lotteries Board Act 1950–1962 [Act 252] ( Repealed by the Social and Welfare Services Lotteries Board (Dissolution) Act 1991 [Act 470] )\nRegistration of Adoptions Act 1952 [Act 253]\nLimitation Act 1953 [Act 254]\nDistress Act 1951 [Act 255]\nDebtors Act 1957 [Act 256]\nAdoption Act 1952 [Act 257]", "Distress Act 1951 [Act 255]\nDebtors Act 1957 [Act 256]\nAdoption Act 1952 [Act 257]\nTrustees (Incorporation) Act 1952 [Act 258]\nIndecent Advertisements Act 1953 [Act 259]\nHydrogen Cyanide (Fumigation) Act 1953 [Act 260]\nMalaysian Standard Time Act 1981 [Act 261]\nTrade Unions Act 1959 [Act 262]\nMarried Women and Children (Maintenance) Act 1950 [Act 263]\nFinance Act 1982 [Act 264]\nEmployment Act 1955 [Act 265]\nFederal Territory (Financial Arrangement) Act 1982 [Act 266]", "Employment Act 1955 [Act 265]\nFederal Territory (Financial Arrangement) Act 1982 [Act 266]\nFederal Territory (Planning) Act 1982 [Act 267]\nBills of Sale Act 1950 [Act 268]\nCivil List Act 1982 [Act 269]\nIstana Negara (Royal Allowances) Act 1982 [Act 270]\nAnti-Corruption Agency Act 1982 [Act 271] ( Repealed by the Anti-Corruption Act 1997 [Act 575] )\nEmployees Provident Fund Act 1951 [Act 272] ( Repealed by the Employees Provident Fund Act 1991 [Act 452] )\nWorkmen’s Compensation Act 1952 [Act 273]", "Workmen’s Compensation Act 1952 [Act 273]\n6th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 54)\nFinance (No. 2) Act 1982 [Act 274]\nGovernment Funding Act 1983 [Act 275]\nIslamic Banking Act 1983 [Act 276] ( Repealed by the Islamic Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 759] )\nElectrical Inspectorate Act 1983 [Act 277] ( Repealed by the Electricity Supply Act 1990 [Act 447] )\nLembaga Letrik Sabah Act 1983 [Act 278] ( Repealed by P.U (A) 37/2008 )\nPerbadanan Pembekalan Letrik Sarawak Act 1983 [Act 279] ( Not yet in force )", "Perbadanan Pembekalan Letrik Sarawak Act 1983 [Act 279] ( Not yet in force )\nSecurities Industry Act 1983 [Act 280] ( Repealed by the Capital Markets and Services Act 2007 [Act 671] )\nFood Act 1983 [Act 281]\nLembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Pulau Pinang Act 1983 [Act 282]\nDrug Dependants (Treatment and Rehabilitation) Act 1983 [Act 283]\nRaja-Raja and the Yang di-Pertua-Yang di-Pertua Negeri Higher Studies Scholarship Fund Act 1983 [Act 284]", "Lembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Jengka Act 1983 [Act 285] ( Repealed by the Lembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Jengka (Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 567] )\nDefamation Act 1957 [Act 286]\nCo-operative Societies Act 1948 [Act 287] ( Repealed by the Co-operative Societies Act 1993 [Act 502] )\nLotteries Act 1952 [Act 288]\nCommon Gaming Houses Act 1953 [Act 289]\nMedicines (Advertisement and Sale) Act 1956 [Act 290]\nPatents Act 1983 [Act 291]\nLembaga Kemajuan Ternakan Negara (Dissolution) Act 1983 [Act 292]", "Patents Act 1983 [Act 291]\nLembaga Kemajuan Ternakan Negara (Dissolution) Act 1983 [Act 292]\nFinance Act 1983 [Act 293]\nGoods Vehicle Levy Act 1983 [Act 294]\nMilitary Manoeuvres Act 1983 [Act 295]\nPublic Order (Preservation) Act 1958 [Act 296]\nPrevention of Crime Act 1959 [Act 297]\nProtected Areas and Protected Places Act 1959 [Act 298]\nBirths and Deaths Registration Act 1957 [Act 299]\nDistribution Act 1958 [Act 300]", "301 – 400\nPrinting Presses and Publications Act 1984 [Act 301]\nPetroleum (Safety Measures) Act 1984 [Act 302]\nIslamic Family Law (Federal Territories) Act 1984 [Act 303]\nAtomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 [Act 304]\nNational Defence Fund (Dissolution and Transfer) Act 1984 [Act 305]\nFederal Roads (Private Management) Act 1984 [Act 306]\nAviation Offences Act 1984 [Act 307]\nChild Care Centre Act 1984 [Act 308]\nFinance Act 1984 [Act 309]", "Child Care Centre Act 1984 [Act 308]\nFinance Act 1984 [Act 309]\nShare (Land Based Company) Transfer Tax Act 1984 [Act 310] ( Repealed by the Finance Act 1988 [Act 364] )\nExclusive Economic Zone Act 1984 [Act 311]\nTakaful Act 1984 [Act 312] ( Repealed by the Islamic Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 759] )\nNational Forestry Act 1984 [Act 313]\nWood-based Industries (State Legislatures Competency) Act 1984 [Act 314]\nFinance Act 1985 [Act 315]\nDangerous Drugs (Special Preventive Measures) Act 1985 [Act 316]", "Finance Act 1985 [Act 315]\nDangerous Drugs (Special Preventive Measures) Act 1985 [Act 316]\nFisheries Act 1985 [Act 317]\nStrata Titles Act 1985 [Act 318]\nMalaysian Forestry Research and Development Board Act 1985 [Act 319]\nConvention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards Act 1985 [Act 320] ( Repealed by the Arbitration Act 2005 [Act 646] )\nRubber Statutory Bodies Act 1985 [Act 321]\nTelecommunication Services (Successor Company) Act 1985 [Act 322]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 1985 [Act 323]", "Finance (No. 2) Act 1985 [Act 323]\nCommodities Trading Act 1985 [Act 324] ( Repealed by the Futures Industry (Amendment and Consolidation) Act 1997 [Act A987] )\nKedah and Penang (Alteration of Boundary) Act 1985 [Act 325]\nPrinting of Qur’anic Texts Act 1986 [Act 326]\nPromotion of Investments Act 1986 [Act 327]\n7th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 123)\nFinance Act 1986 [Act 328]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 1986 [Act 329]\nFinance (Banking and Financial Institutions) Act 1986 [Act 330]", "Finance (No. 2) Act 1986 [Act 329]\nFinance (Banking and Financial Institutions) Act 1986 [Act 330]\nDeposit of Library Material Act 1986 [Act 331]\nCopyright Act 1987 [Act 332]\nRoad Transport Act 1987 [Act 333]\nCommercial Vehicles Licensing Board Act 1987 [Act 334]\nSocieties Act 1966 [Act 335]\nMinor Offences Act 1955 [Act 336]\nFinance Act 1987 [Act 337]\nBroadcasting Act 1988 [Act 338] ( Repealed by the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 [Act 588] )\nNational Trust Fund Act 1988 [Act 339]", "National Trust Fund Act 1988 [Act 339]\nDangerous Drugs (Forfeiture of Property) Act 1988 [Act 340]\nFire Services Act 1988 [Act 341]\nPrevention and Control of Infectious Diseases Act 1988 [Act 342]\nMalaysian Cocoa Board (Incorporation) Act 1988 [Act 343]\nPolice Act 1967 [Act 344]\nCriminal Justice Act 1953 [Act 345]\nWills Act 1959 [Act 346]\nHouses of Parliament (Privileges and Powers) Act 1952 [Act 347]\nDiplomatic and Consular Officers (Oaths and Fees) Act 1959 [Act 348]", "Diplomatic and Consular Officers (Oaths and Fees) Act 1959 [Act 348]\nFederal Lands Commissioner Act 1957 [Act 349]\nChildren and Young Persons (Employment) Act 1966 [Act 350]\nGuardianship of Infants Act 1961 [Act 351]\nPopulation and Family Development Act 1966 [Act 352]\nEmployment (Restriction) Act 1968 [Act 353]\nDrainage Works Act 1954 [Act 354]\nSyariah Courts (Criminal Jurisdiction) Act 1965 [Act 355]\nMarried Women and Children (Enforcement of Maintenance) Act 1968 [Act 356]", "Married Women and Children (Enforcement of Maintenance) Act 1968 [Act 356]\nCorrosive and Explosive Substances and Offensive Weapons Act 1958 [Act 357]\nDelegation of Powers Act 1956 [Act 358]\nGovernment Proceedings Act 1956 [Act 359]\nBankruptcy Act 1967 [Act 360]\nCustoms (Dumping and Subsidies) Act 1959 [Act 361] ( Repealed by the Countervailing and Anti-Dumping Duties Act 1993 [Act 504] )\nTin Control Act 1954 [Act 362]", "Tin Control Act 1954 [Act 362]\nControl of Rent Act 1966 [Act 363] ( Repealed by the Control of Rent (Repeal) Act 1997 [Act 572] )\nFinance Act 1988 [Act 364]\nKidnapping Act 1961 [Act 365]\nPoisons Act 1952 [Act 366]\nMalaysian Chamber of Mines Incorporation Act 1914 [Act 367]\nSale of Drugs Act 1952 [Act 368]\nHolidays Act 1951 [Act 369]\nUnclaimed Moneys Act 1965 [Act 370]\nRegistration of Pharmacists Act 1951 [Act 371]", "Unclaimed Moneys Act 1965 [Act 370]\nRegistration of Pharmacists Act 1951 [Act 371]\nBanking and Financial Institutions Act 1989 [Act 372] ( Repealed by the Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 758] )\nYang di-Pertuan Agong (Exercise of Functions) Act 1957 [Act 373]\nTimbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Remuneration) Act 1958 [Act 374]\nMinister of Finance (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 375]\nFederal Roads Act 1959 [Act 376]", "Minister of Finance (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 375]\nFederal Roads Act 1959 [Act 376]\nRestricted Residence Act 1933 [Act 377] ( Repealed by the Restricted Residence (Repeal) Act 2011 [Act 734] )\nStamp Act 1949 [Act 378]\nDegrees and Diplomas Act 1962 [Act 379]\nIncorporation (State Legislatures Competency) Act 1962 [Act 380]\nRegistration of Guests Act 1965 [Act 381]\nSale of Goods Act 1957 [Act 382]\nPublic Authorities (Control of Borrowing Powers) Act 1961 [Act 383]\nPool Betting Act 1967 [Act 384]", "Public Authorities (Control of Borrowing Powers) Act 1961 [Act 383]\nPool Betting Act 1967 [Act 384]\nLand Conservation Act 1960 [Act 385]\nIrrigation Areas Act 1953 [Act 386]\nAttestation of Registrable Instruments (Mining) Act 1960 [Act 387]\nInterpretation Acts 1948 and 1967 [Act 388]\nTunku Abdul Rahman Foundation Fund Act 1966 [Act 389]\nNational Anthem Act 1968 [Act 390]\nFederal Housing Act 1965 [Act 391]\nConvention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes Act 1966 [Act 392]", "Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes Act 1966 [Act 392]\nService Commissions Act 1957 [Act 393]\nParliamentary Services Act 1963 [Act 394] (Repealed by the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1992 [Act A837] )\nAssignment of Revenue (Export Duty on Iron Ore) Act 1962 [Act 395]\nAssignment of Export Duty (Mineral Ores) Act 1964 [Act 396]\nMalaysian Industrial Development Authority (Incorporation) Act 1965 [Act 397]", "Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (Incorporation) Act 1965 [Act 397]\nNational Land Rehabilitation and Consolidation Authority (Incorporation) Act 1966 [Act 398] (Repealed by the National Land Rehabilitation and Consolidation Authority (Succession and Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 570] )\nTitles of Office Act 1949 [Act 399]\nMoneylenders Act 1951 [Act 400]", "401 – 500\nMalaysian Rubber Research and Development Fund Act 1958 [Act 401] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551] )\nMalaysian Rubber Exchange (Incorporation) Act 1962 [Act 402]\nExternal Loans Act 1963 [Act 403]\nRacing Club (Public Sweepstakes) Act 1965 [Act 404]\nExtended Credit Act 1966 [Act 405]\nDevelopment Funds Act 1966 [Act 406]\nRubber Research Institute of Malaysia Act 1966 [Act 407] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551] )", "Malaysia Productivity Corporation (Incorporation) Act 1966 [Act 408]\nScouts Association of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1968 [Act 409] ( Superseded by the Scouts Association of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1968 [Act 784] )\nLoans (Asian Development Bank ) Act 1968 [Act 410]\nLoans (International Bank) Act 1958 [Act 411]\nLoan Guarantee Act 1958 [Act 412]\nService Lands Act 1963 [Act 413]\nEmblem and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) 1963 [Act 414]\nStatistics Act 1965 [Act 415]", "Emblem and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) 1963 [Act 414]\nStatistics Act 1965 [Act 415]\nTolls (Roads and Bridges) Act 1965 [Act 416]\nMalaysian Combined Cadet Force Act 1967 [Act 417]\nWaters Act 1920 [Act 418]\nPort Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act 1965 [Act 419] ( Repealed by the Port Workers (Regulation of Employment) (Dissolution) Act 2000 [Act 607] )\nFinance Act 1990 [Act 420]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 1990 [Act 421]\nPorts (Privatization) Act 1990 [Act 422]", "Finance (No. 2) Act 1990 [Act 421]\nPorts (Privatization) Act 1990 [Act 422]\nLembaga Pembangunan Langkawi Act 1990 [Act 423]\nPowers of Attorney Act 1949 [Act 424]\nNational Service Act 1952 [Act 425]\nGovernment Trustee Securities Act 1957 [Act 426]\nPineapple Industry Act 1957 [Act 427]\nInternational Finance Corporation Act 1957 [Act 428]\nCounterfeit Coin Act 1957 [Act 429]\nCoin (Import and Export) Act 1957 [Act 430]\nInternational Development Association Act 1960 [Act 431]\nVisiting Forces Act 1960 [Act 432]", "International Development Association Act 1960 [Act 431]\nVisiting Forces Act 1960 [Act 432]\nMerdeka Stadium Corporation Act 1963 [Act 433] ( Repealed by the Perbadanan Stadium Malaysia Act 2010 [Act 717] )\nCinematograph Film-Hire Duty Act 1965 [Act 434] ( Repealed by the Finance Act 1997 [Act 557] )\nEstate Hospital Assistants (Registration) Act 1965 [Act 435]\nMidwives Act 1966 [Act 436]\nCo-operative College (Incorporation) Act 1968 [Act 437]\nFree Zones Act 1990 [Act 438]", "Co-operative College (Incorporation) Act 1968 [Act 437]\nFree Zones Act 1990 [Act 438]\nSeri Pahlawan Gagah Perkasa (Remembrance Allowance) Act 1990 [Act 439]\nMalaysia-Thailand Joint Authority Act 1990 [Act 440]\nLabuan Companies Act 1990 [Act 441]\nLabuan Trust Companies Act 1990 [Act 442] ( Repealed by the Labuan Financial Services and Securities Act 2010 [Act 704] )\nOffshore Banking Act 1990 [Act 443] ( Repealed by the Labuan Financial Services and Securities Act 2010 [Act 704] )", "Offshore Insurance Act 1990 [Act 444] ( Repealed by the Labuan Financial Services and Securities Act 2010 [Act 704] )\nLabuan Business Activity Tax Act 1990 [Act 445]\nWorkers' Minimum Standards of The Housing and Amenities Act 1990 [Act 446]\nElectricity Supply Act 1990 [Act 447]\nElectricity Supply (Successor Company) Act 1990 [Act 448]\nBernama Act 1967 [Act 449] ( Superseded by the BERNAMA Act 1967 [Act 780] )\nMarried Woman Act 1957 [Act 450]\n8th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 85)\nFinance Act 1991 [Act 451]", "Married Woman Act 1957 [Act 450]\n8th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 85)\nFinance Act 1991 [Act 451]\nEmployees Provident Fund Act 1991 [Act 452]\nSecurities Industry (Central Depositories) Act 1991 [Act 453]\nPensions Trust Fund Act 1991 [Act 454] ( Repealed by the Retirement Fund Act 2007 [Act 662] )\nTin Industry (Research and Development) Fund Act 1953 [Act 455]\nGirl Guides Act 1953 [Act 456]\nMethodist Church in Malaysia Act 1955 [Act 457]\nLicensed Land Surveyors Act 1958 [Act 458]", "Methodist Church in Malaysia Act 1955 [Act 457]\nLicensed Land Surveyors Act 1958 [Act 458]\nLoans (Central Bank of Malaysia) Act 1960 [Act 459]\nKelantan Land Settlement Act 1955 [Act 460]\nOffenders Compulsory Attendance Act 1954 [Act 461]\nAsian Development Bank Act 1966 [Act 462]\nRailways Act 1991 [Act 463]\nRailways (Successor Company) Act 1991 [Act 464]\nPostal Services Act 1991 [Act 465] ( Repealed by the Postal Services Act 2012 [Act 741] )\nPostal Services (Successor Company) Act 1991 [Act 466]", "Postal Services (Successor Company) Act 1991 [Act 466]\nAirport and Aviation Services (Operating Company) Act 1991 [Act 467]\nChild Protection Act 1991 [Act 468] ( Repealed by the Child Act 2001 [Act 611] )\nOptical Act 1991 [Act 469]\nSocial and Welfare Services Lotteries Board (Dissolution) Act 1991 [Act 470]\nNative Courts (Criminal Jurisdiction) Act 1991 [Act 471]\nBretton Woods Agreements Act 1957 [Act 472]\nLocal Government Elections Act 1960 [Act 473]\nLand Development Act 1956 [Act 474]", "Local Government Elections Act 1960 [Act 473]\nLand Development Act 1956 [Act 474]\nRubber Export Registration Act 1966 [Act 475] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551] )\nFinance Act 1992 [Act 476]\nImport Duties (Validation) Act 1992 [Act 477]\nRevocation of Exemption from Payment of Stamp Duties Act 1992 [Act 478]\nExtradition Act 1992 [Act 479]\nLembaga Pembangunan Labuan Act 1992 [Act 480] ( Repealed by the Perbadanan Labuan Act 2001 [Act 609] )", "Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board Act 1992 [Act 481]\nTourism Industry Act 1992 [Act 482]\nInternational Fund for Agricultural Development Act 1992 [Act 483]\nLoans (International Fund for Agricultural Development) Act 1992 [Act 484]\nInternational Organizations (Privileges and Immunities) Act 1992 [Act 485]\nLand Acquisition Act 1960 [Act 486]\nQuantity Surveyors Act 1967 [Act 487]\nPort Authorities Act 1963 [Act 488]\nMajlis Amanah Rakyat Act 1966 [Act 489]", "Port Authorities Act 1963 [Act 488]\nMajlis Amanah Rakyat Act 1966 [Act 489]\nMalaysia External Trade Development Corporation Act 1992 [Act 490]\nHuman Resources Development Act 1992 [Act 491] ( Repealed by the Pembangunan Sumber Manusia Berhad Act 2001 [Act 612] )\nRoman Catholic Bishops (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 492]\nEntertainment (Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur) Act 1992 [Act 493]\nRacing (Totalizator Board) Act 1961 [Act 494]\nBetting Act 1953 [Act 495]", "Racing (Totalizator Board) Act 1961 [Act 494]\nBetting Act 1953 [Act 495]\nSouth Indian Labour Fund Act 1958 [Act 496] ( Repealed by the South Indian Labour Fund (Dissolution) Act 1999 [Act 596] )\nFinance Act [Act 497]\nSecurities Commission Act 1993 [Act 498]\nFutures Industry Act 1993 [Act 499] ( Repealed by the Capital Markets And Services Act 2007 [Act 671] )\nDirect Sales and Anti-Pyramid Scheme Act 1993 [Act 500]", "501 – 600\nGas Supply Act 1993 [Act 501]\nCo-operative Societies Act 1993 [Act 502]\nCapitation Grant Act 1993 [Act 503]\nCountervailing and Anti-Dumping Duties Act 1993 [Act 504]\nAdministration of Islamic Law (Federal Territories) Act 1993 [Act 505]\nCare Centres Act 1993 [Act 506]\nAbattoirs (Privatization) Act 1993 [Act 507]\nSewerage Services Act 1993 [Act 508] ( Repealed by the Water Services Industry Act 2006 [Act 655] )\nSubang Golf Course Corporation Act 1968 [Act 509]", "Subang Golf Course Corporation Act 1968 [Act 509]\nNational Association Of Women’s Institutes Of Malaysia Incorporation Act 1958 [Act 510]\nNational Archives Act 1966 [Act 511] ( Repealed by the National Archives Act 2003 [Act 629] )\nGeneva Conventions Act 1962 [Act 512]\nFinance Act 1994 [Act 513]\nOccupational Safety and Health Act 1994 [Act 514]\nMerchant Shipping (Oil Pollution) Act 1994 [Act 515]", "Merchant Shipping (Oil Pollution) Act 1994 [Act 515]\nNational Art Gallery Act 1959 [Act 516] ( Repealed by the National Visual Arts Development Board Act 2011 [Act 724] )\nCheng Hoon Teng Temple (Incorporation) Act 1949 [Act 517]\nNational Land Code (Penang And Malacca Titles) Act 1963 [Act 518]\nCentral Bank Of Malaysia Act 1958 [Act 519] ( Repealed by the Central Bank Of Malaysia Act 2009 [Act 701] )\nLembaga Pembangunan Industri Pembinaan Malaysia Act 1994 [Act 520]\nDomestic Violence Act 1994 [Act 521]", "Domestic Violence Act 1994 [Act 521]\nControl of Padi and Rice Act 1994 [Act 522]\nLembaga Padi dan Beras Negara (Successor Company) Act 1994 [Act 523]\nAcademy of Sciences Malaysia Act 1994 [Act 524]\nMineral Development Act 1994 [Act 525]\nRubber Shipping and Packing Control Act 1949 [Act 526] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551] )\nCarriage of Goods by Sea Act 1950 [Act 527]\nPadi Cultivators (Control of Rent and Security of Tenure) Act 1967 [Act 528]", "Padi Cultivators (Control of Rent and Security of Tenure) Act 1967 [Act 528]\nDirector General of Social Welfare (Incorporation) Act 1948 [Act 529]\nLand (Group Settlement Areas) Act 1960 [Act 530]\nFinance Act 1995 [Act 531]\nPublic Trust Corporation Act 1995 [Act 532]\nInland Revenue Board of Malaysia Act 1995 [Act 533]\nMalayan Railway Provident Fund (Dissolution) Act 1995 [Act 534]\nTabung Haji Act 1995 [Act 535]\n9th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 64)\nPerbadanan Putrajaya Act 1995 [Act 536]", "9th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 64)\nPerbadanan Putrajaya Act 1995 [Act 536]\nPrison Act 1995 [Act 537]\nTown Planners Act 1995 [Act 538]\nSmall and Medium Industries Development Corporation Act 1995 [Act 539]\nMalaysian Red Crescent Society (Incorporation) Act 1965 [Act 540]\nForeign Representatives (Privileges and Immunities) Act 1967 [Act 541]\nTreasure Trove Act 1957 [Act 542] ( Repealed by the National Heritage Act 2005 [Act 645] )\nPetroleum (Income Tax) Act 1967 [Act 543]\nFinance Act 1996 [Act 544]", "Petroleum (Income Tax) Act 1967 [Act 543]\nFinance Act 1996 [Act 544]\nLabuan Offshore Financial Services Authority Act 1996 [Act 545]\nNational Council on Higher Education Act 1996 [Act 546]\nPerbadanan Pembangunan Bandar (Dissolution) Act 1996 [Act 547]\nPerbadanan Pembangunan Bandar (Successor Company) Act 1996 [Act 548]\nStandards of Malaysia Act 1996 [Act 549]\nEducation Act 1996 [Act 550]\nMalaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551]\nIndustrial Designs Act 1996 [Act 552]", "Malaysian Rubber Board (Incorporation) Act 1996 [Act 551]\nIndustrial Designs Act 1996 [Act 552]\nInsurance Act 1996 [Act 553] ( Repealed by the Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 758] )\nLabuan Offshore Trusts Act 1996 [Act 554]\nPrivate Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996 [Act 555]\nLembaga Akreditasi Negara Act 1996 [Act 556] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 [Act 679] )\nFinance Act 1997 [Act 557]\nFinancial Reporting Act 1997 [Act 558]", "Finance Act 1997 [Act 557]\nFinancial Reporting Act 1997 [Act 558]\nSyariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997 [Act 559]\nSyariah Criminal Procedure (Federal Territories) Act 1997 [Act 560]\nSyariah Court Evidence (Federal Territories) Act 1997 [Act 561]\nDigital Signature Act 1997 [Act 562]\nComputer Crimes Act 1997 [Act 563]\nTelemedicine Act 1997 [Act 564] ( Not yet in force )", "Computer Crimes Act 1997 [Act 563]\nTelemedicine Act 1997 [Act 564] ( Not yet in force )\nLabuan Offshore Limited Partnerships Act 1997 [Act 565] ( Repealed by the Labuan Limited Partnerships and Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2010 [Act 707] )\nPerbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional Act 1997 [Act 566]\nLembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Jengka (Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 567]\nLembaga Kemajuan Johor Tenggara (Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 568]\nLembaga Kemajuan Pahang Tenggara (Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 569]", "Lembaga Kemajuan Pahang Tenggara (Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 569]\nNational Land Rehabilitation and Consolidation Authority (Succession and Dissolution) Act 1997 [Act 570]\nBank Simpanan Nasional Berhad Act 1997 [Act 571] ( Not yet in force )\nControl of Rent (Repeal) Act 1997 [Act 572]\nJoint Service (Islamic Affairs Officers) Act 1997 [Act 573]\nPenal Code [Act 574]\nAnti-Corruption Act 1997 [Act 575] ( Repealed by the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission Act 2009 [Act 694] )", "Sports Development Act 1997 [Act 576]\nMoney-Changing Act 1998 [Act 577] ( Repealed by the Money Services Business Act 2011 [Act 731] )\nFinance Act 1998 [Act 578]\nLabuan Offshore Securities Industry Act 1998 [Act 579] ( Repealed by the Labuan Financial Services and Securities Act 2010 [Act 704] )\nCounsellors Act 1998 [Act 580]\nWater Supply (Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur) Act 1998 [Act 581]\nMalaysian Palm Oil Board Act 1998 [Act 582]\nFees (National Planetarium) (Validation) Act 1998 [Act 583]", "Fees (National Planetarium) (Validation) Act 1998 [Act 583]\nTeachers' Superannuation Fund (Sabah) (Dissolution) Act 1998 [Act 584]\nSyariah Court Civil Procedure (Federal Territories) Act 1998 [Act 585]\nPrivate Healthcare Facilities and Services Act 1998 [Act 586]\nPengurusan Danaharta Nasional Berhad Act 1998 [Act 587]\nCommunications and Multimedia Act 1998 [Act 588]\nMalaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission Act 1998 [Act 589]\nFranchise Act 1998 [Act 590]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 1998 [Act 591]", "Franchise Act 1998 [Act 590]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 1998 [Act 591]\nWindfall Profit Levy Act 1998 [Act 592]\nCriminal Procedure Code [Act 593]\nTourism Vehicles Licensing Act 1999 [Act 594]\nConsular Relations (Vienna Convention) Act 1999 [Act 595]\nSouth Indian Labour Fund (Dissolution) Act 1999 [Act 596]\nHuman Rights Commission of Malaysia Act 1999 [Act 597]\nStatutory Bodies (Power to Borrow) Act 1999 [Act 598]\nConsumer Protection Act 1999 [Act 599]\n10th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 33)", "Consumer Protection Act 1999 [Act 599]\n10th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 33)\nFinance Act 2000 [Act 600]", "601 – 700\nLayout-Designs of Integrated Circuits Act 2000 [Act 601]\nGeographical Indications Act 2000 [Act 602]\nAnti-Personnel Mines Convention Implementation Act 2000 [Act 603]\nPublic Service Tribunal (Dissolution) Act 2000 [Act 604]\nStatutory Bodies (Discipline and Surcharge) Act 2000 [Act 605]\nOptical Discs Act 2000 [Act 606]\nPort Workers (Regulation of Employment) (Dissolution) Act 2000 [Act 607]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 2000 [Act 608]\nPerbadanan Labuan Act 2001 [Act 609]", "Finance (No. 2) Act 2000 [Act 608]\nPerbadanan Labuan Act 2001 [Act 609]\nEnergy Commission Act 2001 [Act 610]\nChild Act 2001 [Act 611]\nPembangunan Sumber Manusia Berhad Act 2001 [Act 612]\nAnti-Money Laundering, Anti-Terrorism Financing and Proceeds of Unlawful Activities Act 2001 [Act 613]\nCompanies Commission of Malaysia Act 2001 [Act 614]\nMental Health Act 2001 [Act 615]\nPanglima Gagah Berani (Remembrance Allowance) Act 2001 [Act 616]\nIntellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia Act 2002 [Act 617]", "Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia Act 2002 [Act 617]\nDevelopment Financial Institutions Act 2002 [Act 618]\nFinance Act 2002 [Act 619]\nFilm Censorship Act 2002 [Act 620]\nMutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 2002 [Act 621]\nCapitation Grant Act 2002 [Act 622]\nIslamic Financial Services Board Act 2002 [Act 623]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 2002 [Act 624]\nNational Land Code (Validation) Act 2003 [Act 625]\nHotels (Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur) Act 2003 [Act 626]", "Hotels (Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur) Act 2003 [Act 626]\nPayment Systems Act 2003 [Act 627] ( Repealed by the Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 758] )\nNational Service Training Act 2003 [Act 628]\nNational Archives Act 2003 [Act 629]\nLangkawi International Yacht Registry Act 2003 [Act 630]\nFinance Act 2003 [Act 631]\nDemutualisation (Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange) Act 2003 [Act 632]\n11th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 56)\nMalaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency Act 2004 [Act 633]", "11th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 56)\nMalaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency Act 2004 [Act 633]\nProtection of New Plant Varieties Act 2004 [Act 634]\nFees (Marine Parks Malaysia) (Validation) Act 2004 [Act 635]\nDiplomatic Privileges (Vienna Convention) Act 1966 [Act 636]\nLoan (Local) Act 1959 [Act 637]\nNational Anti-Drugs Agency Act 2004 [Act 638]\nFinance Act 2004 [Act 639]\nSkills Development Fund Act 2004 [Act 640]\nChemicals Weapons Convention Act 2005 [Act 641]", "Skills Development Fund Act 2004 [Act 640]\nChemicals Weapons Convention Act 2005 [Act 641]\nMalaysia Deposit Insurance Corporation Act 2005 [Act 642] ( Repealed by the Malaysia Deposit Insurance Corporation Act 2011 [Act 720] )\nLangkawi International Yachting Companies Act 2005 [Act 643] ( Not yet in force )\nFinance Act 2005 [Act 644]\nNational Heritage Act 2005 [Act 645]\nArbitration Act 2005 [Act 646]\nAnimals Act 1953 [Act 647]\nLoan (Local) Act 1957 [Act 648]", "Arbitration Act 2005 [Act 646]\nAnimals Act 1953 [Act 647]\nLoan (Local) Act 1957 [Act 648]\nGovernment Loans (Notice of Trusts) Act 1947 [Act 649]\nLoan (Local) Act 1961 [Act 650]\nMalaysian Health Promotion Board Act 2006 [Act 651]\nNational Skills Development Act 2006 [Act 652]\nAkademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Kebangsaan Act 2006 [Act 653]\nSuruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara Act 2006 [Act 654]\nWater Services Industry Act 2006 [Act 655]\nMalaysian Pepper Board Act 2006 [Act 656]\nSafeguards Act 2006 [Act 657]", "Malaysian Pepper Board Act 2006 [Act 656]\nSafeguards Act 2006 [Act 657]\nElectronic Commerce Act 2006 [Act 658]\nInternational Interests in Mobile Equipment (Aircraft) Act 2006 [Act 659]\nBaselines of Maritime Zones Act 2006 [Act 660]\nFinance Act 2006 [Act 661]\nRetirement Fund Act 2007 [Act 662]\nBuilding and Common Property (Maintenance and Management) Act 2007 [Act 663] ( Repealed by the Strata Management Act 2013 [Act 757] )\nIskandar Regional Development Authority Act 2007 [Act 664]", "Iskandar Regional Development Authority Act 2007 [Act 664]\nMalaysia Co-operative Societies Commission Act 2007 [Act 665]\nMalaysian Biofuel Industry Act 2007 [Act 666]\nLabuan Native Title Act 2007 [Act 667]\nYouth Societies and Youth Development Act 2007 [Act 668]\nInternational Islamic Trade Finance Corporation Act 2007 [Act 669]\nAnti-Trafficking in Persons and Anti-Smuggling of Migrants Act Act 2007 [Act 670]\nCapital Markets and Services Act 2007 [Act 671]", "Capital Markets and Services Act 2007 [Act 671]\nSolid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007 [Act 672]\nSolid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Corporation Act 2007 [Act 673]\nPathology Laboratory Act 2007 [Act 674] ( Not yet in force )\nNational Measurement System Act 2007 [Act 675]\nEvidence of Child Witness Act 2007 [Act 676]\nHire Purchase Registration (Sarawak) (Repeal) Act 2007 [Act 677]\nBiosafety Act 2007 [Act 678]\nMalaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 [Act 679]", "Biosafety Act 2007 [Act 678]\nMalaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 [Act 679]\nElectronic Government Activities Act 2007 [Act 680]\nWidows and Orphans Pension Act 1915 [Act 681]\nUniversity of Malaya Act 1961 [Act 682]\nFinance Act 2007 [Act 683]\nBank Pertanian Malaysia Berhad Act 2008 [Act 684]\nPersons with Disabilities Act 2008 [Act 685]\nInternational Trade in Endangered Species Act 2008 [Act 686]\nNorthern Corridor Implementation Authority Act 2008 [Act 687]", "Northern Corridor Implementation Authority Act 2008 [Act 687]\nEast Coast Economic Region Development Council Act 2008 [Act 688]\n12th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 71)\nGeologists Act 2008 [Act 689]\nSalvation Army (Incorporated) Act 1956 [Act 690]\nEmergency (Essential Powers) Act 1964 [Act 691]\nNational Kenaf and Tobacco Board Act 2009 [Act 692]\nFinance Act 2009 [Act 693]\nMalaysian Anti-Corruption Commission Act 2009 [Act 694]\nJudicial Appointments Commission Act 2009 [Act 695]", "Judicial Appointments Commission Act 2009 [Act 695]\nWitness Protection Act 2009 [Act 696]\nFees (National Agriculture Training Council) (Validation) Act 2009 [Act 697]\nFeed Act 2009 [Act 698]\nDeoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Identification Act 2009 [Act 699]\nEnforcement Agency Integrity Commission Act 2009 [Act 700]", "701 – 800\nCentral Bank of Malaysia Act 2009 [Act 701]\nFinance Act 2010 [Act 702]\nJudges' Ethics Committee Act 2010 [Act 703]\nLabuan Financial Services and Securities Act 2010 [Act 704]\nLabuan Islamic Financial Services and Securities Act 2010 [Act 705]\nLabuan Foundations Act 2010 [Act 706]\nLabuan Limited Partnerships and Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2010 [Act 707]\nStrategic Trade Act 2010 [Act 708]\nPersonal Data Protection Act 2010 [Act 709]\nCredit Reporting Agencies Act 2010 [Act 710]", "Personal Data Protection Act 2010 [Act 709]\nCredit Reporting Agencies Act 2010 [Act 710]\nWhistleblower Protection Act 2010 [Act 711]\nCompetition Act 2010 [Act 712]\nCompetition Commission Act 2010 [Act 713]\nSuruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat Act 2010 [Act 714]\nLand Public Transport Act 2010 [Act 715]\nWildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716]\nPerbadanan Stadium Malaysia Act 2010 [Act 717]\nAgensi Inovasi Malaysia Act 2010 [Act 718]\nFinance Act 2011 [Act 719]", "Agensi Inovasi Malaysia Act 2010 [Act 718]\nFinance Act 2011 [Act 719]\nMalaysia Deposit Insurance Corporation Act 2011 [Act 720]\nInternational Islamic Liquidity Management Corporation Act 2011 [Act 721]\nFees (Malaysian Meteorological Department) (Validation) Act 2011 [Act 722]\nPrice Control and Anti-Profiteering Act 2011 [Act 723]\nNational Visual Arts Development Board Act 2011 [Act 724]\nRenewable Energy Act 2011 [Act 725]\nSustainable Energy Development Authority Act 2011 [Act 726]", "Renewable Energy Act 2011 [Act 725]\nSustainable Energy Development Authority Act 2011 [Act 726]\nFood Analysts Act 2011 [Act 727]\nMalaysian Quarantine and Inspection Services Act 2011 [Act 728]\nNational Sports Institute Act 2011 [Act 729]\nTrade Descriptions Act 2011 [Act 730]\nMoney Services Business Act 2011 [Act 731]\nNational Wages Consultative Council Act 2011 [Act 732]\nKampong Bharu Development Corporation Act 2011 [Act 733]\nRestricted Residence (Repeal) Act 2011 [Act 734]", "Restricted Residence (Repeal) Act 2011 [Act 734]\nBanishment (Repeal) Act 2011 [Act 735]\nPeaceful Assembly Act 2012 [Act 736]\nMedical Device Act 2012 [Act 737]\nMedical Device Authority Act 2012 [Act 738]\nPerumahan Rakyat 1Malaysia Act 2012 [Act 739]\nVeterans Act 2012 [Act 740]\nPostal Services Act 2012 [Act 741]\nFinance Act 2012 [Act 742]\nLimited Liability Partnerships Act 2012 [Act 743]\nJasa Perkasa Persekutuan (Remembrance Allowance) Act 2012 [Act 744]", "Jasa Perkasa Persekutuan (Remembrance Allowance) Act 2012 [Act 744]\nPingat Tentera Udara (Remembrance Allowance) Act 2012 [Act 745]\nConstruction Industry Payment and Adjudication Act 2012 [Act 746]\nSecurity Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 [Act 747]\nMalaysian Institute of Road Safety Research Act 2012 [Act 748]\nMediation Act 2012 [Act 749]\nTerritorial Sea Act 2012 [Act 750]\nRukun Tetangga Act 2012 [Act 751]\nMalaysia Volunteers Corps Act 2012 [Act 752]\nMinimum Retirement Age Act 2012 [Act 753]", "Malaysia Volunteers Corps Act 2012 [Act 752]\nMinimum Retirement Age Act 2012 [Act 753]\nInternational Transfer of Prisoners Act 2012 [Act 754]\nFinance Act 2013 [Act 755]\nTraditional and Complementary Medicine Act 2013 [Act 756] ( Has no force of law (See G.N. 5450/2016 dated 10 March 2016) )\nStrata Management Act 2013 [Act 757]\nFinancial Services Act 2013 [Act 758]\nIslamic Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 759]\n13th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 45)", "Islamic Financial Services Act 2013 [Act 759]\n13th Parliament of Malaysia (Total: 45)\nFees (Department of Museum Malaysia) (Validation) Act 2014 [Act 760]\nFinance Act 2014 [Act 761]\nGoods and Services Tax Act 2014 [Act 762] ( Repealed by the Goods And Services Tax (Repeal) Act 2018 [Act 805] )\nYayasan Guru Tun Hussein Onn Act 2014 [Act 763]\nFinance (No. 2) Act 2014 [Act 764]\nMalaysian Airline System Berhad (Administration) Act 2015 [Act 765]\nNetting of Financial Agreements Act 2015 [Act 766]", "Netting of Financial Agreements Act 2015 [Act 766]\nPublic Sector Home Financing Board Act 2015 [Act 767]\nTechnologists and Technicians Act 2015 [Act 768]\nPrevention of Terrorism Act 2015 [Act 769]\nSpecial Measures Against Terrorism in Foreign Countries Act 2015 [Act 770]\nMalaysian Aviation Commission Act 2015 [Act 771]\nAnimal Welfare Act 2015 [Act 772]\nFinance Act 2015 [Act 773]\nAllied Health Professions Act 2016 [Act 774] ( Not yet in force )\nTraditional and Complementary Medicine Act 2016 [Act 775]", "Traditional and Complementary Medicine Act 2016 [Act 775]\nNational Security Council Act 2016 [Act 776]\nCompanies Act 2016 [Act 777]\nInterest Schemes Act 2016 [Act 778]\nLegislature of Sarawak (Application of Monies Borrowed from the Federation) Act 1968 [Act 779]\nBERNAMA Act 1967 [Act 780]\nRedemptorist Fathers (Incorporation) Act 1962 [Act 781]\nForest Research Institute Malaysia Act 2016 [Act 782]\nStatutory Declarations Act 1960 [Act 783]\nScouts Association of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1968 [Act 784]", "Scouts Association of Malaysia (Incorporation) Act 1968 [Act 784]\nFinance Act 2017 [Act 785]\nAsian Infrastructure Investment Bank Act 2017 [Act 786]\nOffences Relating to Awards 2017 [Act 787]\nCivil Aviation Authority of Malaysia Act 2017 [Act 788]\nSelf-Employment Social Security Act 2017 [Act 789]\nCourts (Modes Of Commencement Of Civil Actions) Act 2017 [Act 790]\nTourism Tax Act 2017 [Act 791]\nSexual Offences Against Children Act 2017 [Act 792]", "Tourism Tax Act 2017 [Act 791]\nSexual Offences Against Children Act 2017 [Act 792]\nPadi Cultivators (Control of Rent and Security of Tenure) Act 1967 [Act 793] - Revised 2017\nMarried Women and Children (Enforcement of Maintenance) Act 1968 [Act 794] - Revised 2017\nAccess To Biological Resources and Benefit Sharing Act 2017 [Act 795] (Not yet in force)\nEmployment (Restriction) Act 1968 [Act 976] - Revised 2017\nSabah Ports Authority (Consequential Provisions) Act 1968 [Act 797] - Revised 2017", "Sabah Ports Authority (Consequential Provisions) Act 1968 [Act 797] - Revised 2017 \nLocal Authorities (Conditions of Service) Act 1964 [Act 798] - Revised 2017\nMalaysian Border Security Agency Act 2017 [Act 799]\nEmployment Insurance System Act 2017 [Act 800]", "801 to date\nFinance (No. 2) Act 2017 [Act 801]\nPrivate Aged Healthcare Facilities and Services Act 2018 [Act 802] (Not yet in force)\nAnti-Fake News Act 2018 [Act 803]\nDental Act 2018 [Act 804] (Not yet in force)\n14th Parliament of Malaysia\nGoods and Services (Repeal) Act 2018 [Act 805]\nSales Tax Act 2018 [Act 806]\nServices Tax Act 2018 [Act 807]\nNational Anthem Act 1968 [Act 808] - Revised 2018\nPool Betting Act 1967 [Act 809] - Revised 2018\nSubang Golf Course Corporation Act 1968 [Act 810] - Revised 2018", "Subang Golf Course Corporation Act 1968 [Act 810] - Revised 2018\nSuruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat (Dissolution) Act 2018 [Act 811]\nFinance Act 2018 [Act 812]\nDeparture Levy Act 2019 [Act 813]\nSyarie Legal Profession (Federal Territories) Act 2019 [Act 814]\nTrademarks Act 2019 [Act 815]\nThe Visitor in the Federation of Malaya of the Christian Brothers' Schools (Incorporation) Act 1954 [Act 816] - Revised 2019", "The Lady Superior of the Society of Saint Maur (Incorporation) Act 1955 [Act 817] - Revised 2019 \nThe Overseas Missionary Fellowship (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 818] - Revised 2019\nThe Daughters of Charity of the Canossian Institute (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 819] - Revised 2019\nThe Superior of the Institute of the Franciscan Missionaries of Mary (Incorporation) Act 1957 [Act 820] - Revised 2019\nPenang and Province Wellesley Jubilee Fund Act 1965 [Act 821] - Revised 2019", "Penang and Province Wellesley Jubilee Fund Act 1965 [Act 821] - Revised 2019\nNational Anti-Financial Crime Centre Act 2019 [Act 822]\nFinance Act 2019 [Act 823]\nMalaysian Health Promotion Board (Dissolution) Act 2019 [Act 824]\nAnti-Fake News (Repeal) Act 2020 [Act 825]\nFood Donors Protection Act 2020 [Act 826] (Not yet in force)\nCurrency Act 2020 [Act 827] (Not yet in force)", "External links\n Laws of Malaysia - Numerical Table of Laws\n Official Portal of e-Federal Gazette\n List of Post-2011 Principal Acts\n List of Post-2011 Amending Acts\n List of Post-2011 P.U. (A)\n List of Post-2011 P.U. (B)\n Attorney General of Malaysia: Laws of Malaysia - Alphabetical Table of Laws (up to Act 655)\n\n \nParliament of Malaysia\nMalaysia\nMalaysia law-related lists\nMalaysia" ]

[ "Railway electrification is the use of electric power for the propulsion of rail transport. Electric railways use either electric locomotives (hauling passengers or freight in separate cars), electric multiple units (passenger cars with their own motors) or both.", "Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines, but most purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and transformers.", "Power is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an overhead line, suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings, or a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding \"pickup shoe\". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.", "In comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions, and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas", ". They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide regenerative braking that turns the train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including renewable energy", ". Historically concerns of resource independence have played a role in the decision to electrify railway lines. The landlocked Swiss confederation which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful hydropower electrified its network in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars.", "Disadvantages of electric traction include: high capital costs that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes, a relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions. Electro-diesel locomotives and electro-diesel multiple units mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes.", "Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be a historical concern for double-stack rail transport regarding clearances with overhead lines but it is no longer universally true , with both Indian Railways and China Railway regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines.", "Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally. Electrification projects are constantly undertaken to service rapidly growing suburbs formerly served by non-electrified trains which typically have low capacities,.", "History\nRailway electrification is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of diesel or steam power. The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century, when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like Berlin, London, and New York City.", "In 1895, the first railway in the world to be electrified was the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway in Berlin, Germany. It was followed by the electrification of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Baltimore Belt Line in the United States in 1895–96, the first electrified mainline railway.", "The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of the distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over longer distances.", "In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries around the world began to electrify their railways. In Europe, Switzerland, France, and Italy were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In the United States, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was one of the first major railways to be electrified.", "Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with improvements in technology and the development of high-speed trains and commuters. Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with of standard lines in the world, including China, India, Japan, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom", ". Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power, and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure.", "Classification\n\nElectrification systems are classified by three main parameters:\n Voltage\n Current\n Direct current (DC)\n Alternating current (AC)\n Frequency\n Contact system\n Overhead lines (catenary)\n Third rail\n Fourth rail\n Ground-level power supply", "Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation.", "Standardised voltages\nSix of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750VDC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines.\n\nThere are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around the world, and the list of railway electrification systems covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems.", "The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BSEN50163 and IEC60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.\n\nDirect current\n\nOverhead lines", "1,500V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using , the Netherlands, New Zealand (Wellington), Singapore (on the North East MRT Line), the United States (Chicago area on the Metra Electric district and the South Shore Line interurban line and Link light rail in Seattle, Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a cog railway)", ". In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a cog railway). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25kV on the HSL-Zuid and Betuwelijn, and 3,000V south of Maastricht. In Portugal, it is used in the Cascais Line and in Denmark on the suburban S-train system (1650V DC).", "In the United Kingdom, 1,500VDC was used in 1954 for the Woodhead trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used regenerative braking, allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and descending trains on the steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban electrification in East London and Manchester, now converted to 25kVAC. It is now only used for the Tyne and Wear Metro. In India, 1,500V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area", ". In India, 1,500V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25kV 50Hz, which is the countrywide system.", "3kV DC is used in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the Soviet Union, and in the Netherlands on a few kilometers between Maastricht and Belgium", ". It was formerly used by the Milwaukee Road from Harlowton, Montana, to Seattle, across the Continental Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (now New Jersey Transit, converted to 25kVAC) in the United States, and the Kolkata suburban railway (Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25kV 50Hz.", "DC voltages between 600V and 800V are used by most tramways, trolleybus networks and underground (subway) systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without the weight of an on-board transformer.\n\nMedium-voltage DC\nIncreasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.", "The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and the phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high voltage would make the transmission more efficient. UIC conducted a case study for the conversion of the Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line (France), currently electrified at 1", ".5kV DC, to 9kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100route-km) and lower the losses (saving 2GWh per year per 100route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000km, that are in need of renewal.", "In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with ignitron-based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and the experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers carried out calculations for railway electrification", "at , showing that the equivalent loss levels for a system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16kV. In the 1980s and 1990s was being tested on the October Railway near Leningrad (now Petersburg). The experiments ended in 1995 due to the end of funding.", "Third rail", "Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the skin depth that AC penetrates to in a steel rail. This effect makes the resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC", ". This effect makes the resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems.", "Fourth rail", "The London Underground in England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at , and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at , which combine to provide a traction voltage of", ". The same system was used for Milan's earliest underground line, Milan Metro's line 1, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail.", "The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the earthed (grounded) running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically bonded together", ". The problem was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem", ". The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains", ". However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of the problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails.", "The Expo and Millennium Line of the Vancouver SkyTrain use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the linear induction propulsion system used on the Innovia ART system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the Canada Line does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification.", "Rubber-tyred systems", "A few lines of the Paris Métro in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains move on rubber tyres which roll on a pair of narrow roll ways made of steel and, in some places, of concrete. Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two guide bars provided outside the running 'roll ways' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide , so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each wheel set of a powered bogie carries one traction motor", ". Each wheel set of a powered bogie carries one traction motor. A side sliding (side running) contact shoe picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each wagon, is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the running rails. This and all other rubber-tyred metros that have a track between the roll ways operate in the same manner.", "Alternating current\nRailways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use transformers, which require AC, to produce higher voltages.\nThe higher the voltage, the lower the current for the same power (because power is current multiplied by voltage), and power loss is proportional to the current squared. The lower current reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered.", "As alternating current is used with high voltages, this method of electrification is only used on overhead lines, never on third rails for safety reasons. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.", "An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting resistors used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the transformer can supply a range of voltages.\nSeparate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery.", "More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase induction motor fed by a variable frequency drive, a special inverter that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed.\nThese drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation.", "Low-frequency alternating current \n\nFive European countries Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden have standardized on 15kV Hz (the 50Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from Hz to 16.7Hz which is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the rotary converters used to generate some of this power from the grid supply.", "In the US, the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Philadelphia and Reading Railway adopted 11kV 25Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25Hz, with voltage boosted to 12kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25kV 60Hz.", "In the UK, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London, London Bridge to Victoria being opened to traffic on 1December 1909. Victoria to Crystal Palace via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911. Peckham Rye to West Norwood opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under the Southern Railway serving Coulsdon North and Sutton railway station", ". The lines were electrified at 6.7kV 25Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929.", "Standard frequency alternating current", "25 kV AC is used at 60Hz on some US lines, western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50Hz in a number of European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using 16.7Hz, see above)", ".7Hz, see above). On \"French system\" HSLs, the overhead line and a \"sleeper\" feeder line each carry 25kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50kV from each other; autotransformers equalize the tension at regular intervals.", "Three-phase alternating current \n\nVarious railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised three-phase, rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire.\n\nComparisons", "AC versus DC for mainlines", "The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from a power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive, transformed and rectified to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics)", ". Thus both systems are faced with the same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems.", "Both the transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher", ". However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for.", "Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of the advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary (). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system", ". On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to the supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases)", ". The low-frequency AC system may be powered by separate generation and distribution network or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to the maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents.", "Electric versus diesel\n\nEnergy efficiency\nElectric trains need not carry the weight of prime movers, transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment.\nRegenerative braking returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to the general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades.", "Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency", ". The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by regenerative braking and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.", "Large fossil fuel power stations operate at high efficiency, and can be used for district heating or to produce district cooling, leading to a higher total efficiency. Electricity for electric rail systems can also come from renewable energy, nuclear power, or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions.", "Power output", "Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. 'ICE TD') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric", ". Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system.", "On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by the high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.", "Network effect", "Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used", ". This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified", ". The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car, also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.", "A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in the electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart", ". This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more multiple units coupled together, since in that case if the train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of push-pull trains which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems.", "In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large capacitors to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid the need for overhead wires between those stations.", "Maintenance costs", "Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly.", "Sparks effect", "Newly electrified lines often show a \"sparks effect\", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue", ". The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and the fact that electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification)", ". Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades.", "Double-stack rail transport \n\nDue to the height restriction imposed by the overhead wires, double-stacked container trains have been traditionally difficult and rare to operate under electrified lines. However, this limitation is being overcome by railways in India, China and African countries by laying new tracks with increased catenary height.", "Such installations are in the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor in India where the wire height is at to accommodate double-stack container trains without the need of well-wagons.\n\nAdvantages", "There are a number of advantages including the fact there is no exposure of passengers to exhaust from the locomotive and tower cost of building, running and maintaining locomotives and multiple units. Electric trains have a higher power-to-weight ratio (no onboard fuel tanks), resulting in fewer locomotives, faster acceleration, higher practical limit of power, higher limit of speed, less noise pollution (quieter operation)", ". The faster acceleration clears lines more quickly to run more trains on the track in urban rail uses.", "Reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for power loss see Diesel engine)\n Independence of running costs from fluctuating fuel prices\n Service to underground stations where diesel trains cannot operate for safety reasons\n Reduced environmental pollution, especially in highly populated urban areas, even if electricity is produced by fossil fuels\n Easily accommodates kinetic energy brake reclaim using supercapacitors\n More comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines", "More comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines\n Somewhat higher energy efficiency in part due to regenerative braking and less power lost when \"idling\"\n More flexible primary energy source: can use coal, natural gas, nuclear or renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind) as the primary energy source instead of diesel fuel", "If the entire network is electrified, diesel infrastructure such as fueling stations, maintenance yards and indeed the diesel locomotive fleet can be retired or put to other uses – this is often the business case in favor of electrifying the last few lines in a network where otherwise costs would be too high. Having only one type of motive power also allows greater fleet homogeneity which can also reduce costs.", "Disadvantages", "Electrification cost: electrification requires an entire new infrastructure to be built around the existing tracks at a significant cost. Costs are especially high when tunnels, bridges and other obstructions have to be altered for clearance. Another aspect that can raise the cost of electrification are the alterations or upgrades to railway signalling needed for new traffic characteristics, and to protect signalling circuitry and track circuits from interference by traction current", ". Electrification typically requires line closures while new equipment is being installed.", "Appearance: the overhead line structures and cabling can have a significant landscape impact compared with a non-electrified or third rail electrified line that has only occasional signalling equipment above ground level.", "Fragility and vulnerability: overhead electrification systems can suffer severe disruption due to minor mechanical faults or the effects of high winds causing the pantograph of a moving train to become entangled with the catenary, ripping the wires from their supports. The damage is often not limited to the supply to one track, but extends to those for adjacent tracks as well, causing the entire route to be blocked for a considerable time", ". Third-rail systems can suffer disruption in cold weather due to ice forming on the conductor rail.", "Theft: the high scrap value of copper and the unguarded, remote installations make overhead cables an attractive target for scrap metal thieves. Attempts at theft of live 25kV cables may end in the thief's death from electrocution. In the UK, cable theft is claimed to be one of the biggest sources of delay and disruption to train services – though this normally relates to signalling cable, which is equally problematic for diesel lines.", "Incompatibility: Diesel trains can run on any track without electricity or with any kind of electricity (third rail or overhead line, DC or AC, and at any voltage or frequency). Not so for electric trains, which can never run on non-electrified lines, and which even on electrified lines can run only on the single, or the few, electrical system(s) for which they are equipped", ". Even on fully electrified networks, it is usually a good idea to keep a few diesel locomotives for maintenance and repair trains, for instance to repair broken or stolen overhead lines, or to lay new tracks. However, due to ventilation issues, diesel trains may have to be banned from certain tunnels and underground train stations mitigating the advantage of diesel trains somewhat.", "Birds may perch on parts with different charges, and animals may also touch the electrification system. Dead animals attract foxes or other scavengers, bringing risk of collision with trains.", "In most of the world's railway networks, the height clearance of overhead electrical lines is not sufficient for a double-stack container car or other unusually tall loads. To upgrade electrified lines to the correct clearances () to take double-stacked container trains, besides renewing bridges over it, would normally mean need for special pantographs violating standardisation and requiring custom made vehicles.", "Railway electrification around the world\n\nAs of 2012, electrified tracks accounted for nearly one third of total tracks globally.\n\nAs of 2018, there were of railways electrified at 25kV, either 50 or 60Hz; electrified at ; electrified at 15kV 16.7 or Hz and electrified at .", "As of 2023, the Swiss rail network is the largest fully electrified network in the world and one of only eleven countries to achieve this. Japan has the 2nd highest electrification rate, with 75% of its system electrified. China has the 3rd highest electrification rate with over 65% of the network, after India overtook China, with an electrification rate of 90%", ". Overall, China takes first place, with around 100,000km of electrified railway, followed by India with over 84,000km of electrified railway, and topping out with Russia, with over 54,000km of electrified railway. A number of countries have zero electrified railways, instead relying on diesel multiple units, locomotive hauled services and many alternate forms of transport", ". The European Union contains the longest amount of electrified railways (in length), with over 114,000km of electrified railway, however only making up around 55% of the total railway length.", "Several countries have announced plans to electrify all or most of their railway network such as Indian Railways and Israel Railways.\n\nThe Trans-Siberian Railway mainly in Russia is completely electrified, making it one of the longest stretches of electrified railways in the world.\n\nSee also", "Battery electric multiple unit\n Battery locomotive\n Conduit current collection\n Current collector\n Dual electrification\n Electromote\n Fifth rail system\n Ground-level power supply\n History of the electric locomotive\n Initial Electrification Experiments NY NH HR\n List of railway electrification systems\n List of tram systems by gauge and electrification\n Multi-system (rail)\n Overhead conductor rails\n Railroad electrification in the United States\n Stud contact system\n Traction current pylon", "Railroad electrification in the United States\n Stud contact system\n Traction current pylon\n Traction powerstation\n Traction substation", "References\n\nFurther reading\n\nSources\n\nEnglish\n \n Gomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. \"VSC-based MVDC Railway Electrification System\" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014 pp.422–431. (suggests 24 kV DC)\n (Jane's) Urban Transit Systems", "Russian\n Винокуров В.А., Попов Д.А. \"Электрические машины железно-дорожного транспорта\" (Electrical machinery of railroad transportation), Москва, Транспорт, 1986. , 520 pp.\n Дмитриев, В.А., \"Народнохозяйственная эффективность электрификации железных дорог и применения тепловозной тяги\" (National economic effectiveness of railway electrification and application of diesel traction), Москва, Транспорт 1976.", "Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. \"Как устроен и работает тепловоз\" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980.\n Иванова В.Н. (ed.) \"Конструкция и динамика тепловозов\" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook).\n Калинин, В.К. \"Электровозы и электропоезда\" (Electric locomotives and electric train sets) Москва, Транспорт, 1991", "Мирошниченко, Р.И., \"Режимы работы электрифицированных участков\" (Regimes of operation of electrified sections [of railways]), Москва, Транспорт, 1982.\n Перцовский, Л. М.; \"Энергетическая эффективность электрической тяги\" (Energy efficiency of electric traction), Железнодорожный транспорт (magazine), #12, 1974 p.39+\n Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В. Н., \"Электрические железные дороги\" (Electric Railways), Москва \"Транспорт\" 1993.", "Сидоров Н.И., Сидорожа Н.Н. \"Как устроен и работает электровоз\" (How the electric locomotive works) Москва, Транспорт, 1988 (5th ed.). 233 pp, . 1980 (4th ed.).\n Хомич А.З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э. \"Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов\" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp.", "External links\n\nElectric rail transport\nRail transport\nTrains" ]

[ "Lizabeth Virginia Scott (born Emma Matzo; September 29, 1922 – January 31, 2015) was an American actress, singer and model for the Walter Thornton Model Agency, known for her \"smoky voice\" and being \"the most beautiful face of film noir during the 1940s and 1950s\"", ". After understudying the role of Sabina in the original Broadway and Boston stage productions of The Skin of Our Teeth, she emerged in such films as The Strange Love of Martha Ivers (1946), Dead Reckoning (1947), Desert Fury (1947), and Too Late for Tears (1949). Of her 22 films, she was the leading lady in all but three. In addition to stage and radio, she appeared on television from the late 1940s to early 1970s.", "Early life", "Emma Matzo (Ema Macová in Slovak) was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the oldest of six children born to Mary Penyak and John Matzo (Ján Maco in Slovak). Several conflicting accounts have been given as to her parents' ethnic origins, with most mentioning English, Rusyn, Russian, and Ukrainian. The family lived in the Pine Brook section of Scranton, where her father owned Matzo Market. Scott characterized her father as a \"lifelong Republican\", which influenced her capitalistic views", ". Scott characterized her father as a \"lifelong Republican\", which influenced her capitalistic views. The love of music influenced Scott's voice.", "Scott attended Marywood Seminary, a local Catholic girls' school. She transferred to Scranton's Central High School, where she performed in several plays. After graduating, she spent the summer working with the Mae Desmond Players at a stock theater in the nearby community of Newfoundland. She then worked at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia. That autumn, she attended Marywood College, but quit after six months.", "In 1939, with her father's help, the 17-year-old Scott moved to New York City, where she stayed at the Ferguson Residence for Women. In New York she was a model for the Walter Thornton agency. Scott read Maxwell Anderson's Mary of Scotland, a play about Mary, Queen of Scots and Elizabeth I, from which she derived the stage name \"Elizabeth Scott.\" She later dropped the \"E\".", "Debut", "In late 1940, an 18-year-old Scott auditioned for the national tour of Hellzapoppin. From several hundred women, she was chosen by John \"Ole\" Olsen and Harold \"Chic\" Johnson, stars of the original Broadway production. She was assigned to one of three road companies, Scott's being led by Billy House and Eddie Garr. Landing her first professional job, she was billed as \"Elizabeth Scott\". The tour opened November 3, 1940, at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut", ". The tour opened November 3, 1940, at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut. She did blackouts and other types of sketch comedy during her 18-month tour of 63 cities across the US.", "Scott then returned to New York in 1942, where she starred as Sadie Thompson in John Colton's play Rain, which ran on the then equivalent of off-Broadway. It was her first starring role, but no drama critic reviewed the play. But the producer of a Broadway play, Michael Myerberg, did see the show.", "Myerberg had just moved an experimental production of Thornton Wilder's new play The Skin of Our Teeth starring Tallulah Bankhead from New Haven to the Plymouth Theatre. Impressed by Scott's Sadie Thompson, he hired her as the understudy for Bankhead, despite Bankhead's protests. Bankhead had signed a contract forbidding an understudy for the Sabina role, which Myerberg breached by hiring Scott. Previously, Bankhead had controlled the production by not showing up for rehearsal", ". Previously, Bankhead had controlled the production by not showing up for rehearsal. Now, Myerberg could simply put Scott in Bankhead's place. Scott has acknowledged that Myerberg used her to keep Bankhead under control and that Bankhead was furious about the situation. Describing her own experience with Bankhead, Scott recalled, \"She never spoke to me, except to bark out commands. Finally, one day, I'd had enough. I told her to say 'please,' and after that she did", ". Finally, one day, I'd had enough. I told her to say 'please,' and after that she did.\" During her eight months as the understudy, Scott never had an opportunity to substitute for Bankhead, as Scott's presence guaranteed Bankhead's. During her time with the production, Scott played the role of \"Girl/Drum Majorette.\" The play ran from November 18, 1942, to September 25, 1943.", "The rivalry between the two actresses is cited as an alternative to the Martina Lawrence-Elisabeth Bergner origin of Mary Orr's short story, The Wisdom of Eve (1946), the basis of the 1950 film All About Eve. Broadway legend had it that Bankhead was being victimized by Scott, who supposedly was the basis for the fictional Eve Harrington.", "Rumors of an affair between the married Myerberg and the new understudy were rife. Scott has said that her fondest memory was of Myerberg telling her, \"I love you,\" but the two eventually parted.", "The continuing feud between Myerberg and Bankhead worsened Bankhead's ulcer, leading her to not renew her contract. Anticipating Bankhead's move, Myerberg suddenly signed 39-year-old Miriam Hopkins in March, catching Scott off-guard. Bankhead's final zinger to Scott was \"You be as good as she (Hopkins) is.\" For a brief period, Scott understudied for Hopkins. While Scott liked Hopkins much more than Bankhead, she was still disappointed about being passed over for the Sabina role.", "Scott eventually quit in disappointment. Before quitting, Scott replaced Hopkins for one night. When Scott finally went on stage as Sabina, she was surprised by both the approval and fascination of the audience. Her replacement as understudy was another future femme fatale, 19-year-old Gloria Hallward, soon to be known as Gloria Grahame", ". When Michael Myerberg pulled Grahame from the play for another experimental production in Philadelphia—Star Dust— no understudy was available when Gladys George took over for Hopkins.", "On August 30, 1943, Scott once again played Sabina when George was ill. Joe Russell was in the Plymouth Theatre audience that night. Afterward, when a friend from California came to New York on one of his biannual visits to Broadway, Russell told him about Scott's performance. Russell's friend was an up-and-coming film producer for Warner Bros., Hal B. Wallis.\n\nRise to fame", "Hal B. Wallis", "Irving Hoffman, a New York press agent and columnist for The Hollywood Reporter, had befriended Scott and tried to introduce her to people who could help her. On September 29, 1943, Hoffman held a birthday party at the Stork Club—Scott had turned 21. By happenstance or design, Wallis was also at the club that night. Hoffman introduced Scott to Wallis, who arranged for an interview the following day", ". Hoffman introduced Scott to Wallis, who arranged for an interview the following day. When Scott returned home, she found a telegram offering her the lead for the Boston run of The Skin of Our Teeth. Miriam Hopkins was ill. Scott sent Wallis her apologies, cancelling the interview. Scott recalled \"On the train up to Boston, to replace Miss Hopkins, I decided I needed to make the name more of an attention-grabber. And that's when I decided to drop the 'E' from Elizabeth", ". And that's when I decided to drop the 'E' from Elizabeth.\" In 1945, The New Republic claimed that Scott had dropped the \"E\" as a patriotic wartime gesture \"to conserve newsprint.\"", "California\n\nScott appeared in a Harper's photographic spread, which was allegedly admired by film agent Charles Feldman of Famous Artists Corporation. In a telegram to Scott, he asked her to take a screen test. He invited her to come to Los Angeles and stay at the Beverly Hills Hotel.", "Her first screen test was at Universal, then at William Goetz's International Pictures. She was rejected by both studios. Then she tested at Warner Bros., but this time around, Wallis' sister Minna Wallis arranged for film director Fritz Lang to coach Scott.", "Hal Wallis saw Scott's test and recognized her potential.<ref>Burt Prelutsky (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, November 3, 2012), Sixty Seven Conservatives You Should Meet Before You Die, p. 467</ref> At the age of 22, Scott's film debut was the comedy-drama You Came Along (1945).", "During the shooting of You Came Along, Hal Wallis showed Scott's screen test to Hollywood columnist Bob Thomas. Wallis told Thomas, \"Notice how her eyes are alive and sparkling... Once in a while she reads a line too fast, but direction will cure that. That voice makes her intriguing.\"\n\nParamount years\n\nThe Strange Love of Martha Ivers", "Later in 1946, 37-year-old Barbara Stanwyck, in a letter, objected to Scott's top billing in The Strange Love of Martha Ivers (1946): \"I will not be co-starred with any other person other than a recognized male or female star.\" Lawyers for Wallis and Stanwyck got to work, and eventually, the final billing ran Stanwyck, Van Heflin, and Scott at the top, with newcomer Kirk Douglas in second place, but Wallis' interest in promoting Scott was obsessive. The AFI page on Martha Ivers comments:", "Director Lewis Milestone is quoted in an article in the Los Angeles Sun Mirror on 8 December 1946 as having said that he would never make another picture with producer Hal Wallis because Wallis wanted to reshoot scenes in this film for more close-ups of Lizabeth Scott; Milestone reportedly told Wallis to shoot them himself—which he did.", "Wallis ended up adding extra footage of Scott at the expense of Stanwyck's screen time, which later led to a contretemps between Stanwyck and Wallis. Concerning her first film noir, Scott recalled how strange it was to be in a film with Stanwyck and have only one brief scene together. The screenplay by Robert Rossen depicts two separate story lines running in parallel—one dominated by Martha Ivers (Stanwyck) and the other by Antonia \"Toni\" Marachek (Scott)", ". The Heflin character, Sam, is the connection between the story lines, which overlap only in the one scene where femmes fatales Martha and Toni meet.", "In June 1946, Scott gained the distinction of being the first Hollywood star to visit Britain since the end of World War II. She was there to attend the London premiere of Martha Ivers and do a promotional tour through the country. While Scott was still in Britain, shooting began on a new noir that Scott joined after she returned: Dead Reckoning.\n\nDead Reckoning", "Dead Reckoning\n\nColumbia originally intended Rita Hayworth for the role, but she was busy with The Lady from Shanghai (1947).Dan Walker (Thursday, June 13, 1946), \"Gotham Gazette,\" Along Broadway, The Evening Independent, (Massillon, Ohio), p. 4 As a result, Scott was borrowed from Hal B. Wallis.", "At the age of 24, Scott's billing and portrait were equal to Humphrey Bogart's on the film's lobby posters and in advertisements. Most often portrayed in publicity stills was the Jean Louis gown-and-glove outfit she wore in the nightclub scene. In September 1946, a Motion Picture Herald poll voted her the seventh-most promising \"star of tomorrow.\" Production ran 10 June–4 September 1946. It premiered in New York the week of 23 January 1947", ".\" Production ran 10 June–4 September 1946. It premiered in New York the week of 23 January 1947. Despite the initial positive publicity, the long-term effect of Dead Reckoning was to typecast the former comedian for her entire career.", "Late 1940s\n\nHistorian Kevin Starr wrote of a new type of Hollywood actress who began to appear on screen during the 1940s:", "The stars emerging in 1940, by contrast—Rita Hayworth, Ann Sheridan, Ida Lupino, Lupe Vélez, Marie Windsor, Lana Turner, Lizabeth Scott—each possessed a certain hardness, an invisible shield of attitude and defense, that suggested that times were getting serious and that comedy would not be able to handle all the issues... Just a few years earlier, Hollywood had been presenting the wisecracking platinum blonde, frank, sexy, self-actualizing. Now with the war, that insouciance had become hard-boiled.", "This \"hard-boiled\" quality appeared in Scott's two previous films and was repeated in Desert Fury (1947), starring with Burt Lancaster in the second noir filmed in color and a Western as well. Scott again starred with Lancaster, Corey, and Douglas, in Wallis's I Walk Alone (1948), a noirish story of betrayal and vengeance.", "More drama occurred behind the scenes of the film, originally titled Deadlock. The Kay Lawrence role was originally intended to be Kristine Miller's breakout role, but Scott, ever competitive with all other actresses, grabbed the role for herself. Miller later recalled, \"(Wallis) planned to star me in I Walk Alone", ". Miller later recalled, \"(Wallis) planned to star me in I Walk Alone. He tested me with Burt; it was a wonderful test, but then Lizabeth Scott decided she wanted the role, and Lizabeth got whatever she wanted—from Hal Wallis! (Laughs) So, I got the second part instead.\" Douglas, while working with Lancaster on the film, commented:", "Lizabeth Scott played the girl we were involved with in the movie. In real life, she was involved with Hal Wallis. This was a problem. Very often, she'd be in his office for a long time, emerge teary-eyed, and be difficult to work with for the rest of the day.", "Though relations between Lancaster and Scott had previously been romantic, a falling out happened. Lancaster's behavior toward Scott was chilly, especially during one kissing scene, leaving Scott looking exasperated. By April 9, 1947, Lancaster tried to break his seven-year contract with Paramount. He claimed it violated a previous freelance deal, but added that he did not want to work with Scott anymore", ". Despite all the issues among the cast and past critics, I Walk Alone is usually now judged to be a film noir classic.", "Scott played her third and last ingénue in the second favorite among her own films—Pitfall (1948) with Dick Powell and Jane Wyatt as a middle-aged couple growing apart. Director André de Toth explained his reasons for casting Scott:", "I wanted Lizabeth Scott. I didn't want some blonde with big tits. You had to believe that this girl was real. Even if I took one of these over-sexed types who could not act, it would change how the Powell character is drawn into the affair. Remember the point of the script was that he's just a middle-level insurance investigator. He's tired of his job, spending time in his little office with a drab secretary", ". He's tired of his job, spending time in his little office with a drab secretary. So I could have made a different picture, with a prettier girl than Lizabeth Scott, and told the story of that girl, her problems, but that wasn't this movie. That would make it phony, if you cast it with Marilyn Monroe, a type like that. I needed somebody real.", "In May 1948, it was announced that Jane Greer and Robert Mitchum would star in a football-themed story by Irwin Shaw, originally titled Interference. Afterward, Lucille Ball replaced Greer and Victor Mature replaced Mitchum. Scott was slated to play the club secretary. Then, she replaced Ball as leading lady. The reason for the role switch is unknown, though Ball never forgave Mature for his rudeness when they made Seven Days' Leave (1942)", ". The 37-year-old Ball was in career slump at the time and had to take the secondary role meant for Scott. The final film, titled Easy Living (1949), received a generally negative response when it was released. The New York Times review was uncommonly positive, though dismissive of Scott's performance.", "Scott played the ultimate femme fatale in Too Late for Tears (1948), with Don DeFore, Dan Duryea, Arthur Kennedy, and Kristine Miller. This Hitchcock-like, black-and-white noir is widely considered Scott's best film and performance. But, the film was a box-office failure when it was released, and the producer Hunt Stromberg was forced into bankruptcy", ". Decades later, one film historian reported the film's staying power: \"Too Late for Tears is a relatively 'unknown and unseen' noir and deserves this recognition, especially for its storyline, acting, and the incredible performance of Lizabeth Scott in the femme fatale role.\" At the end of 1948, Scott shifted dramatic gears in Paid in Full which was released in 1950.", "On Tuesday, January 25, 1949, Scott collapsed and went into hysterics on the RKO set of The Big Steal (1949). She immediately quit after three days of production. According to Scott's replacement, Jane Greer, Scott quit because she was concerned about being associated with the leading man Robert Mitchum, who at the time was jailed at the local honor farm for a marijuana conviction—Mitchum was convicted January 10, 1949. It later was alleged that Hal Wallis was responsible for Scott's bowing out", ". It later was alleged that Hal Wallis was responsible for Scott's bowing out. Yet, Scott starred with Mitchum in a RKO film two years later. During this same period, the press reported rumors of Scott's stage fright. Scott later admitted to stage fright, explaining her absence during premieres of her films.", "During Scott's recovery period, Walter Winchell, in his \"On Broadway\" column for June 9, 1949, repeated a rumor of Scott's impending marriage to Mortimer Hall, CEO and president of radio station KLAC. Scott and Hall later broke up. (Hall eventually married actress Ruth Roman; pursued Rosemarie Bowe, who looked similar to Scott; divorced Roman; and then married Diana Lynn, Scott's co-star in Paid in Full.)", "By June 22, 1949, Scott reportedly recovered from her January episode and was to be lent by Hal Wallis to the Princeton Drama Festival. In July 1949, Scott returned to the stage in the title role of Philip Yordan's play Anna Lucasta at the McCarter Theatre, on the campus of Princeton University, New Jersey. The press reported: \"Folks who expected fireworks when Liz Scott and Tallulah Bankhead crossed paths at the Princeton Drama Festival were vastly disappointed. It was all sweetness and light.\"", "Finally, Scott decided to legalize her stage name. Having been known professionally as \"Lizabeth Scott\" for almost seven years, she legally changed her name from Emma Matzo on September 14, 1949.AP (Thursday, September 15, 1949), \"Emma Matzo—She's Really Lizabeth Scott,\" Tucson Daily Citizen (Tucson, Arizona), p. 13\n\n1950s", "Scott acted in four films in 1950. In a continuing effort to escape her femme fatale typecasting, Scott played another self-sacrificing June Allyson-like character before reverting to her usual torch singer/socialite roles. In The Company She Keeps (1951), she played Joan Willburn, a probation officer who sacrifices her fiancé to a scheming convict, Diane Stuart (Jane Greer). While Greer's beauty was toned down for the film, Scott's was not", ". While Greer's beauty was toned down for the film, Scott's was not. As a result, critics were generally unconvinced that the leading man would choose the dowdy Diane over Joan. Most critics thought that Scott and Greer were miscast, and should have switched roles.John Howard Reid (Lulu.com, March 23, 2005), Your Colossal Main Feature Plus Full Support Program, p. 52 Columnist Erskine Johnson wrote \"Lizabeth Scott is on her second reach-for-the-handkerchief-Mabel picture for RKO.\"", "Scott played her third torch-singer role in Dark City (1950), a traditional film noir. Her boyfriend, Danny Haley (Charlton Heston in his film debut) is a bookie who is the apparent target of a vengeful brother of a dead man whom Haley swindled. Originally, Burt Lancaster was cast as the leading man, but he refused to work with Scott again.", "In a May interview, Scott said she was reading the entire oeuvre of Aldous Huxley. In another interview, she admitted almost joining a \"cult\" endorsed by Huxley, but did not due to the vow of poverty required. Huxley explored reincarnation and destiny, beliefs which Scott also professed in interviews", ". Huxley explored reincarnation and destiny, beliefs which Scott also professed in interviews.Carole Langer (Soapbox & Praeses Productions, 1996; accessed May 23, 2014), Lizabeth Scott 1996 Interview Part 8 of 8 During Scott's spiritual search, she eventually met the Dalai Lama at a private reception at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Yet, conversely, Scott was a friend and reader of Ayn Rand, an Aristotelian atheist", ". Yet, conversely, Scott was a friend and reader of Ayn Rand, an Aristotelian atheist. Later in 1950, Scott was cast to do the summer-stock version of Tennessee Williams' Summer and Smoke (1948). Instead, she quit the production and audited two morning courses—philosophy and political science—for six weeks at the University of Southern California.AP (Thursday, June 29, 1950) \"Actress Lizabeth Scott Takes University Study,\" Tucson Daily Citizen (Tucson, Arizona), p. 9", "In Two of a Kind (1951), Scott portrayed Brandy Kirby, a socialite who seduces a gambler, Michael \"Lefty\" Farrell (Edmond O'Brien), into joining a caper. Red Mountain (1952) is set in the 1860s, starring Scott as Chris, the only member of her family to survive the American Civil War. Red Mountain was the second of Scott's three Westerns, though the only traditional non-noir one.", "Scott played her fourth and last torch-singer role in The Racket (1951), another conventional noir. Irene Hayes (Scott) is caught up in a struggle between a big-city police captain (Robert Mitchum) and a local crime boss (Robert Ryan), who resembles the real-life Bugsy Siegel. The film was released two months after the Kefauver hearings, in which Virginia Hill, and mistress of Siegel's, denied having any knowledge of organized crime", ". While Irene Hayes was thought to be modeled on the smoky-voiced Hill, Scott denied the rumor.", "Scott returned to Britain in October 1951 to film Stolen Face (1952), a noir that presages Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo (1958) by several years.", "Later that spring, Scott returned to her beginnings as a comedian when she began work on her first comedy noir, Scared Stiff, with Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis. Scott played an heiress who inherits a haunted castle on Lost Island off the coast of Cuba. Though Scott had fond memories of working on the set in the years ahead, at the time of filming, she found it trying", ". Scott found Lewis' impersonations of her offensive, while a jealous Hal Wallis instructed director George Marshall not to let the romantic scenes between Scott and Martin get too steamy. Despite Scott's best efforts, including making excuses for Lewis' behavior to the press, most of her scenes were cut. The film premiered the week of 28 May 1953 in Los Angeles. Despite the negative experience and reviews, Scared Stiff remains Scott's third favorite film.", "In April 1953, the 30-year-old Scott made her last film under contract to Paramount. In Bad for Each Other (1953), Scott played a decadent heiress who tries to dominate a poor but idealistic physician (Charlton Heston). The source material for the screenplay, Horace McCoy's novel Scalpel, was more nuanced than the linear morality play of Bad For Each Other. This film was Hal Wallis' last attempt to pair Burt Lancaster and Scott", ". This film was Hal Wallis' last attempt to pair Burt Lancaster and Scott. Patricia Neal was originally cast as Helen, but when Scott replaced Neal, Lancaster had to be replaced by Heston. Though Heston and Scott had previously worked together in Dark City, feuding was reported between the two on the set. The film was a box-office failure. Eight months later in February 1954, Wallis and Scott parted ways. Scott was now a freelancer.", "In April 1954, Scott attended the Cannes Film Festival. Though she left for London immediately after the festival, her visit to France had unforeseen consequences. Later that month, it was announced that she would be the host of High Adventure, a travelogue television series for CBS, but she never appeared in it. As Scott put it: \"out of the clear blue sky one morning, I woke and decided that I never wanted to make another film again. It was just a spark, I can't explain it.\"", "Regardless, she made three more films: The Weapon (1957), Loving You (1957) and Pulp (1972).", "Critical reception", "Though the public response to Scott was generally favorable during the Paramount years, the film critics were less so, repeatedly making unfavorable comparisons to Lauren Bacall and Tallulah Bankhead,Betty Gose (Wednesday, February 12, 1947), \"Blonde Makes Trouble For Bogart in 'Dead Reckoning',\" Scenes From The Cinema, The Amarillo Globe-Times (Amarillo, Texas), p", ". 19 beginning with Bob Thomas' March 1945 comment about her screen test: \"Her throaty voice may well make Lauren Bacall sound like a mezzo soprano.\" When the most prominent critic of the era, Bosley Crowther of The New York Times, gave a bad review of You Came Along (1945), Scott's film debut, she recalled: \"Being very young and naïve at the time, I didn't know you weren't supposed to do such things, so I called him up and complained", ". I told him how hard everyone worked to make such a beautiful movie, and I couldn't understand how he could be so cruel. I must say he took it awfully well, and was very kind to me.\" Nonetheless, in his review of I Walk Alone (1948), he stated: \"As the torch singer ... Lizabeth Scott has no more personality than a model in the window of a department store.\" He also wrote of \"a frighteningly grotesque Lizabeth Scott, who is supposed to represent a cabaret singer\" in Dark City (1950).", "Scott's style of acting, characteristic of other film actors of the 1940s—a cool, naturalistic underplay derived from multiple sources—was often deprecated by critics who preferred the more emphatic stage styles of the pre-film era or the later method styles. Typical of the 1940s was Dick McCrone: \"Miss Scott, who is an excellent clothes horse, rounds out the principals as Lancaster's moll. Otherwise, she's still the same frozen-face actress she was in Desert Fury and a couple of pictures before that", ".\" Current film historians critical of Scott either repeat Bob Thomas' image of an ersatz Bacall,Brian W. Fairbanks (Lulu.com, October 28, 2005), The Late Show—Writings on Film, p. 136 Bosley Crowther in describing Scott's acting as wooden,Jay Jorgensen (Running Press, 1st edition, October 5, 2010), Edith Head: The Fifty-year Career of Hollywood's Greatest Costume Designer, p. 126 or a pastiche of actresses of the period, as did Pauline Kael", ". 126 or a pastiche of actresses of the period, as did Pauline Kael.Frank Krutnik (Routledge, August 24, 1991), In a Lonely Street: Film Noir, Genre, Masculinity, p. 257", "Others, though, see Scott's acting in a different light.David J. Hogan (Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, April 15, 2013), Film Noir FAQ: All That's Left to Know About Hollywood's Golden Age of Dames, Detectives, and Danger, p. 100 With the revival of interest in film noir and its corresponding acting style, beginning in the 1980s, Scott's reputation has risen among critics and film historians.David J", ". Hogan (Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, April 15, 2013), Film Noir FAQ: All That's Left to Know About Hollywood's Golden Age of Dames, Detectives, and Danger In Movieland, his personal history of Hollywood, Jerome Charyn described this style as \"dreamwalking\": \"And then, among the Dolly Sisters and Errol Flynn, Bing Crosby and Dotty Lamour, the Brazilian Bombshell, Scheherazade, Ali Baba, and the elephant boy—all the fluff and exotic pastry that Hollywood could produce—appeared a very odd animal", ", the dreamwalker, like Turhan Bey, Sonny Tufts, Paul Henreid, Alan Ladd, Veronica Lake, Lizabeth Scott, and Dana Andrews, whose face had a frozen quality and always looked half-asleep", "... The dreamwalker seemed to mirror all our own fears. His (and her) numbness was the crazed underside of that cinematic energy in the wake of the (Second World) war.\"", "Radio\nDuring the Golden Age of Radio, Scott reprised her film roles in abridged radio versions. Typical were her appearances on Lux Radio Theatre: You Came Along with Van Johnson in the Robert Cummings role and I Walk Alone. Scott was also a guest host/narrator on Family Theater.Confidential", "Howard Rushmore, editor of scandal and gossip magazine Confidential, developed an exposé on Scott in late 1954. Despite the lack of evidence, Confidential sent a copy of the story to Scott. What Scott read was that a police raid occurred on a Hollywood Hills bungalow at 8142 Laurel View Drive the previous autumn. Two female adults, one male adult, and a 17-year-old female were arrested on prostitution charges", ". Two female adults, one male adult, and a 17-year-old female were arrested on prostitution charges. The police found an address book with the names and telephone numbers of people active in the film industry, including two numbers allegedly belonging to Scott. \"HO 2-0064\" had a Hollywood prefix and was the residential number of an elderly couple, Henry A. and Mamie R", ". and Mamie R. Finke, of 4465 West 2nd Street, Los Angeles, while \"BR 2-6111\" belonged to the 20th Century Fox switchboard at 10201 West Pico Boulevard, Los Angeles. Scott did not work for 20th Century until 1956, when she took part in an episode of The 20th Century Fox Hour.", "The Rushmore article further stated that Scott spent her off-work hours with \"Hollywood's weird society of baritone babes\" (a euphemism for lesbians). He also wrote, of Scott's trip to Cannes: \"In one jaunt to Europe, (Scott) headed straight for Paris and the left bank where she took up with Frede, the city's most notorious Lesbian queen and the operator of a night club devoted exclusively to entertaining deviates like herself", ".\" \"Frede\" Baulé managed \"Carroll's,\" an upper-class, cabaret-type nightclub at 36 Rue de Ponthieu, Paris, France. It featured mainstream entertainers of the day such as Eartha Kitt and was devoted exclusively to entertaining café society. One of the owners was Marlene Dietrich, who happened to be the subject of \"The Untold Story of Marlene Dietrich\" in the then current issue of Confidential.Instead of paying the magazine not to publish the article, Scott sued", ".Instead of paying the magazine not to publish the article, Scott sued. On July 25, 1955, two months before the issue's printed publication date, and while the Marlene Dietrich issue was still on the newsstands, Jerry Giesler, Scott's lawyer, initiated a $2.5 million libel suit.", "1957 mistrial\nIn retaliation, Confidential published the Scott story in the next issue. Under the byline of \"Matt Williams\", it was titled \"Lizabeth Scott in the Call Girls' Call Book\".Anonymous, (September 1955), Confidential, (New York City, New York), p. 4. In the table of contents, the article had the longer title of \"Why Was Lizabeth Scott's Name in the Call Girls' Call Book?\" In November 1955, at the age of 33, Scott again went to Britain to film The Weapon (1956).", "The next spring, despite Giesler's reassurances to the press, the legal efforts against Confidential went nowhere. Since the magazine was domiciled in New York state, and Scott was a California resident who had initiated the suit in her own state, Los Angeles Superior Court judge Leon T. David quashed Scott's suit on March 7, 1956, on the grounds that the magazine was not published in California. Despite this setback, Giesler said that he would refile in New York", ". Despite this setback, Giesler said that he would refile in New York. Lawsuits from other actors against the magazine were piling up. Meanwhile, Rushmore tried to get Confidential publisher Robert Harrison to run a story about former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt allegedly having an affair with her African-American chauffeur. When Harrison refused, Rushmore quit and flew to Los Angeles to meet with Scott's attorney, Jerry Giesler", ". Rushmore offered to testify against Confidential in exchange for a job in Hollywood. Giesler rejected the offer. Then, Rushmore became a witness for California Attorney General Edmund \"Pat\" Brown. Since New York refused to let Brown extradite Harrison to California, Brown instead put Harrison's niece, Marjorie Meade, director of the Hollywood Research investigative arm of Confidential on trial. On August 7, 1957, the trial of The People of the State of California v. Robert Harrison, et al. began", ". Robert Harrison, et al. began.INS (Wednesday, August 7, 1957), \"Lawyer Opens Trial Of Two Magazines,\" Anderson Daily Bulletin (Anderson, Indiana), p. 3 It eventually involved over 200 actors, most of whom fled California to avoid defense subpoenas. Rushmore, now the state's star witness, testified that the magazine knowingly published unverified allegations, despite its reputation for double-checking facts: \"Some of the stories are true and some have nothing to back them up at all", ". Harrison many times overruled his libel attorneys and went ahead on something.\"", "According to Rushmore, Harrison told the attorneys, \"I'd go out of business if I printed the kind of stuff you guys want.\" Ronnie Quillan herself testified at the same trial that she had never verified the Scott story, thus not making the story \"suit proof\", but that Rushmore agreed to publish it anyway. However, a mistrial was declared on October 1, 1957, when the jury could not agree on a verdict.", "In the wake of the sensational 1957 trial, Scott was forgotten by the media. Despite later claims that Scott's film career was ruined by the Confidential scandal,Lillian Faderman, Stuart Timmons (2006), Gay L.A.: A History of Sexual Outlaws, Power Politics, and Lipstick Lesbians, p. 69 by the time the September 1955 issue of Confidential appeared, her career was already dormant", ". 69 by the time the September 1955 issue of Confidential appeared, her career was already dormant. Scott had begun her career at a time when many established actors were away at war, giving then unknowns like Scott a chance at stardom. When the older stars returned, many of the newer stars faded away. In addition, the rise of television and the breakup of the studio system further curtailed film production. Film historians generally agree that Scott's career essentially peaked between 1947 and 1949", ". Film historians generally agree that Scott's career essentially peaked between 1947 and 1949. By February 1953, her stage fright was such that she even hid from friends. Scott did not renew her Paramount contract in February 1954, 18 months before \"Lizabeth Scott in the Call Girls' Call Book\" was published. Between the end of her contract and Rushmore's article, she had turned down numerous scripts, including a part in Wallis' The Rose Tattoo (1955)", ". Instead of reinventing herself as Bacall did, returning to Broadway, Scott chose another path.", "Music\nErskine Johnson reported in January 1954 that Scott was being trained by Hollywood voice teacher Harriet Lee, and later by Lillian Rosedale Goodman—the final result was that Scott \"has a vocal range of two octaves, A below C to High C,\" making Scott a mezzo-soprano. In July 1956, Johnson reported that Scott was under the management of Earl Mills, who also managed the singing career of Dorothy Dandridge. Scott was planning to debut as a torch singer on the nightclub circuit.", "Scott re-emerged from retirement in Loving You (1957), Elvis Presley's second musical. During the shooting of Loving You, Scott was reported to have been infatuated with Presley. During a kissing scene, she playfully bit him on the cheek, leaving a red mark, which she called \"just a little love nibble.\" The scene had to be reshot with the other side of his face to the camera. Scott's musical debut came to naught, however", ". Scott's musical debut came to naught, however. Though Hal Wallis tried to get Scott's singing voice undubbed for the production, he was overruled by the studio heads, despite all of Scott's previous voice training. Production ran from late January 1957 to mid-March 1957.", "Undaunted by Paramount's refusal to let her singing be heard, Scott signed a recording contract with Vik Records (a subsidiary of RCA Victor). Scott recorded her album with Henri René and his orchestra in Hollywood on October 28, 29, and 30, 1957. Simply titled Lizabeth, the 12 tracks are a mixture of torch songs and playful romantic ballads. Finally on April 23, 1958, Scott made her public singing debut on CBS' The Big Record.\n\nTelevision", "In the 1960s, Scott continued to guest-star on television, including an episode of Adventures in Paradise, \"The Amazon\" (1960), with Gardner McKay. Scott played the titular character, derived from a boyfriend's dialog: \"She is a sleek, well-groomed tigress, a man-eating shark—an Amazon! She chews men up and spits them out.\" In a Burke's Law episode, \"Who Killed Cable Roberts?\" (1963), she camped it up as the ungrieving widow of a celebrity big-game hunter", ". Much of her private time, though, was dedicated to classes at the University of Southern California.", "Personal life", "In May 1969, the wedding of Scott to oil executive William Dugger of San Antonio, Texas, was announced after a two-year engagement.Walter Winchell (Friday, May 20, 1966), \"On Broadway,\" News-Journal (Mansfield, Ohio), p. 33 Months later, musician Rexino Mondo was helping Scott decorate her fiance's mansion on Mulholland Drive. According to Mondo, Scott \"introduced me to her fiance, Texas oil baron William Lafayette Dugger, Jr", ". He was in his late forties, of medium build, good-looking, with dark hair, a warm personality, and a strong handshake.\" Dugger described Scott as \"A misunderstood soul searching for love. Her outward appearance is just a shell.\"", "Dugger planned to make a film in Rome starring Scott, but he suddenly died on August 8, 1969. A handwritten codicil to his will leaving half his estate to his fiancée was contested by Dugger's sister, Sarah Dugger Schwartz. The will was judged invalid in 1971.", "Several books have claimed that prior to her relationship with Dugger, Scott was a mistress of renowned film producer Hal B. Wallis, who at that time was married to actress Louise Fazenda.Edward Bunker (St. Martin's Griffin, 1st edition, August 18, 2001), Education of a Felon: A Memoir, p. 80John Meredyth Lucas (McFarland & Company, May 2004), Eighty Odd Years in Hollywood: Memoir of a Career in Film and Television, p", ". 163 Wallis had a falling out with Scott around the time of Bad for Each Other, with recriminations on Wallis' part. After a few years, Wallis made an effort to revive the relationship with Scott by making her the leading lady opposite Elvis Presley in Loving You (1957). Wallis thought it might be his last chance to offer Scott a starring role in anything.", "After shooting was completed, Scott walked away from film acting to try her hand at singing. The 14-year-relationship that began at the Stork Club in 1943 came to an end. With regard Wallis, Scott knew the relationship was over—only Wallis remained in denial. After the death of his wife in 1962, Wallis went into a depression and became a recluse before marrying Martha Hyer in 1966.", "In later life, Wallis was reticent to talk on the subject of Scott, despite an unjealous Hyer urging him to include Scott and his other mistresses in his autobiography. Though Casablanca was the film of which Wallis was most proud, the films he watched repeatedly were those starring Lizabeth Scott. Even during his second marriage, Wallis continued to screen Scott's films at home, night after night.", "Scott tended toward secrecy about her personal relationships and publicly disparaged former dates who told all to the press. Once their date appears in the press, \"the man goes off [my] date list... I think,\" said Scott, \"that gentlemen don't tell.\"", "In 1948, Burt Lancaster said of Scott: \"Becoming her close friend... is a long stretch at hard labor", "... is a long stretch at hard labor.\" In the period between 1945 and the 1970s, the press reported Scott dating Van Johnson, James Mason, Helmut Dantine, plastic surgeon Gregory Pollock, Richard Quine, William Dozier, Philip Cochran, Herb Caen, Peter Lawford, Anson Bond of the clothing store chain family, Seymour Bayer of the pharmaceutical family, David Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, race-track owner Gerald \"Jerry\" Herzfeld, and Eddie Sutherland, among others", ". Burt Bacharach dated Scott during his breakup with Angie Dickinson. According to Bacharach: \"She personified what I love about a woman, which is not too feminine but a little bit masculine. Just the strength and the coolness and the separation from the frilly woman who is always touching you and wanting something... I think Diane Keaton had that kind of quality.\" In 1953, Scott was briefly engaged to architect John C. Lindsey.", "Despite the Confidential gossip article, Scott remained active on the Hollywood dating circuit, but the allegations continued to haunt her. A friend, David Patrick Columbia, commented: \"One night driving her home from a party we'd been to, she remarked apropos of nothing we'd been talking about, 'and you know David, I am not a lesbian.'\"", "Later years", "Scott made her final film appearance in her second comedy noir, Pulp (1972), alongside Michael Caine and Mickey Rooney in a nostalgic pastiche of noir cliches. The director and screenwriter, Mike Hodges, spent a long time coaxing Scott out of retirement to fly to Malta for the shooting. Scott said that while she enjoyed Malta, she was not pleased that most of her footage was cut out—eight scenes in all", ". Hodges for his part reported that Scott was challenging to work with while shooting and struggled with nerves. Despite disagreements among the cast, crew, and past critics, Pulp, as with the 1949 Too Late for Tears, is considered an artistic success by film historians.", "After that, Scott kept away from public view and declined most interview requests. From the 1970s on, she was engaged in real estate development and volunteer work for various charities, such as Project HOPEAP (Tuesday, July 20, 1976), \"Pennsylvania People,\" The Indiana Gazette (Indiana, Pennsylvania), p. 31 and the Ancient Arts Council of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, where she was a major donor.", "Unlike her favorite actress, Greta Garbo, Scott's seclusion was not total. She continued to date within a close circle of old Hollywood insiders. \"One of her best friends was the singer Michael Jackson, and on very rare occasions, she could be spotted on his arm.\" Nor did she forget Hal Wallis. She appeared on stage at an American Film Institute tribute to Wallis in 1987 and fondly recalled her time with him. In 2003, film historian Bernard F. Dick interviewed Scott for his biography of Wallis", ". In 2003, film historian Bernard F. Dick interviewed Scott for his biography of Wallis. The result was an entire chapter titled \"Morning Star\", in which the author observed Scott was still able to recite her opening monologue from The Skin of Our Teeth'', which she had learned six decades earlier.", "Scott died of congestive heart failure at the age of 93 on January 31, 2015. Until her death she had managed to make herself a year younger than she actually was.\n\nLizabeth Scott has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1624 Vine Street in Hollywood.\n\nFilmography\n\nSee also\n Pin-ups of Yank, the Army Weekly\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Lizabeth Scott 1996 Interview Part 1 of 8, Soapbox & Praeses Productions\n Lizabeth Scott at the American Film Institute", "1921 births\n2015 deaths\n20th-century American actresses\nAmerican female models\nAmerican film actresses\nActresses from Pennsylvania\nAmerican radio actresses\nAmerican stage actresses\nAmerican television actresses\nParamount Pictures contract players\nActors from Scranton, Pennsylvania\nCalifornia Republicans\nPennsylvania Republicans\nCatholics from Pennsylvania\n21st-century American women" ]

[ "The Sculpture of the Misiones Orientales represents one of the most substantial and valuable surviving legacies of the culture of the Misiones Orientales, a group of Jesuit missions among the Guarani founded in the current Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul", ". At the time owned by Spain, the Misiones Orientales were typical examples of the missionary model developed by the Jesuits in the Americas: an indigenous community fixed in a more or less self-sufficient settlement, and administered by the priests of the Society of Jesus, with the help of the natives. The success of the missions was enormous, being social, cultural, political, economic, and urbanistic projects that were advanced for their time and place", ". The participation of the Indians was not achieved without difficulties, but thousands chose to live in these settlements voluntarily, being converted to Catholicism and acculturated to the forms and manners of European life, producing large quantities of art, always under Jesuit supervision.", "This artistic production, where sculpture appeared in prominence, was guided by European aesthetic models, and emerged with the basic purpose of providing a visual aid to the catechesis of the indigenous - in the process of evangelization organized by the missionaries of the New World. These works incorporated a multiplicity of stylistic currents, some updated, others long obsolete in Europe itself", ". However, there was a predominance of Baroque forms, and characteristics of the natives were also infused to some extent. Thus, such works reveal unique characteristics that define them, according to some authors, as an individualized regional form. Most of the missionary sculpture collection was lost over time, but there is still a significant collection of more than 500 pieces distributed among public institutions and private collections.", "The importance of the missionary sculptures as a historical and artistic document is immense, and for this reason, it was listed by the National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage. The remaining collection still needs attention and care not to be further depreciated, especially considering that half of the identified pieces belong to private individuals and are not preserved as they should be, and some continue to disappear or are getting destroyed despite official protection.", "Among critics, however, the Sculpture of the Misiones Orientales is still a matter of controversy: for some, it is a unique and original expression of the multifaceted Latin American Baroque, while for others it is nothing more than a crude and slavish imitation of European models.\n\nMisiones Orientales", "The Misiones Orientales were a typical example of the main model of evangelization created by the Jesuits in the Americas: fixed settlements (missions) in villages that brought together the native people. The history of the missions goes back to the ministry of the Apostles instituted by Jesus himself, when he sent his disciples to go around the world proclaiming the gospel", ". The main objective of these settlements was to create a society with the benefits and qualities of European Christian society, but free of its vices and wickedness. These missions were founded by the Jesuits throughout the colonial Americas, and according to Manuel Marzal, summarized the views of other scholars, constituting one of the most remarkable utopias in history.", "The Jesuits became famous for their pragmatism and adaptability to the conditions they encountered in each place; they were disciplined, enterprising, and well-prepared in various fields of knowledge, having in their ranks many artists, literati, scientists, and scholars, and were also skilled in the arts of persuasion and teaching. They were the vanguard of European religiosity in their day", ". They were the vanguard of European religiosity in their day. The combination of so many qualities explains their success as missionaries and is reflected in the variety of practical solutions adopted in the missions they founded throughout America and the Orient. They also adopted a peculiar theology, which allowed them to yield and conform the Christian doctrine to the native perceptions to achieve the completeness of the evangelizing project", ". It is known, therefore, that Jesuit missionarism in the eastern part of South America, then controlled by the Portuguese, developed in a different direction from that adopted in the Misiones Orientales, which were under Spanish rule. There the Jesuits were able to build much more organized and stable settlements than those created in colonial Brazil under Father Manuel da Nóbrega and his colleagues.", "In the region submitted to the Jesuit Province of Paraguay, which included the Misiones Orientales, and which many consider having set the \"classic\" prototype of the Jesuit settlement, this settlement was defined around a large square, where there was a church, Indian residences, houses for widows and orphans, a school, the missionaries' cloister, a cemetery, several workshops and small industries that supplied basic needs, an orchard, a vegetable garden, administrative spaces, an inn, a prison", ", an orchard, a vegetable garden, administrative spaces, an inn, a prison, among other improvements", ". On semi-autonomous farms nearby, there were black slaves, the cultivation of crops, and the raising of cattle. They bartered their products with various Spanish colonies and Europe. Sometimes the surroundings of the urbanized nucleus were protected with trenches and a wall to defend against the attacks of wild Indians and the predatory expeditions of the Brazilian bandeirantes, which occurred many times. Therefore, some missions, by special license from the Spanish Crown, had small armies and cavalry", ". Therefore, some missions, by special license from the Spanish Crown, had small armies and cavalry. The government of civil affairs and elementary education were generally handed over to the Indians and respected tribal hierarchies. Advanced education-including the direction of arts, engineering, and architecture, the divine offices, catechesis, and justice, as well as general supervision of all affairs, were left to the Jesuits.", "The missionary urban model could present variations in the layout of elements and the number of buildings, but its basic scheme remained constant. In short, the settlements were almost self-sufficient city-states, theocratically oriented, economically and culturally advanced for their time and place, and had considerable administrative autonomy", ". They were, however, subject to general regulation by the high hierarchy of the Society and needed the approval of the Spanish Crown, conqueror, and owner of the land, on which it taxed the priests. Spain also had a political interest in the Jesuit enterprise, wanting them to act as frontier guards, containing the Portuguese advance", ". The missions provided innovative livelihoods by indigenous standards and inaugurated a very successful urban and administrative model, but were programs of mass religious conversion and acculturation of the indigenous to the European way of life, which did not always occur without resistance and difficulties. On the other hand, they sought to preserve or integrate many of the characteristics of traditional aboriginal life in an unprecedented sociocultural synthesis", ". Apart from the controversies that still surround the subject, especially about its ethical merit, in any case, it is a fact that an original culture was created within the missions, and in this culture, art had an extraordinary role to play.", "The Misiones Orientales were born as an evolution of the eighteen Tape Reductions, founded in 1626 on the eastern bank of the Uruguay River, in a region that is now part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil. About ten years later, the Brazilian bandeirantes destroyed fifteen of these settlements and imprisoned more than 20,000 Indians, to be sold as slaves in São Paulo. In 1638 they destroyed the three remaining settlements", ". In 1638 they destroyed the three remaining settlements. Under this siege, the remaining Indians and priests took refuge on the western bank of the Uruguay river. The bandeirante advance was only stopped in the Battle of Mbororé, in 1641, but then, with the dissolution of the Iberian Union, new political facts put the missionary enterprise in the region on hold, only to be resumed in 1682", ". Then the seven settlements that became known as the Misiones Orientales (or Sete Povos das Missões/Siete Pueblos de las Misiones, \"Seven Settlements of the Missions\" in English) were created, some of them on the ruins of the previous foundation.", "They were, as reported by Pinto:", "São Nicolau, founded in 1626 by Father Roque González y de Santa Cruz and reinstalled in 1687 by Father Anselmo de la Matta\n São Miguel Arcanjo, founded by Father Cristóvão de Mendoza in 1632 and reinstalled in 1687 by Father Anton Sepp\n San Francisco de Borja, founded in 1682 by Father Francisco Garcia de Prada\n São Luiz Gonzaga, founded in 1687 by father Miguel Fernández\n São Lourenço Mártir, founded in 1690 by priest Bernardo de la Vega\n São João Batista, founded in 1697 by father Anton Sepp", "São João Batista, founded in 1697 by father Anton Sepp\n Santo Ângelo Custódio, founded in 1706 by priest Diego Haze", "While the first missionary initiative in the region had mostly evangelizing objectives, as stated by Armindo Trevisan, those of the second one seem to have been primarily economic, born from the perspective of taking advantage of the huge cattle herd that lived free in the pampas, and that was coveted also by the Portuguese. The Brazilian tropeiros who hunted the cattle became one of the first agents of the aggressive Portuguese penetration in the region, invading larger and larger Spanish territories", ". Cattle acquired such importance for the Jesuits as they understood that if the living conditions for the Indians were not good, especially regarding food, the spiritual education also failed. Cattle were easily raised, and were well used: they provided leather, meat and milk, as well as being a means of traction and transportation. Horses and mules were also abundant. It is estimated that this herd, including the various species, at one time reached a million heads", ". It is estimated that this herd, including the various species, at one time reached a million heads. However, for Maldi, the political component of the settlements was also strong:", "Being home to up to thirty thousand people, mainly Guarani, but also some from other groups, such as the Charrúas and Minuanos, the Misiones Orientales flourished until the new territorial demarcations imposed by the Treaty of Madrid of 1750, which determined the exchange of Colonia del Sacramento (a Portuguese possession) for the settlements, and the Indians and priests were to be resettled further into Spanish territory", ". The Guaranitic War that followed (1754-1756), where Sepé Tiaraju emerged as a historical and mythological figure, was the expression of the refusal by the Guaranis to surrender the missions they had arduously built.", "After the war, lost by the Indians, and the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Portuguese and Spanish territories, respectively in 1759 and 1768, the Seven Settlements were dismantled, along with the other Jesuit missions. The dissolution of the Society of Jesus in 1773, by Pope Clement XIV, sealed the end of the whole missionary cycle", ". An attempt was made to introduce a civil government with the collaboration of other Orders, such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Mercedarians, but to no effect: production fell drastically, there were riots, desertions, and mass deaths, imprisonment of Indians, depredations of buildings and looting of churches", ". When a new war broke out between Portugal and Spain in 1801, the Misiones Orientales were already in such a state of disintegration that their conquest by the Portuguese was easy, although there seems to have been Indian participation as a facilitator of the takeover. In 1828, the settlements were plundered by the troops of Fructuoso Rivera, who stole 60 carts of precious objects and works of art and caused a new indigenous exodus", ". In 1833, there were only 377 Indians in the region, described by a chronicler of the time as \"a bagasse of people.\"", "Missionary art", "The Indians were to be won over by Christ; this was the basic motivation of the Jesuits. Realizing that the Indians were manipulable to a degree, the priests, who were also skilled pedagogues, introduced various artistic resources as aid to catechesis. Thus, they translated European moralizing dramas into the Guarani language, or wrote new ones, always staging them; classical music was played and composed, as was done in the churches of Europe", ". Imposing churches were built, lavishly adorned, lined with narrative paintings and eloquently expressive statuary. The Indians, according to reports, marveled at all of it: at the splendor and mystery of the worship (which seemed to them prodigies and magic), were fascinated by the sacred music, fearfully venerated the images, and were thus led to emotional conversion, often becoming ardent devotees.", "Jesuit pedagogy was, in turn, a product of rhetoric and Counter-Reformation, developed in a period when the intellectual uncertainties of Mannerism introduced the dramas and material-spirit contrasts of the Baroque. In this pedagogy, the spectacularization of religious worship was a valid and efficient means of persuading the potentially devout and propagating faith", ". It was an essential part of the Baroque spirit itself, when the representation of the world became all a spectacle designed to ravish its audience. All the arts came together, and their greatest expression in sacred art was the architecture of the Baroque church, with all its decorative plethora of emotional appeal. At the moment of worship, the temple became a ferocious theater where the Christian drama was played out", ". In the settlements, in the absence of secular power, the church was the only building with a high degree of sophistication, because it centralized the life of the whole community; almost all the other structures in the settlement were low and constituted of simple pavilions. But at the church worshiping was glorious, enlivened by the positive collaboration of the indigenous people in the production and execution of all this ceremonial art.", "Sculpture and its functions", "Besides elementary education and catechism, the most skilled Indians were instructed in various trades and arts under the direct supervision of the priests. The models of missionary art were all European, and in the churches, the role played by images was extremely important as a means of Christianization", ". The pedagogical potential of art had long been known in the West, largely justified by the general illiteracy of the European masses, when images supplied what was not accessible to the people through reading. Churches, with their rich decoration of narrative content, were known as \"the Bible of the illiterate\"", ". However, this function of art was complemented and contextualized by a direct explanation of the concepts conveyed by the images, directing the interpretation of the faithful to the intended meaning and creating a repertoire of signifying forms, a true visual language that could be extrapolated to other situations.", "Since there was no idol or image worship among the Guarani, the Jesuits found this peculiar behavior an expedient approach. If in Mexico the native idols had been traumatically annihilated, in the American South there was room to introduce the natural religiosity of the indigenous devotion to Christian images, some of them produced with the participation of the native himself. The Baroque style was wisely used for this purpose. In Boff's words,", "Despite the care taken by the priests, in many cases the understanding of the message taught was distorted by the Indian's prior culture. As an example, Father Sepp reported that an Indian woman stabbed herself after hearing a painting of Our Lady of Sorrows, with her heart studded with knives, telling her: \"Just as I opened my chest by piercing my virginal heart, you, my daughter, take this knife and open your chest to free your soul from prison", ".\" Particularly the Guarani, among other peoples, transferred several of the magical powers of their religion to Christian sculptures and images. One example, as Susnik quotes, was the fact that \"the Guarani saw in the cross a magical power, similar to the powers the shamans had in their hands when they held the maraca, the musical-religious instrument that contained within it the aivú, the soul of the person", ". The same situation must have occurred in relation to holy communion, identifying the act of eating the \"body of Christ\", the communion bread, with their cannibalistic ritual. Another rite reminiscent of pre-Hispanic ceremonies was the Indians' self-flagellation with the mussurana, one of the objects used in human cannibalism, during Holy Week, then having a barbecue and receiving meat to eat in their homes.", "The sculptures flourished when the churches had already been built and the Misiones Orientales had stabilized. While paintings show a complete scene, important for understanding their narrative content, sculptures needed the setting of the churches to function. But unlike two-dimensional images, sculptures have more \"presence\" and therefore exerted a special power over the Indians, who believed that they were somehow alive", ". The statues were even invited to feasts, where they occupied a place of honor at the head of the table, and exercised other very specific functions, among which the most important were vigilance and favoritism.", "The influence exercised by the images was manifested, for example, when certain statues were manipulated by the priests as if they were puppets, moving their arms and heads and making signs of approval or censure, according to the behavior of the natives. Another case was the daily carrying of a statue of Saint Isidro the Farmer to the plantations to watch over the work in the fields", ". The favoring was best expressed in the response to requests and prayers, through miracles negotiated between the supplicants and the saints, who, in their condition as intercessors before God, also acted to protect the devotees and the settlements against various dangers. The Jesuits' accounts multiply descriptions of miracles and apparitions related to sacred images, which attests to their great impact on that society.", "The surviving collection and its characteristics", "The Mission Museum located in São Miguel das Missões, next to the Ruins of São Miguel das Missões, houses the largest surviving set of sculptures of the Seven Peoples. This collection was only gathered at the beginning of the 20th century, after Lúcio Costa, working for the National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage (IPHAN), made a survey and inventory of the Rio Grande do Sul mission region in 1937. Contact with the remnants of the Jesuit reductions seems to have impressed him intensely", ". Contact with the remnants of the Jesuit reductions seems to have impressed him intensely. According to Carrilho,", "Costa suggested concentrating the entire missionary legacy in São Miguel, not only to make it more accessible but because it was the only settlement that was still in sufficient conservation conditions to generate architectural interest. Once the measures to consolidate the ruins were defined, it was still needed to protect the collection of religious imagery and make it available to the public through the creation of a museum.", "At the time of its creation, the museum had only three images. By 1993 it already had 94 cataloged pieces, most of them collected in the region by João Hugo Machado, often with the coercive help of the police to make families hand over the artworks to the museum, which they invariably did against their will and not infrequently protested violently. This collection is divided into two main groups: sculptures with European characteristics and others markedly native", ". The former is influenced by Italian sculptors such as Bernini, and Spanish sculptors such as Juan Martínez Montañés, Alonso Cano, and José de Mora, seen in images such as Our Lady of the Conception, St. Michael the Archangel, and St. Joseph with the Child. On the other hand, some pieces of artwork show signs of indigenous culture, in forms marked by the geometric characteristic of basketry, ceramics, and body painting", ". Most of them present mutilations and partial or total loss of color, due to the vicissitudes to which they were subjected over the years.", "An inventory of 1768 states that there should be in all the Thirty Peoples of the Province of Paraguay at least two thousand statues in the churches, not counting other decorative objects. Another inventory, by Francisco Bruno de Zavala, made on July 8, 1778, lists 57 images in São Miguel. The list compiled in 2008 by IPHAN listed 510 missionary statues in Brazil, the set being dispersed among several private collections and public institutions", ". Besides the Missions Museum, other images are found in some churches and museums in the Missões region, most notably the Museu Monsenhor Estanislau Wolski, in Santo Antônio das Missões, with a rich collection of 73 miniatures, still largely forgotten by scholars; the Museu Municipal Aparício Silva Rillo, in São Borja, with 35 pieces, and the Cathedral of São Luiz Gonzaga, with 13 images", ". Others are in museums and Catholic schools in the Greater Porto Alegre area, especially the Júlio de Castilhos Museum in the capital, and the Anchietano Museum of Unisinos in São Leopoldo. The Museum Vincente Pallotti in Santa Maria also holds a group of statues. The large number of statues has allowed many to have obscurely survived in churches and private collections in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and other countries, awaiting identification", ". A significant group of 13 sculptures was found in the Azores. This exemplifies the richness of the original collection and how much has been dispersed or lost over the years.", "The dating and identification of authorship are invariably difficult, if not impossible in most cases. The general working habit was cooperative, and no work was signed or dated by the authors. Some, however, were attributed to one priest or another, as several were established artists, among them Giuseppe Brasanelli, Francisco Ribera, and Anton Sepp, who have created or designed some of the most sophisticated pieces that still remain today", ". In Sustersic's opinion, Father Brasanelli was a determining figure in the formation of the \"missionary style,\" and that \"nothing produced in the Guarani missions was immune to his labor, his teaching, or his influence.\" Josefina Plá proposed the identification of at least forty images as coming from the hands of Brasanelli or his immediate circle (not all of them in Brazil, since the priest traveled to various towns in the Province of Paraguay)", ". The only work that can be safely attributed to him by documentary testimony is the kneeling Saint Francis of Borja, which is preserved (heavily repainted) in the Cathedral of São Borja, and which served as the basis for the other identifications. Another important figure was Father Anselmo de la Matta, who, for Damasceno, was responsible for turning the settlement of São Nicolau into a center for exporting artworks to other peoples", ". More than two thousand Jesuits passed through the Province of Paraguay, half of them Spanish, and the rest from 32 other nationalities, which attests to the great role of the international contribution to the missionary enterprise in Paraguay. There was also some artistic exchange between the Seven Peoples and the missions in Peru. From these different nations, the Jesuits brought to the Missions the style in vogue in their countries, without forgetting medieval, Romanesque, or Gothic references", ". The fusion of all these influences enabled the creation of an eclectic and peculiar Baroque.", "The iconography of missionary statuary represents, in its majority, saints, angels, martyrs, Our Lady, and the saints of the Society of Jesus, presented as role models. It is a matter of much controversy to measure how much the indigenous people have put themselves in the sculptural production, and how much they are, therefore, original and not simple reproductions", ". Some say that the alleged \"ethnic\" traits noted in the missionary sculpture are nothing more than distortions caused by the simple technical incompetence of the indigenous craftsmen. From his analysis of the Missions Museum collection, Boff concluded that it is aligned with the general characteristics of American missionary production, with the presence of a wide variety of European stylistic elements, forming a truly eclectic art, although with a predominance of Baroque forms", ". He also notes an equally variable degree of sophistication in sculptural technique, with some crude and disproportionate statues and others of great refinement and fine finish. Sustersic, on the other hand, points out that it is very difficult to identify the artistic production coming from each settlement, due to its variables and the mixture of expressions determined by the mentality of the artist and their society", ". Some researchers tried to identify typically Indian features and adornments in several of these works, with solid evidence. It is known, however, that there was strict ecclesiastical regulation for the production of images, and the creative freedom of the indigenous person must then have been limited. Some works feature a dorsal excavation, possibly to reduce the weight of the statues, and others have movable joints so that one could manipulate the statues and impress the indigenous people.", "This production is not uniform, but some elements prove it is an individualized regional product, possessing its own style. Boff believes that the indigenous people managed to transmit to the sculptures the symbolic function of their ancestral culture in its essential features, even if not in a fully conscious way. Gruzinski argues that", "Boff identified a chronology and stated that the indigenous contribution to this production can be observed in its evolution, that is, in the marks of the different stages recognizable in it.", "\"Thus, in the first moment, in the learning phase, it would be possible to identify a strict imitation of European models. As technical mastery was achieved, and familiarity with the working tools became routine, the native imagination and the forms of their ancestral culture were subtly exposed... In this later phase, these elements are observed in the clothing, in the decorations, in the faces of the saints, in the way of working the hair, the cloak, the ornamentation of the head..", "... This behavior establishes a phase of 'imitation' and another of \"mestization\"... The mestizaje phase would mark the sculptures with realistic interpretations and with \"typically\" missionary characteristics. Images such as that of Bishop Saint Nicholas and Saint John the Baptist are preserved in the Missions Museum. The carving is characterized by very simple forms, with the verticality of the clothes predominating. St. Nicholas has a cape with the same design as the petticoat of St. John the Baptist", ". St. Nicholas has a cape with the same design as the petticoat of St. John the Baptist. The petticoat represents sheep skin, and the artist arrives at an almost geometric synthesis of the wool form. The bishop, in turn, bears on his cape the exact same design.\"", "Armindo Trevisan presented an alternative analysis of this evolution:\n\n\"The remaining statuary can be divided into four groups: the works undoubtedly made by the European masters, those made by the Indians following canons dictated by the masters, mixed works, and Indian arts.\"", "Besides the images of the saints, the Indians carved altarpieces, made musical instruments and furniture, executed paintings and other objects necessary for the liturgy. Each village specialized in manufacturing certain items. The settlement of St. John the Baptist, for example produced excellent musical instruments, and that of St. Nicholas was a center for the distribution of altarpieces and statues to neighboring towns", ". Nicholas was a center for the distribution of altarpieces and statues to neighboring towns. The most commonly used decorative motifs were the passion fruit flower, symbolizing Christ's passion; the palm of triumph, recalling Jesus' entry into Jerusalem; the vine, wine, and grape cluster, representations of the Redeemer's blood; the sunflower, a metaphor for the soul following the divine light, the thistle leaf, a symbol of penance, and many more", ". However, many native elements have been added, such as the artichoke leaf, country flowers, and fruits like apepu, and corn. In one image St. Michael is adorned by an Indian headdress; an Our Lady of the Conception, in place of the mantle and the halo on her head, she bears flowers", ". The precious adornments that accompanied the statuary, such as spears, palms, crowns, and others, have been lost, probably removed for their metal value, with the result that numerous samples of this vast production arrive to the present day mutilated.", "An account of St. Michael's Church gives an idea of its early richness:", "Nothing remains of the interior decoration of the Misiones Orientales churches in Rio Grande do Sul, even the buildings being in ruins. At the beginning of the 19th century, much was still visible. Among other travelers who described the missions in progressive abandonment, Saint-Hilaire, in his passage through the state in 1821, left an important written testimony about several settlements, already semi-deserted, but still with part of the structures in reasonable condition", ". Saint-Hilaire admired their grandeur and beauty. The weather and Men destroyed the remnants of the former ostentation. Much building material was reused when the area was recolonized by European/Brazilians throughout the 19th century. The sculptures that were saved ended up in other churches in the region or with private collectors. The most important and best-preserved site today is São Miguel, but its church is not typical of the missionary style, although being a majestic exception", ". In Sete Povos, according to reports, the predominant style must have been similar to that of the settlements of Chiquitos, in Bolivia, which have managed to reach the present day in an excellent state of preservation.", "Miniatures", "One field of missionary statuary that is still awaiting adequate studies is that of miniatures, since criticism has focused on large images for church decoration and participation in \"official\" functions. Miniatures, on the other hand, had a very specific insertion in religious community life and deserve a separate mention. Covering pieces ranging from 1.5 cm to 10 cm in height, the miniatures were intended mainly for private devotion", ".5 cm to 10 cm in height, the miniatures were intended mainly for private devotion. Many of them came from Europe and were private images of the traveling priests, who brought them as personal protection. But they also served as images for public worship in case of itinerant celebrations or when the settlement had not yet erected its church", ". Many others were certainly produced in the workshops of the Misiones Orientales themselves, for the same purposes, and also for the domestic and private cultivation of the Christian faith. Ahlert supposes that at least part of this production originated relatively far from the Jesuits' supervision and was created in the same residences by the Indian craftsmen on their days off, as they reveal a greater freedom and formal simplification in comparison to the large images", ". Others, according to Josefina Plá, must have appeared in the period immediately after the definitive withdrawal of the Jesuits and before the looting of the region by Fructuoso Rivera in 1828, done by remaining artisans. Although there is no documentary record of Indian artisans active in the region in the nineteenth century, oral history has preserved traditions that give another view of the subject", ". There are records that some miniatures were created to form nativity scenes, and there are still a few surviving in the Monsignor Estanislau Wolski Museum that seem to belong to this category. There are also reports that many miniatures were distributed among the Indians as prizes for some task accomplished or to the winners of games and competitions, given to warriors before battles for their protection, exchanged as gifts among the Indians", ". Every Guarani home had at least one small image, altar or portable chapel for family or individual devotion.", "In Ahlert's summary,\n\nPreferred icons", "The representations of the Virgin Mary were the most common in the Iberoamerican world, the most popular invocation being that of Immaculate Conception, as reported in the Ancient Letters of the Jesuits to their superiors. In them, they write about a multiplicity of activities that were related to the Virgin such as the recitation of the rosary, litanies, processions, feasts, hymns, formation of Marian congregations, pilgrimages, and novenas", ". Enhanced during the Counter-Reformation, veneration of the Virgin made her the supreme mediator of her devotees with God. The Virgin Mary was the first Christian icon to be integrated into the indigenous culture, through an iconography that represents her as a brunette woman", ". Isidore the Laborer, patron saint of Madrid, was another saint widely represented by the model of patience and work, having his image placed along the roads, in chapels and oratories, carried in procession, accompanied by prayers and songs in times of sowing and harvest. Within the most influential group, there is the image of St. Michael, represented as the commander of the heavenly militia, precipitating the evil angels into hell", ". Another representation of him is that of the judge: the archangel holds the scales that weigh souls. In many images, the saint fights the infernal dragon. Torelly supposes that in the missionary sculptures this dragon, part human, and part diabolical figure, could symbolize the bandeirante paulista, enemy and hunter of Indians.", "In a general statistic, male images represent 46% of the catalogued collection, with saints Antonio, John Baptist, and Isidore the Laborer being the most common. The female images make up 20.8% of the collection, with Immaculate Conception being the most common. Angels add up to 15.4%, animals, 1.6%, 3.6% unidentified, and fragments with 12.5%.", "Work methods and materials", "Until the arrival of the colonizers, the natives, who lived in a stage of civilization equivalent to the Upper Paleolithic, did not know the technologies and instruments for the production of these objects. Guarani art was based on the repetition of traditional shapes, with a marked tendency to geometry and stylization, in body painting, basketry, and ceramics with therapeutic or religious functions", ". In the Misiones Orientales, the Indians began to work with materials and techniques that demanded more complex skills, such as the application of gold to the images and tailoring, using delicate and precise working tools. All these apparatus did not exist in their ancestral culture, which shows the impact of Christian iconology on the Guarani imagination, but also on the technical aspect of such impact", ". In the first phase of production, the Guarani craftsmen revealed themselves to be meticulous imitators of European models. Father Sepp admiringly recorded their imitative skill in the following terms:", "\"What they have seen only once, they can be convinced that they will imitate. They don't need a master at all, or leaders to show them and explain the rules of proportion, or even a teacher to explain the geometric foot. If you put any human figure or drawing in their hands, you will soon see a work of art executed, such as there can be no equal in Europe.\"", "At the beginning of the creation of each settlement, the workshops functioned provisionally. After the church was built, they were organized in the inner courtyard, close to the priests' house. The ateliers were economic, administrative, and socially autonomous centers, but directly linked to the priests. They functioned as a corporation, following the example of the ancient medieval guilds, and enjoyed prestige and independence", ". The artisans became part of an indigenous elite, and the sculptor of statues of saints was also worthy of distinction as they handled sacred things. And by feeling valued for their work as craftsmen, the Indian facilitated the work of the evangelist.", "Whoever showed aptitude and taste for the craft worked in the workshops. In the beginning, the orientation coming from the priests was indispensable, and it was necessary to teach the new craft techniques and familiarize the Indians with a new perception: to go from the two-dimensional plan to the three-dimensional plan. Over time, the most skilled Indians themselves instructed the others", ". Over time, the most skilled Indians themselves instructed the others. The workshops also had several engravings and treatises on art and architecture, from which formal models for statuary were taken, an easy method of spreading Catholic iconography used throughout Colonial America. Many artworks were worked on collectively, according to the custom of the guilds. But it was always the master who made the head and hands, and determined the canon (the measure taken as a basis for the images)", ". Other craftsmen could then take care of the \"less important parts\", according to their skill. No work was signed and women did not participate in the workshops, but performed other crafts.", "The materials used in the sculptures were found in the region of the Misiones Orientales, such as urunday or quebracho, trees of excellent wood. For the images that were to be polychromatic and gilded, they used cedar and igary. The dyes were extracted from local plants or ores. From yerba mate, they made green, from urucum red, and yrybu retymá black. Stone was nearly not used in sculpture, only found in ornaments for walls, fountains and stonework facades, with sandstone being preferred", ". Although the paints, wood, and stone were found locally, it was necessary to import from Europe some powdered pigments, the gold and silver leaf, and the instruments for carving. Luersen, however, states that the production of the working instruments should also be part of the craft education given to the Indians, but that does not mean that many of these instruments were not quite rustic. This in turn would condition the carving technique itself, reflected in the more or less refined style of each piece.", "Legacy", "The expulsion of the Jesuits prevented the missionary school of sculpture from continuing, and thus it did not produce artistic offspring. However, the iconographic collection that still exists of the Misiones Orientales is a documentary source of incalculable historical and artistic value, leaving a rich record of the cultural exchange between Indians and Europeans, and the impact of Western conceptions on the Indians", ". The result of this process, in the form of these statues, according to the view of several critics is a good representation of the originality of the multiform Hispanic-American Baroque.", "For Trevisan, one of the scholars on the subject, it created \"a Baroque different in certain aspects from the official Baroque... a Baroque that surprises, in the best images, by a certain intimate expression, melancholic, of placidity or singleness.\" On this, Beltrão & Fleig state that \"in the missionary Baroque, only in the works recognized as Jesuit works, mainly by Brother Brasanelli...and in the indigenous sculptures copied from European models, do we find the contortions of pain and ecstasy", ". According to Boff, the response given by the Indians to the new type of life they were compelled to assume proved to be creative. If in the images that remain one notices a multiplicity of erudite influences, such as Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque canons, next to them are visible clear artwork elements of the Guarani, for this very reason indicative of a new style by the original solutions they produced", ". The reaction of the lay public before these sculptures, in Batista Neto's account, has been one of admiration, mainly applauding the remarkable ability of the Indians to make them. However, the researcher mentions that before the artistic aspect, of greater interest to people, in general, comes the historical aspect.", "The statuary of the Misiones Orientales has seen its prestige grow. Several specific critical studies have been devoted to it in recent years, and the culture of the Missions as a whole has been on the agenda of academics for quite some time. It had a section in the renowned exhibition Brasil Barroco, Entre Céu e Terra (1999/2000), in Paris, France, and in Brasil+500, Mostra do Redescobrimento (2000), in São Paulo, organized by the Fundação Bienal de São Paulo", ". The exhibitions were supplemented by critical publications that contributed to introducing new views on the subject. In Porto Alegre, the Rio Grande do Sul Museum of Art held a large and unprecedented gathering of the missionary collection in the gaucho capital at the same time, also launching a catalog with texts and photographs and then taking the exhibition to Buenos Aires", ". In 2006 IPHAN signed an agreement with the Andalusian Institute of Historical Heritage (from Spain), with the goal of conducting new prospects at the archaeological site of São Miguel and producing studies on missionary statuary, among other activities.", "The missionary statuary is also one of the anchors of a movement to rescue and reread the history, identity, and folklore of that region, in part through the spontaneous impulse of the population, and in part stimulated by academics and official bodies, a movement in which the figure of the Indian is often magnified by the pride of a modern local culture strongly regionalist, which might try to compensate or, according to some, disguise", ", which might try to compensate or, according to some, disguise, the state of abandonment and misery in which many of the last Guarani live today", ". At the archaeological site of São Miguel (the most important one), the presence of Guaranis selling their handicrafts in the vicinity of the Missions Museum is barely tolerated by the staff, and there is no official initiative to integrate them into the micro-economy of the area", ". On the other hand, there are already projects in Santo Ângelo to use the historical and artistic richness of the Misiones Orientales as a starting point to stimulate the production of artworks inspired by them, and in 2004 the Ministry of Culture launched the program Identification, Protection, and Valorization of the Cultural References of the Mbyá-Guarani in Brazil, followed in 2007 by the book Tava Miri São Miguel Arcanjo, Sacred Stone Village: the Mbyá-Guarani in the Missions", ", Sacred Stone Village: the Mbyá-Guarani in the Missions, with which the recognition of the connection between the material relics of the settlements and the present-day Guarani was consolidated, strengthening their ethnic identity and their integration into Brazilian society", ". The Indians, moreover, in the daily life of their villages, make many references to the legacy of their missionary ancestors. The images also foster regional tourism, even though the region's infrastructure is currently too precarious to expand this sector, but there are already itineraries especially geared towards visiting places where statues of the Seven Peoples are preserved.", "Although the ruins of São Miguel are now a World Heritage Site, (the topic of the Misiones Orientales has already received wide media coverage and generated preservation interest by the population) and the missionary statuary is listed as a national heritage site by IPHAN, it is not free from danger. About half of the known pieces are privately owned, which often hinders official preservation efforts", ". A considerable part of these works does not receive the proper technical care to keep them in good condition and are subject to inadequate storage, handling, and exhibition. Others disappear without a trace. Many images may have fallen into the black market for antiques, given their high value", ". Many images may have fallen into the black market for antiques, given their high value. An example of the consequences of ignorance about this heritage was the case of the minister of the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God Fábio Guimarães da Silva Pereira, who during a service in 2007 burned two images registered by IPHAN that belonged to private individuals, claiming that the burning of images is a common practice in Universal services", ". But he assured that he did not know that they, one of the Dead Lord and another of Saint Peter, were protected.", "Finally, it is necessary to remember that despite its undeniable cultural and historical importance, the missionary initiative as a whole is the object of much controversy and is not exempt from criticism, as it is the art produced in its midst. Much has been said about the authoritarian character of the missions, and the process of forced acculturation to which the Indians were subjected is condemned", ". Although in general, the missionaries recognized the Indians' inclination towards art, especially music, and their talent for imitation, it is also alleged that the priests were insensitive and misunderstood the essence and value of the Indian way of life and thought. This is corroborated by reports from the Jesuits themselves, who often described the natives in very derogatory words", ". For Father Altamirano, the Indian was \"the most singular and indomitable animal that God had put in the world\"; for Father Cardiel \"the less stupid Indians had only brief intervals of conscience\", and the famous Father Sepp did not do any less, saying that they were \"stupid, dumb, very dumb in all spiritual matters\". It took time for the silvícolas to be recognized by the Church as beings endowed with reason and able to receive the Sacraments", ". For these reasons, because of their aesthetic canons, symbolic meanings, and craft techniques imposed by the Europeans, for many authors, missionary sculpture, in general, has neither a style of its own nor a superlative artistic quality. Therefore, it should not be considered, as others do, an original priest-Indian co-production", ". Therefore, it should not be considered, as others do, an original priest-Indian co-production. For those, missionary sculpture is only a mechanical imitation, more or less successful, of erudite European toreutics, showing nothing or very little of authentic native originality, being often a very crude imitation of its models.", "See also \n\n Baroque\n Baroque sculpture\n Brazilian sculpture\n Jesuit missions among the Guaraní\n Mission Museum\n Júlio de Castilhos Museum\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nBrazilian art\nReligious art\nJesuit missions" ]

[ "The Greater Sylhet region predominantly included the Sylhet Division in Bangladesh, and Karimganj district in Assam, India. The history of the Sylhet region begins with the existence of expanded commercial centres in the area that is now Sylhet City. Historically known as Srihatta and Shilhatta, it was ruled by the Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms of Harikela and Kamarupa before passing to the control of the Sena and Deva dynasties in the early medieval period", ". After the fall of these two Hindu principalities, the region became home to many more independent petty kingdoms such as Jaintia, Gour, Laur, and later Taraf, Pratapgarh, Jagannathpur, Chandrapur and Ita. After the Conquest of Sylhet in the 14th century, the region was absorbed into Shamsuddin Firoz Shah's independent principality based in Lakhnauti, Western Bengal", ". It was then successively ruled by the Muslim sultanates of Delhi and the Bengal Sultanate before collapsing into Muslim petty kingdoms, mostly ruled by Afghan chieftains, after the fall of the Karrani dynasty in 1576. Described as Bengal's Wild East, the Mughals struggled in defeating the chieftains of Sylhet. After the defeat of Khwaja Usman, their most formidable opponent, the area finally came under Mughal rule in 1612", ". Sylhet emerged as the Mughals' most significant imperial outpost in the east and its importance remained as such throughout the seventeenth century. After the Mughals, the British Empire ruled the region for over 180 years until the independence of Pakistan and India. There was a complete list of the different amils who governed Sylhet which was recorded in the office of the Qanungoh (revenue officers) of Sylhet. However, most complete copies have been lost or destroyed", ". However, most complete copies have been lost or destroyed. Dates from letters and seal traces show evidence that the amils were constantly changed. In 1947, when a referendum was held, Sylhet decided to join the Pakistani province of East Bengal. However, when the Radcliffe Line was drawn up, Karimganj district of Barak Valley was given to India by the commission after being pleaded by Abdul Matlib Mazumdar's delegation", ". Throughout the History of Sylhet, raids and invasions were also common from neighbouring kingdoms as well as tribes such as the Khasis and Kukis.", "Ancient \n\nAccording to historians, Sylhet was an expanded commercial centre inhabited by Brahmans under the realm of the Harikela and Kamarupa kingdoms of ancient Bengal and Assam. Buddhism was prevalent in the first millennium.", "The Hindu epic known as the Mahabharata mentions the marriage of Duryodhana of the Kauravas into a family in Habiganj, Sylhet. The Purana also mentions the hero Arjuna travelling to the Jaintia to regain his horse held captive by a princess. The region is also home to two of the fifty-one body parts of Sati, a form of Durga, that fell on Earth according to accepted legends. Shri Shail and Jayanti are where the neck and left palm of Sati fell and are Shakti Peethas.", "The Gour Kingdom, established in the 7th century, took part in many battles with its neighbouring states. Eventually it would split into two - Gour (Sylhet) and Brahmachal (South Sylhet/modern-day Moulvibazar). The region was also home to many petty kingdoms such as Laur and Jagannathpur and part of larger kingdoms such as the Jaintia and Twipra Kingdoms. In 640, the Raja of Tripura Dharma Fa planned a ceremony and invited five Brahmans from Etawah, Mithila and Kannauj", ". To compensate for their long journey, the Raja granted them land in a place which came to be known as Panchakhanda (meaning five parts) in Western Sylhet. Towards the end of the millennium, the Candras ruled over Bengal.", "A 930 AD copper-plate of Srichandra, of the Chandra dynasty of East Bengal, was found in Tengubazar Mandir, Paschimbhag, Rajnagar detailing his successful campaign against the Kingdom of Kamarupa. In the early medieval period, the area was dominated by Hindu principalities, which were under the nominal suzerainty of the Senas and Devas. The history of the dynasties in the region is documented by their copper-plate charters.", "Evidence from inscriptions also suggest there was an ancient university in Panchgaon, Rajnagar. A copper-plate inscription of Raja Marundanath in Kalapur, Srimangal was discovered dating back to the 11th century. In 1195, Nidhipati Shastri, a Brahman from Panchakhanda who was descended from Ananda Shastri of Mithila, was given land in Ita (Rajnagar) by the Raja of Tripura. Ita was feudal to the Kingdom of Tripura and part of its Manukul Pradesh", ". Ita was feudal to the Kingdom of Tripura and part of its Manukul Pradesh. Nidhipati became the founder of the Ita dynasty which would later gain a Raja status and based himself in Bhumiura-Ettolatoli. He established many dighis (ponds) and khamar (fields) which still exist today such as Shoptopar Dighi and Nidhipatir Khamar. He was succeeded over the feudal rule of Ita by his son, Bhudhar and then his grandson, Kandarpadi.", "Keshab Misra, a Brahman from Kannauj, migrated to Laur where he established a Hindu kingdom. After the death of Raja Upananda of Brahmachal (modern-day Baramchal, Kulaura), Govardhan of Gour allowed Amar Singh to rule over southern Sylhet. Singh was unable to cope and died shortly after. The Kuki chiefs then annexed Brahmachal (Southern Sylhet) to the Twipra Kingdom ruled by Ratan Manikya. Jaidev Rai was appointed to govern Brahmachal under the Tripura king", ". Jaidev Rai was appointed to govern Brahmachal under the Tripura king. The penultimate Raja Govardhan of Gour was killed in a battle against Kuki rebels and the Jaintia Kingdom in 1260. He would be succeeded by his nephew, Gour Govinda, who would reunite Northern Sylhet (Gour) and Southern Sylhet (Brahmachal). Govinda dismissed Govardhan's chief minister Madan Rai and appointed Mona Rai as his minister instead.", "Medieval\n\nDelhi Sultanate period", "During the time of the Delhi Sultanate's conquest of Bengal, Sylhet continued to be made up of petty kingdoms. Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Shah, the governor of Bengal who later claimed independence from Delhi, carried out invasions into neighbouring regions such as Assam, Tripura, Bihar and Sylhet and making them his tributary states. In 1254, Governor of Bengal Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Iuzbak invaded the Azmardan Raj (present-day Ajmiriganj). He defeated the local Raja, and plundered his wealth.", "The 14th century marked the beginning of an emerging Islamic influence in Sylhet. In 1303, the Sultan of Lakhnauti Shamsuddin Firoz Shah's army defeated the Hindu Raja Gour Govinda. This war began when Ghazi Burhanuddin, a Muslim living in Tultikar sacrificed a cow for his newborn son's aqiqah or celebration of birth. Govinda, in a fury for what he saw as sacrilege, had the newborn killed as well as having Burhanuddin's right hand cut off", ". The general's army was aided by a Sufi missionary, Shah Jalal, and his companions. Chief minister Mona Rai was killed in the battle and Govinda fled with his family. The city of Srihatta was given the epithet Jalalabad (settlement of Jalal) under the Lakhnauti Sultanate. Sikandar Khan Ghazi, one of the commanders of the battle and Firoz's nephew, was then made the first Muslim wazir to rule over Sylhet", ". Sikander ruled for a number of years under Shamsuddin Firoz Shah until his death, when he drowned while riding a boat. He was succeeded by Haydar Ghazi, appointed by Shah Jalal himself.", "The Raja of Laur, Ramnath (descendant of Keshab Misra), had three sons with only one remaining in central Laur. Ramnath's second son, Durbar Khan, migrated to Jagannathpur to build his own palace. He later seized his youngest brother, Gobind Singh's, territory in Baniachong.\n\nSonargaon rule", "The Delhi Sultanate's control of Bengal gradually weakened as rebel governors declared independence. During the early 14th-century, Bengal was divided between three small sultanates- Sonargaon in the east, Lakhnauti in the west, and Satgaon in the south. Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah became the independent Sultan of eastern Bengal with a realm covering Sonargaon, Sylhet, and Chittagong. His kingdom was powerful enough to withstand the kingdoms of Arakan and Tripura", ". His kingdom was powerful enough to withstand the kingdoms of Arakan and Tripura. The Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited Sylhet during this period and met with Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah and Shah Jalal. Fakhruddin was succeeded by his son Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah.", "Bengal Sultanate period", "After the defeat of the last Sultans of Lakhnauti and Sonargaon between 1342 and 1352, Sylhet passed to the control of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah who unified a wider region into the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali Muslims were exploiting the fertile land of Sylhet for agricultural production and enjoyed relative prosperity innovating a contemporary agrarian society. The Taraf Kingdom, founded by Syed Nasiruddin, was transformed into a hub of Islamic and linguistic education", ". Prominent writers and poets hailing from medieval Taraf and its surrounding areas included Syed Shah Israil (Sylhet's first author), Muhammad Arshad, Syed Pir Badshah and Syed Rayhan ad-Din. The region began to experience an influx of Muslim settlers, including Turks, Pashtuns, Arabs, and Persians. After the death of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, Bengal was ruled by Sikandar Shah.", "In 1384, a young Persian man by the name of Mirza Malik Muhammad Turani migrated to Sylhet with a large force and established the Pratapgarh Kingdom (also including Deorali and Bhanugach) after marrying the daughter of the local ruler who had no children to take the throne. The Kingdom was subordinate to the Maharaja Maha Manikya of the Manikya dynasty of Tripura.", "In 1437, Adwaitacharya was born in Nabagram, Laur Kingdom. Muqabil Khan was the Wazir of Sylhet in 1440. In 1463, Sylhet was governed by Khurshid Khan who built a mosque near Anair Haor in Hatkhola. Many mosques were built during this period such as an Adina Mosque replica in Dargah Mahalla built by Majlis Alam, the Dastur of Sylhet, in 1472. Alam also built the Goyghor Mosque in South Sylhet with his father, Musa ibn Haji Amir", ". Alam also built the Goyghor Mosque in South Sylhet with his father, Musa ibn Haji Amir. Shankarpasha Shahi Masjid in Taraf as well as numerous dargah complexes commemorating Shah Jalal and his disciples were also built in this period. Alam was succeeded by Muqarrab ud-Daulah and Muazzam Khalis Khan respectively. In 1479, a mosque inscription in Tilapara, Muktarpur mentions another minister by the name of Malik Sikandar.", "In addition, 1486 marked the birth of Chaitanya whose ancestral homes are in Golapganj and Baniachong. Hindus believe Chaitanya was a reincarnation of Krishna and will return during the Kholi Zug. In 1499, a Persian nobleman from Isfahan known as Prince Sakhi Salamat settled in a rural village in South Sylhet known as Prithimpassa (now located in Kulaura)", ". Being a wealthy nobleman; his son, Ismail Khan Lodhi, was granted a jagir by the Mughals and given the status of Nawab in addition to other prestigious titles. In 1511, Alauddin Husain Shah's general Rukun Khan was made the governor of Sylhet. In 1512, Khan enlarged the dargah of Shah Jalal, according to an ancient Persian inscription. Khan was succeeded by Gawhar Khan Aswari.", "Bhanu Narayan of the Ita dynasty defeated a rebel of the Tripura Kingdom. The Tripura Raja then awarded him as the first raja of the Ita kingdom (Rajnagar), subordinate to the Kingdom.", "In 1489, Pratapgarh ruler Turani's great-great-grandson Malik Pratap declared independence from the Tripura Kingdom whilst the Tripura Raja Pratap Manikya II was busy fighting a war against his elder brother, Dhanya. Malik then allied with the Tripura Raja in the war, and so Manikya formally recognised the independence of the Pratapgarh Kingdom and gave him the title of Raja.", "Raja Bazid of Pratapgarh, the grandson of Raja Malik Pratap, repulsed an invasion by the powerful neighbouring kingdom of Kachar. He then expanded the power and influence of his own kingdom, stretching its frontiers as far west as the borders of Jangalbari in Kishoreganj. In light of these achievements, Bazid gave himself the new title of Sultan, placing himself on the same level as the Sultan of Bengal Alauddin Husain Shah.", "The governor of Sylhet under the Bengal Sultanate, Gawhar Khan Aswari later passed away. His deputies, Subid Ram and Ramdas, took advantage of his death and embezzled a large amount of money from the state government before fleeing to Pratapgarh. Sultan Bazid gave his protection to the two deputies and took advantage of Gawhar's death to seize Sylhet town into his kingdom. Husain Shah then sent his minister, Sarwar Khan of Barsala, to negotiate with Pratapgarh and see if he can return Sylhet to Bengal", ". After the rejection of Bazid, Surwar defeated him and his allies, the Zamindars of Ita and Kanihati, in battle. Bazid was allowed to continue as ruler of Pratapgarh with relative independence, but he was required to surrender his control of Sylhet and give up the title of Sultan. A tribute of money and elephants was given to show Bazid's loyalty and Subid Ram and Ramdas, were sent to Hussain Shah to face punishment", ". Surwar Khan then became the Nawab of Sylhet, with Bazid's daughter Lavanyavati being given in marriage to Surwar's son and eventual successor, Mir Khan.", "Towards the end of the Sultanate era, Western Sylhet and Eastern Mymensingh became the Iqlim-e-Muazzamabad governed by Khawas Khan. Muazzamabad was originally founded by Shah Muazzam ad-Din Quraishi, the son of Shah Kamal Quhafa. Its capital was at Kamalshahi (Shaharpara) and also had a second administration at Nizgaon (Shologhar, Sunamganj Sadar). The Assamese claim that Chilarai of Kamata, the brother of King Nara Narayan, took over parts of the Sylhet region, including Jaintia Kingdom, in 1553", ". In this same time period, Taraf was subordinate to the Twipra Kingdom during the reign of Maharaja Amar Manikya. When Syed Musa, the ruler of Taraf, refused to provide labour for Manikya, a war took place in Jilkua, Chunarughat. Musa was backed by Fateh Khan, the Afghan zamindar of Sylhet. Taraf and Sylhet were briefly conquered by the Tripuris. Khwaja Usman would later capture Taraf and Uhar.", "During the rule of the Kangleipak King Khagemba, the King's brother, Prince Shalungba, was disappointed with Khagemba's treatment so he fled to Taraf where he allied with the local Bengali Muslim leaders. With a contingent of Bengali Muslim soldiers under Muhammad Sani, Shalungba then attempted to invade Manipur but the soldiers were captured and made to work as labourers in Manipur. These soldiers married local Manipuri women and adapted to the Meitei language", ". These soldiers married local Manipuri women and adapted to the Meitei language. They introduced hookah to Manipur and founded the Pangal or Manipuri Muslim community.", "Mughal period", "The Mughal invasions and conquests in Bengal started during the reigns of Emperors Humayun and Akbar. The Battle of Rajmahal in 1576 led to the execution of Daud Khan Karrani, ending the Karrani sultanate. However, the Pashtuns and the local zamindars known as Baro Bhuyans led by Isa Khan, the ruler of Bhati, continued to resist the Mughal invasion. After the death of Isa in 1599, the Baro-Bhuyan confederacy started to weaken", ". After the death of Isa in 1599, the Baro-Bhuyan confederacy started to weaken. The Ain-i-Akbari notes the prevalence of slaves, oranges, timber and singing birds in the region. Bengal was integrated as a Mughal province known as the Bengal Subah by 1612 during the reign of Jahangir. The Finance Minister of the latter emperor, Raja Todar Mal, estimated Sylhet to be worth £16,704 in 1582. The Qanungoh (revenue collector) of Sylhet was assisted by pargana patowaris", ". The Qanungoh (revenue collector) of Sylhet was assisted by pargana patowaris. Each pargana's revenue was collected by a choudhury.", "However, even during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, Mughal authority in Sylhet was still referred to as Bengal's Wild East due to the region becoming a refuge for the Afghan chieftains and other Baro-Bhuiyan insurgents. Khwaja Usman of Bokainagar, Mymensingh fled to Sylhet where he allied with the likes of Bayazid Karrani II of Sylhet, Anwar Khan of Baniachong, Pahlawan of Matang and Mahmud Khan.", "The final raja of the Ita Kingdom, Raja Subid Narayan, built his fort in the Barua Hills, which remains today as ruins. He is also known to have built more large ponds such as the Balda Sagar and Sagar Dighi initially for his daughter, Kamla Rani, and to make space for a palace. Subid lost a battle in 1610 in which South Sylhet became under the rule of Afghan chieftain Khwaja Usman. Usman's rule was interrupted after Mughal General Islam Khan I's attack in 1612 leading to complete Mughal control of Sylhet", ". Ludi Khan was appointed the Amil of Sylhet. He was succeeded by his son, Jahan Khan who was a minor assisted by the Tehsildars of Taraf; Basu Das and Rajendra.", "In 1618, the Jaintia Raja Dhan Manik conquered Dimarua leading to a war with Maibong Raja Yasho Narayan Satrudaman of the Kachari Kingdom. Dhan Manik, realising that he would need assistance, gave his daughter in hand to Raja Susenghphaa of the Ahom kingdom. The Ahoms then fought the Kacharis allowing an easy escape for Dhan Manik and the Jaintians.", "Sylhet became a sarkar of the Bengal Subah. Its eight mahals/mahallahs included Pratapgarh-Panchakhanda, Bahua-Bajua, Jaintia (parts of Jaintia Kingdom), Habili (Sylhet), Sarail-Satra Khandal (North Tripura), Laur, Baniachong and Harinagar. Sylhet emerged as the Mughals' most significant imperial outpost in the east and its importance remained as such throughout the seventeenth century.", "The sardars of Sylhet during Jahangir's reign included Mubariz Khan, Mukarram Khan, Mirak Bahadur Jalair, Sulayman Banarsi and his son, and Mirza Ahmad Beg. During the rebellion of Prince Khurram, Mirza Saleh Arghun - a relative of Khwaja Usman - was made the faujdar of Sylhet.", "Muhammad Zaman Karori of Tehran was made the Amil of Sylhet by emperor Jahangir after the Emperor arrived to Bengal and punished the rebels. Zaman took part in Islam Khan I's Assam expedition and was instrumental to the capture of Koch Hajo. He later on became faujdar of Sylhet in 1636 by Shah Jahan and was made a mansabdar of 2,000 sowar. In 1657, Shah Shuja, the Subahdar of Bengal, granted 50 bighas of land to zamindar Alam Tarib.", "During the reign of Shah Jahan from 1628 to 1658, the faujdars were Muizz ad-Din Rizvi, Sohrab Khan and Sultan Nazar.", "During the reign of Aurangzeb in the 17th century, the sarkar generated annual revenues of 167,000 takas. Lutfullah Shirazi, the faujdar of Sylhet, established a strong enclosure in Shah Jalal's dargah in Sylhet town in 1660. Isfandiyar Khan Beg succeeded Shirazi in 1663 and was known to have destroyed Majlis Alam's Adina Mosque replica in Dargah Mahalla because the imam started Eid prayers without waiting for him. Following its destruction, Isfandiyar attempted to rebuild it", ". Following its destruction, Isfandiyar attempted to rebuild it. The mosque, located near the Dargah Gate, remains uncompleted today, hidden behind trees. The next faujdars were Syed Ibrahim Khan, Jan Muhammad Khan and Mahafata Khan.", "Farhad Khan was the most well-known of Sylhet's faujdars. He built Sylhet Shahi Eidgah, which still remains as the largest eidgah in the region today as well as numerous bridges across the Sarkar. He was succeeded by Sadeq Khan and then Inayetullah Khan.", "After the death of Laur Raja Durbar Khan, his younger brother Gobind Singh took over his land. Durbar Khan's sons then informed the Nawab of Murshidabad of this incident. Gobind was summoned to Delhi for a short time where he accepted Islam. As a reward, he was granted the title of Khan and regained Laur but as a feudal ruler.", "Prince Azim-ush-Shan, the subahdar of Bengal, is said to have granted Hamid Khan faujdarship to Sylhet & Bundasil. Rafiullah Khan, Ahmad Majid and Abdullah Shirazi were the faujdars of this period. Faujdar Karguzar Khan was known to have gifted land to Kamalakanta Bhattacharya of Ita in 1706. A year later, Karguzar was succeeded by Mutiullah Khan and then in Rahmat Khan in 1709. Emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed Talib Ali Khan as the next faujdar", ". Emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed Talib Ali Khan as the next faujdar. After Farrukhsiyar's death, Talib was replaced by Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan in 1719.", "In the early 1700s, the Jaintia Raja Ram Singh kidnapped the Kachari Raja. The Raja of Cachar then informed Ahom Raja Rudra Singh Sukhrungphaa which led to the Ahoms attack through North Cachar and Jaintia Hills. Jaintia was annexed to the Ahoms and its capital city, Jaintiapur, was then raided by the Ahoms and thousands of innocent civilians were put to death or ears and noses were cut off", ". Sukhrungphaa then informed the Faujdar of Sylhet that Jaintia was under his rule and that it is him that they will trade to. However, the Ahom rule in Jaintia was weak and short-lived. The Jaintias rebelled in their own land defeating the Ahom soldiers. Ram Singh, however, died as a captive to the Ahoms and his son, Jayo Narayan took over the Jaintia Kingdom.", "In the middle of the seventeenth century, Babu Kabi Ballabh, a descendant of Sarbananda of Barsala, mastered the Persian language. After impressing Emperor Muhammad Shah, Ballabh was given the title of Rai. Ballabh was then made the Qanungoh and Dastidar of Sylhet by the Nawabs of Murshidabad. The role of the Dastidars were to approve and seal the . He was succeeded as Qanungoh and Dastidar by his son, Subid Rai who established a Dastidar family home which he named Subid Rai Gridha", ". Harkrishna Das was from his progeny. Das' mother sent him off to a fakir in Murshidabad who would educate him in the Sanskrit and Persian languages. He then assisted Rajballabh, the deputy of Nawazish Muhammad Khan, in writing an account on Bengal's revenue. After this service, the Nawab of Murshidabad granted Das Rs. 10,000 as a reward and carried on working in the Murshidabad court.", "Emperor Muhammad Shah appointed Shukurullah Khan as the next Faujdar after Shuja. Although Shukurullah had good relations with the Naib Nazim of Dhaka, he did not get on well with the local authorities and was dismissed quickly. He was replaced by Harkrishna Das who became the 11th Nawab of Sylhet in late 1721. Nicknamed Mansur al-Mulk, Das was murdered in 1723 by his own men who are presumed to have been loyal to Shukurullah", ". Sylhet was then divided between three individuals; Naib Sadatullah Khan, Hargovinda Rai and Manik Chand. Shukurullah returned to his post as faujdar in 1723. The last ruler of Muazzamabad, Hamid Khan Qureshi accepted the post of faujdar after Shukurullah. In August 1698, he earned the title of Shamsher Khan after assisting the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, in defeating Rahim Khan Afghan in Chandrakona", ". Shamsher Khan had 6 naibs; Shuja ad-Din (previous faujdar), Basharat Khan, Syed Rafiullah Hasni of Rafinagar, Muhammad Hasan and Mir Ilyas Khan. Shamsher was killed in 1740 in the Battle of Giria alongside the Nawab of Bengal, Sarfaraz Khan.", "The zamindar of Laur, Abid Reza, son of Gobind Khan, left Laur to establish Baniachong in the early eighteenth century, which would become the largest village in the world. Many followed Reza to Baniachong after Laur was burnt by the Khasi in 1744. The Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan is said to have granted 48 large boats to the Baniachong zamindars. A short while after, Reza built a fort in Laur which remains as ruins today. His son, Umed Reza, excavated much of Baniachong during his zamindari", ". His son, Umed Reza, excavated much of Baniachong during his zamindari. Both Rezas were feudal under the Amils or Faujdars of Sylhet.", "Alivardi Khan granted the deputy governor of Dhaka, Nawazish Muhammad Khan, to also govern Sylhet, Tripura and Chittagong. The next faujdar was Bahram Khan. He gifted land to Bhattacharya of Shamshernagar in 1742. Bahram built the mosque located next to Shah Jalal's dargah in 1744. He appointed Muhammad Jan as his Naib. Bahram was succeeded by Ali Quli Baig of Alikulipur (near Badarpur). Baig's leadership was short and Naib Ali Khan became the next faujdar", ". Baig's leadership was short and Naib Ali Khan became the next faujdar. Ali Khan granted land in 1748 to Kamala Kanta Bhattacharya of Lauta and Ram Chandra Vidyabagish of Dinajpur. He also granted land to Gangaram Siromani of Burunga in 1750.", "Company rule \n\nIn 1757, the Shyllong King Khasi Raja closed the Sonapur Duar, stopping trade between the Jaintia and Ahom kingdoms. An envoy of Jaintias assembled at Hajo where they informed the incident to Ahom Raja Suremphaa Swargadeo Rajeswar Singh who re-opened it for them.", "Sylhet came under British administration in 1765 and made a part of the Bengal Presidency. William Makepeace Thackeray was made the first Collector of Sylhet and he was followed by Mr Sumner. Sylhet was strategically important for the British in their pursuit of conquering Northeast India and Upper Burma. The British divided the region into four subdivisions further divided into collectory zilas and then parganas", ". The Qanungohs were abolished for a time during British rule and Wahdadars replaced Choudhuries as local revenue collectors. North Srihatta consisted of Parkul, Jaintiapur and Tajpur zilas. South Srihatta was made up of Rajnagar, Hingazia and Noyakhali. Habiganj was split into Nabiganj, Laskarpur and Shankarpasha. Sunamganj had one collectory zila at Ramulganj and Karimganj at Latu. During this time, many Western European and Armenian traders migrated to Sylhet and are buried in Sylhet Sadar.", "Major Henniker led the first expedition to Jaintia in 1774. In 1778, after a short term by Mr Holland, the next collector was Robert Lindsay. A year into his office, the Khasi attacked the merchants of Pandua, Bholaganj (Companiganj) who were going towards Calcutta after experiencing abuse from other 'Europeans'. Many merchants pleaded Lindsay to build a small brick fort to protect them from further attacks from the Khasi", ". During the same year, an auction took place in which a purchaser won estates in Balishira (South Sylhet). With the former owner refusing to give the land, a havildar and ten sepoys were sent to the estate to allow the purchaser his land. The former owner killed two officers and injured many. He then plundered two government boats worth over 2,000 rupees. Reinforcements were sent from Sylhet to Balishira, eventually forcing the former owner to flee", ". Reinforcements were sent from Sylhet to Balishira, eventually forcing the former owner to flee. The former owner later returned with a large group of men and attacked the resistance, keeping some as hostage. The former officer and some of his men were later arrested by the authorities in Dacca.", "In 1782, the first ever uprising in the Indian subcontinent which was against the British rule, the Muharram Rebellion, took place in Sylhet Shahi Eidgah in which Lindsay killed two of the leaders of the rally, the Pirzada and Syed Muhammad Hadi, with his own pistol. The other leader, Syed Muhammad Mahdi was also killed in the conflict alongside other rebels.", "In 1783, the headquarters of a thana was attacked by Khasis who were provoked by a certain havildar. The Khasi chiefs demanded the havildar's head which Lindsay refused to give. Many casualties and deaths occurred on both sides, Lindsay's chunam works were plundered and his men were said to have been \"cut into pieces\".", "In 1786, the Revolt of Radharam took place in the Greater Pratapgarh. Zamindar Radha Ram plundered Chargola thana in Karimganj with the help of Kukis before escaping. Lindsay reacted by ordering for the burning of Radha Ram's village and the seizing of his cattle. It is said in another incident that the hill tribes attacked the Laur thana, killing 20 people including the thanadar", ". In 1787, the Khasis of Laur also rebelled, plundering many parganas, such as Atgram, Bangsikunda, Ramdigha, Betal and Selbaras, and killing up to 800 people. Before Lindsay's troops could arrive, the Khasis retreated back to their mountains.", "Hyndman succeeded Lindsay in late 1787 as the Collector of Sylhet but his term was extremely short and John Willes replaced him. During Willes' office, the Khasi led by Ganga Singh plundered Ishamati thana and bazaar and killed a Bara-Chaudhri family. In 1789, Willes stationed many sepoys in Pandua (Companiganj). The Khasi however, continued their attacks, killing the thanadar and many sepoys", ". The Khasi however, continued their attacks, killing the thanadar and many sepoys. Two European merchants managed to escape and inform Willes of the incident, who passed it on to the Government at Calcutta. A force was then sent from there, to the village of Pandua although it led to a bloodless end", ". A force was then sent from there, to the village of Pandua although it led to a bloodless end. Willes also told the government that he really had little control over northern Sylhet as the Khasi chiefs refused every order, would behead the messenger and then continue raiding Sylheti villages as they had done even during the Mughal period. Another Khasi raid took place in 1795 and many years went after that with the Khasis remaining in their hills and not troubling the plains", ". Willes also changed the administration of Sylhet into ten zillahs, further divided into 164 parganas as well as Kusbah Sylhet. Revenue was then collected by ten zillahdars assisted by the pargana patowaris. The currency of the Sylhet region was changed from cowries to silver coins. During his term, Laskarpur Pargana was also moved from Dacca to Sylhet. Courts were also being established in every zillah.", "In 1799, Agha Muhammad Reza invaded Cachar. With help of Nagas and Kukis, he was able to defeat the barqandaz sent by the Raja of the Kachari Kingdom, and expelled the Raja to the nearby hills. Reza also sent 1,200 men to attack the nearby thana of the East India Company, administered by one havildar and eight sepoys. The Kachari army then arrived with 300 men and two grasshopper cannons but were defeated. During this time, the British were able to gain a reinforcement of 70 sepoys", ". During this time, the British were able to gain a reinforcement of 70 sepoys. The army ended up in a brawl between the Kacharis, and the British sepoys eventually drove both groups back leading to 90 deaths in the Kachari side. Reza was later arrested.", "A border dispute started in 1807 between the Khaspur Raja of Cachar, Krishnachandra Narayan, and the Amin Muluk Chand in Badarpur. The Amin would lay down a line, only to find that the Kacharis would fill the ditch up and take all the crops. The Kacharis would also raid Chapghat pargana. The British ordered Badarpur's officer to prevent the intruders from this but they found out that the land in fact belonged to the Raja and not the Amin.", "In 1821, a group of Jaintias kidnapped British subjects attempting to sacrifice them to Kali. A culprit was then found by the British who admitted that it was an annual tradition which the Jaintias have been doing for 10 years. The priest would cut off the victim's throat and then the Jaintia princess would bathe in his blood. The Jaintia believed that this would bless the princess with offspring", ". The Jaintia believed that this would bless the princess with offspring. Upon hearing this, the British threatened the Jaintia Raja that they would invade his territories if this does not stop. The Raja made an agreement in 1824 with David Scott that they will only negotiate with the British. A year later, the Jaintias attempted to continue their annual sacrifice which they had previously agreed with the British that they would stop", ". During the First Anglo-Burmese War in the same year, British troops based themselves at Badarpur. They then advanced to Bikrampur in Cachar where they were defeated. In 1826, the Kukis of Pratapgarh King murdered a group of woodcutters and held three hostages after not receiving an annual gift from the Pratapgarh zamindars. The Kukis then sent one hostage to the British to tell them that they must pay a ransom to free the other two, in which the British agreed.", "With the last Khasi raid taking place in 1795, the British experienced another attack in 1827 in Panduah leading to the death of a sepoy, postman and dhobi. The Agent to the Governor-General of India, William Amherst, was absent and so the Collector of Sylhet ordered his officer to retaliate with the Sylhet Light Infantry", ". After the Nongkhlao massacre in Kanta Kal village two years later, Captain Lister and the Infantry defeated the Nongkhlao Khasis, causing them to retreat and never attack the British or raid villages again.", "Ganar Khan was the last Faujdar of Sylhet. During his office, two processions were being prepared by Sylhet's Muslim and Hindu communities respectively. The Islamic month of Muharram in the Sylhet's history was a lively time during which tazia processions were common. This happened to fall on the same day as the Hindu festival of Rothjatra (chariot procession). Sensing possible communal violence, Ganar Khan requested the Hindu community to delay their festival by one day", ". Contrary to the Khan's statement, a riot emerged between the two communities. During one of the riots, the King of Manipur Gambhir Singh was passing through the city of Sylhet whilst on a British expedition against the Khasis. As a Hindu himself, Singh managed to defend the Hindus and disperse the Muslim rioters with his Manipuri troops. The Rothjatra was not delayed, and the Manipuri king stayed to take part in it and was revered by the Hindu community as a defender of their faith.", "The Jaintias kidnapped four British men in 1832. Three were sacrificed in Great Hindu temple in Faljur, with one escaping and informing the British authorities of the atrocities. After the Jaintia Raja declined to find the culprits, the British finally conquered the Jaintia Kingdom and incorporated it into the Sylhet District in 1835. Also in 1835, pargana patowaris were replaced by zillah patowaris and muhuris.", "The East India Company first initiated their trading of tea in the hills of Sylhet. The first commercial tea plantation in British India was opened in the Mulnicherra Estate in Sylhet in 1857. The region started to emerge as the centre of tea cultivation in Bengal and major export. Many local entrepreneurs also started founding their own companies such as Syed Abdul Majid, Nawab Ali Amjad Khan, Muhammad Bakht Mazumdar, Ghulam Rabbani, Syed Ali Akbar Khandakar, Abdur Rasheed Choudhury and Karim Bakhsh.", "In the anti-British Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, 300 sepoys who revolted against the British, looted the Chittagong Treasury and took shelter with Nawab Gaus Ali Khan of Prithimpassa. The treasury remained under rebel control for several days. A rebellion also took place in Latu, Barlekha.\n\nBritish Raj \nSylhet was constituted as a municipality in 1867. Walton was made the Collector and Magistrate and he was assisted by William Kemble. Moulvi Dilwar Ali was the Deputy Collector.\n\nAssam Province (1874–1905)", "Despite protests to the Viceroy from its Bengali-majority population, Sylhet was made part of the non-regulation Chief Commissioner's Province of Assam (Northeast Frontier Province) in September 1874 in order to facilitate Assam's commercial development. A memorandum of protest against the transfer of Sylhet was submitted to the viceroy on 10 August 1874 by leaders of both the Hindu and Muslim communities", ". The protests subsided when the Viceroy, Lord Northbrook, visited Sylhet to reassure the people that education and justice would be administered from Bengal, and when the Sylheti people saw the opportunity of employment in tea estates in Assam and a market for their produce.", "The Assam Bengal Railway was established in 1892 to connect Assam and Sylhet with the port city of Chittagong and also served as a lifeline for the tea industry, transporting tea to exporters in the Port of Chittagong. The first college in the region, Murari Chand College, was opened in 1892.", "The region was heavily affected during the 1897 Assam earthquake resulting in many deaths and the damage of many buildings as well as the Assam-Bengal Railway. In 1903, snakes killed 75 people, wild pigs killed 2 people and a tiger killed one person. Due to the size of Sylhet's Bengali Muslim majority, the All India Muslim League formed the first elected government in British Assam.\n\nEastern Bengal and Assam (1905–1912)", "Eastern Bengal and Assam (1905–1912)\n\nIn 1905, Sylhet was added to the Chief Commissioner's Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam as a result of the Partition of Bengal. The new province, now ruled by a Lt. Governor, had its capital at Dhaka. Sylhet was incorporated into the province's Surma Valley Division. The province had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats. The members for these seats were recommended (not elected) by rotating groups of public bodies.", "The partition was strongly protested in Bengal, and some people in Assam were not happy either. Opposition to partition was co-ordinated by Indian National Congress, whose President was then Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton who had been Chief Commissioner of Assam until he retired in 1902. The partition was finally annulled by an imperial decree in 1911, announced by the King-Emperor at the Delhi Durbar.", "Assam Province (1912–1947)\nBy the 1920s, organizations such as the Sylhet Peoples' Association and Sylhet-Bengal Reunion League (1920) mobilized public opinion demanding the division's incorporation into Bengal. However, the leaders of the Reunion League, including Muhammad Bakht Mauzumdar and Syed Abdul Majid, later opposed the transfer of Sylhet and Cachar to Bengal during the Surma Valley Muslim Conference of September 1928. This was supported by the Anjuman-e-Islamia and Muslim Students Association.", "On 23 March 1922, an anti-British mob took place at a madrasa in Kanaighat. The madrasa was set to host their annual jalsa on the day but the British Raj had outlawed it and declared Section 144 throughout Kanaighat. The organisers were angered by the ban and subsequently violated Section 144 by leading a mob to attack the British commissioners. The armed British were able to conduct a swift victory, by shooting down six people and injuring 38 people.", "The numbers of lascars grew between the two world wars, with some ending up in the docks of London and Liverpool. During World War II, many fought on the Allied front before settling down in the United Kingdom, where they opened cafes and restaurants which became important hubs for the British Asian community.", "In 1946, Gopinath Bordoloi, the Prime Minister of British Assam brought forward his wish to hand over Sylhet back to East Bengal. Following a referendum, almost all of erstwhile district of Sylhet became a part of East Bengal in the Dominion of Pakistan. After being pleaded by a delegation led by Abdul Matlib Mazumdar, a large part of Karimganj subdivision was barred and incorporated into the Dominion of India. The referendum was held on 6 July 1947. 239,619 people voted to join East Bengal (i.e", ". The referendum was held on 6 July 1947. 239,619 people voted to join East Bengal (i.e. part of Pakistan) and 184,041 voted to remain in Assam (i.e. part of India). The referendum was acknowledged by Article 3 of the Indian Independence Act 1947.", "Post-Partition of India", "In the early 20th century, during the British period, a labour exploitation system known as the \"Nankar custom\" was introduced and practiced by zamindars. This barbarous system was confronted by the local peasants of the region during the Nankar Rebellion, leading to six deaths. In Beanibazar, the rebellion was born and spread across East Pakistan leading the Pakistani government to abolish the zamindari system and repeal the non-governmental rule to recognize the ownership of the land of peasants.", "In 1952, the Pakistan Tea Board - a tea research station in Srimangal, Moulvibazar - was founded to support the production, certification and exportation of the tea trade.\n\nPost Independence", "Post Independence \n\nDuring the Bangladesh Liberation War, when Pakistan Army created the 39th ad hoc Division in mid-November, from the 14th Division units deployed in those areas, to hold on to the Comilla and Noakhali districts, and the 14th Division was tasked to defend the Sylhet and Brahmanbaria areas only. Sylhet was part of Sector 3, Sector 4 and Sector 5.", "Sector 3 was headed by K. M. Shafiullah and later A. N. M. Nuruzzaman at Hejamara. It was formed by 2 East Bengal and EPR troops of Sylhet and Mymensingh", ". It was formed by 2 East Bengal and EPR troops of Sylhet and Mymensingh. The ten sub-sectors of this sector (and their commanders) were: Asrambari (Captain Aziz, later replaced by Captain Ejaz); Baghaibari (Captain Aziz, later replaced by Captain Ejaz); Hatkata (Captain Matiur Rahman); Simla (Captain Matin); Panchabati (Captain Nasim); Mantala (Captain MSA Bhuyan); Vijoynagar (Captain MSA Bhuyan); Kalachhara (Lieutenant Majumdar); Kalkalia (Lieutenant Golam Helal Morshed); and Bamutia (Lieutenant Sayeed).", "Sector 4 comprised from Habiganj to Kanaighat and had 4,000 EPR troops, and aided by 9,000 regular freedom fighters. They were commanded by Chitta Ranjan Dutta, and later Mohammad Abdur Rab. The headquarters of Sector 4 was initially at Karimganj and later at Masimpur in Assam", ". The headquarters of Sector 4 was initially at Karimganj and later at Masimpur in Assam. The six sub-sectors of this sector (and their commanders) were: Jalalpur (Masudur Rab Sadi); Barapunji (Mohammad Abdur Rab); Amlasid (Lieutenant Zahir); Kukital (Flight Lieutenant Kader, later replaced by Captain Shariful Haq); Kailas Shahar (Lieutenant Wakiuzzaman); and Kamalpur (Captain Enam).", "Sector 5 comprised from Durgapur to Tamabil and was commanded by Major Mir Shawkat Ali at Banshtala. The sector was composed of 800 regulars and 5000 guerillas", ". The six sub-sectors of this sector (and their commanders) were: Muktapur (Subedar Nazir Hossain, freedom fighter Faruq was second in command); Dauki (Subedar Major BR Chowdhury); Shela (Captain Helal, who had two assistant commanders, Lieutenant Mahbubar Rahman and Lieutenant Abdur Rauf); Bholaganj (Lieutenant Taheruddin Akhunji who had Lieutenant SM Khaled as assistant commander); Balat (Subedar Ghani", ", later replaced by Captain Salauddin Mumtaz and Enamul Haq Chowdhury); and Barachhara (Captain Muslim Uddin)", ".", "Amidst the war, many printing presses were damaged and this included the Sylheti Nagri script printed at the Islamia Press. The region was a focal point of East Pakistan's Liberation War, which created Bangladesh. It was the hometown of General M. A. G. Osmani, the commander-in-chief of Bangladesh Forces and the Panchgaon Factory in Rajnagar Upazila produced cannons under his command. A famous historical cannon built by Janardan Karmakar remains in display in Dhaka", ". A famous historical cannon built by Janardan Karmakar remains in display in Dhaka. The Battle of Gazipur, in Kulaura, raged between the Pakistani military and the allied forces of Bangladesh and India from 4 to 5 December 1971. The battle ended with a Bangladeshi victory. The Battle of Sylhet took place from 7 to 15 December, eventually leading to a Pakistani surrender and the liberation of Sylhet. Pakistan Army's 93,000 troops unconditionally surrendered to the Bangladeshi Liberatiion Forces i", ". Pakistan Army's 93,000 troops unconditionally surrendered to the Bangladeshi Liberatiion Forces i.e, Mukti Bahini on 16 December 1971. This day and event is commemorated as the Bijoy Dibos in Bangladesh.", "See also\nHistory of Chittagong\n\nReferences", "Further reading \n Abdul Karim. Social History Of The Muslims In Bengal (Down to A.D. 1538). Dacca: The Asiatic Society of Pakistan, 1959.\n Ali, Syed Murtaza. Hazrat Shah Jalal O Sylheter Itihas (Hazrat Shah Jalal and the History of Sylhet) Dacca, 1965.\n Chakrabarty, Bidyut. “The ‘Hut’ and the ‘Axe’: The 1947 Sylhet Referendum.” The Indian economic and social history review 39, no. 4 (2002): 317–350.", "Chakrabarti, Dilip Ancient Bangladesh: A Study of the Archaeological Sources Delhi: Oxford University Press 1992\n Fazakarley, Jed. “Multiculturalism’s Categories and Transnational Ties: The Bangladeshi Campaign for Independence in Britain, 1971.” Immigrants & minorities 34, no. 1 (2016), 49–69.", "Fedorowich, Kent, Andrew Thompson, Keith Povey, and John M MacKenzie. “Resistance and Accommodation in Christian Mission: Welsh Presbyterianism in Sylhet, Eastern Bengal, 1860–1940: Aled Jones.” In Empire, Migration and Identity in the British World. United Kingdom: Manchester University Press, 2013.\n Hossain, Ashfaque. “The Making and Unmaking of Assam-Bengal Borders and the Sylhet Referendum.” Modern Asian studies 47, no. 1 (2013), 250–287", "Hossain, Ashfaque. “The World of the Sylheti Seamen in the Age of Empire, from the Late Eighteenth Century to 1947.” Journal of global history 9, no. 3 (2014): 425–446.\n Hossain, Ashfaque. “Historical Globalization and Its Effects: a Study of Sylhet and Its People, 1874-1971”. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2009.", "Khan, Muhammad Mojlum. Muslim Heritage of Bengal : the Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal. Leicestershire: Kube Publishing, 2013.\n Ludden, David. “Investing in Nature Around Sylhet: An Excursion into Geographical History.” Economic and political weekly 38, no. 48 (2003): 5080–5088.\n Van Schendel, Willem. A history of Bangladesh (Cambridge University Press, 2009).", "History of India by region\n\nHistory of Assam" ]

[ "There is a long history of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender activity in Singapore. Male homosexuality was outlawed under British rule (1819–1942; 1946–1959), despite being acknowledged among the local population. Following Japanese occupation during World War II and the country gaining independence, homosexuality and transvestism were visible as a street scene, and from the 1970s were catered for in some nightclubs. In that decade also, Singapore became a centre of gender-reassignment surgery.", "Concerns over HIV arose after cases were reported in the 1980s. During the 1990s, police clamped down on manifestations of homosexuality due to the stigma of HIV, leading to the growth of a gay movement. Male homosexuality was made legal in the country again in 2022, after the British colonial-era law Section 377A was repealed by the government.", "Pre-colonial period (up to 1819)\nRelatively little is known about pre-colonial Singapore, let alone the history of homosexuality during this period. It is assumed that ideas and practices relating to sexual minorities were similar to other contemporary and nearby Malay societies.", "As with all pre-modern societies, traditional Malay culture did not contain the idea or the figure of the modern gay individual. However, Malay society did acknowledge the reality and existence of alternatives to heterosexual practices. ‘Third gender’ or transgender individuals, who are called mak nyah, were socially recognised, tolerated and even incorporated into community life. They occupied a stable, albeit arguably marginalised position within society", ". They occupied a stable, albeit arguably marginalised position within society. The mak nyah are similar in many ways to the hijra in India or the fa'afafine or Mahu in Polynesia. Unfortunately, there is limited scholarly knowledge about homosexuality in traditional Malay culture.", "Colonial period (1819–1948)", "Traditional Asian attitudes to homosexuality", "Institutionalised gay marriage practices may have occurred amongst Hokkien men in Ming dynasty China. The subculture was exported along with the human tide into Singapore and practised discreetly in an alien environment which officially espoused Victorian values. Usually, the younger of two male homosexual lovers would be \"adopted\" as the godson of the parents of the elder lover in a ceremony before the ancestral altar, involving an offering, amongst others, of pigs' trotters", ". Similarly, amongst the Indians, 'maasti' or sexual play between men who were not necessarily gay would likely have been widespread with the paucity of women.", "British law & homosexuality", "As with other British colonies, Singapore acquired a legal system and law modelled after Britain. Victorian values were codified into strict laws governing sexual behaviour in the United Kingdom, and these were brought to the colonies. The colonial legal system criminalised sodomy (see section 377 of the Singapore Penal Code). These laws reinforced the values of the ruling British elite, which set the tone for other classes and ethnicities to emulate, at least on the surface", ". Over time, and to appear equally 'civilised' many Asians disavowed their longstanding cultural tolerance of sexual minorities.", "Between 1938 and 1941, seven high-profile cases of prosecution under or related to Section 377A happened. Although four cases involved Europeans, only one was convicted.\n\nIn September 1938, Lim Eng Kooi and Lim Eng Kok became the first to receive punishment in the Straits Settlement. The two \"well-known\" Penang Chinese were sentenced to seven months imprisonment each under Section 377A.", "In March 1941, a Tan Ah Yiow was sentenced to nine months imprisonment after he was found with a \"European client\" in a \"low down quarter\", where he was discovered by F. J. C. Wilson, head of the local Anti-Vice Branch, following a tip. Wilson added that in court that a \"disgusting and revolting practice had been performed\", with medical evidence forthcoming.", "In April 1941, Lee Hock Chee was prosecuted under Section 377A after a lascar saw him molesting a sleeping Chinese boy at a five-foot passageway off Rochore Road.", "In April 1941, Captain Douglas Marr, the Deputy Assistant Provost Marshal of the Singapore Fortress Command, was accused of having committed \"an act of gross indecency\" with a male Malay youth, Sudin bin Daud, who denied being a \"catamite\". Sudin claimed that on 13 March or 14, he was walking along Stamford Road, a supposed \"area for male prostitutes\", at night when a car driven by Marr stopped, picked him up and brought him to his boarding house in Tanglin Hill", ". The offence against Section 377A allegedly took place there, he claimed, whereupon Marr gave Sudin some money and let Sudin take a watch before Sudin left, leaving his shirt there. In his defence, Marr claimed that he had wanted to get \"at the root of the homosexual type of vice and I thought, as it transpires very foolishly, that it would be a good idea to question a catamite and to try and find out to what extent soldiers in different regiments were involved\"", ". Marr did not deny picking up Sudin, who he claimed approached him, but maintained that he merely questioned him back home to no avail, as he had mistaken Sudin for an Indian and spoken to him in Hindustani. On 16 April and 29 July, after a withdrawn appeal by the prosecution, Marr was acquitted of the charge, despite the fact that Sudin's shirt was found in his room", ". Sudin, who had pleaded guilty to the act of gross indecency and theft of the watch, was sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment on 27 March.", "In May 1941, Gunner Ernest Allen of the Royal Artillery became the only European convicted under Section 377A after witness Chan Yau testified that in March, he and Allen had committed the alleged offence in an Anguilla Road house. Allen denied the allegations, claiming that he had hired Chan to get him a girl. Allen was sentenced to 15 months imprisonment.", "In July 1941, a blackmail case prosecuted by Mr. Griffith-Jones for the Crown; a Mr. 'X', as he was christened by the newspapers, admitted \"he had been addicted to homosexual practices\" had been extorted by more than two Chinese locals, Tan Ah Lek and Lim John Chye. They extorted and attempted to extort money from him by threatening to expose him. After several years Mr. 'X' complained to the police, who investigated and brought several cases to court", ". 'X' complained to the police, who investigated and brought several cases to court. The European, who \"held a responsible position in a Singapore firm\", first came into contact with Lim in January 1939, when Lim wrote a letter to him asking for $5 to keep silent. By 1940, Mr. 'X' had paid him over $1,000, while the English-speaking Tan had extorted and tried to extort a total of thousands of dollars from Mr. 'X', and at the end of 1938, even extracting monthly payments from him", ". 'X', and at the end of 1938, even extracting monthly payments from him. On 30 July, he was sentenced to five years imprisonment.", "World War II to 1960s\nWhen the Japanese invaded Singapore in February 1942, Japanese laws replaced previous colonial laws. Gay sex was never criminalised in Japan and would now have been technically legal in Singapore. However, given the lack of human rights and rule of law under the Japanese occupation, this change in law was a technical and historical quirk, reflective of a different legal tradition, rather than an expansion of real rights for gay people.", "Anecdotally, gay cruising continued in post-war Singapore in back alleys, public parks and toilets. In the most part, this was ignored by the police and no one was charged under section 377 of the Singapore Penal Code. Meanwhile, transvestite prostitution on Bugis Street became increasingly prominent. The State and mainstream society initially accepted it is as a vaguely undesirable but inevitable vice, similar to the pragmatic and worldly attitudes towards prostitution in the cosmopolitan port-city", ". With their growing fame, the transvestites of Bugis Street became a tourist attraction, drawing local and foreign visitors every night. Bugis Street and its associated transgender community were by far the most visible face of sexual minorities in the immediate post-war period, much as transgender people had been in traditional Malay society. The difference was that the community was now much more public, urban and multi-ethnic.", "Another arena in which LGBT issues were being played out was in national service. Compulsory uniformed (usually military) service was implemented in 1967: all 18-year-old males were required to train full-time for two or two-and-a-half years, according to their level of education. Homosexuality and transsexuality were listed as conditions in a Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) 'Directory of Diseases' (disease code 302)", ". Prior to enlistment, all enlistees underwent a medical examination, during which they were asked to declare their homosexuality and/or transgender status (medics conducting the examination had little awareness of the difference between the two). New recruits who came out were deployed to non-combat, non-sensitive vocations. They were generally downgraded to a Public Employment Status of 3 (PES3) and assigned only light clerical work.", "While the SAF was concerned of the safety of out gay and trans men living and working with straight servicemen it was also reluctant to exempt them from the compulsory National Service that all Singaporean men had to perform. However, post-operative male-to-female transsexuals were exempted from National Service as the Singapore Government recognised their new gender identity as women", ". It is unknown if post-operative female-to-male transsexuals perform National Service, though it is unlikely that many of them exist who have undergone their operation by the time of enlistment, around the age of 18.", "1970s\nWith growing prosperity, many homosexuals, especially the English-educated middle class were exposed, via travel and the mass media, to the social liberalism of the West and the nascent gay movements there. This exposure introduced the idea that local society could evolve similarly. The growing popularity of travel to Thailand and Japan in the late 1970s also introduced Singaporeans to traditional Asian societies that were more accepting of homosexuals.", "Meanwhile, several nightlife entrepreneurs realised the unmet social demands of the emerging gay market, and gradually allowed their establishments to cater to gay customers on certain nights. One of the earliest was The Hangar, located in a secluded area outside the city centre where, for the first time, a large group of gay men could freely congregate and even dance together", ". Encouraged by this precedent, homosexuals started to patronise other, mainly straight, discos in the city area such as My Place, Black Velvet, West End, El Morocco, The Library, Studio M and even the NCO Club at Beach Road. Nightclubs like Pebbles Bar, Tropicana Inn, and less popularly Treetops Bar at the Holiday Inn, were increasingly packing in the gays and became iconic institutions of the local gay scene", ". Some heterosexual clubbers complained about this, so the managements of some of these outlets were pressurised by the authorities to display signs proclaiming 'No man and man dancing' (sic). Over time, the ruling was relaxed for fast songs, but same-gender slow dancing continued to be proscribed.", "In November 1971, the English-language evening tabloid New Nation ran an exclusive interview with a trans woman on her transition. In July 1972, an exposé of the hidden lives of Singapore homosexuals in New Nation, headlined 'They are different', carried photographs of a gay couple embracing and \"local transvestites\". It caused a stir and raised mainstream awareness of the existence of gay people who were not transgender. The report also highlighted how \"homosexuality is as old as ancient Greece\".", "During the decade, there was a well-known transsexual model featured occasionally in Her World magazine. On the silver screen, cinema goers enjoyed a Chinese language Shaw Brothers production entitled Ai nu (Love Slave) which starred actresses and Betty Pei Ti as a lesbian couple in a period setting. In the final scene when Lily Ho wanted to desert Betty Pei Ti to pair off with the male hero, she was asked for a final kiss", ". Whilst they were kissing, Betty Pei Ti sneaked a poison pill into her mouth which she bit, thus transforming it into a poignant kiss of death.", "The widespread construction of public swimming pools from the 1970s gave Singapore the highest density of public pools per unit area in the world. Coupled with the emergence of many shopping centres, this increased the number of conducive spaces for gay cruising", ". The growing population, size and urban density of the city created opportunities for anonymous gay encounters even as it raised the risk of discovery by others and hence the number of public complaints about gay cruising and/or public sex, a factor which led to the phenomenon of police entrapment more than a decade later.", "As Singaporean surgeons became more skilful, some like Prof. S Shan Ratnam were authorised to perform male-to-female sex-reassignment surgery at Kandang Kerbau Hospital from 1971 onwards. However, before hopeful transsexuals-to-be could go under the knife, they first had to subject themselves to a battery of psychological tests by psychiatrist Prof. Tsoi Wing Foo", ". Tsoi Wing Foo. Later, the more technically demanding female-to-male variety was also offered there and at Alexandra Hospital, performed by gynaecologists such as Dr. Ilancheran. A Gender Identity Clinic and Gender Reassignment Surgery Clinic were set up at the National University Hospital two decades later. In fact, for thirty years, Singapore was one of the world leaders in gender-reassignment surgery", ". In fact, for thirty years, Singapore was one of the world leaders in gender-reassignment surgery. Bugis Street and Johore Road started to become populated with a range of genders from transvestites to iatrogenic intersex individuals to fully transformed women. Local hospitals and clinics also attracted transgender clients from other countries in the region, especially Malaysia and Thailand.", "1980s", "The early 1980s was a period of widespread prosperity and new freedoms which saw the opening of clubs like Shadows, Marmota, Legend and Niche which catered to a predominantly gay clientele even though they were not exclusively gay. These discos would be closed by the time of the mid-1980s, for unclear reasons, to be replaced by weekly Sunday Night Gay Parties or \"Shadow Nights\" run by the former management of Shadows (affectionately known as the \"Shadow Management\")", ". These \"Shadow Nights\" were roving events held at semi-permanent venues which included Rascals (at the Pan Pacific Hotel), Heartthrob (at Melia at Scotts), The Gate (at Orchard Hotel), Music World (in Katong) and Studebaker's which later morphed into Venom (at Pacific Plaza). It is interesting to note that men's night parties held since Studebaker's were no longer run by the \"Shadow Management\"", ". Lesbian culture also found a focal point in a small bar named Crocodile Rock in Far East Plaza, which remains to this day the oldest lesbian bar in Singapore.", "It came as a shock when the first case of local HIV infection was reported in 1985. It galvanised a group of healthcare personnel (both gay and straight) to set up a non-governmental organisation (NGO) called Action For AIDS (AFA) in 1988 which provided support and counselling for AIDS victims as well as educating the public on safe sex. AFA was not technically part of the Singapore gay movement and has been careful to present itself as an NGO dealing with a public health issue", ". However, a significant portion of the energy and leadership behind it has been provided by gay people and in many practical ways AFA has rallied homosexuals around a cause.", "Cruising continued in areas like Hong Lim Park, Boat Quay, back alleys in the Central Business District, Raffles Place MRT Station and Tanjong Pagar, swimming pools, Fort Road Beach and public toilets. Police patrols to these areas were sporadically seen; on rare occasions individuals have had their IC numbers recorded, but for the most part they were left alone and no arrests were made", ". Lesbian couples who held hands in public, while not officially persecuted, report that they were frequently the target of verbal, physical, and at times sexual abuse from passers-by and gang members.", "From the mid-1980s onwards, pubs and karaoke bars like Babylon and Inner Circle started to sprout up along Tanjong Pagar. Sizable groups of gay men could be seen milling about outside these establishments especially on weekends. This, along with cruising activity at nearby Ann Siang Hill and the surrounding back alleys would eventually come to give Tanjong Pagar Road the reputation of being Singapore's gay quarter.", "Large bookshops like Borders, Kinokuniya, Tower Books and even MPH responded to the growing body of mainly foreign gay-themed literature by stocking these books along with those on women's issues in sections entitled 'Gender Studies'.", "1990s", "The expansion of gay spaces in the 1980s were curbed to some degree in the 1990s. Singapore's rapid economic growth had been attributed by its leaders to 'Asian values'. The promotion of these ideas by Singaporean leaders fostered a climate of social conservatism. Against this backdrop, gays were perceived as a threat to Asian values and a sign of the emergence of decadent Western liberalism and individualism. Complaints made by the public about public cruising led to police entrapment raids", ". Complaints made by the public about public cruising led to police entrapment raids. Youthful and attractive undercover cops would pose as gay cruisers. The moment they were fondled by their targets, the latter would be arrested for outrage of modesty. Their names and occasionally mugshots were published in the press to humiliate them.", "The most publicised case occurred in a forested grove near Tanjong Rhu's Fort Road Beach in November 1993. Amongst the 12 men arrested was a Singapore Broadcasting Corporation producer. All were punished with three strokes of the cane and prison sentences ranging from 2 to 6 months. In protest, performance artist Josef Ng staged a work on New Year's Eve, 1993, as part of which he snipped off his pubic hair while his back was turned to the audience", ". This provoked a severe government reprisal in the form of a ban on all performance art, one that held sway until 2004. Ng was also charged in court for committing an obscene act in public.", "Gay discos also experienced occasional police raids, the most well-known of which occurred at Rascals on 30 May 1993, where policemen shouted rudely at patrons. A gay lawyer who was present later enlisted the support of 21 other gay professionals in writing a letter of complaint to the Chief of Police. To their surprise, they received an apology. This was the last documented case of police harassment at gay discos for many years to come.", "The local media, especially the daily tabloid The New Paper, began to sensationalise homosexual activities with attention-grabbing headlines like 'Pool Perverts on the Loose' and 'Gays surface again at East Coast beach'. In 1992, the Censorship Review Committee recommended that 'materials encouraging homosexuality should continue to be disallowed.' In 1996, I-S Magazine's publishing licence was suspended for one issue because of gay content appearing in the personal ads section.", "An example of this government censorship was directed at Chay Yew, who, in the 1990s, had become an internationally known playwright with several plays featuring gay individuals and couples. The government banned performances of his work on the grounds that it was \"promoting homosexuality\" and, as a result, Yew felt pressured to live and work overseas.", "It was against this deterioration in public image and treatment that a Singapore gay movement emerged. The most revolutionary factor which surfaced to facilitate the development of a sense of community amongst Singaporean gays was the widespread availability of the Internet and start of affordable access to the World Wide Web from the mid-1990s.", "Activists such as Alex Au, a member of People Like Us, the first gay equality organisation in Singapore, saw the potential of the Internet as a vehicle to unite the gay community and foment intellectual discussion. The Singapore Gay News List (SigNeL) was started on 15 March 1997 and has been instrumental in discussing issues of interest to the community. On 15 October 1998, RedQuEEn!, an e-mail list for queer-identified women was established", ". On 15 October 1998, RedQuEEn!, an e-mail list for queer-identified women was established. Au also launched his Yawning Bread website in November 1996, to which he would contribute the most thorough analyses of issues facing the local gay community. It would also serve as a de facto chronicle of Singapore gay issues and history as they unfolded.", "LGBTs could visit foreign websites to remain updated on gay news from around the globe or even view and download pornography, thus effectively bypassing Singapore's Undesirable Publications Act.", "To enable censorship of undesirable sites, all Internet traffic into and out of Singapore was required to be routed through local proxy servers. As a token of this restriction, to placate social conservatives, prominent porn websites such as Playboy and Penthouse were blocked. The official explanation was that the Government wanted to signal a stand on undesirable sites without unduly hindering the development of the Internet", ". However, websites of local origin were monitored more closely than those from overseas.", "One of the most important LGBT events of the decade took place in 1996 when People Like Us submitted their first application for registration as a society, after taking a year of painstaking effort to solicit ten signatories. The application was lodged with the Registrar of Societies on 7 November 1996. However, it was rejected on 9 April 1997 with no reason given. PLU's appeals all the way to the Prime Minister's Office met with no success. This rejection was reported by news agencies around the world.", "For over two decades, post-operative transsexuals had been discreetly lobbying to be given the right to have their new sex reflected in their identity cards (but not their birth certificates) and to marry opposite-sex spouses. They were finally granted their wish on 24 January 1996 via an announcement by MP Abdullah Tarmugi without much public fanfare or opposition.", "On 11 December 1998, Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew responded to a gay man's question about the place of homosexuals in Singapore, live on CNN International by saying, '...what we are doing as a government is to leave people to live their own lives so long as they don't impinge on other people. I mean, we don't harass anybody", ". I mean, we don't harass anybody.' Given Lee's stature as the venerated albeit authoritarian founding father of independent Singapore, these words helped set the tenor for official policy on homosexuality for many years to come. His comments may be regarded as one of the most significant events, as far as gay rights are concerned, of the decade.", "On 12 December 1998, at the first National AIDS Conference, Paddy Chew became the first person in Singapore to publicly come out with HIV/AIDS. He subsequently worked with Haresh Sharma and Alvin Tan of The Necessary Stage on a one-man autobiographical play called Completely With/Out Character which was staged at The Drama Centre from 10 to 17 May 1999. He subsequently died from complications from AIDS at the Communicable Disease Centre on 21 August 1999.\n\n2000s", "2002", "On 1 December 2002, the Sunday Times printed an extract of a speech made by Minister of State for Health, Balaji Sadasivan. He said, 'Research has also shown that the brain of homosexuals is structurally different from heterosexuals. It is likely therefore that the homosexual tendency is imprinted in the brain in utero and homosexuals must live with the tendencies that they inherit as a result of the structural changes in their brain", ". Within the moral and cultural constraints of our society, we should be tolerant of those who may be different from most of us.' This was the first time a Minister had publicly quoted scientific findings about homosexuality.", "2003", "The 7 July 2003 issue of Time Asia magazine carried a feature article entitled The Lion in Winter, which examined Singapore's prevailing bleak economic climate against a wider backdrop of Asian NIE malaise at the time. In the article, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong was quoted as saying, \"So let it evolve, and in time the population will understand that some people are born that way. We are born this way and they are born that way, but they are like you and me", ". We are born this way and they are born that way, but they are like you and me.\" He also stated that though homosexual acts remained illegal in Singapore, gay people would now be allowed to serve in 'sensitive positions' in the civil service. This started a major controversy in the media. The statement was greatly welcomed by the gay population of Singapore, but there was a strong reaction from those opposed to homosexuality", ". These included the National Council of Churches of Singapore, which issued a statement that homosexuality was incongruous with the scriptures of Christianity, and an independent group of 20 Christians from different denominations, voluntary organisations and professions, led by Pastor Yang Tuck Yoong, of the Cornerstone Community Church", ". This group held a meeting to discuss a strategy and plan of action for Christians to tackle what they termed as a \"volatile situation\", and Yang's church issued a statement \"Don't Keep Silent\" on 20 July, calling on the Church in Singapore to \"take a stand\". Following this, many letters opposing homosexuality were published in Singapore's daily, The Straits Times.", "Several prominent members of the Singaporean Christian community disagreed with the stance taken by the National Council of Churches, including Reverend Yap Kim Hao, the former bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore, and Catholic Theresa Seow, President of the (Singapore) Inter-Religious Organisation.", "Reporter M. Nirmala of the Straits Times covered the controversy in her article on 23 July 2003, titled \"Gay Backlash\". The debate and its political implications are also documented and discussed in an article \"Imagining the Gay Community in Singapore\", whose abstract is:", "Through an analysis of public responses to two separate but related events in contemporary Singapore – a church's claim that \"homosexuals can change\" and a former prime minister's published comments about openly gay civil servants in his administration – this article explores how a \"gay community\" has been imagined in Singapore, where homosexual acts remain illegal and where a \"conservative majority\" has been ideologically mobilised by the state and moral-religious entrepreneurs", ". A close reading of the debates within SiGNeL (the Singapore Gay News List) and the local mass media reveals ideological struggles – and, in particular, gay activists' role in these struggles – surrounding a basic contradiction between Singapore's exclusionary laws and practices, and official state rhetoric about active citizenship, social diversity, and gradual liberalisation", ". This rhetoric is aimed primarily at attracting foreign talent and retaining mobile Singaporean talent in a globally integrated economy that is increasingly dependent upon creativity and innovation.", "2004", "LGBT film banned in Singapore \nIn July 2004, Formula 17, a Chinese-language teenage romantic comedy and Taiwan's highest-grossing film of the year was banned because it \"normalizes homosexuality\". Singapore's Films Appeals Committee said that its panel members thought the movie \"creates an illusion of a homosexual utopia, where everyone, including passersby, is homosexual and no ills or problems are reflected...It conveys the message that homosexuality is normal, and a natural progression of society\".", "Collaboration between local NGO and LGBT platform", "In November 2004, a partnership between Action For AIDS (AFA)'s MSM Resources and SGBOY.COM was announced in November 2004, volunteers from MSM Resources will be participating in SGBOY.COM's online forums and IRC chat room – which are the region's busiest for gay Asian men. The move follows stinging criticism from the Minister of State for Health Balaji Sadasivan this month in which he said the homosexual community was mostly to blame for an \"alarming AIDS epidemic\" in Singapore.", "LGBT party banned", "In December 2004, the government turned down an application by gay dating platform Fridae to hold its Snowball.04 party on 25 December because the event was \"likely to be organised as a gay party which is contrary to public interest,\" according to Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong. Lee said that in previous editions of the party in 2002 and 2003, assurances were sought from party organisers that the event would include the wider community", ". \"We allowed it and we made it quite clear that it had to be a party which was not targeted at gays alone,\" Lee said. \"As the party turned out, our sense of it was that it was beyond what we were prepared to accept. So we said no.\"", "2005", "On 21 May 2005, the Straits Times reported that 3 teenagers was infected with the HIV virus in 2004, the biggest in a year since 1985, when HIV was first detected in Singapore. Before 2004, Ministry of Health figures showed only 1 teen at most per year tested positive for HIV. Another alarming change was that the infected teens in the past two years were gay. Previously, the 3 teens infected between 2000 and 2002 had been heterosexual", ". Previously, the 3 teens infected between 2000 and 2002 had been heterosexual. In 2005, the lone 17-year-old student who had so far tested positive for HIV was also gay. He was presumably infected by his older partner who pressured him into having unprotected sex, according to Action for AIDS programme director Roger Winder.", "On 6 December 2005, UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph reported that a Singaporean man Ghani Jantan and his British partner John Walker were the first gay couple to announce their civil union in the print version of the widely read British daily. The pair were amongst the first wave of more than 1000 homosexual couples to take advantage of the civil partnership law which grants gay unions almost all the legal rights and obligations which apply to heterosexual marriages", ". The story was also carried by Singapore's Today newspaper.", "In June 2005, government authorities turned down an application by gay dating platform Fridae to host its fifth annual Nation party because \"police assessment is that the event is likely to be organised as a gay party, which is contrary to public interest in general.\" The party coincided each year with Singapore's National Day and had been held four times previously. Organisers said more than 8,000 people attended the last one in 2004, generating an estimated S$6 million in tourist revenue for the country.", "Junior health minister Balaji Sadasivan said a rise in HIV infections in the gay community was linked to the parties as they \"allowed gays from high-prevalence societies to fraternise with local gay men, seeding the infection in the local community.\" Expressing his disappointment at the government's decision, Fridae CEO Stuart Koe, said, \"This is a direct contradiction to previous calls for embracing of diversity.\"", "As a reaction to the banning of the Nation party, LGBT event organisers came together to start IndigNation, a month-long series of events held during Pride month. In August 2004, just days after being sworn in as prime minister, Lee Hsien Loong had promised a more \"open and inclusive\" Singapore, saying, \"The police have now decided to exempt indoor talks from licensing requirements, unless they touch on sensitive issues such as race and religion", ".\" Community leaders seized on the promise to organise talks, workshops, and related events as part of the line-up for IndigNation, which would evolve to be an annual affair.", "2006", "Film depicting gay scene shown uncensored", "In February 2006, Singapore announced it would be screening Brokeback Mountain, a romantic drama film directed by Ang Lee, on local screens uncut. The film received an R21 rating for depictions of homosexual sexual activities which restricted it to people over 21. Amy Chua, director of media content at the Media Development Authority said the Board of Film Censors allowed Brokeback Mountain to be screened because the film did not \"promote or glamorise the lifestyle.\"", "2007", "In response to a question from the youth wing of the PAP in 2007, Lee Kuan Yew said, \"This business of homosexuality. It raises tempers all over the world, and even in America. If in fact it is true, and I’ve asked doctors this, that you are genetically born a homosexual, because that is the nature of genetic random transmission of genes. You can’t help it. So why should we criminalise it?... But there is such a strong inhibition in all societies – Christianity, Islam, even the Hindu, Chinese societies", ". And we’re now confronted with a persisting aberration, but is it an aberration? It’s a genetic variation. So what do we do? I think we pragmatically adjust.\"", "Four years later, in an interview granted to journalists for the book Hard Truths to Keep Singapore Going, Lee was asked if he thought homosexuality was a lifestyle or genetic. He said, \"No, it’s not a lifestyle. You can read the books all you want, all the articles. There’s a genetic difference, so it’s not a matter of choice. They are born that way and that’s that. So if two men or two women are that way, just leave them alone.\"", "Asked how he would feel if one of his children came out to him, Lee said, \"That’s life. They’re born with that genetic code, that’s that. Dick Cheney didn’t like gays but his daughter was born like that. He says, 'I still love her, full stop.' It’s happened to his family. So on principle he’s against it, but it’s his daughter. Do you throw the daughter out? That’s life. I mean none of my children is gay, but if they were, well that’s that.\"", "Saying he took a \"purely practical view\" on the issue, Lee said, \"Look, homosexuality will eventually be accepted. It’s already been accepted in China. It’s only a matter of time before it is accepted here. If we get a Cabinet full of Christians, we’re going to get an intolerant Cabinet. We’re not going to allow that.\"", "Asked whether Singapore was ready for a gay member of parliament, Lee said, \"As far as I’m concerned, if she does her work as an MP, she looks after her constituents, she makes sensible speeches, she’s making a contribution, her private life is her life, that’s that.\"", "In a wide-ranging interview conducted on 24 Aug. 2007 at the Istana with Leonard M. Apcar, deputy managing editor of the International Herald Tribune, Singapore correspondent Wayne Arnold, and Southeast Asia bureau chief Seth Mydans, Lee said, \"we take an ambiguous position. We say, O.K., leave them alone but let's leave the law as it is for the time being and let's have no gay parades.\"", "\"Don't ask, don't tell?\" asked the reporters. \"Yes, we've got to go the way the world is going. China has already allowed and recognized gays, so have Hong Kong and Taiwan,\" Lee responded. \"It's a matter of time. But we have a part Muslim population, another part conservative older Chinese and Indians. So, let's go slowly. It's a pragmatic approach to maintain social cohesion.\"", "Parliamentary petition to repeal Section 377\nIn October 2007, a parliamentary petition to repeal Section 377A Penal Code was jointly organised by Fridae founder Stuart Koe, human rights lawyer George Hwang and housewife Tan Joo Hymn, garnering thousands of signatories for an open letter to the prime minister. Anti-gay activists sprang to action in a counter-appeal that urged the government to \"Keep 377A\", claiming even more signatories.", "On 22 October 2007, three organisers of the Open Letter, theatre practitioner Ivan Heng, entrepreneur Alan Seah and actress Pamela Oei hand delivered the 400-page letter with 8,120 signatures to the Prime Minister's office at the Istana.\n\nNominated Member of Parliament Siew Kum Hong tabled the petition to Parliament to repeal Section 377A. Members of Parliament who spoke in favour of the repeal included PAP MPs Charles Chong, Baey Yam Keng and Hri Kumar Nair.", "NMP Thio Li-ann gave an impassioned speech against repeal, famously likening gay sex to \"shoving a straw up your nose to drink\". She said she spoke \"at the risk of being burned at the stake by militant activists\" and warned of a \"radical\", \"homosexual agenda\" that was out to \"subvert social morality, the common good and undermine our liberties.\"", "Opposition MP Sylvia Lim said the Workers' Party did not take a stand regarding appeal. She proposed the setting up of a Select Committee to scrutinise the wording and execution of the Penal Code and to comprehensively archive and make publicly available feedback from all civic groups.", "Senior minister of state for Law and Home Affairs, Associate Professor Ho Peng Kee, said that Singapore was generally still a \"conservative\" society and that the majority of its people still found homosexual behaviour \"unacceptable\". The government therefore chose to \"let the situation evolve naturally\" and to allow Section 377A to remain status quo.", "Prime minister Lee Hsien Loong said Singapore was \"basically a conservative society\" with many being \"uncomfortable with homosexuals, more so with public display of homosexual behaviour\". However, as recognition that homosexuals \"are often responsible, invaluable, and highly respected contributing members of society\", the government would not \"proactively enforce Section 377A on them.\"", "He said his government did not \"consider homosexuals a minority, in the sense that we consider, say, Malays and Indians as minorities, with minority rights protected under the law\" and that it would not \"allow or encourage activists to champion gay rights as they do in the West.\"\n\n\"The decision on whether or not to decriminalise gay sex is a very divisive one and until there is a broader consensus on the matter, Singapore will stick to the status quo,\" he added.", "2008\nIn January 2008, cinema operator Golden Village kicked off its first ever The Love and Pride Film Festival, an annual event dedicated to the screening of LGBT films.\n\n2009\n\nPink Dot SG \nFollowing the relaxation of rules governing activities conducted at Singapore's Speakers' Corner at Hong Lim Park, allowing demonstrations organised by Singaporeans to be held at the park, the first Pink Dot SG event took place at the Speakers' Corner on 16 May 2009.", "Launched with a campaign video titled \"RED + WHITE = PINK\", this was Singapore's first public, open-air, pro-LGBT event and drew an estimated crowd of 2,500, breaking the record for the greatest turnout for a gathering at Speakers' Corner in Hong Lim Park since the venue's inception.", "Ambassadors of the event were three local celebrities: actor Timothy Nga, actress Neo Swee Lin and radio DJ Rosalyn Lee. During the event, formations of the words \"LOVE\" and \"4All\" were created by participants. The event concluded with the formation of the titular Pink Dot.", "Attempted takeover of local Association for Women's equality \nIn 2009, a group of conservative Christian women took over the Association of Women for Action and Research (AWARE) by winning 9 out of 12 available seats on the executive committee. It was subsequently known that six out of nine of the new members of the committee were members of the same church, the Anglican Church of Our Saviour (COOS) located at Margaret Drive.", "At the time, AWARE's Constitution allowed new members to stand for elections. The group engineered a takeover under the leadership of Josie Lau and organisation by Thio Su Mien, nominating and voting in new members to the executive committee. They alleged that AWARE was harbouring and pushing a \"pro-gay agenda\".", "Thio told reporters that she had encouraged the women to take over AWARE because she felt that AWARE's original focus on gender equality had shifted, claiming that \"Aware seems to be only very interested in lesbianism and the advancement of homosexuality\". She then attacked AWARE's sex education syllabus, which came under the Ministry of Education's (MOE) Comprehensive Sex Education (CSE) programme", ". Thio claimed that AWARE’s sex education had encouraged local students to view homosexuality in 'neutral' terms instead of 'negatively', warning that \"this is something which should concern parents in Singapore\".", "The new members had changed the locks and the security system at the AWARE Centre in Dover Crescent without the knowledge of the \"Old Guard\".\n\nEventually, after meetings between members of the \"Old Guard\", they decided to challenge the new executive committee at an Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM) on 2 May 2009. The EGM finally concluded, after over eight hours, with a vote of no confidence in the \"New Guard\", and a new executive committee elected with a mix of old and new members of AWARE.", "Deputy Prime minister Wong Kan Seng commented that \"a group of conservative Christians, all attending the same church, which held strong views on homosexuality, had moved in and taken over AWARE because they disapproved of what AWARE had been doing\", and called for tolerance, cautioning that religion and politics must be kept separate.\n\n2010s\n\n2010", "2010s\n\n2010\n\nLocal church's anti LGBT sermon \nIn February 2010, a video containing anti-gay remarks made by Rony Tan, the senior pastor of megachurch Lighthouse Evangelism, was circulated online. \"Proper sex means life. Lesbianism and homosexuality simply mean death, barrenness,\" said Tan in the video.", "\"Don’t believe all those loud-mouthed gay people who tell you they are born this way\", Tan added. \"If we don’t warn people against this, then there will be more and more homosexuals... many of these people will be harassing and seducing young boys, and they in turn will become homosexuals... half the world will be homosexual\".", "He also linked homosexuality with bestiality: \"If you allow [homosexuality], next time people will want to get married to monkeys. And they will want rights. They’ll want to apply for HDB [a colloquial term to mean a government subsidised flat]. With a donkey or a monkey or a dog and so on. It’s very pathetic.\"", "A total of 85 police reports were lodged against Tan, including by local filmmakers Royston Tan and Sun Koh. Tan did not rescind his comments, nor was he censured by the authorities for his remarks.\n\n2013", "Legal challenge on the Constitution", "In May 2013, the High Court struck out an application by a gay man seeking a declaration that Article 12 of the Constitution applies to all, regardless of sexual orientation. Lawrence Bernard Wee Kim San, then 40, claimed to have been harassed into resigning from his position as assistant general manager for cards and corporate sales at Robinson's department store because of his homosexuality. He was also ordered by the court to pay the costs of his case", ". He was also ordered by the court to pay the costs of his case. The Attorney General's Chambers, in a statement, said Wee's \"real grievance of alleged discrimination is against his former employer, and not the Government\", and described his claim as being \"not sustainable in law\", \"frivolous and vexatious\" and \"an abuse of the Court process\".", "Investigation of Adam Lambert concert by the National Council of Churches of Singapore", "In May 2013, the National Council of Churches of Singapore (NCCS) said it was looking into a complaint about Adam Lambert performing at The Star Performing Arts Centre, a commercial entity fully owned by Rock Productions, the business arm of New Creation Church. Lim K. Tham, general secretary of the council said it had received a complaint that \"the gay lifestyle may be promoted at the concert\" and that \"The NCCS has conveyed this concern to New Creation so that it can make a response.\"", "In a statement, the church said that according to stipulations from the authorities before the tender was awarded to Rock Productions, the venue had to operate \"on a purely commercial basis and will not implement any leasing or pricing policies that will discriminate between religious groups, institutions or organisations from hiring the venue\"", ". The church said all public events require a public entertainment licence from the police, and it had \"utmost confidence\" in the policies and ability of government bodies such as the Media Development Authority to \"protect the interest of the general public\". The statement added that any event at the performing arts centre \"should not be misconstrued or misunderstood\" as the church \"approving of its artistic presentation or endorsing the lifestyle of the performer\".", "2014", "\"Wear White\" campaign in protest of Pink Dot SG event", "To protest against the annual Pink Dot SG, a group of Muslims led by Ustaz Noor Deros, a theology graduate of Al-Azhar University who was employed at the En-Naeem mosque in Tampines, started a \"Wear White\" campaign, calling on people to return to \"fitrah\" – or purity – and \"sunnah\" – the way of the Prophet Muhammad", ". In a message on the campaign website, Noor Deros wrote that the \"natural state of human relationships is now under sustained attack by LGBT activists\" and accused the organisers of Pink Dot of organising their event on the first day of Ramadan to \"underline their disdain for Islam and the family\".", "Lawrence Khong, senior pastor of Faith Community Baptist Church and head of the LoveSingapore network of churches, urged Christians to wear white at church services that weekend in support of the movement. \"We cannot and will not endorse homosexuality. We will continue to resist any public promotion of homosexuality as an alternative lifestyle,\" Khong wrote in a Facebook posting.\n\n2015", "Debate over Adam Lambert's performance in national broadcast New Year Countdown event", "In December 2015, when it was announced that Adam Lambert would be performing at a Countdown 2016 New Year's Eve event, anti-gay groups sprang to action, petitioning the government to have the openly gay singer removed from the line-up", ". An open letter which gathered more than 20,000 signatures said \"Singaporeans can enjoy a good show without their consciences being affronted by lewd acts in the name of entertainment\" and that Lambert was \"well-known for his active promotion of a highly sexualized lifestyle and LGBT rights\". A counter-petition by Lambert supporters subsequently attracted more than 24,000 signatures.", "State broadcaster Mediacorp later confirmed that Lambert would perform, and assured audiences that the show would be \"suitable for family audiences and conform with broadcast regulations\". Adam Lambert said in a statement, \"My performance at Celebrate 2016 will not only be a spectacular one, it will celebrate the entire human family in all its diversity. I am a uniter, not a divider, and I believe in celebrating the human heart and spirit\".\n\n2016", "Ban on sponsorships by foreign companies for events held at Speakers' Corner", "After Pink Dot SG events which attracted sponsorships from multinational companies such as Google, JP Morgan, Goldman Sachs, Apple, Barclays, Facebook, Twitter, Uber, Microsoft, NBCUniversal, Salesforce.com, Visa and General Electric, the Ministry of Home Affairs announced it would \"take steps to make it clear that foreign entities should not fund, support or influence\" events held at Speakers' Corner", ". The ministry said in a statement, \"The Government's general position has always been that foreign entities should not interfere in our domestic issues, especially political issues or controversial social issues with political overtones. These are political, social or moral choices for Singaporeans to decide for ourselves. LGBT issues are one such example", ". LGBT issues are one such example. This is why under the rules governing the use of the Speakers' Corner, for events like Pink Dot, foreigners are not allowed to organise or speak at the events, or participate in demonstrations.\"", "In a letter to Home Minister K Shanmugam, Human Rights Watch said the ministry's statement sent a \"discriminatory message\" to Pink Dot’s corporate sponsors: \"This infringes on rights to freedom of expression, which the Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees to 'everyone', and pressures corporations to act in contravention of their responsibilities under the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.\"", "Threats to LGBT event", "In the first case of its kind, a 36-year-old man Bryan Lim Sian Yang was charged in June 2016 with inciting violence after he logged on to an anti-gay Facebook group \"We are against Pinkdot in Singapore\" and wrote: \"I am a Singaporean citizen. I am a NSman, I am a father. And I swore to protect my nation. Give me the permission to open fire. I would like to see these £@€$^*s die for their causes\"", ". Give me the permission to open fire. I would like to see these £@€$^*s die for their causes\". Lim posted his comment on 4 June and it subsequently went viral after the 12 June Orlando nightclub shooting which killed 49 mostly LGBT victims, sparking a huge uproar. Multiple police reports were filed and police seized his desktop, laptop and mobile phone as they launched investigations. Lim apologised, saying his comment was \"taken out of context\"", ". Lim apologised, saying his comment was \"taken out of context\". \"I did not mean physical bullets nor physical death,\" he wrote. \"I mean open fire in debate and remove them from Singapore domestic matters.\" His employer Canon Singapore issued a statement denouncing his comment and said the company was \"looking into this matter\". Lim was eventually found guilty of making a threatening, abusive or insulting communication under the Protection from Harassment Act and fined S$3,500.", "2017\n\nLocal companies supporting LGBT event\nAs a result of amendments to Singapore's Public Order Act, which was decried by human rights group Amnesty International, foreigners trying to attend the 9th Pink Dot SG event now faced arrest and if found guilty, could be fined S$20,000 or jailed for a year. Organisers barricaded Hong Lim Park and checked the identity card of each participant at checkpoints.", "20 local companies contributed more than S$200,000 to the event which was above the target of S$150,000 of Pink Dot SG.\n\n2018", "Debate over children's books with LGBT themes at the National Library Singapore", "In July 2018, the discovery of three children's books with LGBT themes at the National Library Singapore sparked an uproar and an ensuing debate over literary censorship", ". The three books were And Tango Makes Three, based on the true story of Roy and Silo, two male chinstrap penguins who fell in love in New York's Central Park Zoo; The White Swan Express, which features children adopted by straight, gay, mixed-race and single parents; and Who's in My Family?, which discusses different types of families, including gay couples.", "The National Library Board said in a statement that it took \"a pro-family and cautious approach in identifying titles for our young visitors\" and that it planned to withdraw the books from the libraries and to pulp them. The move sparked vocal opposition and thousands signed duelling petitions for and against the destruction of the books. In protest, 400 people including parents descended at the library to read the books to their children.", "Writers Gwee Li Sui, Adrian Tan, Prem Anand and Felix Cheong cancelled their panel at the Central Public Library as part of the Read! Singapore initiative. Novelist and playwright Ovidia Yu resigned from the steering committee of the Singapore Writers Festival and Gwee also declined to speak at the National Schools Literature Festival.", "Information minister Yaacob Ibrahim said he stood by the board's decision to remove the three books from the children's section and that the board would \"continue to ensure that books in the children's section are age-appropriate\". He said he had instructed the board not to pulp the books but to place them in the adult section. \"The decision on what books children can or cannot read remains with their parents", ". \"The decision on what books children can or cannot read remains with their parents. Parents who wish to borrow these books to read with their children will have the option to do so,\" the minister said.", "It emerged that the copies of Who's in My Family? had already been destroyed. Separately, a volume of the Archie comics series had been banned because its depiction of a marriage between two men was deemed to have breached social norms.", "Gay man allowed to adopt biological son born via surrogacy", "In a landmark case in December 2018, the High Court allowed a 46-year-old gay man to adopt his five-year-old biological son who was born through surrogacy in the United States, and then brought to Singapore on a long-term visit pass. When an application for Singapore citizenship for the boy was rejected, he approached the Ministry of Social and Family Development for advice and was told his prospects would be enhanced if the child was legally adopted", ". The man then applied as a single parent to adopt the child in December 2014 but the application was dismissed three years later by a district judge who said it was \"ethically problematic\" to go overseas to procure a child through surrogacy.", "2019\n\nLocal singer dropped by record label for coming out\nPop singer Willie Tay, known previously as Wiltay, relaunched his career as independent singer Wils in April 2019. Tay was discovered while on holiday in Madrid in 2012 and subsequently signed on with Warner Music Singapore for 3 years before winning Best Pop Album at the Hollywood F.A.M.E. Awards in 2014 for his debut album, WTF.", "He was dropped by his Asian record label for being gay and his social media accounts deleted. In 2019, he officially came out to his fans with his new single and music video, Open Up Babe.", "Legal protections for the LGBT community in amendments to the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act", "In the 2019 amendments to the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, an Explanatory Statement to the new section 17E which deals with religious-based violence clarifies, \"The target group need not be confined to persons who practise a certain religion. The target group may be made up of atheists, individuals from a specific racial community, who share a similar sexual orientation, or have a certain nationality or descent like foreign workers or new citizens", ".\" LGBT advocacy group Sayoni described the move as \"the first time a law in Singapore explicitly extends protections to cover sexual orientation.\"", "Former Chief Justice on Section 377A of the Penal Code", "In a 72-page analysis published in the Singapore Academy of Law Journal titled \"Equal Justice Under The Constitution And Section 377A Of The Penal Code, The Roads Not Taken\", based on a talk he gave in February at the National University of Singapore law faculty's Centre for Asian Legal Studies, former Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong said Section 377A was enacted in 1938 to deal with male prostitution and not because such conduct was unacceptable in Singapore society then", ". As the original purpose of the section was no longer valid, it ceased to satisfy the reasonable classification test requirements and therefore violates Article 12(1) of the Constitution, which guarantees the equality of all before the law.", "2020s", "Constitutional challenges to Section 377A dismissed", "In March 2020, three separate legal challenges to strike down Section 377A were dismissed by the High Court. The civil suits were brought by three gay men: disc jockey Johnson Ong Ming, former executive director of advocacy group Oogachaga Bryan Choong, and retired general practitioner Dr Roy Tan Seng Kee. In passing the judgement, Justice See Kee Oon said \"Statutory provisions serve an important role in reflecting public sentiment and beliefs", ". Section 377A, in particular, serves the purpose of safeguarding public morality by showing societal moral disapproval of male homosexual acts.\"", "In December 2020, Dr Roy Tan Keng See filed a fresh legal challenge to force the government to either fully enforce or scrap Section 377A. Tan said the argument of inconsistencies had rarely been used before.", "Local broadcaster issues apology for gay paedophile character in TV drama series\nState broadcaster Mediacorp sparked outrage when their Channel 8 drama series My Guardian Angels starring Zoe Tay, featured a basketball coach with sexually transmitted infections who was eventually imprisoned for molesting teenage boys.", "In July 2020, Mediacorp issued an apology following intense backlash from netizens who argued that the show unnecessarily perpetuated outdated and harmful LGBTQ+ stereotypes. The broadcaster said it had \"no intention to disrespect or discriminate against the LGBTQ community in the drama\" and the storyline was meant to \"encourage young people to be aware of potential dangers and not be afraid to speak up and protect themselves\".", "Catholic church issues statement after Pope Francis endorses same-sex civil unions\nIn November 2020, the Archdiocese of Singapore issued a statement after Pope Francis endorsed same-sex civil unions.\n\nRepeal of Section 377A, and definition of marriage", "On 21 August 2022, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced Singapore would repeal the British colonial-era law banning gay sex between men, Section 377A. He nonetheless affirmed that current governmental policies on homosexuality will remain in place to preserve the concept of a traditional family as a social norm. On 29 November 2022, after a two-day debate, two bills were passed by the Singapore Parliament to repeal Section 377A and amend the Constitution with regards to the institution of marriage", ". The Constitutional amendment introduces Article 156, which contains provisions to limit the authority to define marriage to the Parliament, and that the definition of marriage being that between a man and a woman does not violate the constitutional right to equality. Law professor Eugene Tan commented that the intention is to \"reduce the likelihood of constitutional challenges on laws and government policies that are premised on marriage being that between a man and a woman.\"", "See also\n\n Homosexuality in Singapore\n Timeline of LGBT history\n Pink Dot SG\n\nReferences\n\nNotes", "References\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n An archive of Dr. Russell Heng's paper on Singapore gay history from the 1960s to 1998, published in the Journal of Homosexuality Vol. 40 Nos. 3/4 2001 Special Issue – Gay and Lesbian Asia: Culture, Identity and Community, edited by Gerard Sullivan and Peter Jackson, pp. 81 – 97:\n An article by Alex Au on the importance of documenting and organising often all-too-ephemeral gay history:\n Singapore gay equality movement" ]

[ "The apartheid regime in South Africa began in 1948 and lasted until 1994. It involved a system of institutionalized racial segregation and white supremacy, and placed all political power in the hands of a white minority. Opposition to apartheid manifested in a variety of ways, including boycotts, non-violent protests, and armed resistance. Music played a large role in the movement against apartheid within South Africa, as well as in international opposition to apartheid", ". The impacts of songs opposing apartheid included raising awareness, generating support for the movement against apartheid, building unity within this movement, and \"presenting an alternative vision of culture in a future democratic South Africa.\"", "The lyrical content and tone of this music reflected the atmosphere that it was composed in. The protest music of the 1950s, soon after apartheid had begun, explicitly addressed peoples' grievances over pass laws and forced relocation. Following the Sharpeville massacre in 1960 and the arrest or exile of a number of leaders, songs became more downbeat, while increasing censorship forced them to use subtle and hidden meanings", ". Songs and performance also allowed people to circumvent the more stringent restrictions on other forms of expression. At the same time, songs played a role in the more militant resistance that began in the 1960s. The Soweto uprising in 1976 led to a renaissance, with songs such as \"Soweto Blues\" encouraging a more direct challenge to the apartheid government", ". This trend intensified in the 1980s, with racially mixed fusion bands testing the laws of apartheid, before these were dismantled with the release of Nelson Mandela in 1990 and the eventual restoration of majority rule in 1994. Through its history, anti-apartheid music within South Africa faced significant censorship from the government, both directly and via the South African Broadcasting Corporation; additionally, musicians opposing the government faced threats, harassment, and arrests.", "Musicians from other countries also participated in the resistance to apartheid, both by releasing music critical of the South African government, and by participating in a cultural boycott of South Africa from 1980 onward. Examples included \"Biko\" by Peter Gabriel, \"Sun City\" by Artists United Against Apartheid and a concert in honour of Nelson Mandela's 70th birthday", ". Prominent South African musicians such as Miriam Makeba and Hugh Masekela, forced into exile, also released music critical of apartheid, and this music had a significant impact on Western popular culture, contributing to the \"moral outrage\" over apartheid. Scholars have stated that anti-apartheid music within South Africa, although it received less attention worldwide, played an equally important role in putting pressure on the South African government.", "Background and origins", "Racial segregation in South Africa had begun with the arrival of Dutch colonists in South Africa in 1652, and continued through centuries of British rule thereafter. Racial separation increased greatly after the British took complete control over South Africa in the late 19th century, and passed a number of laws early in the 1900s to separate racial groups", ". The 1923 Natives (Urban Areas) Act forced black South Africans to leave cities unless they were there to work for white people, and excluded them from any role in the government. The system of apartheid was implemented by the Afrikaner National Party (NP) after they were voted into power in 1948, and remained in place for 46 years. The white minority held all political power during this time. \"Apartheid\" meant \"separateness\" in the Afrikaans language, and involved a brutal system of racial segregation", ". Black South Africans were compelled to live in poor townships, and were denied basic human rights, based on the idea that South Africa belonged to white people. A prominent figure in the implementation of the apartheid laws was Hendrik Verwoerd, who was first Minister for Native Affairs and later Prime Minister in the NP government.", "There was significant resistance to this system, both within and outside South Africa. Opposition outside the country often took the form of boycotts of South Africa. Within the country, resistance ranged from loosely organised groups to tightly knit ones, and from non-violent protests to armed opposition from the African National Congress. Through this entire process, music played a large role in the resistance", ". Through this entire process, music played a large role in the resistance. Music had been used in South Africa to protest racial segregation before apartheid began in 1948. The ANC had been founded in 1912, and would begin and end its meetings with its anthem \"Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika\", an early example of music in the resistance to racial segregation. Another such example was \"iLand Act\" by R. T. Caluza, which protested the Native Land Act, and was also adopted as an anthem by the ANC", ". T. Caluza, which protested the Native Land Act, and was also adopted as an anthem by the ANC. Commentator Michela Vershbow has written that the music of the movement against apartheid and racial segregation \"reflected [the] widening gap\" between different racial groups and was also an attempt \"to communicate across it\"", ". Music in South Africa had begun to have explicitly political overtones in the 1930s, as musicians tried to include African elements in their recordings and performances to make political statements. In the 1940s, artists had begun to use music to criticise the state, not directly in response to racial segregation, but as a response to persecution of artists", ". Artists did not see their music as being directly political: Miriam Makeba would state \"people say I sing politics, but what I sing is not politics, it is the truth\".", "South African music", "1950s: Pass laws and resettlement", "As the apartheid government became more entrenched in the 1950s, musicians came to see their music as more political in nature, led partly by a campaign of the African National Congress to increase its support. ANC activist and trade unionist Vuyisile Mini was among the pioneers of using music to protest apartheid. He penned \"Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd\" (\"Watch Out, Verwoerd\"), in Xhosa. Poet Jeremy Cronin stated that Mini was the embodiment of the power that songs had built within the protect movement", ". Mini was arrested in 1963 for \"political crimes,\" and sentenced to death; fellow inmates described him as singing \"Ndodemnyama\" as he went to the gallows. The song achieved enduring popularity, being sung until well after the apartheid government had collapsed by artists such as Makeba and Afrika Bambaataa. Protests songs became generally more popular during the 1950s, as a number of musicians began to voice explicit opposition to apartheid. \"uDr. Malan Unomthetho Onzima\" (Dr", ". \"uDr. Malan Unomthetho Onzima\" (Dr. Malan's Government is Harsh) by Dorothy Masuka became well-known, as did a number of songs by other women composers written as part of a campaign against carrying passes, which required black citizens to carry a document at all times showing their racial and tribal identity.", "In 1954 the NP government passed the Bantu Resettlement Act, which, along with the 1950 Group Areas Act, forcibly moved millions of South Africans into townships in racially segregated zones. This was part of a plan to divide the country into a number of smaller regions, including tiny, impoverished bantustans where the black people were to live. In 1955, the settlement of Sophiatown was destroyed, and its 60,000 inhabitants moved, many to a settlement known as Meadowlands", ". Sophiatown had been a center of African jazz music prior to the relocation. The move was the inspiration for the writing of the song \"Meadowlands\", by Strike Vilakezi. As with many other songs of the time, it was popularised both within and outside the country by Miriam Makeba. Makeba's song \"Sophiatown is Gone\" also referred to the relocation from Sophiatown, as did \"Bye Bye Sophiatown\" by the Sun Valley Sisters", ". Music not directly related to the movement was also often harnessed during this period: the South African Communist Party would use such music for its fundraising dances, and the song \"Udumo Lwamaphoyisa\" (A Strong Police Force) was sung by lookouts to provide warnings of police presence and liquor raids.", "1960s: Sharpeville massacre and militancy", "The Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960, and in its aftermath apartheid was intensified and political dissent increasingly suppressed. The ANC and the Pan Africanist Conference were banned, and 169 black leaders were tried for treason. A number of musicians, including Makeba, Hugh Masekela, Abdullah Ibrahim, Jonas Gwangwa, Chris McGregor, and Kippie Moeketsie went into exile. Some, such as Makeba and Masekela, began using their music to raise awareness of apartheid", ". Some, such as Makeba and Masekela, began using their music to raise awareness of apartheid. Those musicians that remained found their activities constrained. The new townships that black people had been moved to lacked facilities for recreation, and large gatherings of people were banned. The South African Broadcasting Corporation tightened its broadcasting guidelines, preventing \"subversive\" music from being aired", ". A recording by Masuka referring to the killing of Patrice Lumumba led to a raid on her studio and her being declared a wanted individual, preventing her from living in South Africa for the next 30 years.", "The new townships that black people were moved to, despite their \"dreary\" nature, also inspired politically charged music, a trend which continued into the 1970s. \"In Soweto\" by The Minerals has been described as an \"infectious celebration of a place\" and of the ability of its residents to build a community there. Yakhal' Inkhomo (\"The Bellowing of the Bull\", 1968), by Winston \"Mankunku\" Ngozi, was a jazz anthem that also expressed the political energy of the period", ". Theatrical performances incorporating music were also a feature of the townships, often narrowly avoiding censorship. The cultural isolation forced by apartheid led to artists within South Africa creating local adaptations of popular genres, including rock music, soul, and jazz.", "As the government became increasingly harsh in its response to growing protests, the resistance shifted from being completely non-violent towards armed action. Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders founded the uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), a militant wing of the ANC, which began a campaign of sabotage. During this period, music was often referred to as a \"weapon of struggle", ". During this period, music was often referred to as a \"weapon of struggle.\" Among MK members in training camps, a song called \"Sobashiy'abazali\" (\"We Will Leave Our Parents\") became very popular, invoking as it did the pain of leaving their homes. The Toyi-toyi chant also became popular during this period, and was frequently used to generate a sense of power among large groups to intimidate government troops.", "1970s: ANC cultural groups and Soweto uprising", "In the early 1970s, the ANC held to the belief that its primary activity was political organising, and that any cultural activity was secondary to this. This belief began to shift with the establishment of the Mayibuye Cultural Ensemble in 1975, and the Amandla Cultural Ensemble later in the 1970s", ". Mayibuye was established as a growing number of ANC activists argued that cultural events needed to form a part of their work, and could be used to raise awareness of apartheid, gather support, and drive political change. The group was established by ANC activists Barry Feinberg and Ronnie Kasrils, who named it after the slogan Mayibuye iAfrika (Let Africa Return)", ". The group consisted of several South African performers, and used a mixture of songs, poetry, and narrative in their performance, which described life under the apartheid government and their struggle against it. The songs were often performed in three- or four-part harmony. The group performed more than 200 times across Europe, and were seen as the cultural arm of the ANC. The group experienced personal and organisational difficulties, and disbanded in 1980.", "In 1976 the government of South Africa decided to implement the use of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in all schools instead of English. In response, high school students began a series of protests that came to be known as the Soweto Uprising. 15,000–20,000 students took part; the police, caught unprepared, opened fire on the protesting children. 700 people were estimated to have been killed, and over a thousand injured", ". 700 people were estimated to have been killed, and over a thousand injured. The killings sparked off several months of rioting in the Soweto townships, and the protests became an important moment for the anti-Apartheid movement. Hugh Masekela wrote Soweto Blues in response to the massacre, and the song was performed by Miriam Makeba, becoming a standard part of Makeba's live performances for many years", ". \"Soweto Blues\" was one of many melancholic songs composed by Masekela during this period that expressed his support of the anti-apartheid struggle, along with \"Been Gone Far Too Long,\" \"Mama,\" and \"The Coal Train.\" Songs written after the Soweto uprising were generally political in nature, but used hidden meaning to avoid suppression, especially as the movement against apartheid gained momentum. A song by the band Juluka used a metaphor of fighting bulls to suggest the fall of apartheid", ". A song by the band Juluka used a metaphor of fighting bulls to suggest the fall of apartheid. Many songs of this period became so widely known that their lyrics were frequently altered and adapted depending on the circumstances, making their authorship collective. Pianist Abdullah Ibrahim used purely musical techniques to convey subversive messages, by incorporating melodies from freedom songs into his improvisations", ". Ibrahim also composed \"Mannenberg\", described as the \"most powerful anthem of the struggle in the 1980s\", which had no lyrics but drew on a number of aspects of black South African culture, including church music, jazz, marabi, and blues, to create a piece that conveyed a sense of freedom and cultural identity.", "The importance that the anti-apartheid movement among South African exiles increased in the late 1970s, driven partly by the activities of Mayibuye. The Amandla Cultural Ensemble drew together among militant ANC activities living in Angola and elsewhere in this period, influenced by Mayibuye, as well as the World Black Festival of Arts and Culture that was held in Nigeria in 1977", ". As with Mayibuye, the group tried to use their performances to raise awareness and generate support for the ANC; however, they relied chiefly on new material composed by their own members, such as Jonas Gwangwa. Popular songs performed by the group were selected for or adapted to a militaristic and faster tone and tempo; at the same time, the tenor of the groups performance tended to be more affirmative, and less antagonistic and sarcastic, than that of Mayibuye", ". Members often struggled to balance their commitments to the ensemble with their military activities, which were often seen as their primary job; some, such as Nomkhosi Mini, daughter of Vuyisile Mini, were killed in military action while they were performing with Amandla. Such artists also faced pressure to use their performance solely in the service of the political movement, without monetary reward", ". Amandla had carefully crafted performances of music and theater, with a much larger ensemble than Mayibuye, which included a jazz band. The influence of these groups would last beyond the 1970s: a \"Culture and Resistance\" conference was held in Botswana in 1982, and the ANC established a \"Department of Arts and Culture\" in 1985.", "1980s: Direct confrontation", "The 1980s saw increasing protests against apartheid by black organisations such as the United Democratic Front. Protest music once again became directly critical of the state; examples included \"Longile Tabalaza\" by Roger Lucey, which attacked the secret police through lyrics about a young man who is arrested by the police and dies in custody. Protesters in the 1980s took to the streets with the intention of making the country \"ungovernable\", and the music reflected this new militancy", ". Major protests took place after the inauguration of a \"Tri-cameral\" parliament (which had separate representation for Indians, Colored people, and white South Africans, but not for black South Africans) in 1984, and in 1985 the government declared a state of emergency. The music became more radical and more urgent as the protests grew in size and number, now frequently invoking and praising the guerrilla movements that had gained steam after the Soweto uprising", ". The song \"Shona Malanga\" (Sheila's Day), originally about domestic workers, was adapted to refer to the guerrilla movement. The Toyi-toyi was once again used in confrontations with government forces.", "The Afrikaner-dominated government sought to counter these with increasingly frequent states of emergency. During this period, only a few Afrikaners expressed sentiments against apartheid. The Voëlvry movement among Afrikaners began in the 1980s in response with the opening of Shifty Mobile Recording Studio. Voëlvry sought to express opposition to apartheid in Afrikaans. The goal of Voëlvry musicians was to persuade Afrikaner youth of the changes their culture had to undergo to achieve racial equality", ". Prominent members in this phenomenon were Ralph Rabie, under the stage name Johannes Kerkorrel, Andre du Toit, and Bernoldus Niemand. Racially integrated bands playing various kinds of fusion became more common as the 1980s progressed; their audiences came from across racial lines, itself a subversive act, as racial segregation was still embedded in the law. The racially mixed Juluka, led by Johnny Clegg, remained popular through the 1970s and early 1980s", ". The racially mixed Juluka, led by Johnny Clegg, remained popular through the 1970s and early 1980s. The government tried to harness this popularity by sponsoring a multi-lingual song titled \"Together We Will Build a Brighter Future,\" but the release, during a period of great political unrest, caused further anger at the government, and protests forced the song to be withdrawn before commercial sales were made.", "Among the most popular anti-apartheid songs in South Africa was \"Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)\" by Hugh Masekela. Nelson Mandela was a great fan of Masekela's music, and on Masekela's birthday in 1985, smuggled out a letter to him expressing his good wishes. Masekela was inspired to write \"Bring Him Back Home\" in response. Sam Raditlhalo writes that the reception of Mandela's letter, and the writing of Bring Him Back Home, marked Masekela being labelled an anti-apartheid activist", ". Mandela was also invoked in \"Black President\" by Brenda Fassie; composed in 1988, this song explicitly invoked Mandela's eventual presidency. Mandela was released in 1990 and went on a post-freedom tour of North America with Winnie. In Boston, he danced as \"Bring Him Back Home\" was played after his speech. Mandela's release triggered a number of celebratory songs. These included a \"peace song\", composed by Chicco Twala, and featuring a number of artists, including Masekela, Fassie, and Yvonne Chaka Chaka", ". The proceeds from this piece went to the \"Victims of Violence\" fund. Majority rule was restored to South Africa in 1994, ending the period of apartheid.", "Outside South Africa", "Musicians from other countries also participated in resistance to apartheid. Several musicians from Europe and North America refused to perform in South Africa during the apartheid regime: these included The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and the Walker Brothers. After the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, the Musicians' Union in the UK announced a boycott of the government. The first South African activist to receive widespread attention outside South Africa was Steve Biko when he died in police custody in 1977", ". His death inspired a number of songs from artists outside the country, including from Tom Paxton and Peter Hammill. The most famous of these was the song \"Biko\" by Peter Gabriel. U2 lead singer Bono was among the people who said that the song was the first time he had heard about apartheid", ". Musicians from other parts of Africa also wrote songs to support the movement; Nigeria's Sonny Okosun drew attention to apartheid with songs such as \"Fire in Soweto\", described by the Los Angeles Times as an \"incendiary reggae jam\".", "Cultural boycott", "A cultural boycott of the apartheid government had been suggested in 1954 by English Anglican bishop Trevor Huddleston. In 1968 the United Nations passed a resolution asking members to cut any \"cultural, educational, and sporting ties with the racist regime\", thereby bringing pressure to bear on musicians and other performers to avoid playing in South Africa. In 1980, the UN passed a resolution allowing a cultural boycott of South Africa", ". In 1980, the UN passed a resolution allowing a cultural boycott of South Africa. The resolution named Nelson Mandela, and his profile was raised further by the ANC deciding to focus its campaign on him in 1982, 20 years after he had been imprisoned. In 1983, Special AKA released their song \"Free Nelson Mandela\", an optimistic finale to their debut album, which was generally sombre", ". The song was produced by Elvis Costello, and had a backing chorus composed of members of the Specials and the Beat, which created a mood of \"joyous solidarity\". The lyrics to the song were written by Jerry Dammers. Dammers also founded the British branch of the organisation Artists United Against Apartheid. The song was quickly embraced by the movement against apartheid. It was used by the UN and the ANC, and demonstrators would frequently sing it during marches and rallies", ". The chorus was catchy and straightforward, making it easy to remember. Dammers utilised the association with the anti-apartheid movement to popularise the song, by putting an image of Mandela on the front of the cover for the album, and placing information about the apartheid regime on the back.", "In the late 1980s, Paul Simon caused controversy when he chose to record his album Graceland in South Africa, along with a number of Black African musicians. He received sharp criticism for breaking the cultural boycott. In 1987 he claimed to have received clearance from the ANC: however, he was contradicted by Dali Tambo, the son of ANC president Oliver Tambo, and the founder of Artists United Against Apartheid", ". As a way out of the fracas, Hugh Masekela, who had known Simon for many years, proposed a joint musical tour, which would include songs from Graceland as well as from black South African artists. Miriam Makeba was among the musicians featured on the Graceland Tour. Masekela justified the tour saying that the cultural boycott had led to a \"lack of growth\" in South African music", ". However, when the group played in the UK at the Royal Albert Hall, there were protests outside, in which Dammers participated, along with Billy Bragg and Paul Weller. Songs performed on the tour included \"Soweto Blues\", sung by Makeba, along with many other anti-apartheid songs.", "Sun City and aftermath", "During the same period as the controversy over \"Graceland\", Steven van Zandt, upset by the fact that artists from Europe and North America were willing to perform in Sun City, a whites-only luxury resort in the \"homeland\" of Bophutatswana, persuaded artists including Bono, Bruce Springsteen, and Miles Davis, to come together to record the single \"Sun City\", which was released in 1985. The single achieved its aim of stigmatising the resort", ". The single achieved its aim of stigmatising the resort. The album was described as the \"most political of all of the charity rock albums of the 1980s\". \"Sun City\" was explicitly critical of the foreign policy of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, stating that he had failed to take firm action against apartheid. As a result, only about half of American radio stations played \"Sun City", ". As a result, only about half of American radio stations played \"Sun City.\" Meanwhile, \"Sun City\" was a major success in countries where there was little or no radio station resistance to the record or its messages, reaching No. 4 in Australia, No. 10 in Canada and No. 21 in the UK.", "A number of prominent anti-apartheid songs were released in the years that followed. Stevie Wonder released \"It's Wrong\", and was also arrested for protesting against apartheid outside the South African embassy in Washington, D.C. A song popular with younger audiences was \"I've Never Met a Nice South African\" by Spitting Image, which released the song as a b-side to their successful \"The Chicken Song\"", ". Eddy Grant, a Guyanese-British reggae musician, released \"Gimme Hope Jo'anna\" (Jo'Anna being Johannesburg). Other performers released music which referenced Steve Biko. Labi Siffre's \"(Something Inside) So Strong\", a UK top 5 hit single in 1987, was adopted as an anti-apartheid anthem.", "In 1988, Dammers and Jim Kerr, the vocalist of Simple Minds, organised a concert in honour of Mandela's 70th birthday. The concert was held at Wembley Stadium, and ended with the songs \"Biko,\" \"Sun City\", and \"Bring Him Back Home\". Dammers and Simple Minds also performed their own anti-apartheid songs: \"Free Nelson Mandela\" and \"Mandela Day\", respectively. Other acts performing at the concert included Stevie Wonder, Whitney Houston, Sting, Salt-N-Pepa, Dire Straits and Eurythmics", ". The event was broadcast to a TV audience of approximately 600 million people. Political aspects of the concert were heavily censored in the United States by the Fox television network, which rebranded it as \"Freedomfest\". The use of music to raise awareness about apartheid paid off: a survey after the concert found that among people aged between 16 and 24, three-fourths knew of Nelson Mandela, and supported his release from prison", ". Although the cultural boycott had succeeded in isolating the apartheid government culturally, it also affected musicians who had worked against apartheid within South Africa; thus Johnny Clegg and Savuka were forbidden from playing at the concert.", "Lyrical and musical themes", "The lyrics of anti-apartheid protest music often used subversive meanings hidden under innocuous lyrics, partially as a consequence of the censorship that they experienced. Purely musical techniques were also used to convey meaning. The tendency to use hidden meaning increased as the government grew less tolerant from the 1950s to the 1980s. Popular protest songs of the 1950s often directly addressed politicians", ". Popular protest songs of the 1950s often directly addressed politicians. \"Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd\" by Mini told Hendrik Verwoerd \"Naants'indod'emnyama, Verwoerd bhasobha\" (beware of the advancing blacks), while a song referring to pass laws in 1956 included the phrase \"Hey Strydom, Wathint'a bafazi, way ithint'imbodoko uzaKufa\" (Strydom, now that you have touched the women, you have struck a rock, you have dislodged a boulder, and you will be crushed)", ". Following the Sharpeville massacre songs became less directly critical of the government, and more mournful. \"Thina Sizwe\" included references to stolen land, was described as depicting emotional desolation, while \"Senzeni Na\" (what have we done) achieved the same effect by repeating that phrase a number of times. Some musicians adapted innocuous popular tunes and modified their lyrics, thereby avoiding the censors", ". The Soweto uprising marked a turning point in the movement, as songs written in the 1980s again became more direct, with the appearance of musicians such as Lucey, who \"believed in an in‐your‐face, tell‐it‐like‐it‐is approach\". Lyrics from this period included calls such as \"They are lying to themselves. Arresting us, killing us, won't work. We'll still fight for our land,\" and \"The whites don't negotiate with us, so let's fight\".", "A number of South African \"Freedom Songs\" had musical origins in makwaya, or choir music, which combined elements of Christian hymns with traditional South African musical forms. The songs were often short and repetitive, using a \"call-and-response\" structure. The music was primarily in indigenous languages such as Xhosa or Zulu, as well as in English. Melodies used in these songs were often very straightforward", ". Melodies used in these songs were often very straightforward. Songs in the movement portrayed basic symbols that were important in South Africa—re-purposing them to represent their message of resistance to apartheid. This trend had begun decades previously when South African jazz musicians had added African elements to jazz music adapted from the United States in the 1940s and 1950s. Voëlvry musicians used rock and roll music to represent traditional Afrikaans songs and symbols", ". Voëlvry musicians used rock and roll music to represent traditional Afrikaans songs and symbols. Groups affiliated with the Black Consciousness movement also began incorporating traditional material into their music: the jazz-fusion group Malombo, for example, used traditional rhythms of the Venda people to communicate pride in African culture, often with music that was not explicitly political", ". While musicians such as Makeba, performing outside South Africa, felt an obligation to write political lyrics, musicians within the country often held that there was no divide between revolutionary music and, for instance, love songs, because the struggle of living a normal life was also a political one. Vusi Mahlasela would write in 1991: \"So who are they who say no more love poems now? I want to sing a song of love for that woman who jumped fences pregnant and still gave birth to a healthy child.\"", "The lyrical and musical tone of protest songs varied with the circumstances they were written and composed in. The lyrics of \"Bring Him Back Home\", for example, mention Mandela \"walking hand in hand with Winnie Mandela,\" his wife at the time. The melody used in the song is upbeat and anthem-like. It employs a series of trumpet riffs by Masekela, supported by grand series of chords", ". It employs a series of trumpet riffs by Masekela, supported by grand series of chords. Music review website AllMusic describes the melody as \"filled with the sense of camaraderie and celebration that are referred to in the lyrics. The vocal choir during the joyous chorus is extremely moving and life affirming\". In contrast, the lyrics of \"Soweto Blues\" refer to the children's protests and the resulting massacre in the Soweto uprising", ". A review stated that the song had \"searingly righteous lyrics\" that \"cut to the bone.\" Musically, the song has a background of mbaqanga guitar, bass, and multi-grooved percussion. Makeba uses this as a platform for vocals that are half-sung and half-spoken, similar to blues music.", "Censorship and resistance", "The apartheid government greatly limited freedom of expression, through censorship, reduced economic freedom, and reduced mobility for black people. However, it did not have the resources to effectively enforce censorship of written and recorded material. The government established the Directorate of Publications in 1974 through the Publications Act, but this body only responded to complaints, and took decisions about banning material that was submitted to it", ". Less than one hundred pieces of music were formally banned by this body in the 1980s. Thus music and performance played an important role in propagating subversive messages.", "However, the government used its control of the South African Broadcasting Corporation to prevent \"undesirable\" songs from being played (which included political or rebellious music, and music with \"blasphemous\" or overtly sexual lyrics), and to enforce its ideal of a cultural separation between racial groups, in addition to physical separation it had created", ". Radio and television broadcasts were area-specific such that members of different racial groups received different programs, and music was selected keeping the ideology of the government in mind. Music that used slang or more than one language faced censorship. Artists were required to submit both their lyrics and their music to be scrutinised by the SABC committee, which banned thousands of songs", ". For instance, Shifty Records, from the time of its establishment in 1982 until the end of the 1980s, had 25 music albums and seven singles banned by the Directorate of Publications because of political content and a further 16 for other reasons such as blasphemy and obscenity.", "As a result of the practices of the SABC, record companies began putting pressure on their artists to avoid controversial songs, and often also made changes to songs they were releasing. Individuals were expected to racially segregate their musical choices as well: mixed-race bands were sometimes forced to play with some members behind a curtain, and people who listened to music composed by members of a different race faced government suspicion", ". Many black musicians faced harassment from the police; Jonas Gwangwa stated that performers were often stopped and required to explain their presence in \"white\" localities. Black musicians were forbidden from playing at venues when alcohol was sold, and performers were required to have an extra \"night pass\" to be able to work in the evenings. Further restrictions were placed by the government each time it declared a state of emergency, and internal security legislation was also used to ban material", ". Music from artists outside the country was also targeted by the censors; all songs by The Beatles were banned in the 1960s, and Stevie Wonder's music was banned in 1985, after he dedicated his Oscar award to Mandela. Two independent radio stations, Capital Radio and Radio 702 came into being in 1979 and 1980, respectively. Since these were based in the \"independent\" homelands of Transkei and Bophutatswana, respectively, they were nominally not bound by the government's regulations", ". Although they tended to follow the decisions of the Directorate, they also played music by bands such as Juluka, which were not featured by the SABC. Neither station, however, played \"Sun City\" when it was released in 1985, as the owners of the Sun City resort had partial ownership of both stations.", "A large number of musicians, including Masekela and Makeba, as well as Abdullah Ibrahim were driven into exile by the apartheid government. Songs written by these people were prohibited from being broadcast, as were all songs that opposed the apartheid government. Most of the anti-apartheid songs of the period were censored by the apartheid government. \"Bring Him Back Home\" was banned in South Africa by the government upon its release", ". \"Bring Him Back Home\" was banned in South Africa by the government upon its release. Nonetheless, it became a part of the number of musical voices protesting the apartheid regime, and became an important song for the anti-apartheid movement in the late 1980s. It was declared to be \"clean\" by the South African government following Mandela's release from prison in 1990.", "Artists within South Africa sometimes used subtle lyrics to avoid the censors. The song \"Weeping for His Band Bright Blue\" by Dan Heymann, a \"reluctant army conscript\", used \"Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika\", an anthem of the ANC that had been banned, as the backdrop for symbolic lyrics about a man living in fear of an oppressive society. The censor failed to notice this, and the song became immensely popular, reaching No 1 on the government's own radio station", ". Similarly, jazz musicians would often incorporate melodies of freedom songs into their improvisations. Yvonne Chaka Chaka used the phrase \"Winning my dear love\" in place of \"Winnie Mandela\", while a compilation album released by Shifty Records was titled \"A Naartjie in Our Sosatie\", which literally meant \"a tangerine in our kebab\", but represented the phrase \"Anarchy in our Society\", a play on words that was not picked up by the censors", ". Keith Berelowitz would later state that he had submitted fake lyrics, replacing controversial terms with innocuous, similar sounding ones. Some artists, however, avoided explicitly political music altogether: scholar Michael Drewett has written that even when musicians avoided political messages, achieving financial success \"despite lack of education, poverty, urban squalor, and other difficulties was certainly a triumph\" and that such success was part of the struggle to live normally under apartheid.", "Other bands used more direct lyrics, and faced censorship and harassment as a result. Savuka, a multi-racial band, were often arrested or had their concerts raided for playing their song \"Asimbonanga\", which was dedicated to Biko, Mandela, and others associated with the anti-apartheid movement. A musical tour by Voëlvry musicians faced significant opposition from the government", ". A musical tour by Voëlvry musicians faced significant opposition from the government. Major surveillance and threats from police sparked trouble at the beginning of the tour, which created issues over suitable venues, and the musicians were forced to play in abandoned buildings. After Roger Lucey wrote a song critical of the secret police, he received threatening visits by them late at night, and had tear gas poured into an air-conditioning unit during one of his concerts", ". Lucey's producers were intimidated by the security forces, and his musical recordings confiscated: Lucey himself abandoned his musical career. The song was banned, and an individual could be jailed for five years for owning a copy of it. Musician and public speaker Mzwakhe Mbuli faced more violent reactions: he was shot at, and a grenade was thrown at his house. After the release of his first album \"Change is Pain\" in 1986, he was arrested and tortured: the album was banned", ". The concerts of Juluka were sometimes broken up by the police, and musicians were often arrested under the \"pass laws\" of the apartheid government. When they were stopped, black musicians were often asked to play for the police, to prove that they were in fact musicians.", "Analysis", "Commentators have stated that as with many social movements, music played a large role in the resistance to apartheid. Writing in the Inquiries Journal, scholar Michela Vershbow writes that although the music of the anti-apartheid movement could not and did not create social change in isolation, it acted as a means of unification, as a way of raising awareness of apartheid, and allowed people from different cultural background to find commonality", ". Protest songs were often used by the anti-apartheid movement as a means of building unity and inspiring its followers. According to Vershbow, \"The communal ownership of liberation songs, and the adoptability of their message within different movements, allows for them to strengthen, mobilise, and unify a community.\" Music and cultural performances were put to several uses by the South African diaspora, such as the ANC cultural ensembles Mayibuye and Amandla", ". The groups themselves intended their performances to raise awareness of apartheid outside South Africa (sometimes described as raising consciousness), and to generate support for their activities, as well as to raise funds for the ANC. In addition, they filled the role of \"presenting an alternative vision of culture in a future democratic South Africa.\"", "Music scholar Anne Schumann writes that music protesting apartheid became a part of Western popular culture, and the \"moral outrage\" about apartheid in the west was influenced by this music. The cultural boycott, and the criticism that Paul Simon received for breaking it, was an example of how closely connected music had become to politics with respect to apartheid.", "There has been occasional tension between those musicians who went into exile, and were therefore able to perform for, and raise awareness among, much larger audiences, and anti-apartheid musicians who remained in South Africa. The latter group has received significantly less popular attention, though Vershbow states that it played an equally important role in the movement, and Schumann argues that it was responsible for putting significant pressure on the apartheid government", ". The role of music in social change in South African is examined in the documentary film Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony, released in 2002. The film focuses specifically on the 'liberation music' of the struggle against white domination.", "Scholars have suggested that oral traditions in general and poetry in particular was well placed to play a part in cultural resistance to apartheid. Music and poetry were more accessible to a large number of South Africans than written material (partly due to the restrictions placed by apartheid). Music, poetry, and storytelling also formed part of the everyday life of a number of South Africans, and protest songs emerged from these traditions", ". In addition, poetry was traditionally seen by some South Africans as a legitimate means of criticising authority, with poetic licence allowing artists to say things that would otherwise not be acceptable.", "Prominent examples\nThe following is a partial list of songs, ordered chronologically, that have been described by scholars and commentators as significant examples of music in the movement against apartheid.", "\"Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika\", 1897, Enoch Sontonga.\n\"iLand Act, year unknown, R. T. Caluza.\n\"Ndodemnyama we Verwoerd\", year unknown, Vuyisile Mini.\n\"Senzeni Na?\", year unknown, composer unknown.\n\"Thina Sizwe\", year unknown, composer unknown.\n\"Meadowlands\", 1955, Strike Vilakazi.\n\"uDr. Malan Unomthetho Onzima\", year unknown, Dorothy Masuka.\n\"Sophiatown is Gone\", year unknown, Miriam Makeba.\n\"Bye Bye Sophiatown, year unknown, Sun Valley Sisters.\n\"Mannenberg\", 1974, Abdullah Ibrahim.", "\"Bye Bye Sophiatown, year unknown, Sun Valley Sisters.\n\"Mannenberg\", 1974, Abdullah Ibrahim.\n\"Johannesburg\", 1975, Gil-Scott Heron.\n\"In Soweto\", 1975, The Minerals.\n\"Soweto Blues\", 1977, Hugh Masekela/Miriam Makeba.\n\"Fire in Soweto\", 1978, Sonny Okosun.\n\"Afrikaans\", 1979, Resurrection Band.\n\"Biko\", 1980, Peter Gabriel.\n\"Longile Tabalaza\", year unknown, Roger Lucey.\n\"Free Nelson Mandela\", 1984, The Special AKA.\n\"It's Wrong\", 1985, Stevie Wonder.", "\"Free Nelson Mandela\", 1984, The Special AKA.\n\"It's Wrong\", 1985, Stevie Wonder.\n\"Sun City\" (aka \"I Ain't Gonna Play Sun City\"), 1985, Steven Van Zandt/Artists United Against Apartheid.\n\"Nelson Mandela\", 1986, Youssou N'Dour.\n\"(Waiting For) The Ghost Train\", 1986, Madness.\n\"I've Never Met a Nice South African\", 1986, Spitting Image.\n\"Bring Him Back Home\", 1987, Hugh Masekela.\n\"Asimbonanga\", 1987, Johnny Clegg/Savuka.\n\"(Something Inside) So Strong\", 1987, Labi Siffre.", "\"Asimbonanga\", 1987, Johnny Clegg/Savuka.\n\"(Something Inside) So Strong\", 1987, Labi Siffre.\n\"Weeping\", 1987, Dan Heymann/Bright Blue.\n\"Mandela Day\", 1988, Simple Minds.\n\"The End is Near\", 1988, The Malopoets.\n\"My Black President\", 1989, Brenda Fassie.\n\"Nelson Mandela\", 1994, Sipho Mabuse.", "References\n\nSources \n\n \nOpposition to apartheid in South Africa\n20th century in music\nSouth African music\nInternational opposition to apartheid in South Africa\nProtest songs\nMusic and politics\nAnti-racism" ]

[ "The Greco-Persian Wars (also often called the Persian Wars) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus the Great conquered the Greek-inhabited region of Ionia in 547 BC. Struggling to control the independent-minded cities of Ionia, the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them", ". This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike.", "In 499 BC, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, embarked on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos, with Persian support; however, the expedition was a debacle and, preempting his dismissal, Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians. This was the beginning of the Ionian Revolt, which would last until 493 BC, progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict", ". Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria, and in 498 BC these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis. The Persian king Darius the Great vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act. The revolt continued, with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497–495 BC. In 494 BC, the Persians regrouped and attacked the epicenter of the revolt in Miletus", ". In 494 BC, the Persians regrouped and attacked the epicenter of the revolt in Miletus. At the Battle of Lade, the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat, and the rebellion collapsed, with the final embers being stamped out the following year.", "Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts and from the interference of the mainland Greeks, Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria for the burning of Sardis. The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC, with the Persian general Mardonius successfully re-subjugating Thrace and Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the rest of the campaign", ". In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece, this time across the Aegean Sea, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. This expedition subjugated the Cyclades, before besieging, capturing and razing Eretria. However, while en route to attack Athens, the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon, ending Persian efforts for the time being.", "Darius then began to plan to completely conquer Greece but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled. Victory over the allied Greek states at the famous Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to torch an evacuated Athens and overrun most of Greece", ". However, while seeking to destroy the combined Greek fleet, the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year, the confederated Greeks went on the offensive, decisively defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea, and ending the invasion of Greece by the Achaemenid Empire.", "The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale, before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos (479 BC) and Byzantium (478 BC). Following the Persian withdrawal from Europe and the Greek victory at Mycale, Macedon and the city-states of Ionia regained their independence", ". The actions of the general Pausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans, and the anti-Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership, called the Delian League. The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades, beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe", ". At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC, the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia. However, the League's involvement in the Egyptian revolt by Inaros II against Artaxerxes I (from 460–454 BC) resulted in a disastrous Greek defeat, and further campaigning was suspended. A Greek fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC, but achieved little, and, when it withdrew, the Greco-Persian Wars drew to a quiet end", ". Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia, the Peace of Callias.", "Sources", "All the surviving primary sources for the Greco-Persian Wars are Greek; no contemporary accounts survive in other languages. By far the most important source is the fifth-century Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the \"Father of History\", was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then part of the Persian empire)", ". He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek Historia, English (The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been recent history. Herodotus's approach was novel and, at least in Western society, he invented 'history' as a discipline", ". As historian Tom Holland has it, \"For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally.\"", "Some later ancient historians, starting with Thucydides, criticized Herodotus and his methods. Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the siege of Sestos) and felt Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting", ". Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay \"On The Malignity of Herodotus\", describing Herodotus as \"Philobarbaros\" (barbarian-lover) for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained widely read", ". A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained widely read. However, since the 19th century, his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds that have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism", ". Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.", "The military history of Greece between the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece and the Peloponnesian War (479–431 BC) is not well supported by surviving ancient sources. This period, sometimes referred to as the pentekontaetia (πεντηκονταετία, the Fifty Years) by ancient writers, was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece", ". The richest source for the period, and also the most contemporaneous, is Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, which is generally considered by modern historians to be a reliable primary account. Thucydides only mentions this period in a digression on the growth of Athenian power in the run up to the Peloponnesian War, and the account is brief, probably selective and lacks any dates", ". Nevertheless, Thucydides's account can be, and is, used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period, on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed.", "More detail for the whole period is provided by Plutarch, in his biographies of Themistocles, Aristides and especially Cimon. Plutarch was writing some 600 years after the events in question, and is therefore a secondary source, but he often names his sources, which allows some degree of verification of his statements", ". In his biographies, he draws directly from many ancient histories that have not survived, and thus often preserves details of the period that are omitted in Herodotus and Thucydides's accounts. The final major existing source for the period is the universal history (Bibliotheca historica) of the 1st century BC Sicilian, Diodorus Siculus. Much of Diodorus's writing about this period is drawn from the much earlier Greek historian Ephorus, who also wrote a universal history", ". Diodorus is also a secondary source and often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else.", "Further scattered details can be found in Pausanias's Description of Greece, while the Byzantine Suda dictionary of the 10th century AD preserves some anecdotes found nowhere else. Minor sources for the period include the works of Pompeius Trogus (epitomized by Justinus), Cornelius Nepos and Ctesias of Cnidus (epitomized by Photius), which are not in their original textual form", ". These works are not considered reliable (especially Ctesias), and are not particularly useful for reconstructing the history of this period.", "A few physical remnants of the conflict have been found by archaeologists. The most famous is the Serpent Column in Istanbul, which was originally placed at Delphi to commemorate the Greek victory at Plataea. In 1939, Greek archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos found the remains of numerous Persian arrowheads at the Kolonos Hill on the field of Thermopylae, which is now generally identified as the site of the defender's last stand.", "Origins of the conflict", "The Greeks of the classical period believed that, in the dark age that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, significant numbers of Greeks fled and had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there. Modern historians generally accept this migration as historic (but separate from the later colonization of the Mediterranean by the Greeks). There are, however, those who believe the Ionian migration cannot be explained as simply as the classical Greeks claimed", ". These settlers were from three tribal groups: the Aeolians, Dorians and Ionians. The Ionians had settled about the coasts of Lydia and Caria, founding the twelve cities that made up Ionia. These cities were Miletus, Myus and Priene in Caria; Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Clazomenae, Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia; and the islands of Samos and Chios", ". Although the Ionian cities were independent of one another, they recognized their shared heritage and supposedly had a common temple and meeting place, the Panionion. They thus formed a 'cultural league', to which they would admit no other cities, or even other tribal Ionians.", "The cities of Ionia remained independent until they were conquered by the Lydians of western Asia Minor. The Lydian king Alyattes attacked Miletus, a conflict that ended with a treaty of alliance between Miletus and Lydia, that meant that Miletus would have internal autonomy but follow Lydia in foreign affairs. At this time, the Lydians were also in conflict with the Median Empire, and the Milesians sent an army to aid the Lydians in this conflict", ". Eventually a peaceable settlement was established between the Medes and the Lydians, with the Halys River set up as the border between the kingdoms. The famous Lydian king Croesus succeeded his father Alyattes in around 560 BC and set about conquering the other Greek city states of Asia Minor.", "The Persian prince Cyrus led a rebellion against the last Median king Astyages in 553 BC. Cyrus was a grandson of Astyages and was supported by part of the Median aristocracy. By 550 BC, the rebellion was over, and Cyrus had emerged victorious, founding the Achaemenid Empire in place of the Median kingdom in the process. Croesus saw the disruption in the Median Empire and Persia as an opportunity to extend his realm and asked the oracle of Delphi whether he should attack them", ". The Oracle supposedly replied the famously ambiguous answer that \"if Croesus was to cross the Halys he would destroy a great empire\". Blind to the ambiguity of this prophecy, Croesus attacked the Persians, but was eventually defeated and Lydia fell to Cyrus. By crossing the Halys, Croesus had indeed destroyed a great empire – his own.", "While fighting the Lydians, Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule, which the Ionians had refused to do. After Cyrus finished the conquest of Lydia, the Ionian cities now offered to be his subjects under the same terms as they had been subjects of Croesus. Cyrus refused, citing the Ionians' unwillingness to help him previously. The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves, and Cyrus sent the Median general Harpagus to conquer them", ". He first attacked Phocaea; the Phocaeans decided to abandon their city entirely and sail into exile in Sicily, rather than become Persian subjects (although many later returned). Some Teians also chose to emigrate when Harpagus attacked Teos, but the rest of the Ionians remained, and were each in turn conquered.", "In the years following their conquest, the Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule. Elsewhere in the empire, Cyrus identified elite native groups such as the priesthood of Judea – to help him rule his new subjects. No such group existed in Greek cities at this time; while there was usually an aristocracy, this was inevitably divided into feuding factions. The Persians thus settled for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city, even though this drew them into the Ionians' internal conflicts", ". Furthermore, certain tyrants might develop an independent streak and have to be replaced. The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens' hatred, while staying in the favour of the Persians. In the past, Greek states had often been ruled by tyrants, but that form of government was on the decline. Past tyrants had also tended and needed to be strong and able leaders, whereas the rulers appointed by the Persians were simply place-men", ". Backed by Persian military might, these tyrants did not need the support of the population, and could thus rule absolutely. On the eve of the Greco-Persian wars, it is probable that the Ionian population had become discontented and was ready for rebellion.", "Warfare in the ancient Mediterranean\nIn the Greco-Persian wars both sides made use of spear-armed infantry and light missile troops. Greek armies placed the emphasis on heavier infantry, while Persian armies favoured lighter troop types.\n\nPersia", "The Persian military consisted of a diverse group of men drawn across the various nations of the empire. However, according to Herodotus, there was at least a general conformity in armor and style of fighting. The troops were usually armed with a bow, a 'short spear' and a sword or axe, and carried a wicker shield. They wore a leather jerkin, although individuals of high status wore high-quality metal armor", ". They wore a leather jerkin, although individuals of high status wore high-quality metal armor. The Persians most likely used their bows to wear down the enemy, then closed in to deliver the final blow with spears and swords. The first rank of Persian infantry formations, the so-called 'sparabara', had no bows, carried larger wicker shields and were sometimes armed with longer spears. Their role was to protect the back ranks of the formation. The cavalry probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry.", "Greece", "The style of warfare between the Greek city-states, which dates back until at least 650 BC (as dated by the 'Chigi vase'), was based around the hoplite phalanx supported by missile troops. The 'hoplites' were foot soldiers usually drawn from the members of the middle-classes (in Athens called the zeugites), who could afford the equipment necessary to fight in this manner", ". The heavy armour (the hoplon) usually included a breastplate or a linothorax, greaves, a helmet, and a large round, concave shield (the aspis) . Hoplites were armed with long spears (the dory), which were significantly longer than Persian spears, and a sword (the xiphos). The heavy armour and longer spears made them superior in hand-to-hand combat and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks", ". Lightly armed skirmishers, the psiloi also comprised a part of Greek armies growing in importance during the conflict; at the Battle of Plataea, for instance, they may have formed over half the Greek army. Use of cavalry in Greek armies is not reported in the battles of the Greco-Persian Wars.", "Naval warfare", "At the beginning of the conflict, all naval forces in the eastern Mediterranean had switched to the trireme, a warship powered by three banks of oars. The most common naval tactics during the period were ramming (Greek triremes were equipped with a cast-bronze ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines. More experienced naval powers had by this time also begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous", ". More experienced naval powers had by this time also begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous. It is not clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side.", "The Persian naval forces were primarily provided by the seafaring people of the empire: Phoenicians, Egyptians, Cilicians and Cypriots. Other coastal regions of the Persian Empire would contribute ships throughout the course of the wars.\n\nPreliminary contacts between Persia and mainland Greece (507 BC)", "In 507 BC, Artaphernes, as brother of Darius I and Satrap of Asia Minor in his capital Sardis, received an embassy from newly democratic Athens, probably sent by Cleisthenes, which was looking for Persian assistance in order to resist the threats from Sparta. Herodotus reports that Artaphernes had no previous knowledge of the Athenians, and his initial reaction was \"Who are these people?\"", ". Artaphernes asked the Athenians for \"Water and Earth\", a symbol of submission, if they wanted help from the Achaemenid king. The Athenians ambassadors apparently accepted to comply, and to give \"Earth and Water\". Artaphernes also advised the Athenians that they should receive back the Athenian tyrant Hippias. The Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias", ". The Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias. Nevertheless, the Athenians preferred to remain democratic despite the danger from Persia, and the ambassadors were disavowed and censured upon their return to Athens.", "There is a possibility that the Achaemenid ruler now saw the Athenians as subjects who had solemnly promised submission through the gift of \"Earth and Water\", and that subsequent actions by the Athenians, such as their intervention in the Ionian revolt, were perceived as a break of oath, and a rebellion to the central authority of the Achaemenid ruler.\n\nIonian Revolt (499–493 BC)", "The Ionian Revolt and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with opposition to the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, Histiaeus and Aristagoras", ". In 499 BC the then tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus (both financially and in terms of prestige). The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great.", "Struggling to rule the independent-minded cities of Ionia, the Persians appointed local tyrants to rule each of them. This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike. In 498 BC, supported by troops from Athens and Eretria, the Ionians marched on, captured, and burnt Sardis. However, on their return journey to Ionia, they were followed by Persian troops, and decisively beaten at the Battle of Ephesus", ". This campaign was the only offensive action taken by the Ionians, who subsequently went on the defensive. The Persians responded in 497 BC with a three-pronged attack aimed at recapturing the outlying areas of the rebellious territory, but the spread of the revolt to Caria meant the largest army, under Darius, moved there instead. While at first campaigning successfully in Caria, this army was wiped out in an ambush at the Battle of Pedasus. This resulted in a stalemate for the rest of 496 and 495 BC.", "By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped, and they made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus. The Ionian fleet sought to defend Miletus by sea, but was defeated decisively at the Battle of Lade, after the Samians had defected. Miletus was then besieged, captured, and its population was enslaved. This double defeat effectively ended the revolt, and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result", ". The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia that was considered to be both just and fair.", "The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire and represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the revolt. Moreover, seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of all Greece.\n\nFirst invasion of Greece (492–490 BC)", "First invasion of Greece (492–490 BC)\n\nAfter having reconquered Ionia, the Persians began to plan their next moves of extinguishing the threat to their empire from Greece; and punishing Athens and Eretria. The resultant first Persian invasion of Greece consisted of two main campaigns.\n\n492 BC: Mardonius' campaign", "The first campaign, in 492 BC, was led by Darius's son-in-law Mardonius, who re-subjugated Thrace, which had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 513 BC. Mardonius was also able to force Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia; it had previously been a vassal, but retained a broad degree of autonomy. However, further progress in this campaign was prevented when Mardonius's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos", ". Mardonius himself was then injured in a raid on his camp by a Thracian tribe, and after this he returned with the rest of the expedition to Asia.", "The following year, having given clear warning of his plans, Darius sent ambassadors to all the cities of Greece, demanding their submission. He received it from almost all of them, except Athens and Sparta, both of whom instead executed the ambassadors. With Athens still defiant, and Sparta now also effectively at war with him, Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year.", "490 BC: Datis and Artaphernes' campaign", "In 490 BC, Datis and Artaphernes (son of the satrap Artaphernes) were given command of an amphibious invasion force, and set sail from Cilicia. The Persian force sailed first to the island of Rhodes, where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos, but was unsuccessful. The fleet sailed next to Naxos, to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier", ". Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains; those that the Persians caught were enslaved. The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians. The fleet then proceeded to island-hop across the rest of the Aegean on its way to Eretria, taking hostages and troops from each island.", "The task force sailed on to Euboea, and to the first major target, Eretria. The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be besieged. For six days, the Persians attacked the walls, with losses on both sides; however, on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians. The city was razed, and temples and shrines were looted and burned", ". The city was razed, and temples and shrines were looted and burned. Furthermore, according to Darius's commands, the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople.", "Battle of Marathon", "The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of Attica, landing at the bay of Marathon, roughly from Athens. Under the guidance of Miltiades, the general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon. Stalemate ensued for five days, before the Persians decided to continue onward to Athens, and began to load their troops back onto the ships", ". After the Persians had loaded their cavalry (their strongest soldiers) on the ships, the 10,000 Athenian soldiers descended from the hills around the plain. The Greeks crushed the weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing the wings before turning towards the centre of the Persian line. The remnants of the Persian army fled to their ships and left the battle. Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield; the Athenians lost only 192 men.", "As soon as the Persian survivors had put to sea, the Athenians marched as quickly as possible to Athens. They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing in Athens. Seeing his opportunity lost, Artaphernes ended the year's campaign and returned to Asia.", "The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. It also highlighted the superiority of the more heavily armoured Greek hoplites, and showed their potential when used wisely.\n\nInterbellum (490–480 BC)\n\nAchaemenid Empire", "After the failure of the first invasion, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he intended to subjugate Greece completely. However, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, and the revolt forced an indefinite postponement of any Greek expedition. Darius died while preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece", ". Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it needed longterm planning, stockpiling and conscription. Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC while rounding this coastline). These were both feats of exceptional ambition that would have been beyond the capabilities of any other contemporary state", ". However, the campaign was delayed by one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia.", "The Persians had the sympathy of several Greek city-states, including Argos, which had pledged to defect when the Persians reached their borders. The Aleuadae family, who ruled Larissa in Thessaly, saw the invasion as an opportunity to extend their power. Thebes, though not explicitly 'Medising', was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived.", "In 481 BC, after roughly four years of preparation, Xerxes began to muster the troops to invade Europe. Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted. The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC. The armies from the Eastern satrapies were gathered in Kritala, Cappadocia and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter. Early in spring, it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies", ". Early in spring, it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies. Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.", "Size of the Persian forces\n\nThe numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute. Most modern scholars reject as unrealistic the figures of 2.5 million given by Herodotus and other ancient sources because the victors likely miscalculated or exaggerated. The topic has been hotly debated, but the consensus revolves around the figure of 200,000.", "The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed, although perhaps less so. Other ancient authors agree with Herodotus' number of 1,207. These numbers are by ancient standards consistent, and this could be interpreted that a number around 1,200 is correct. Among modern scholars, some have accepted this number, although suggesting the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis", ". Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number, viewing 1,207 as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad. These works generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.", "Greek city states\n\nAthens\n\nA year after Marathon, Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, was injured in a military campaign to Paros. Taking advantage of his incapacitation, the powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted for the failure of the campaign. A huge fine was imposed on Miltiades for the crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but he died weeks later from his wound.", "The politician Themistocles, with a power base firmly established amongst the poor, filled the vacuum left by Miltiades's death, and in the following decade became the most influential politician in Athens. During this period, Themistocles continued to support the expansion of Athens' naval power. The Athenians were aware throughout this period that the Persian interest in Greece had not ended, and Themistocles's naval policies may be seen in the light of the potential threat from Persia", ". Aristides, Themistocles's great rival, and champion of the zeugites (the 'upper hoplite-class') vigorously opposed such a policy.", "In 483 BC, a vast new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines at Laurium. Themistocles proposed that the silver should be used to build a new fleet of triremes, ostensibly to assist in a long running war with Aegina. Plutarch suggests that Themistocles deliberately avoided mentioning Persia, believing that it was too distant a threat for the Athenians to act on, but that countering Persia was the fleet's aim", ". Fine suggests that many Athenians must have admitted that such a fleet would be needed to resist the Persians, whose preparations for the coming campaign were known. Themistocles's motion was passed easily, despite strong opposition from Aristides. Its passage was probably due to the desire of many of the poorer Athenians for paid employment as rowers in the fleet", ". It is unclear from the ancient sources whether 100 or 200 ships were initially authorised; both Fine and Holland suggest that at first 100 ships were authorised and that a second vote increased this number to the levels seen during the second invasion. Aristides continued to oppose Themistocles's policy, and tension between the two camps built over the winter, so the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides", ". In what Holland characterises as, in essence, the world's first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed. Indeed, becoming aware of the Persian preparations for the coming invasion, the Athenians voted to build more ships than those for which Themistocles had asked. Thus, during the preparations for the Persian invasion, Themistocles had become the leading politician in Athens.", "Sparta", "The Spartan king Demaratus had been stripped of his kingship in 491 BC, and replaced with his cousin Leotychides. Sometime after 490 BC, the humiliated Demaratus had chosen to go into exile, and had made his way to Darius's court in Susa. Demaratus would from then on act as an advisor to Darius, and later Xerxes, on Greek affairs, and accompanied Xerxes during the second Persian invasion", ". At the end of Herodotus's book 7, there is an anecdote relating that prior to the second invasion, Demaratus sent an apparently blank wax tablet to Sparta. When the wax was removed, a message was found scratched on the wooden backing, warning the Spartans of Xerxes's plans. However, many historians believe that this chapter was inserted into the text by a later author, possibly to fill a gap between the end of book 7 and the start of book 8. The veracity of this anecdote is therefore unclear.", "Hellenic alliance", "In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors to city states throughout Greece, asking for food, land, and water as tokens of their submission to Persia. However, Xerxes' ambassadors deliberately avoided Athens and Sparta, hoping thereby that those states would not learn of the Persians' plans. States that were opposed to Persia thus began to coalesce around these two city states. A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed", ". This confederation had powers both to send envoys to ask for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them \"οἱ Ἕλληνες\" (the Greeks) and \"the Greeks who had sworn alliance\" (Godley translation) or \"the Greeks who had banded themselves together\" (Rawlinson translation). From here on, they will be referred to in this article as the 'Allies'", ". From here on, they will be referred to in this article as the 'Allies'. Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but the interests of all the states influenced defensive strategy. Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings. Only 70 of the nearly 700 Greek city-states sent representatives", ". Only 70 of the nearly 700 Greek city-states sent representatives. Nevertheless, this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states present were still technically at war with one another.", "Second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC)\n\nEarly 480 BC: Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly\nHaving crossed into Europe in April 480 BC, the Persian army began its march to Greece, taking 3 months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to Therme. It paused at Doriskos where it was joined by the fleet. Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march.", "The Allied 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC and agreed to defend the narrow Vale of Tempe on the borders of Thessaly and block Xerxes's advance. However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large, thus the Greeks retreated. Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. At this point, a second strategy was suggested by Themistocles to the allies", ". At this point, a second strategy was suggested by Themistocles to the allies. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the narrow pass of Thermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress", ". This dual strategy was adopted by the congress. However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, while the women and children of Athens were evacuated to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.", "August 480 BC: Battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium", "Xerxes's estimated time of arrival at Thermopylae coincided with both the Olympic Games and the festival of Carneia. For the Spartans, warfare during these periods was considered sacrilegious. Despite the uncomfortable timing, the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they dispatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard (the Hippeis) of 300 men. The customary elite young men in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had children", ". The customary elite young men in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had children. Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Allied Peloponnesian cities, and other forces that the Allies picked up on the way to Thermopylae. The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass, and waited for Xerxes's arrival.", "When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid-August, they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse. When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass, he sent his troops to attack. However, the Allied position was ideally suited to hoplite warfare, the Persian contingents being forced to attack the Greek phalanx head on. The Allies withstood two full days of Persian attacks, including those by the elite Persian Immortals", ". However, towards the end of the second day, they were betrayed by a local resident named Ephialtes who revealed to Xerxes a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines, according to Herodotus. Herodotus has often been dismissed as a 'story teller', by Aristotle himself amongst others, and this may be a piece of folklore to create a more engaging narrative. In any case, it is impossible to determine with absolute certainty the legitimacy of Ephialtes' involvement in the battle", ". The Anopoea path was defended by roughly 1000 Phocians, according to Herodotus, who reportedly fled when confronted by the Persians. Made aware by scouts that they were being outflanked, Leonidas dismissed most of the Allied army, remaining to guard the rear with perhaps 2,000 men. On the final day of the battle, the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass to slaughter as many Persians as they could, but eventually they were all killed or captured.", "Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae, an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of Artemisium against the Persians, thus protecting the flank of the forces at Thermopylae. Here the Allied fleet held off the Persians for three days; however, on the third evening the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allied troops at Thermopylae", ". Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged, and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae, the Allies retreated from Artemisium to the island of Salamis.", "September 480 BC: Battle of Salamis", "Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes; Attica was then open to invasion. The remaining population of Athens was evacuated, with the aid of the Allied fleet, to Salamis. The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth, building a wall, and demolishing the road from Megara, abandoning Athens to the Persians", ". Athens thus fell to the Persians; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated, and Xerxes then ordered the destruction of Athens.", "The Persians had now captured most of Greece, but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible. If Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force an Allied surrender; conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by destroying the Persian fleet, the Allies could prevent conquest from being completed", ". The Allied fleet thus remained off the coast of Salamis into September, despite the imminent arrival of the Persians. Even after Athens fell, the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis, trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle. Partly because of deception by Themistocles, the navies met in the cramped Straits of Salamis. There, the Persian numbers became a hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised", ". Seizing the opportunity, the Allied fleet attacked, and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships, therefore ensuring the safety of the Peloponnessus.", "According to Herodotus, after the loss of the battle Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the channel to attack the Athenian evacuees on Salamis, but this project was soon abandoned. With the Persians' naval superiority removed, Xerxes feared that the Allies might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges. His general Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand-picked group of troops, while Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of the army", ". Mardonius over-wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt-out city for the winter.", "June 479 BC: Battles of Plataea and Mycale", "Over the winter, there was some tension among the Allies. In particular, the Athenians, who were not protected by the Isthmus, but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnesus, felt that they had been treated unfairly, and so they refused to join the Allied navy in the spring. Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus", ". Mardonius moved to break the stalemate, by offering peace to the Athenians, using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediate. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the Athenians reject the Persians' offer. Athens was thus evacuated again, and the Persians marched south and re-took possession of it. Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis", ". Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens, with Megara and Plataea, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance, and threatening to accept the Persian terms if they were not aided. In response, the Spartans summoned a large army from the Peloponnese cities and marched to meet the Persians.", "When Mardonius heard the Allied army was on the march, he retreated into Boeotia, near Plataea, trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry. The Allied army, under the command of the regent Pausanias, stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics. After several days of maneuver and stalemate, Pausanias ordered a night-time retreat towards the Allies' original positions", ". This maneuver went awry, leaving the Athenians, and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills, with the other contingents scattered further away near Plataea. Seeing that the Persians might never have a better opportunity to attack, Mardonius ordered his whole army forward. However, the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites, and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius's bodyguard and killed him", ". After this the Persian force dissolved in rout; 40,000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly, but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Greeks, finalising the Greek victory.", "Herodotus recounts that, on the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea, a rumour of their victory at that battle reached the Allies' navy, at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia. Their morale boosted, the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day, destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet, crippling Xerxes's sea power, and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet", ". Whilst many modern historians doubt that Mycale took place on the same day as Plataea, the battle may well only have occurred once the Allies received news of the events unfolding in Greece.", "Greek counterattack (479–478 BC)\n\nMycale and Ionia\nMycale was, in many ways, the beginning of a new phase in the conflict, in which the Greeks would go on the offensive against the Persians. The immediate result of the victory at Mycale was a second revolt amongst the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Samians and Milesians had actively fought against the Persians at Mycale, thus openly declaring their rebellion, and the other cities followed in their example.", "Sestos", "Shortly after Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this had already been done. The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos, still held by the Persians. The Persians and their allies made for Sestos, the strongest town in the region. Amongst them was one Oeobazus of Cardia, who had with him the cables and other equipment from the pontoon bridges", ". The Persian governor, Artayctes had not prepared for a siege, not believing that the Allies would attack. The Athenians therefore were able to lay a siege around Sestos. The siege dragged on for several months, causing some discontent amongst the Athenian troops, but eventually, when the food ran out in the city, the Persians fled at night from the least guarded area of the city. The Athenians were thus able to take possession of the city the next day.", "Most of the Athenian troops were sent straight away to pursue the Persians. The party of Oeobazus was captured by a Thracian tribe, and Oeobazus was sacrificed to the god Plistorus. The Athenians eventually caught Artayctes, killing some of the Persians with him but taking most of them, including Artayctes, captive. Artayctes was crucified at the request of the people of Elaeus, a town which Artayctes had plundered while governor of the Chersonesos", ". The Athenians, having pacified the region, then sailed back to Athens, taking the cables from the pontoon bridges with them as trophies.", "Cyprus", "In 478 BC, still operating under the terms of the Hellenic alliance, the Allies sent out a fleet composed of 20 Peloponnesian and 30 Athenian ships supported by an unspecified number of allies, under the overall command of Pausanias. According to Thucydides, this fleet sailed to Cyprus and \"subdued most of the island\". Exactly what Thucydides means by this is unclear. Sealey suggests that this was essentially a raid to gather as much treasure as possible from the Persian garrisons on Cyprus", ". There is no indication that the Allies attempted to take possession of the island, and, shortly after, they sailed to Byzantium. Certainly, the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests either that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC, or that the garrisons were quickly expelled.", "Byzantium\nThe Greek fleet then sailed to Byzantium, which they besieged and eventually captured. Control of both Sestos and Byzantium gave the allies command of the straits between Europe and Asia (over which the Persians had crossed), and allowed them access to the merchant trade of the Black Sea.", "The aftermath of the siege was to prove troublesome for Pausanias. Exactly what happened is unclear; Thucydides gives few details, although later writers added plenty of lurid insinuations. Through his arrogance and arbitrary actions (Thucydides says \"violence\"), Pausanias managed to alienate many of the Allied contingents, particularly those that had just been freed from Persian overlordship. The Ionians and others asked the Athenians to take leadership of the campaign, to which they agreed", ". The Spartans, hearing of his behaviour, recalled Pausanias and tried him on charges of collaborating with the enemy. Although he was acquitted, his reputation was tarnished and he was not restored to his command.", "Pausanias returned to Byzantium as a private citizen in 477 BC, and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians. He then crossed the Bosporus and settled in Kolonai in the Troad, until he was again accused of collaborating with the Persians and was recalled by the Spartans for a trial after which he starved himself to death. The timescale is unclear, but Pausanias may have remained in possession of Byzantium until 470 BC.", "In the meantime, the Spartans had sent Dorkis to Byzantium with a small force, to take command of the Allied force. However, he found that the rest of the Allies were no longer prepared to accept Spartan leadership, and therefore returned home.\n\nWars of the Delian League (477–449 BC)\n\nDelian League", "After Byzantium, the Spartans were allegedly eager to end their involvement in the war. The Spartans were supposedly of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been reached. There was also perhaps a feeling that securing long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible", ". In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion. Xanthippus, the Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities were originally Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no one else, would protect the Ionians. This marks the point at which the leadership of the Greek Alliance effectively passed to the Athenians", ". With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit.", "The loose alliance of city-states that had fought against Xerxes's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league. With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians. This alliance, now including many of the Aegean islands, was formally constituted as the", "'First Athenian Alliance', commonly known as the Delian League. According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to \"avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king\". In reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts—to prepare for future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either supplying armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax.", "Campaigns against Persia", "Throughout the 470s BC, the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region, primarily under the command of the Athenian politician Cimon. In the early part of the next decade, Cimon began campaigning in Asia Minor, seeking to strengthen the Greek position there", ". At the Battle of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia, the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory, destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships' marines to attack and rout the Persian army. After this battle, the Persians took an essentially passive role in the conflict, anxious not to risk battle if possible.", "Towards the end of the 460s BC, the Athenians took the ambitious decision to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian empire. Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes, they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in Memphis, despite a three-year long siege. The Persians then counterattacked, and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months, before being wiped out", ". This disaster, coupled with ongoing warfare in Greece, dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia. In 451 BC however, a truce was agreed in Greece, and Cimon was then able to lead an expedition to Cyprus. However, while besieging Kition, Cimon died, and the Athenian force decided to withdraw, winning another double victory at the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus in order to extricate themselves", ". This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia, and therefore the end of the Greco-Persian Wars.", "Peace with Persia", "After the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, Thucydides makes no further mention of conflict with the Persians, saying that the Greeks simply returned home. Diodorus, on the other hand, claims that in the aftermath of Salamis, a full-blown peace treaty (the \"Peace of Callias\") was agreed with the Persians. Diodorus was probably following the history of Ephorus at this point, who in turn was presumably influenced by his teacher Isocrates—from whom there is the earliest reference to the supposed peace, in 380 BC", ". Even during the 4th century BC, the idea of the treaty was controversial, and two authors from that period, Callisthenes and Theopompus, appear to reject its existence.", "It is possible that the Athenians had attempted to negotiate with the Persians previously. Plutarch suggests that in the aftermath of the victory at the Eurymedon, Artaxerxes had agreed to a peace treaty with the Greeks, even naming Callias as the Athenian ambassador involved. However, as Plutarch admits, Callisthenes denied that such a peace was made at this point (c. 466 BC). Herodotus also mentions, in passing, an Athenian embassy headed by Callias, which was sent to Susa to negotiate with Artaxerxes", ". This embassy included some Argive representatives and can probably be therefore dated to c. 461 BC (after an alliance was agreed between Athens and Argos). This embassy may have been an attempt to reach some kind of peace agreement, and it has even been suggested that the failure of these hypothetical negotiations led to the Athenian decision to support the Egyptian revolt. The ancient sources therefore disagree as to whether there was an official peace or not, and, if there was, when it was agreed.", "Opinion amongst modern historians is also split; for instance, Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias, whereas Sealey effectively rejects it. Holland accepts that some kind of accommodation was made between Athens and Persia, but no actual treaty. Fine argues that Callisthenes's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point", ". Further, he suggests that Theopompus was actually referring to a treaty that had allegedly been negotiated with Persia in 423 BC. If these views are correct, it would remove one major obstacle to the acceptance of the treaty's existence. A further argument for the existence of the treaty is the sudden withdrawal of the Athenians from Cyprus in 449 BC, which Fine suggests makes most sense in the light of some kind of peace agreement", ". On the other hand, if there was indeed some kind of accommodation, Thucydides's failure to mention it is odd. In his digression on the pentekontaetia, his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power, and such a treaty, and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it, would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy", ". Conversely, it has been suggested that certain passages elsewhere in Thucydides's history are best interpreted as referring to a peace agreement. There is thus no clear consensus amongst modern historians as to the treaty's existence.", "The ancient sources that give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms:\n All Greek cities of Asia were to 'live by their own laws' or 'be autonomous' (depending on translation).\n Persian satraps (and presumably their armies) were not to travel west of the Halys River (Isocrates) or closer than a day's journey on horseback to the Aegean Sea (Callisthenes) or closer than three days' journey on foot to the Aegean Sea (Ephorus and Diodorus).", "No Persian warship was to sail west of Phaselis (on the southern coast of Asia Minor), nor west of the Cyanaean rocks (probably at the eastern end of the Bosporus, on the north coast).\n If the terms were observed by the king and his generals, then the Athenians were not to send troops to lands ruled by Persia.", "From the Persian perspective, such terms would not be so humiliating as they might at first seem. The Persians already allowed the Greek cities of Asia to be governed under their own laws (under the reorganization conducted by Artaphernes, following the Ionian Revolt). By these terms, the Ionians were still Persian subjects, as they had been", ". By these terms, the Ionians were still Persian subjects, as they had been. Furthermore, Athens had already demonstrated their superiority at sea at the Eurymedon and Salamis-in-Cyprus, so any legal limitations for the Persian fleet were nothing more than \"de jure\" recognition of military realities. In exchange for limiting the movement of Persian troops in one region of the realm, Artaxerxes secured a promise from the Athenians to stay out of his entire realm.", "Aftermath and later conflicts", "Towards the end of the conflict with Persia, the process by which the Delian League became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion. The allies of Athens were not released from their obligations to provide either money or ships, despite the cessation of hostilities. In Greece, the First Peloponnesian War between the power-blocs of Athens and Sparta, which had continued on/off since 460 BC, finally ended in 445 BC, with the agreement of a thirty-year truce", ". However, the growing enmity between Sparta and Athens would lead, just 14 years later, into the outbreak of the Second Peloponnesian War. This disastrous conflict, which dragged on for 27 years, would eventually result in the utter destruction of Athenian power, the dismemberment of the Athenian empire, and the establishment of a Spartan hegemony over Greece. However, not just Athens suffered—the conflict would significantly weaken the whole of Greece.", "Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks, and plagued by internal rebellions that hindered their ability to fight the Greeks, after 449 BC, Artaxerxes I and his successors instead adopted a policy of divide-and-rule. Avoiding fighting the Greeks themselves, the Persians instead attempted to set Athens against Sparta, regularly bribing politicians to achieve their aims. In this way, they ensured that the Greeks remained distracted by internal conflicts, and were unable to turn their attentions to Persia", ". There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC, when the Spartan king Agesilaus briefly invaded Asia Minor; as Plutarch points out, the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the \"barbarians\".", "If the wars of the Delian League shifted the balance of power between Greece and Persia in favour of the Greeks, then the subsequent half-century of internecine conflict in Greece did much to restore the balance of power to Persia. The Persians entered the Peloponnesian War in 411 BC forming a mutual-defence pact with Sparta and combining their naval resources against Athens in exchange for sole Persian control of Ionia", ". In 404 BC when Cyrus the Younger attempted to seize the Persian throne, he recruited 13,000 Greek mercenaries from all over the Greek world, of which Sparta sent 700–800, believing they were following the terms of the defence pact and unaware of the army's true purpose. After the failure of Cyrus, Persia tried to regain control of the Ionian city-states, which had rebelled during the conflict. The Ionians refused to capitulate and called upon Sparta for assistance, which she provided, in 396–395 BC", ". Athens, however, sided with the Persians, which led in turn to another large-scale conflict in Greece, the Corinthian War. Towards the end of that conflict, in 387 BC, Sparta sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position. Under the so-called \"King's Peace\" that brought the war to an end, Artaxerxes II demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans, in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state that did not make peace", ". This humiliating treaty, which undid all the Greek gains of the previous century, sacrificed the Greeks of Asia Minor so that the Spartans could maintain their hegemony over Greece. It is in the aftermath of this treaty that Greek orators began to refer to the Peace of Callias (whether fictional or not), as a counterpoint to the shame of the King's Peace, and a glorious example of the \"good old days\" when the Greeks of the Aegean had been freed from Persian rule by the Delian League.", "See also\n History of Greece\n History of Iran\n List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nAncient sources\nHerodotus, The Histories (Godley translation, 1920)\nThucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War\nXenophon, Anabasis, Hellenica\nPlutarch, Parallel Lives; Themistocles, Aristides, Pericles, Cimon\nDiodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica\nCornelius Nepos, Lives of the Eminent Commanders; Miltiades, Themistocles\n\nModern sources", "Modern sources\n\n \nde Souza, Philip (2003). The Greek and Persian Wars, 499–386 BC. Osprey Publishing, ()", "490s BC conflicts\n480s BC conflicts\n470s BC conflicts\n460s BC conflicts\n450s BC conflicts\n440s BC conflicts\nWars involving ancient Greece\nWars involving the Achaemenid Empire\nWars involving ancient Cyprus\nWars involving Macedonia (ancient kingdom)\nWars involving ancient Egypt\nWars involving Sparta\nWars involving Athens\n5th century BC\nHistory of Europe\nHistory of the Balkans" ]

[ "Jerusalem, or on Religious Power and Judaism () is a book written by Moses Mendelssohn, which was first published in 1783 – the same year when the Prussian officer Christian Wilhelm von Dohm published the second part of his Mémoire Concerning the amelioration of the civil status of the Jews", ". Moses Mendelssohn was one of the key figures of Jewish Enlightenment (Haskalah) and his philosophical treatise, dealing with social contract and political theory (especially concerning the question of the separation between religion and state), can be regarded as his most important contribution to Haskalah. The book which was written in Prussia on the eve of the French Revolution, consisted of two parts and each one was paginated separately", ". The first part discusses \"religious power\" and the freedom of conscience in the context of the political theory (Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes), and the second part discusses Mendelssohn's personal conception of Judaism concerning the new secular role of any religion within an enlightened state. In his publication Moses Mendelssohn combined a defense of the Jewish population against public accusations with contemporary criticism of the present conditions of the Prussian Monarchy.", "Historical background", "In 1763 some students of theology visited Moses Mendelssohn in Berlin because of his reputation as a man of letters, and they insisted that they wanted to know Mendelssohn's opinion about Christianity. Three years later one of them, the Swiss Johann Caspar Lavater, sent him his own German translation of Charles Bonnet's Palingénésie philosophique, with a public dedication to Mendelssohn", ". In this dedication he charged Mendelssohn with the decision to follow Bonnet's reasons by converting to Christianity or to refute Bonnet's arguments. The very ambitious priest Lavater published his dedication to Mendelssohn and Mendelssohn's response together with other letters which were dated to the year 1774—including a prayer of Dr. Kölbele \"baptizing two Israelites as a consequence of the Mendelssohn dispute\"", ". Kölbele \"baptizing two Israelites as a consequence of the Mendelssohn dispute\". He abused the reputation of Mendelssohn and of his letters about religious tolerance to fashion himself as a kind of Christian Messiah of contemporary Judaism, disregarding the Haskalah as a conversion to Christianity.", "This intrigue was transferred to the times of the medieval Crusades in the allegorical drama Nathan der Weise of Mendelssohn's friend Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Lessing replaced the young priest Lavater with the historical figure Saladin who appeared as the tolerant hero of the Crusades in the perspective of contemporary enlightened historiography", ". The motive of Nathan who replied with the ring parable, was taken from Boccaccio's \"Decamerone\" and Lessing intended to create his drama as a monument of tolerance and enlightenment dedicated to Moses Mendelssohn. Lessing was an open-minded and modern type of freemason and he himself had a public theological dispute (Fragmentenstreit) about the historical truth of the New Testament with the orthodox Lutheran Hauptpastor Johann Melchior Goeze in Hamburg during the 1770s", ". Finally he was banned in 1778 by Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Lessing's new way to ask about the fundament of a certain religion and to regard its efforts on religious tolerance was intended as a reflection of the current political practice.", "In 1782, after the declaration of the so-called \"Toleranzpatent\" in the Habsburg monarchy under Joseph II and the realization of the «lettres patentes» in the French Monarchy under Louis XVI, religion and especially the Jewish emancipation became a favorite subject of private debates in Alsace–Lorraine and these debates were often followed by publications of Christian clerics and Abbés. Mendelssohn's Jerusalem or on Religious Power and Judaism may be regarded as his contribution to the debate.", "During the 1770s, Mendelssohn was frequently asked to act as a mediator by Jews in Switzerland and Alsace – and once Lavater supported Mendelssohn's intervention. About 1780, there was another antisemitic intrigue in Alsace, when François Hell accused the Jewish population of exhausting the peasants. The contemporary Alsatian Jews had no permission to buy land, but they often existed as innkeepers and moneylenders in rural areas", ". Moses Mendelssohn was asked by Herz Cerfberr, the communal leader of the Alsatian Jews, to react with a Mémoire about the legal discrimination of the Jewish population as it was common practice of the Prussian administration. Moses Mendelssohn arranged a Mémoire by the Prussian officer and freemason Christian Wilhelm von Dohm in which both authors tried to relate the confirmation of the unenlightened condition with a demand for a general improvement of the civil condition.", "In this respect Moses Mendelssohn proved in his book Jerusalem which was published in the same year, that the \"amelioration\" of the civil status of the Jews could not be separated from an urgent need to modernize the Prussian Monarchy as a whole", ". The reason, why Moses Mendelssohn as one of the most recognized philosophers of Haskalah was from the Kingdom of Prussia, has to be understood by the fact that the state of Jewish emancipation there was on the lowest level in comparison with the neighbour countries. So the Jewish population was more forced to assimilate than in other countries during the 19th century: The Hohenzollern Monarchy followed with their edicts into the footsteps of the Habsburg monarchy—with 10 years delay", ". In 1784, one year after the publication of Mendelssohn's book Jerusalem, the administration of the Habsburg monarchy prohibited rabbinic jurisdiction and submitted the Jewish population to its own jurisdiction, but with an inferior legal status. This first step of the monarchy was expected to be done in a direction towards intolerance", ". This first step of the monarchy was expected to be done in a direction towards intolerance. In 1791 the National Assembly of the French Revolution declared the full civil rights for the Jewish population of the French Republic (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen).", "Moses Mendelssohn's treatise \"On Religious Power\" and its composition\n\nMoses Mendelssohn was a highly educated scholar and teacher, who devoted much effort to the German translation of classical Hellenic and Roman philosophers and poets as a young man, and he became a very famous and influential philosopher of Haskalah. His book Jerusalem oder über religiöse Macht und Judentum can be regarded as one of the main works of Jewish Enlightenment.", "Often this text which explains the real subject of \"amelioration\" in Dohm's defense, is still underestimated as a contribution to philosophy—probably because it was directly connected with the historical situation and the social conditions of the author's life", ". On the other hand, a lot of historians concerned about Haskalah criticized the heroic image about Moses Mendelssohn in which he appears as the starting point of Jewish enlightenment without any respect to earlier attempts around the beginning of the 18th century.", "Regarding the present accusations and complaints concerning the current state of Judaism as a modern Christian prejudice which just had replaced the medieval ones (like poisoning fountains, ritual slaughtering of Christian children on Pessah etc.), his subject of amelioration was the religion and especially the one which has to be separated from the state.", "The two parts of his books have no titles except Erster and Zweiter Abschnitt (\"first\" and \"second section\"), and the first one treated clearly the contemporary conflicts of the state and the second those of religion. In the first the author developed his political theory towards a utopia of a just and tolerant democracy, which he identified with the political attempt of the Mosaic Law: therefore the title \"Jerusalem\"", ". In the second part he worked out a new pedagogic charge which every religion has to fulfill in the private sector. It was reduced to it, because the tolerant state should be separated from any religion. Hence the Mosaic law and the traditional practice of jurisdiction was no longer the business of Judaism, if there would be a tolerant state. Instead the new charge of religion would be the education of just and tolerant citizens", ". Instead the new charge of religion would be the education of just and tolerant citizens. The book as a whole summarizes Moses Mendelssohn's critic concerning the contemporary conditions of the Prussian Monarchy and the legal status of the different religions, which finally means the civil status of its inhabitants according to their faith—the subject of Christian Wilhelm von Dohm's Mémoire.", "The philosophical issue (first part)", "Mendelssohn's concept of political theory has to be understood from the historical situation in Prussian Monarchy and he formulated his theory before Kant. In 1771 he was also chosen by Johann Georg Sulzer, who wanted him as a member of the philosophical department at the Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. But Sulzer's call was prohibited by Frederick the Great", ". But Sulzer's call was prohibited by Frederick the Great. The royal intervention clearly showed the borders of enlightenment and tolerance within Prussian monarchy, as far as the separation between religion and state was concerned.", "In 1792 Immanuel Kant used in Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft a conventional theological argument about the inferiority of the Mosaic law which would violently force mankind to a moral attitude, so it could not be really understood as a religion.\n\nDespotism (Spinoza and Montesquieu)", "Moses Mendelssohn opened the first part of his treatise which was published in 1783, with a very similar understanding of religion, but he chose as political example the \"Roman Catholic despotism\"", ". Although his description of the conflict between state and religion as a conflict between common sense and religion was very close to that of Baruch Spinoza in his Tractatus theologico-politicus, Mendelssohn mentioned Spinoza only briefly, by a comparison of his merits in metaphysics that corresponded to Hobbes' in the field of moral philosophy", ". Montesquieu's more recent political theory remarked a change in the contemporary situation, when this conflict caused finally the decline of the church and also hopes and fears about the expected end of the ancient régime:", "Despotism has the advantage that it is consistent. How inagreeable its demands might be commonsense, they are coherent and systematic. […] As well as the church constitution according to Roman Catholic principles: […] As long as you follow all its demands, you know what to do. Your edifice is founded, and perfect silence reigns in all its parts. Certainly only that terrifying kind of silence, as Montesquieu has objected, that you will find in a fortress, before it will be taken by storm at nightfall", ". […] But as soon as liberty dares to move something in this edifice, it will threaten disruption everywhere. So at the end you do not know which part of the building will not be ruined.", "The natural condition of man is intolerance (Thomas Hobbes)\n\nFrom this libertarian point of view, he drew nearer to Thomas Hobbes' scenario of the \"war of every man against every man\" (bellum omnium contra omnes) which Hobbes had described as the \"natural condition of mankind\" in his book Leviathan:", "From this natural human condition, which was banned by a religious fear of God (in Bosse's frontispiece made up by a crowd of people), Mendelssohn defined the role of the state (the left column under the sword) and the role of the religion (the right column under the crook) and the way, how they both had to be brought into harmony:", "The state gives orders and coerces; the religion educates and convinces; the state declares laws, religion offers precepts. The state has physical power and uses it, when it is necessary; the power of religion is charity and beneficience.\n\nBut, whatever the religion might be which had to be kept in harmony with the state, the state as a secular authority should never have the right to decide about the faith and the conscience of its citizens.", "In Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan the argument that the fear of God also committed the state as an inferior power, was borrowed from a theological tradition which was also very common in Christian Patristic and its reception of the Tanakh. Mendelssohn obviously used Hobbes' moral philosophy to address the present conditions in the French and the Habsburg monarchy and its Roman Catholic constitution, but his main address was probably Prussia and its \"philosopher king\".", "But Mendelssohn's \"triumph\" over Hobbes did not mean that Hobbes' condition of human nature was not important for his own political theory. Hobbes' impressive justification of a social contract was much more useful for the rhetorical needs of Haskalah than Rousseau's contrat sociale, because his moral philosophy reflected very deeply the consequences of the abuse of political power. And all contemporaries who had another faith than that of state religion, were quite familiar with these consequences.", "The contract of tolerance (John Locke)\n\nThrough the category \"freedom of conscience\" (Gewissensfreiheit) Mendelssohn turned from the dark side (\"war of every man against every man\") to John Locke's enlightened definition of \"tolerance\" and to his concept of the separation between religion and state:", "Locke who lived in the same time full of confusion [as Hobbes], looked for another way to protect the freedom of conscience. In his letters on the tolerance he founded his definition as follows: A state should be an association of humans, who agreed to support together their temporal welfare. From this follows quite naturally that the state should not take care of the citizen's attitude concerning their eternal faith, it should rather tolerate everybody who behaves with civil respect — i.e", ".e. it should not obstruct its fellow citizens in respect of their temporal faith. The state, as civil authority, had not to observe the divergence; because religion in itself had not necessarily any influence on the temporal, it was just related with it by the arbitrariness of the humans.", "Locke's proposed relation between a tolerant state and the humans, who were associated to it as citizens, had to be granted by a social contract. Moses Mendelssohn followed a simple judicial advice, when he described the subject of this contract as \"perfect\" and \"imperfect\" \"rights\" and \"responsibilities\":", "There are perfect and imperfect, as well responsibilities — as rights. The former are called \"coercive rights\" and \"coercive responsibilities\" and the latter \"requirements\" (requests) and \"responsibilities of conscience\". The former are formal, the latter only inner. It is allowed to enforce coercive rights, but also to refuse requests. The neglect of coercive responsibilities is an insult and an unfairness; but the neglect of responsibilities of the conscience is only an inequity.", "According to Mendelssohn's social contract the separation between state and religion was based on the distinction of the \"formal\" and the \"inner\" side. Therefore, religion in itself was no \"formal\" subject of the social contract, only the acts of a citizen had to be judged, as long as they had violated a \"formal right\" or \"responsibility\"", ". Despite this separation of the religion from the political theory and its reduction to the private sphere, every religion had its own \"inner\" power which Mendelssohn described in the second part.", "The religious issue (second part)\n\nIn his political theory, Moses Mendelssohn had to criticize the present conditions of the Prussian state, and he did without mentioning it, partly for reasons of censorship and partly for rhetorical reasons. This was his polite way to say that its regent was centuries behind his own philosophy:", "I have the fortune to live in a state in which my opinions are neither new nor very extraordinary. Its wise regent who rules it, paid always, since the beginning of his reign, attention, that mankind gets its full right concerning all affairs of faith [literally: believe, confession]. […] With wise moderateness he preserved the privilege of the formal religion as he had found it", ". […] With wise moderateness he preserved the privilege of the formal religion as he had found it. There are still centuries of civilization and preparation before us, when man will finally understand that privileges of a certain religion are neither based on law nor on the religion's own fundament, so that it will be a real benefit to abolish simply any civil divergence in favour of one religion", ". However under the rule of this Wise the nation got so accustomed to tolerance and compatibility in respect to other religions, that at least force, bann and the right to exclude are no longer popular terms.", "In consequence, the second part on religious power had to criticize the present conditions of that religion which he always had to defend during his life. For these critics he needed the idea that state and religion should be divided, but kept in harmony, as well as the utopic postulation of a just state which should be the political target of a religious community", ". After this preparation, the finding of the preconditions in his political theory (the key or better: the ring in his whole argumentation), the first step was to comment the misconceived points of view: the adaptation to despotism, as it was postulated by many Christians discussing the \"amelioration of the Jews\".", "Falling to the upper floor (Lavater and Cranz)", "Therefore, Moses Mendelssohn refers to his older arguments which he used in his dispute with Lavater – and more recently in response to an anonymous recension of Mendelssohn's introduction to Menassah Ben Israel's Vindication of the Jews. With the medieval metaphor of masonry for the art of memory (often represented allegorically as \"prudence\") and its reference to religious education as a moral and sentimental education, he tried to turn back Lavater's projection", ". While Christians like to regard the crisis of Judaism, Mendelssohn regards the present situation – in the eve of the French revolution – as a general crisis of religion:", "If it is true, that the cornerstones of my house had become so weak, that the building might tumble down, shall I follow the advice to save my goods from the ground to the upper floor? Will I be safer there? As you know, Christianity is built upon Judaism and so, if the latter tumbles, the former will necessarily fall over it in one heap of rubble.", "Mendelssohn's house metaphor from the beginning of the first part reappears at the beginning of the second part. Here he used it to reflect the historical fact that Christianity never developed its own ethics independent from the ten commandments, which are still part of the canonic redaction of the Christian Bible.", "Lavater serves here as a more or less moderate example of the hypocritic religious man, whose religion is the favoured and the dominating one within the political system. Like in Hobbes' scenario he likes, what the system allows him to do – at least in this case: forcing another citizen to convert to the dominating religion.\n\nJews as equal citizens and the crisis of Judaism (the reform of Haskalah)", "But this hypocrisy reflects once more the radicalism of Moses Mendelssohn's contract of tolerance: If the religion's business has to be reduced to the \"inner side\" and religion itself cannot be the formal subject of this contract, it simply means that state affairs like executive, legislature and judiciary will be no longer religious affairs. Nevertheless, he was denying the contemporary practice of rabbinic jurisdiction, which was hardly acceptable for a lot of orthodox Jews", ". And one year after the publication of his book the denial of rabbinic jurisdiction became political practice in the Habsburg monarchy, when a state edict, added to the \"tolerance patent\", submitted Jewish subjects to its own law court without regarding them on an equal footing with Christian subjects.", "Moses Mendelssohn is supposed to be the first Maskilim of his time who denied the present conditions and the rabbinic practice attached to it. This condition was that each Jewish community had its own jurisdiction and that the coexistence of several communities often corrected judges. His proposition must not only regarded as very modern, it turned out to be substantial during the discussions of the French Legislative Assembly concerning the Jewish emancipation during the 1790s", ". In these debates Judaism was often supposed to be an \"own nation within the nation\" and the Jewish representatives had to abandon this former status, so that the Jewish population will gain the new status as equal citizens and that they will participate in the new law of the French constitution.", "In his pragmatism Mendelssohn had to convince the Jewish population that they have to abandon the tradition of rabbinic jurisdiction, but in the same time they have no reason to feel inferior, because some Christians believe that the moral conditions of Jewish tradition has to be regarded as inferior to their theological concept of absolution.", "It was up to the Christians to find the way back to their fundament, which was the Mosaic law. But it was up to the Jews to face the present situation, in which Jewish communities were abandoned by a wealthy and privileged minority, so that poverty was increasing rapidly – especially in the town ghettos. In his philosophy Moses Mendelssohn reacted to the change from medieval conditions among the communities, when an elite between rich and rabbinic families was ruling the community", ". New privileges were granted by the Prussian state to rich members of the community, so that they finally left the community by conversion. But Mendelssohn regarded beneficence less as a \"coerce responsibility\" than as a voluntary act of wealthy members.", "The ring (Lessing and deism)", "Moses Mendelssohn created a syncretism which combined contemporary humanistic idealism and its deistic concept of a natural religion based on rational principles with the living tradition of Ashkenasic Judaism", ". His adoration of the Mosaic law should not be misunderstood as a kind of historical criticism, it was based on an own politically motivated interpretation of the Torah as a divine revelation which was offered to the prophet Moses, so that he will save Judaism from its materialistic decline, symbolized in worshipping the golden calf and idolatry, by the divine law.", "For Moses Mendelssohn the Mosaic law was \"divine\", as long as the community following its principles would be just. The attribute \"divine\" was simply given by the law's function to create a just social fabric: the social contract in itself. The eternal truth of the law was bound to this function, and it was so less achievable, that any judgement of a rabbi had to be judged according to Salomonic Wisdom", ". Mendelssohn referred to an anecdote of the Hillel school of Mishnah which has in itself an own theological formulation of the categorical imperative as Kant would later call it on:", "A goy said: \"Rabbi, teach me the whole law, on which I stand with one foot!\" Shammai to whom he addressed before with the same impertinence, disregardfully refused him. But Hillel who was famous for his insuperable serenity and mildness, replied: \"Son! love thy neighbour as thyself. [Leviticus 19:18] This is the text of the law, the rest is commentary. Now go and learn!\"", "With this biblical proverb, often quoted in the New Testament including the beatitudes, Mendelssohn returned to the deistic adoration of the Mosaic law as the Jewish-Christian contribution to universal ethics:\n\nThe constitution had been here only once: you may call it the mosaic Constitution, which was its name. It has disappeared, and only the Almighty knows, in which nation and in which century something similar will appear again.", "\"Mosaic Constitution\" was just the Jewish name of the democratic constitution, as it was called by their ancestors. And probably some Jews were waiting for it like for a Messiah who would once unban them from feudal slavery.", "The argument through which he inspired Lessing in his drama Nathan der Weise, was the following: Each religion has not to be judged in itself, but only the acts of a citizen who keeps faith with it, according to a just law. This kind of law constitutes a just state, in which the people of different faith may live together in peace.", "According to his philosophy the new charge of any religion in general was not jurisdiction, but education as a necessary preparation to become a just citizen. Mendelssohn's point of view was that of a teacher who translated a lot of classical rabbinic authors like Maimonides from Hebrew into German, so that a Jewish child would be attracted to learn German and Hebrew in the same time.\n\nMoses Mendelssohn's estimation of the civil conditions (1783)", "At the end of his book Mendelssohn returns to the real political conditions in Habsburg, French and Prussian Monarchy, because he was often asked to support Jewish communities in their territories. In fact none of these political systems were offering the tolerant conditions, so that every subject should have the same legal status regardless to his or her religious faith. (In his philosophy Mendelssohn discussed the discrimination of the individuum according to its religion, but not according to its gender", ".) On the other hand, a modern education which Mendelssohn regarded still as a religious affair, required a reformation of the religious communities and especially their organization of the education which has to be modernized.", "As long as the state did not follow John Locke's requirement concerning the \"freedom of conscience\", any trial of an ethic education would be useless at all and every subject would be forced to live in separation according to their religious faith. Reflecting the present conditions Mendelssohn addresses – directly in the second person – to the political authorities:", "You should think, that you are not allowed to return our brotherly love, to unite with us as equal citizens, as long as there is any formal divergence in our religious rite, so that we do not eat together with you and do not marry one of yours, which the founder of your religion, as far as we can see, neither would have done, nor would have allowed us", "? — If this has to be and to remain your real opinion, as we may not expect of men following the Christian ethos; if a civil unification is only available on the condition that we differ from the law which we are already considering as binding, then we have to announce – with deep regret – that we do better to abstain from the civil unification; then the philanthropist Dohm has probably written in vain and everything will remain on the awkward condition – as it is now and as your charity has chosen it", ". […] We cannot differ from the law with a clear conscience and what will be your use of citizens without conscience?", "In this paragraph it becomes very evident, that Moses Mendelssohn did not foresee the willingness of some Jewish men and women who left some years later their communities, because they do not want to suffer from a lower legal status any longer.\n\nHistory of reception", "History of reception\n\nMoses Mendelssohn risked a lot, when he published this book, not only in front of the Prussian authority, but also in front of religious authorities – including Orthodox Rabbis. The following years some of his famous Christian friends stroke him at his very sensible side: his adoration for Lessing who died 1781 and could not defend his friend as he always had done during his lifetime.\n\nMendelssohn and Spinoza in the Pantheism Controversy", "The strike was done by Lavater's friend Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi who published an episode between himself and Lessing, in which Lessing confessed to be a \"Spinozist\", while reading Goethe's Sturm und Drang poem Prometheus. \"Spinozism\" became quite fashionable that time and was a rather superficial reception, which was not so much based on a solid knowledge of Spinoza's philosophy than on the \"secret letters\" about Spinoza", ". These letters circulated since Spinoza's lifetime in the monarchies, where Spinoza's own writings were on the index of the Catholic Inquisition, and often they regarded Spinoza's philosophy as \"atheistic\" or even as a revelation of the secrets of Kabbalah mysticism. The German Spinoza fashion of the 1780s was more a \"pantheistic\" reception which gained the attraction of rebellious \"atheism\", while its followers are returning to a romantic concept of religion", ". Jacobi was following a new form of German idealism and later joined the romanticist circle around Fichte in Jena. Later, 1819 during the hep hep riots or pogroms, this new form of idealism turned out to be very intolerant, especially in the reception of Jakob Fries.", "The fashion pantheism did not correspond to Mendelssohn's deistic reception of Spinoza and Lessing whose collected works he was publishing. He was not so wrong, because Spinoza himself developed a fully rational form of deism in his main work Ethica, without any knowledge of the later pantheistic reception of his philosophy", ". Mendelssohn published in his last years his own attitude to Spinoza – not without his misunderstandings, because he was frightened to lose his authority which he still had among rabbis. On his own favor Goethe fashioned himself as a \"revolutionary\" in his Dichtung und Wahrheit, while he was very angry with Jacobi because he feared the consequences of the latter's publication using Goethe's poem", ". This episode caused a reception in which Moses Mendelssohn as a historical protagonist and his philosophy is underestimated.", "Nevertheless, Moses Mendelssohn had a great influence on other Maskilim and on the Jewish emancipation, and on nearly every philosopher discussing the role of the religion within the state in 19th century Western Europe.\n\nThe French Revolution and the early Haskalah reform of education", "Mendelssohn's dreams about a tolerant state became reality in the new French Constitution of 1791. Berr Isaac Berr, the Ashkenazic representative in the Legislative Assembly, praised the French republic as the \"Messiah of modern Judaism\", because he had to convince French communities for the new plans of a Jewish reform movement to abandon their autonomy. The French version of Haskalah, called régénération, was more moderate than the Jewish reform movement in Prussia.", "While better conditions were provided by the constitution of the French Republic, the conflict between Orthodox Rabbis and wealthy and intellectual laymen of the reform movement became evident with the radical initiatives by Mendelssohn's friend and student David Friedländer in Prussia", ". He was the first who followed Mendelssohn's postulations in education, since he founded 1776 together with Isaak Daniel Itzig the Jüdische Freischule für mittellose Berliner Kinder (\"Jewish Free School for Impecunious Children in Berlin\") and 1778 the Chevrat Chinuch Ne'arim (\"Society for the Education of Youth\")", ". His 1787 attempt of a German translation of the Hebrew prayerbook Sefer ha-Nefesh (\"Book of the Soul\") which he did for the school, finally became not popular as a ritual reform, because 1799 he went so far to offer his community a \"dry baptism\" as an affiliation by the Lutheran church. There was a seduction of free-thinking Jews to identify the seclusion from European modern culture with Judaism in itself and it could end up in baptism", ". As Heinrich Heine commented it, some tend to reduce Judaism to a \"calamity\" and to buy with a conversion to Christianity an \"entré billet\" for the higher society of the Prussian state. By the end of the 18th century there were a lot of contemporary concepts of enlightenment in different parts of Europe, in which humanism and a secularized state were thought to replace religion at all.", "Israel Jacobson, himself a merchant, but also an engaged pedagogue in charge of a land rabbi in Westphalia, was much more successful than David Friedländer. Like Moses Mendelssohn he regarded education as a religious affair. One reason for his success was the political fact, that Westphalia became part of France. Jacobson was supported by the new government, when he founded in 1801 a boys' school for trade and elementary knowledge in Seesen (a small town near Harz), called \"Institut für arme Juden-Kinder\"", ". The language used during the lessons was German. His concept of pedagogy combined the ideas of Moses Mendelssohn with those of the socially engaged Philantropin school which Basedow founded in Dessau, inspired by Rousseau's ideas about education. 1802 also poor Christian boys were allowed to attend the school and it became one of the first schools, which coeducated children of different faith", ". Since 1810 religious ceremonies were also held in the first Reform Temple, established on the school's ground and equipped by an organ. Before 1810 the Jewish community of the town had their celebrations just in a prayer room of the school. Since 1810 Mendelssohn needed the instrument to accompany German and Hebrew songs, sung by the pupils or by the community in the \"Jacobstempel\". He adapted these prayers himself to tunes, taken from famous Protestant chorales", ". He adapted these prayers himself to tunes, taken from famous Protestant chorales. In the charge of a rabbi he read the whole service in German according to the ideas of the reformed Protestant rite, and he refused the \"medieval\" free rhythmic style of chazzan, as it was common use in the other Synagogues. 1811 Israel Jacobson introduced a \"confirmation\" ceremony of Jewish boys and girls as part of his reformed rite.", "Conflicts in Prussia after the Viennese Congress", "Since Westphalia came under Prussian rule according to the Congress of Vienna 1815, the Jacobson family settled to Berlin, where Israel opened a Temple in his own house. The orthodox community of Berlin asked the Prussian authorities to intervene and so his third \"Jacobstempel\" was closed. Prussian officers argued, that the law allows only one house of Jewish worship in Berlin. In consequence a reformed service was celebrated as minyan in the house of Jacob Herz Beer", ". In consequence a reformed service was celebrated as minyan in the house of Jacob Herz Beer. The chant was composed by his son who later became a famous opera composer under the name Giacomo Meyerbeer. In opposition to Israel's radical refuse of the traditional Synagogue chant, Meyerbeer reintegrated the chazzan and the recitation of Pentateuch and Prophets into the reformed rite, so that it became more popular within the community of Berlin.", "Johann Gottfried Herder's appreciation of the Mosaic Ethics was influenced by Mendelssohn's book Jerusalem as well as by personal exchange with him", ". It seems that in the tradition of Christian deistic enlightenment the Torah was recognized as an important contribution to the Jewish-Christian civilization, though contemporary Judaism was often compared to the decadent situation, when Aaron created the golden calf (described in Exodus 32), so enlightenment itself was fashioning itself with the archetypical role of Moses", ". But the contemporary Jewish population was characterized by Herder as a strange Asiatic and selfish \"nation\" which was always separated from others, not a very original conception which was also popular in the discussions of the National Assembly which insisted that Jewish citizens have to give up their status as a nation, if they want to join the new status as equal citizens.", "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel whose philosophy was somehow inspired by a \"Mosaic\" mission, was not only an important professor at the University in Berlin since 1818, he also had a positive influence on reform politics of Prussia", ". Though his missionary ambitions and his ideas about a general progress in humanity which can be found in his philosophy, Hegel was often described by various of his students as a very open minded and warm hearted person who was always ready to discuss controversially his ideas and the ideas opposed to it. He was probably the professor in Prussia who had the most Jewish students, among them very famous ones like Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Börne, and also reform pedagogues like Nachman Krochmal from Galicia.", "When Hegel was still in Heidelberg, he was accusing his colleague Jakob Fries, himself a student of Fichte, for his superstitious ideas concerning a German nation and he disregarded his antisemitic activities as a mentor of the Burschenschaft which organized the Wartburgfest, the murder of August von Kotzebue and the hep hep riots", ". In 1819 he went with his students to the hep hep riot in Heidelberg and they were standing with raised arms before the people who lived in the poverty of the Jewish ghetto, when the violent mob was arriving", ". As result he asked his student Friedrich Wilhelm Carové to found the first student association which also allows access for Jewish students, and finally Eduard Gans founded in November the Verein für Kultur und Wissenschaft der Juden [Society for Culture and Science of the Jews] on the perspective that the ideas of enlightenment must be replaced by a synthesis of European Jewish and Christian traditions", ". This perspective followed some fundamental ideas which Hegel developed in his dialectic philosophy of history, and it was connected with hopes that finally an enlightened state will secularize religious traditions and fulfill their responsibility. In some respect this synthesis was expected as a kind of revolution, though an identification with the demagogues was not possible—as Heinrich Heine said in a letter 1823:", "Even though I am a Radical in Britain and a Carbonari in Italy, I do certainly not belong to the demagogues in Germany—just for the very simple reason that in case of the latter's victory some thousand Jewish throats will be cut—the best ones first.", "In the last two years Prussia passed many restrictive laws which excluded Jews from military and academic offices and as members of parliament. The expectation that the Prussian state will once follow the reasons of Hegel's Weltgeist, failed, instead it was turning backwards and the restrictions increased up to 1841, whereas the officer Dohm expected a participation as equal citizens for 1840", ". Moses Mendelssohn who was regarded as a Jewish Luther by Heinrich Heine, made several predictions of the future in Jerusalem. The worst of them became true, and finally a lot of Jewish citizens differed from the law and became what Mendelssohn called \"citizens without conscience\". Because there was no \"freedom of conscience\" in Prussia, Heinrich Heine left the Verein without any degree in law and finally—like Eduard Gans himself—converted to the Lutheran church 1825.", "Moses Mendelssohn's Jerusalem and the rise of revolutionary antisemitism", "Karl Marx was not a direct student of Hegel, but Hegel's philosophy, whose lectures were also frequented by Prussian officers, was still very present after his death in 1831 as well among conservatives as among radicals who were very disappointed about the present conditions and the failed reform of the state", ". 1835, when Karl inscribed as a student, Hegel's book Leben Jesu was published posthumously and its reception was divided into the so-called Right or Old and the Left or Young Hegelians around Bruno Bauer and Ludwig Feuerbach. Karl had grown up in a family which were related to the traditional rabbinic family Levi through his mother", ". Because the Rhine province became part of the French Republic, where the full civil rights were granted by the Constitution, Marx's father could work as a lawyer (Justizrat) without being discriminated for his faith. This changed, when the Rhine province became part of Prussia after the Congress of Vienna. In 1817 Heinrich Marx felt forced to convert to the Lutheran church, so that he could save the existence of his family continuing his profession. In 1824 his son was baptized, when he was six years old.", "The occasion that the Jewish question was debated again, was the 7th Landtag of the Rhine province 1843. The discussion was about an 1839 law which tried to withdraw the Hardenberg edict from 1812. 1839 it was refused by the Staatsrat, 1841 it was published again to see what the public reactions would be. The debate was opened between Ludwig Philippson (Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums) and Carl Hermes (Kölnische Zeitung)", ". Karl Marx was thinking to join the debate with an own answer of the Jewish question, but he left it to Bruno Bauer. His later answer was mainly a reception of Bauer's argument. Marx's and Bauer's polemic style was probably influenced by Heinrich Heine's Damascus letters (Lutetia Teil 1, 1840) in which Heine was calling James Mayer de Rothschild a \"revolutionary\" and in which he used phrases such as:", "For French Jews as well for all the other French gold is the God of the day and industry the dominating religion!", "Whereas Hegel's idea of a humanistic secularization of religious values was deeply rooted in the idealistic emancipation debates around Mendelssohn in which a liberal and tolerant state has to be created on the fundament of a modern (religious) education, the only force of modernization according to Marx was capitalism, the erosion of traditional values, after they had turned into material values", ". The difference between the ancien régime and Rothschild, chosen as a representative of a successful minority of the Jewish population, was that they had nothing to lose, especially not in Prussia where this minority finally tended to convert to Christianity. But since the late 18th century the Prussian Jews were merely reduced to their material value, at least from the administrative perspective of the Prussian Monarchy.", "Marx's answer to Mendelssohn's question: \"What will be your use of citizens without conscience?\" was simply that: The use was now defined as a material value which could be expressed as a sum of money, and the Prussian state like any other monarchy finally did not care about anything else.", "Bauer's reference to the golden calf may be regarded a modern form of antisemitism. But Karl Marx turned Bauer's reference into a \"syncretism between Mosaic monotheism and Babylonian polytheism\". His answer was antisemitic, as far as it was antisemitic that his family was forced to leave their religious tradition for very existential reasons", ". He hardly foresaw that the rhetorical use of Judaism as a metaphor of capitalism (originally a satirical construction of Heinrich Heine, talking about the \"prophet Rothschild\") will be constantly repeated in a completely unsatirical way in the history of socialism. Karl Marx used these words in a less satirical than in an antihumanistic way. Its context was the controversy between Old and Young Hegelian and his polemic aimed the \"Old Hegelian\"", ". He regarded their thoughts as a Prussian form of the ancien régime, figured and justified as the humanists, and himself as part of a Jewish privileged minority which was more adapted to modern citizenship than any representative of the Prussian ancien régime. While the humanists felt threatened by the industrial revolution, also because they simply feared to lose their privileges, it was no longer the parvenu (as Bernard Lazare would call the rich minority later) who needed to be \"ameliorated\".", "Moses Mendelssohn was not mentioned in Marx's answer to the Jewish question, but Marx might have regarded his arguments as an important part of the humanists' approach to ameliorate the Prussian constitution. Nevertheless, Mendelssohn had already discussed the problem of injustice caused by material needs in his way: In Jerusalem he advised to recompense politicians according to the loss of their regular income. It should not be lower for a rich man, and not higher for a poor", ". It should not be lower for a rich man, and not higher for a poor. Because if anyone will have a material advantage, just by being a member of parliament, the result cannot be a fair state governing a just society. Only an idealistic citizen who was engaging in politics according to his modern religious education, was regarded as a politician by Moses Mendelssohn.", "Mendelssohn's philosophy during the Age of Zionism", "Karl Marx's point of view that the idealistic hopes for religious tolerance will be disappointed in the field of politics, and soon the political expectations will disappear in a process of economical evolution and of secularization of their religious values, was finally confirmed by the failure of the 1848 revolution. Though the fact that revolutionary antisemitism was used frequently by left and right wing campaigners, for him it was more than just rhetoric", ". His own cynical and refusing attitude concerning religion was widespread among his contemporaries, and it was related to his biography and a personal experience full of disappointments and conflicts within the family. Equal participation in political decisions was not granted by a national law as they hoped, the participation was merely dependent on privileges which were defined by material values and these transformations cause a lot of fears and the tendence to turn backwards", ". Even in France where the constitution granted the equal status as citizens since 100 years, the Dreyfus affair made evident that a lot of institutions of the French Republic like the military forces were already ruled by the circles of the ancien régime. So the major population was still excluded from participation and could not identify with the state and its authorities. Social movements and emigration to America or to Palestine were the response, often in a combination", ". The utopies of these movements were sometimes secular, sometimes religious, and they often had charismatic leaders.", "1897 there was the First Zionist Congress in Basel (Switzerland), which was an initiative by Theodor Herzl. The Zionist Martin Buber with his rather odd combination of German Romanticism (Fichte) and his interest in Hasidism as a social movement was not very popular on the Congress, but he finally found a very enthusiastic reception in a Zionist student association in Prague, which was also frequented by Max Brod and Franz Kafka", ". In a time when the Jewish question has become a highly ideological matter mainly treated in a populistic way from outside, it became a rather satirical subject for Jewish writers of Yiddish, German, Polish and Russian language.", "Franz Kafka learned Yiddish and Hebrew as an adult and he had a great interest for Hasidism as well as for rabbinic literature. He had a passion for Yiddish drama which became very popular in Central Europe that time and which brought Yiddish literature, usually written as narrative prosa, on stage mixed up with a lot of music (parodies of synagogue songs etc.)", ".). His interest corresponded to Martin Buber's romantic idea that Hasidism was the folk culture of Ashkenazi Jews, but he also realized that this romanticism inspired by Fichte and German nationalism, expressed the fact that the rural traditions were another world quite far from its urban admirers. This had changed since Maskilim and school reformers like Israel Jakobson have settled to the big towns and still disregarded Yiddish as a \"corrupt\" and uneducated language.", "In the parable of his romance Der Process, published 1915 separately as short story entitled Vor dem Gesetz, the author made a parody of a midrash legend, written during the period of early Merkabah mysticism (6th century), that he probably learned by his Hebrew teacher. This Pesikhta described Moses' meditation in which he had to fight against Angelic guardians on his way to the divine throne in order to bring justice (the Torah) to the people of Israel.", "Somehow it also reflected Mendelssohn's essay in the context of the public debate on the Jewish question during the 1770s and 1780s, which was mainly led by Christian priests and clerics, because this parable in the romance was part of a Christian prayer. A mysterious priest prayed only for the main protagonist \"Josef K.\" in the dark empty cathedral", ". A mysterious priest prayed only for the main protagonist \"Josef K.\" in the dark empty cathedral. The bizarre episode in the romance reflected the historical fact that Jewish emancipation had taken place within Christian states, where the separation between state power and the church was never fully realized. There were several similar parodies by Jewish authors of the 19th century in which the Christians dominating the state and the citizens of other faith correspond to the jealous guardians", ". Unlike the prophet Moses who killed the angel guarding the first gate, the peasant (\"ein Mann vom Lande\") in the parable is waiting to his death, when he finally will be carried through the gate which was only made for him. In the narration of the romance which was never published during his lifetime, the main protagonist Josef K. will finally be killed according to a judgement which was never communicated to him.", "Hannah Arendt's reception of the Haskalah and of the emancipation history", "Hannah Arendt's political theory is deeply based on theological and existentialist arguments, regarding Jewish Emancipation in Prussia as a failure – especially in her writings after World War II. But the earliest publication discussing the Haskalah with respect to the German debate of the Jewish Question opened by Christian Wilhelm von Dohm and Moses Mendelssohn dates to 1932. In her essay Hannah Arendt takes Herder's side in reviving the debate among Dohm, Mendelssohn, Lessing and Herder", ". According to her Moses Mendelssohn's concept of emancipation was assimilated to the pietist concept of Lessing's enlightenment based on a separation between the truth of reason and the truth of history, which prepared the following generation to decide for the truth of reason and against history and Judaism which was identified with an unloved past. Somehow her theological argument was very similar to that of Kant, but the other way round", ". Somehow her theological argument was very similar to that of Kant, but the other way round. For Kant as a Lutheran Christian religion started with the destruction and the disregard of the Mosaic law, whereas Herder as a Christian understood the Jewish point of view in so far, that this is exactly the point where religion ends", ". According to Hannah Arendt the Jews were forced by Mendelssohn's form of Haskalah to insert themselves into a Christian version of history in which Jews had never existed as subjects:", "In consequence the Jews have become without history in history. According to Herder's understanding of history they are separated from their own past. So again they are in front of nothing. Within a historical reality, within the European secularized world, they are forced to adapt somehow to this world, to educate themselves. They need education for everything which is not part of the Jewish world. The actual reality has come into effect with all its power, because they are separated from their own past", ". Culture is the only way to endure this present. As long as culture is the proper perception of the past, the \"educated\" Jew is depending on a foreign past. One will reach it through a certain present, just because one participated in it.", "Although her point of view was often misunderstood as a prejudice against Judaism, because she often also described forms of opportunism among Jewish citizens, her main concern was totalitarianism and the anachronistic mentality of the ancien régime, as well as a postwar criticism, which was concerned with the limits of modern democracy. Her method was arguably idiosyncratic", ". Her method was arguably idiosyncratic. For instance, she used Marcel Proust's romance \"À la recherche du temps perdu\" as a historical document and partly developed her arguments on Proust's observations of Faubourg de Saint Germain, but the publication of her book in 1951 made her very popular, because she also included an early analysis of Stalinism. Seven years later she finally published her biographical study about Rahel Varnhagen", ". Seven years later she finally published her biographical study about Rahel Varnhagen. Here she concludes that the emancipation failed exactly with Varnhagen's generation, when the wish to enter the Prussian upper society was related with the decision to leave the Jewish communities. According to her, a wealthy minority, which she called parvenues, tried to join the privileges of the ruling elite of Prussia", ". The term \"parvenu\" was taken from Bernard Lazare and she regarded it as an alternative to Max Weber's term \"pariah.\"", "See also\nBaruch Spinoza's Tractatus theologico-politicus\nThomas Hobbes' Leviathan\nJohn Locke's A Letter Concerning Toleration, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding\nImmanuel Kant's Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft\nHaskalah\nChristian Wilhelm von Dohm\nMoses Mendelssohn\nGotthold Ephraim Lessing\nSalomon Maimon\nHartwig Wessely\nDavid Friedländer\nJohann Caspar Lavater\nJohann Gottfried Herder\nIsrael Jacobson\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nEditions\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.", "Notes\n\nBibliography\n\nEditions\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nEnglish translation\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nStudies\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nExternal links", ".\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nExternal links\n\nMoses Mendelssohn's books completely visible at Google Books\nMoses Mendelssohn Zentrum für europäisch-jüdische Studien e.V. (Potsdam)\nArticles in the Jewish Encyclopedia\nDaniel Dahlstrom: Moses Mendelssohn, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry (2006)\nA version of this work, lightly edited for easier reading\nCurtis Bowman: “Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah - Correspondence with Kant” (2004)\nEliezer Segal about “Jerusalem” (University of Calgary)", "1783 non-fiction books\nHaskalah\nReform Judaism\nEducation reform\nJewish philosophical and ethical texts\nBooks in political philosophy\nSeparation of church and state\nReligion and the French Revolution\nJews\nJews and Judaism in Europe\nJewish German history\nHistory of Prussia\nJudaism in Germany\nAntisemitism in Germany\nJews and Judaism in Berlin\nTreatises" ]

[ "The effects of Hurricane Andrew in Florida proved to be at the time the costliest disaster in the state's history, as well as the then-costliest on record in the United States. Hurricane Andrew formed from a tropical wave on August 16, 1992, in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. It moved west-northwest and remained weak for several days due to strong wind shear. However, after curving westward on August 22, the storm rapidly intensified to reach peak winds of", ". Following its passage through The Bahamas, Andrew made landfall near Homestead, Florida as a Category 5 hurricane on August 24. Eventually, Andrew struck southern Louisiana before it dissipated over the eastern United States on August 28.", "Strong winds from the hurricane significantly affected four counties in the state, which damaged or destroyed over 730,000 houses and buildings, while leaving more than 1 million without power. The storm surge impacted portions of Miami-Dade County, peaking at around just north of Homestead near the Burger King International Headquarters; the surge caused significant damage to boats and to the Charles Deering Estate", ". The nationwide maximum rainfall total from the hurricane was in the western portion of Miami-Dade County. No major flooding was reported in the state. The hurricane caused about $25.3 billion (1992 USD) in damage and 44 deaths in the state—15 directly from the storm's effects and 29 indirectly related. Many other sources, however, estimated that Andrew caused more than $34 billion in damage in the state", ". Andrew was, at the time, the costliest hurricane in the history of the United States; it was surpassed in subsequent years by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Hurricane Ike in 2008, Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria in 2017.", "Preparations", "Initially, forecasters predicted tides up to above normal along the East Coast of Florida, near the potential location of landfall. However, the National Hurricane Center later noted that storm surge up to would occur along the East Coast of Florida, as high as in Biscayne Bay, and a height of of the West Coast of Florida. Rainfall was predicted to be between along the path of the storm", ". Rainfall was predicted to be between along the path of the storm. In addition, the National Hurricane Center noted the likelihood of isolated tornadoes in Central and South Florida during the passage of Andrew on August 23 and August 24.", "Late on August 22, a hurricane watch was issued for the East Coast of Florida from Titusville to the Florida Keys, which included Dry Tortugas. On the following day, a hurricane warning was posted from Vero Beach southward to the Florida Keys and included Dry Tortugas. To the north, the east coast of Florida from Vero Beach to Titusville was placed under a tropical storm warning on August 23. Simultaneously, a hurricane watch was issued for the west coast of Florida from Bayport southward to near Flamingo", ". Later that day, the portion to the south of Venice was upgraded to a hurricane warning and was expanded to include Lake Okeechobee. However, to the north of Venice, the hurricane watch was downgraded to a tropical storm warning. By 1800 UTC on August 24, all watches and warnings issued in anticipation of the storm were discontinued.", "Governor Lawton Chiles declared a state of emergency and ordered the activation of about one-third of the Florida National Guard. Additionally, he requested that the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provide medical services, food, and water. Evacuations were ordered in nine counties: Broward, Charlotte, Collier, Lee, Martin, Miami-Dade, Monroe, Palm Beach, Sarasota counties. Almost 1.2 million people evacuated, which contributed to the low number of fatalities, despite the intensity of the storm.", "It was estimated that 20,000-30,000 tourists were in the Florida Keys before Andrew approached. Approximately 55,000 people fled the Florida Keys to the mainland; almost all evacuations occurred in the Upper and Middle Keys. Of those who remained during the storm, at least 722 people went to a shelter", ". Of those who remained during the storm, at least 722 people went to a shelter. On August 23, officials in Collier County issued a mandatory evacuation, which included the cities of Chokoloskee, Everglades City, Goodland, Isles of Capri, Marco Island, Plantation Island, as well as portions of East Naples, Port Royal, and Vanderbilt Beach. Overall, 3,450 people stayed in the shelters opened in the county, while it is estimated that 43,000 evacuated", ". In Lee County, officials recommended an evacuation for the county on August 23, about 20 hours before tropical storm force winds were reported there; about 75,000 people evacuated their homes in Lee County.", "A total of 515,670 people were ordered to evacuate from Miami-Dade County. About 93,000 people went to a shelter. Due to an anticipated sharp decrease in atmospheric pressure, 225 pregnant women in their third trimester stayed in the auditorium of Baptist Hospital of Miami.", "In Palm Beach County, about 1,427 people slept at Red Cross shelters. At the county jail, prisoners were doubled up to accommodate the families of sheriff's deputies. At the Palm Beach Zoo (then known as the Dreher Park Zoo) and Lion Country Safari, the animals were moved to weather-proof shelters. Mandatory evacuations were ordered for coastal cities, low-lying areas, and mobile home parks. Over 200,000 people in Palm Beach County fled their homes for shelter", ". Over 200,000 people in Palm Beach County fled their homes for shelter. Of the 2,500 people that fled Manatee County, approximately 400 of them took refuge at rest stops along Interstate 75.", "On Interstate 95 and Florida's Turnpike, bumper-to-bumper traffic was reported for more than and was regarded as probably the largest traffic jam in the history of Florida. Numerous tourists and evacuees completely occupied hotels and motels as far north as Ocala. At Walt Disney World, a reservation clerk noted that all 15,739 hotel rooms on the property were booked. United States Coast Guard vessels along the coast were either secured onshore or sent to ride out the storm at sea.\n\nImpact", "Some officials in Florida considered Andrew the worst storm in the state since the Labor Day hurricane in 1935. Almost all the damage in Florida was caused by strong winds. Although effects from Andrew were catastrophic, the extent of damage was limited mainly from Kendall south to Key Largo due to the small wind field of the storm. Following the storm, more than 1.4 million lost electricity and another 150,000 were without telephone service", ".4 million lost electricity and another 150,000 were without telephone service. It is estimated that throughout Florida some 63,000 homes were destroyed, leaving at least 175,000 people homeless.", "In addition to houses, the storm damaged or destroyed 82,000 businesses, 32,900 acres of farmland, 31 public schools, 59 health facilities/hospitals, 9,500 traffic signals, of powerlines, and 3,000 watermains. Overall, Andrew caused $25.3 billion (1992 USD) in damage and 44 fatalities in the state of Florida alone. However, other estimates report that Andrew created $32 billion in overall damage. Of the 44 deaths, 15 were direct fatalities, while 29 were indirectly caused by the storm", ". Of the 44 deaths, 15 were direct fatalities, while 29 were indirectly caused by the storm. It was later noted that had the storm been slightly larger or made landfall a few miles further north, it would have significantly affected Miami and Fort Lauderdale, which would have resulted in an even higher damage and death toll.", "Miami-Dade County", "On the coastline, tides were generally light and usually ranged from in Biscayne Bay. However, at the Burger King International Headquarters, a storm surge of in height was observed. The building suffered more than $24 million in damage and forced the company to abandon corporate offices during one of its more significant product promotions. Nearby at the Charles Deering Estate, waves ravaged the property", ". Nearby at the Charles Deering Estate, waves ravaged the property. The natural areas were devastated, while only the farthest inland section of the Richmond Cottage remained standing. Damage to repair the estate cost approximately $7.2 million. A large boat was littered ashore in a canal south of Deering Bay, where water levels were above normal. Many boats in southeast Florida were damaged from high tides produced by the storm, most notably, the Belzona Barge was damaged, which was a , 350-ton barge", ". At the Boca Chita Key Historic District, a bridge and stone wall were destroyed. In addition, the powerful seas also extensively damaged coral reef systems offshore of southeast Florida. It is estimated that the storm caused at least $500 million in losses to boats", ". It is estimated that the storm caused at least $500 million in losses to boats. At Homestead Air Reserve Base (then known as Homestead Air Force Base), a barometric pressure of was measured, making Andrew the most intense hurricane to strike Florida since the Labor Day hurricane of 1935 and the strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall in the United States since Hurricane Camille in 1969", ". Throughout the state, rainfall totals ranged from light to moderate, with precipitation from the storm peaked at in the Everglades portions of Miami-Dade County.", "Extreme winds were reported in Miami-Dade County; at some locations, the anemometer was either destroyed or failed before the highest winds occurred. A home in Perrine reported winds of . However, after a wind-tunnel testing at Clemson University of the same type of anemometer revealed a 16.5% error, that wind speed figure was revised downward to", ".5% error, that wind speed figure was revised downward to . At the Kendall-Tamiami Executive Airport, sustained winds of was reported for three to five minutes, though the needle failed before conditions deteriorated further. Sustained winds of and gusts to were reported at the National Hurricane Center headquarters in Coral Gables. Shortly thereafter the anemometer and the WSR-57 radar at the National Hurricane Center were blown off the roof and destroyed", ". Offshore, the C-MAN station at Fowey Rocks reported sustained winds of and gusts to . However, the instrument there failed shortly after 4 a.m. EDT (0800 UTC) on August 24. As the wind field of Andrew was small, the northern extent of hurricane-force winds only reached to Miami Beach.", "Although storm surge caused severe damage, most of the impact in Miami-Dade County was due to very strong winds. In Homestead, one of the hardest hit communities, it was estimated that more than 99.2% of mobile homes were completely destroyed, with only 9 of the city's 1,176 mobile homes remaining standing. At the Homestead Air Reserve Base, most of the 2,000 buildings on the base became \"severely damaged or unusable\"; only nine of the buildings at that location survived the storm", ". Shortly thereafter, 70 of the aircraft were flown to other Air Force bases in the Southeastern United States. The former town hall, built in 1917, suffered extensive damage, especially to the roof. Four of the five condominiums at Naranja Lakes were damaged beyond repair, while the fifth was later refurbished. Nearby, the small town of Florida City suffered also heavily. Over 120 homes were demolished, while 700 others were damaged", ". Over 120 homes were demolished, while 700 others were damaged. City hall was damaged beyond repairs, with the roof being torn off and some walls collapsing. In Country Walk and Saga Bay, F3-tornado-like damage was observed, mainly as a result of poor construction; winds between were reported.", "At Zoo Miami (then known as the Miami MetroZoo), winds toppled more than 5,000 trees and destroyed the Wings of Asia aviary – which was only built to withstand sustained winds of – causing the loss of approximately one-third of the 300 resident birds. Although a majority of animals at the zoo remained outdoors during and after the storm, only five animals perished, either by debris or the consumption of contaminated water", ". Nearby, damage to the University of Miami Primate Center and the Mannheimer Foundation allowed about 1,800 monkeys and baboons to escape. Rumors began that the monkeys were injected with the AIDS virus for experimental purposes, causing at least 30 monkeys to be shot dead by residents, police officers, and members of the National Guard. By August 30, nearly 700 monkeys were returned to the Mannheimer Foundation and all but 15 others that escaped the University of Miami Primate Center were recaptured.", "Because it was directly in the path of Andrew, significant damage occurred at the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station. A water tank and a smokestack of one of the site's fossil-fueled units was damaged. However, the containment buildings at the plant were unaffected. The Southland Mall, then known as the Cutler Ridge Mall, suffered severe water and wind damage during Andrew. On Key Biscayne, a number of large trees fell, blocking the main bridge linking the island to Virginia Key and Miami", ". Uprooted trees and toppled electrical poles damaged several of the smaller homes, though a majority had only missing roof tiles. The condominiums and hotels on the island suffered extensive wind and water damage, especially on higher floors. Further north in Miami Beach, no major damage was reported. However, a hotel was submerged with of water in its lobby. At the Miami International Airport, a Florida West Boeing jet was pushed through a fence by high winds. Nearby, a Hampton Inn Hotel lost its roof", ". Nearby, a Hampton Inn Hotel lost its roof. Despite street flooding, broken windows, and downed trees, skyscrapers in downtown Miami suffered minimal damage due to tougher building codes. Throughout Miami-Dade County, police counted more than 50 roads blocked by downed trees and powerlines. Countywide, Andrew caused the destruction of 25,524 homes and damaged 101,241 others. A Miami-Dade County Grand Jury reported that 90% of mobile homes in southern portions of the county were destroyed", ". Damage was estimated at $25 billion and 40 fatalities were reported. Of the 32 deaths confirmed by September 1, 14 were fatal accidental injuries, 9 were blunt or penetrative trauma, 4 from asphyxia, and 1 due to drowning.", "Broward County", "High winds from Andrew spread northward into Broward County. At the Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport, wind gusts reached , while the Goodyear Blimp Base in Pompano Beach reported gusts of at least . In rural Broward County, a weather station reported sustained winds of . Rainfall was relatively heavy locally, with two weather stations recording of precipitation", ". Rainfall was relatively heavy locally, with two weather stations recording of precipitation. Impact in Cooper City, Coral Springs, Davie, Hillsboro Beach, Hollywood, Lauderdale Lakes, Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, Lauderhill, Lazy Lake, Lighthouse Point, Margate, Plantation, and Pompano Beach, was primarily limited to down trees, some of which fell onto roads and power lines", ". In Coconut Creek, the walkway at city hall was deroofed, while two mobile homes were demolished and a single-family home suffered damage from a falling tree. About 500 trees were downed in Deerfield Beach. Several roofs were inflicted structural impacts during the storm. Along the coast, waves damaged an incomplete fishing pier. Damage in Deerfield Beach reached about $1 million.", "In Miramar, some trees fell onto mobile homes, damaging their roofs, awnings, and walls. Damage to buildings, houses, parks, signs, traffic lights, trees, and parks in Oakland Park totaled approximately $1 million. Additionally, the city garage was partially deroofed, while other municipal buildings suffered roof leaks. In Pembroke Park, about 260 mobile homes were damaged. A clubhouse and an amphitheater were deroofed in Sunrise, while a number of trees were felled", ". A clubhouse and an amphitheater were deroofed in Sunrise, while a number of trees were felled. Damage in the city reached about $100,000. At North Perry Airport, winds blew two small airplanes into each other, while a helicopter flipped into a private aircraft company's operations center. The storm left coastal flooding in Hallandale Beach along State Road 858 (Hallandale Beach Boulevard) east of Route 1, and throughout State Road A1A in Fort Lauderdale", ". Several fires ignited during the storm, mostly due to unattended lit candles and downed power lines, burning down at least a dozen residences in the county and resulting in over $250,000 in damage. Approximately 410,000 customers lost power, although the vast majority of these outages were restored by the following day. Overall, Andrew caused at least $100 million in damage and three fatalities in Broward County.", "Monroe County", "On the Florida Keys, light rainfall occurred, especially in the Lower Keys, where was reported on Cudjoe Key. No significant floods occurred, although some areas experience localized flooding. High winds in the Florida Keys were limited to the Upper Keys, especially on Key Largo, where a 13-minute sustained wind speed of was recorded", ". No other reports of hurricane or tropical storm force winds exist in the Florida Keys, though the Key West International Airport and the Monroe County Emergency Operations Center reported tropical storm force wind gusts of , respectively. Other locations in the Florida Keys reported much lesser wind speeds. On Key Largo, approximately 1,500 homes were damaged, with at least 300 of those becoming uninhabitable. The storm also damaged billboards, awnings, and commercial signs", ". The storm also damaged billboards, awnings, and commercial signs. Several boats, planes, and trees were affected by Andrew on the northern side of Key Largo. On the Card Sound Bridge, which connects Key Largo to the mainland of Florida, the toll booth was completely destroyed. By three days after the storm, electricity was restored for areas south of the Seven Mile Bridge. In addition, one indirect fatality occurred in Monroe County when a fireman in the Upper Keys was injured, and died by August 30", ". Overall, it is estimated that buildings and houses suffered $120 million (1992 USD) in losses, while $11 million (1992 USD) in damage was incurred to the fishing and marine industries.", "Due to the sparsely populated mainland area of Monroe County, no observations of wind speeds occurred. In the northern half of Monroe County, light rainfall was reported, as only a few areas experienced more than of precipitation. It is unknown if any property damage occurred in that portion of Monroe County. Andrew caused significant damage to vegetation in Everglades National Park. In both Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park, over 25% or of trees were felled or severely damage", ". One-fourth of the royal palms and one-third of the pine trees in Everglades National Park were either significantly damaged or destroyed. In addition, waves up to were reported in Flamingo, which is near Cape Sable.", "Elsewhere", "In Collier County, to the north of the storm's path, sustained winds up to were observed in Chokoloskee. A storm surge of about in height was recorded in Goodland. Storm surge flooded low-lying areas, particularly in Goodland, Everglades City, and Marco Island, with streets in downtown Everglades City inundated with more than of water. Many boats, especially at Marco Island, were damaged or destroyed by the rough seas and strong winds", ". A sailboat ripped apart a pier at a Marco Island marina, while a large section of pier at another marina on the island was missing. Additionally, winds in Chokoloskee and Everglades City overturned vehicles and completely demolished some mobile homes, scattering debris across the streets. In the former, the storm uprooted 31 avocado trees at one private residence alone. An electrical short in an outdoor power box in East Naples ignited a fire, which burnt down an unoccupied dwelling", ". At least 12 mobile homes in the community suffered damage, including one losing its roof. A county commissioner described the tiny community of Copeland as \"80 percent destroyed\". Farther north, Andrew significantly damaged three buildings in Immokalee, including a massive packinghouse. Thousands of power outages occurred, especially in East Naples, Everglades City, and Marco Island. Throughout Collier County, Andrew destroyed 80 mobile homes and severely damaged 400 others", ". Throughout Collier County, Andrew destroyed 80 mobile homes and severely damaged 400 others. Property damage in the county reached about $30 million.", "Waves along the coastline resulted in minor beach erosion in Palm Beach County. At the farthest extent, tropical storm-force winds were reported as far north as the Palm Beach International Airport, which recorded a sustained wind speed of , while the Palm Beach County ASOS observed sustained wind speed of . However, no other observation stations reported sustained winds higher than about . Rainfall in Palm Beach County was light, reaching near the Palm Beach–Broward County line", ". Rainfall in Palm Beach County was light, reaching near the Palm Beach–Broward County line. Throughout Palm Beach County, Okeechobee County, and the Treasure Coast, at least 80,000 electrical customers lost power, though just 29,000 people remained without electricity, mainly in Boca Raton, by the evening of August 24.", "Outside of Collier, Broward, Miami-Dade, and Palm Beach counties, rainfall totals remained below . At the Miccosukee Indian Reservation, the huts and trailers of the Miccosukee were severely damaged. A young girl at the reservation went missing and was not found until nine days later. In Glades County, the emergency operations center recorded a wind gust of . Twelve funnel clouds were reported in Highlands County, though they remained unconfirmed", ". Twelve funnel clouds were reported in Highlands County, though they remained unconfirmed. Winds in Lee County left sporadic power outages, uprooted trees, and damaged the roofs of some houses, though losses overall were fairly minor. Additionally, high winds resulted in the closure of the Cape Coral Bridge. Along the coast, the hurricane produced a storm tide of at Fort Myers Beach. Winds reached in Captiva.", "Abnormally high tides were observed as far north as Homosassa in Citrus County, which reported a storm surge of at least in height. Effects from the storm in Central Florida were limited to light rainfall and winds in a few counties. Brevard County reported elevated wind speeds, though winds were no more than at any of the locations. Precipitation of at least occurred as far north as Alachua County.\n\nAftermath\n\nRelief efforts", "Shortly after conditions from Hurricane Andrew subsided, then-President of the United States George H. W. Bush assessed damage in the Miami area with then-Governor of Florida Lawton Chiles. Bush quickly declared the region a disaster area, which provided public assistance to victims of the storm in Broward, Collier, Miami-Dade, and Monroe Counties. In addition, Lieutenant Governor Buddy MacKay flew over the impact area, and noted that \"it looks like a war zone\"", ". On September 11, 1992, then-Governor Lawton Chiles considered asking the Florida State Legislature to raise taxes, citing that \"No matter how much Congress appropriates to repair damage from Hurricane Andrew, the state will face a substantial clean bill\".", "Governor Chiles, Lieutenant Governor MacKay, and staffs Doug Cook and Tom Herndon lobbied Congress for aid. The governor presented before-and-after satellite images of southern Miami-Dade County to members of Congress. He spoke to the Senate Democratic Caucus and privately met with Speaker of the House Tom Foley, House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt, Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell, as well as several leaders of the Republican Party, which was the minority party at the time", ". After pleading with Senate Committee on Appropriations chair Robert Byrd, Congress began considering a relief bill. President Bush proposed a $7.1 billion disaster aid package to provide disaster benefits, small-business loans, crop loss loans, food stamps, and public housing for victims of Hurricane Andrew. However, the United States House of Representatives considered allotting $8.8 billion in the disaster bill", ".8 billion in the disaster bill. After the United States House of Representatives appropriated aid to victims of Hurricane Iniki in Hawaii and Typhoon Omar in Guam, the cost was later increased to $11.1 billion. The bill, which was the most costly disaster aid package at the time, was passed by Congress as House Resolution 5620 on September 18, and signed into law by President Bush on September 23.", "Two days after Hurricane Andrew, state officials established a temporary relief center at the South Florida Fairgrounds near West Palm Beach. While in operation, more than 20,000 volunteers moved about 4,500 tons of supplies unto more than 1,200 trucks for distribution to the victims of the storm. By September 27, the relief distribution center at the South Florida Fairgrounds closed. In addition, the Boy Scouts of America also assisted in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew", ". In addition, the Boy Scouts of America also assisted in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew. In Glennville, Georgia, a Boy Scout troop and two Cub Scout packs filled a truck with food after collecting door-to-door. Similarly, another Cub Scout pack in North Palm Beach, Florida packed a truck full of emergency supplies. Within the first few months following the storm, 2,200 traffic lights were repaired, 150,000 street signs were replaced, and more than 40,000 trees were planted", ". By October 1993, approximately 20 million cubic yards of debris were disposed of, while nearly of roadway was cleared.", "Although recovery efforts were extensive, they were initially slow, especially the assistance from government branches. Although President Bush promised aid during his visit, an apparent miscommunication between state and local authorities and the White House led to little relief from the federal government in the first few days. Unbeknownst to Governor Chiles, he was required to put into writing his request for assistance from the Army units to deliver meals and tents en masse", ". Later, President Bush claimed he could not respond to the request because the letter intended for Secretary of the Army Michael P. W. Stone was accidentally addressed to commanders of the United States Army Corps of Engineers instead. Governor Chiles' aide Chuck Wolfe described the frustration experienced by Chiles. Wolfe personally spoke on the phone to the White House. He remarked that it was \"horse hockey\" that the federal government was claiming that there were no communications", ". Lieutenant Governor MacKay recalled that Chiles and President Bush engaged in a shouting match after Air Force One landed at the Miami International Airport. The slow response of federal aid to storm victims in southern Florida led Dade County Emergency Management Director Kate Hale to famously exclaim at a nationally televised news conference, \"Where in the hell is the cavalry on this one? They keep saying we're going to get supplies", ". For God's sake, where are they?\" Almost immediately, President George H. W. Bush promised, \"Help is on the way,\" and mobile kitchens and tents, along with units from the 82nd Airborne Division and the 10th Mountain Division, Fort Drum, New York began pouring in.", "Initially, crime rates in Miami-Dade County increased by 50% after Andrew, mostly due to looting. There were numerous reports of people stealing merchandise from damaged or destroyed stores as well as at severely damaged neighborhoods. As a result, gun sales soared and residents posted warning signs with messages such as: \"You loot, we shoot. You try, you die\". On CNN, footage was aired of looters stealing armloads of merchandise at a shopping center", ". On CNN, footage was aired of looters stealing armloads of merchandise at a shopping center. In Kendall, the owner of a pizza restaurant stood outside with a sawed-off shotgun. However, looting quickly ceased after the United States Army arrived. Although looting arrests were nearly non-existent by early September, a police sergeant noted that at least 15 looting incidents at private houses were reported per night", ". A total of 50 National Guardsmen were also deployed to Collier County to prevent looting in Everglades City and Marco Island.", "After being deployed to Miami-Dade County, the military personnel set-up five tent cities in Homestead and Florida City, which had the capacity of 3,800 people. By September 4, 1992, only 150 families took refugee there. However, just days later, the tent cities abruptly filled up, after officials closed school shelters, which were re-opening for the 1992-1993 school year. As a result, military officials opened another tent city at the Miccosukee Indian Reservation", ". As a result, military officials opened another tent city at the Miccosukee Indian Reservation. Instead of continuing to live in Miami-Dade County, more than 100,000 residents moved northward; this significantly altered the area's racial demographics. In the decade after the storm, Hurricane Andrew may have contributed to the massive and sudden housing boom in Broward County", ". Located just north of Miami-Dade County, residents who had lost their homes migrated to western sections of the county that was just starting to be developed. The result was record growth in places like Miramar, Pembroke Pines and Weston.", "Rebuilding and revisions to building codes", "Although proposals to rebuild Homestead Air Force Base were initially rejected, the United States Department of Defense eventually expended an initial amount of over $100 million for repairs. Unsalvageable buildings were demolished. Reconstruction then began on a Florida Air National Guard tower, air traffic control tower, and maintenance hangars. Next, the rebuilding of communications, medical, security facility, vehicle maintenance, and wing headquarters buildings began", ". On March 5, 1994, the base reopened as Homestead Air Reserve Base. The base is vital to Homestead. Prior to Andrew, the base employed approximately 6,500 military personnel and 1,000 civilians and annually added about $450 million to the local economy. After reopening, Major Bobby D'Angelo expected the base to annually contribute less than half of that – between $180 million and $200 million", ". As homes were being rebuilt, FEMA provided free temporary mobile homes for 3,501 families and financial assistance to more than 40,000 other families for staying in hotel rooms, paying rent, and repairing homes. Nearly two years after Andrew, about 70% of homes in Homestead that were damaged or destroyed were repaired or rebuilt. Additionally, of the homes destroyed or severely damaged throughout Miami-Dade County, 36,000 had been restored by July 1994.", "More than 930,000 policyholders in South Florida lost coverage after 11 insurance companies went bankrupt, caused by more than 600,000 insurance claims filed. This led the Florida Legislature to create new entities, such as the Joint Underwriting Association, the Florida Windstorm Underwriting Association, and the Florida Hurricane Catastrophe Fund, in effort to restore adequate insurance capacity. Stricter building codes were created in Florida in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew", ". Stricter building codes were created in Florida in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew. A survey by Tim Marshall and Richard Herzog of the Haag Engineer Company in Carrollton, Texas, highlighted several construction issues. On the roof of some homes, the concrete tiles were glued to felt paper, which could easily be ripped by straight line winds. At houses with shingled roofs, it was found that some of the shingles were stapled perpendicular to the long axis, also allowing them to be torn away", ". After the tiles or shingles were peeled off, the plywood and prefabricated trusses were exposed to the weather. Eventually, the plywood and the trusses suffered structural failure, leading to roof collapses.", "In July 1996, Governor Chiles established the Florida Building Codes Study Commission, with the purpose of assessing the buildings codes at the time, as well as enacting improvements and reform to the system. The commission study indicated that building codes and regulations were developed, amended, and administered by over 400 local jurisdictions and state agencies. The Florida Building Code was established in 1998 and put into effect by 2002", ". The Florida Building Code was established in 1998 and put into effect by 2002. It phased out local laws and regulations and replacing them with universal statewide building codes. After hurricanes Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne in 2004, a study conducted by the University of Florida in the following year noted that \"Homes built under the new Florida Building Code that became effective in 2002 sustained less damage on average than those built between 1994 and 2001", ".\" A report by the Florida Legislature in 2006 after Hurricanes Dennis, Katrina, and Wilma in 2005 came to a similar conclusion, indicating that \"they added further evidence that the Florida Building Code is working.\"", "Political impacts", "The storm struck Florida in the midst of 1992 presidential election campaign. A poll conducted by CBS News in September showed that 65% of Miami-Dade County residents approved of Bush's handling of the disaster, while 61% of residents approved statewide. Despite the support of Bush's response and his proposal to rebuild Homestead Air Force Base, he benefited little politically and trailed 48%-42% against Bill Clinton in another poll taken in September", ". Additionally, 75% of voters in Miami-Dade County and 82% of Floridians overall stated that the president's actions in response to Andrew would not impact their vote in November. Bush went on to carry the state of Florida, but by a margin of only 1.89%. The hurricane also impacted Governor Chiles politically. The state's response to the storm was perceived as poor, sinking Chiles' approval rating to 22%, while his disapproval rating rose to 76%", ". However, Chiles was able to recover prior to the 1994 gubernatorial election.", "The state of Florida held primary elections for the 1992 general elections on September 1. However, Miami-Dade County was granted permission by the Supreme Court of Florida to postpone elections until September 8. Initially, a Miami-Dade County circuit judge ruled that results for all counties of Florida should remain sealed until the Miami-Dade County votes were tallied. However, the state Supreme Court overruled this decision, allowing votes from the 65 other counties to be counted on September 1", ". At the time, it was estimated that Miami-Dade County accounted for about 10% of the total number of registered voters in Florida. Although the outcome of some elections were mostly unchanged by the additional votes from Miami-Dade County, a few were, especially the Democratic Party primary for Florida's 23rd congressional district. Prior to the Miami-Dade County results being counted,", "State Representative Lois Frankel received 12,335 votes, former judge on the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida Alcee Hastings received 9,468 votes, State Representative Bill Clark received 9,424 votes, trial lawyer Kenneth D. Cooper received 1,857 votes, and Bill Washington received 1,692 votes. After the additional votes, Frankel gained 221 votes, Hastings gained 769 votes, Clark gained 457 votes, Cooper gained 15 votes, and Washington gained 19 votes", ". This allowed Hastings to advance to the runoff against Frankel on October 1 without being subject to a mandatory recount. Hastings went on to defeat Frankel in the runoff by a comfortable margin, before winning in a landslide against Republican Ed Fielding and independent Al Woods on November 3.", "Psychological impact", "In the aftermath of the storm, extensive psychological effects were reported. Difficulty during clean-up and recovery led to increased divorce rates and a spike in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The cases of PTSD primarily impacted children. A sampling of 378 adolescents by the University of South Carolina's Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics indicated that 3% of males and 9% of females met the criteria for PTSD", ". Dozens of children in the area attempted suicide, while counselors reported that between 50 and 60 children discussed killing themselves between December 1992 and January 1993. Within six months, five people killed themselves in circumstances linked to the hurricane.", "Effect on professional sports", "As Hurricane Andrew approached, Miami Dolphins head coach Don Shula canceled a 1-hour practice, the weekly post-game news conference, and the film review meetings. Plans to trim the roster from 70 to 60 players were put on hold. However, the Dolphins were able to meet the New Orleans Saints, who were also affected by Andrew, at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore for a pre-season game on August 27", ". Due to the amount of devastation and fearing heavy criticism if they played a home game only 13 days after Andrew, the Miami Dolphins postponed their game against the New England Patriots, scheduled for September 7. The game was instead held on October 18 and both teams moved their bye-week to Week 1. The Dolphins thus had their season opening on the road against the Cleveland Browns on September 14, while the home opener was held on September 20 against the Los Angeles Rams.", "The attempt to rebuild Homestead led Grand Prix of Miami promoter Ralph Sanchez, who organised IMSA GT Championship, CART PPG Cup, and AMA Superbike races at three different venues in Miami – Bayfront Park, Bicentennial, and Tamiami Park since 1983—to build the permanent circuit he had envisioned near the devastated area in Homestead, Metro-Dade Homestead Motorsports Complex, which broke ground in August 1994, opening in 1995", ". While Sanchez no longer promotes the races, NASCAR's three national series, Grand-Am, and AMA Superbike all hold races at the multipurpose circuit.", "Due to damage to the Homestead Sports Complex and fearing the relocation of their middle-class and affluent fans to Broward and Palm Beach counties, the Cleveland Indians moved their spring training location to Chain of Lakes Park in Winter Haven.", "Demographic changes", "The hurricane also transformed the demographics of Miami-Dade County. A migration of mostly White families northward to Broward and Palm Beach County was ongoing, but accelerated after Andrew. Many of these families had used the money they received from insurance claims to relocate. The population growth was especially noticeable in southwestern Broward County, where land development was pushed \"years ahead of schedule\". Similar migration occurred within the Jewish community", ". Similar migration occurred within the Jewish community. Although some areas of Miami-Dade County still have significant Jewish populations, many Jews resettled to Coral Springs, west Fort Lauderdale, Hallandale Beach, Plantation, and Tamarac in Broward County and Boca Raton and West Palm Beach in Palm Beach County. The county had a net loss of about 36,000 people in 1992, while Broward and Palm Beach counties gained about 17,000 and 2,300 Miami-Dade County residents, respectively", ". By 2001, 230,710 people moved from Miami-Dade County to Broward County, while 29,125 Miami-Dade County residents moved to Palm Beach County. However, as Broward County became more crowded, 100,871 people relocated from Broward County to Palm Beach County. Consequently, the Hispanic population in south Miami-Dade County climbed rapidly. In Homestead, for example, the Latino population rose from 30% to 45% between 1990 and 2000.", "Environmental aftermath", "During the storm, a facility housing Burmese pythons was destroyed, allowing many of them to escape into the Everglades. Although Burmese pythons – native to Southeast Asia – had been sighted in Everglades National Park since the 1980s, the destruction of this facility contributed significantly to the establishment of breeding populations in Florida", ". Due to rapid reproduction and ability to prey on many species, the population of Burmese pythons has exploded, with possibly as many as 300,000 in the Everglades alone. Efforts have been made to curb the thriving population of these invasive snakes, including a ban on importation of the species to the United States since January 2012, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission in 2008 regulating that boa and python owners have permits and tag their snakes, and Burmese python hunting contests", ". In March 2017, the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) began its Python Elimination Program. Qualified individuals became authorized to capture Burmese pythons on SFWMD properties, with minimum wage pay as compensation and a bonus of $50 for a python at least in length, plus an additional $25 for every foot beyond . Further, compensation was set at $200 for finding a nest with eggs. By May 2018, 1,000 Burmese pythons were captured through that program alone.", "See also\n\nEffects of Hurricane Andrew in The Bahamas\nList of Florida hurricanes (1975–1999)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nMonthly Weather Review\n\nFlorida\n1990s in Miami\n1992 in Florida\n1992 natural disasters in the United States\nAndrew\nHurricanes in Florida" ]

[ "Srimanthudu () is a 2015 Indian Telugu-language action drama film written and directed by Koratala Siva. The film is produced by Mythri Movie Makers and G. Mahesh Babu Entertainment. The film stars Mahesh Babu, Shruti Haasan, Jagapati Babu and Rajendra Prasad. Sampath Raj, Mukesh Rishi, Sukanya and Harish Uthaman appear in supporting roles. It was distributed globally by Eros International.", "The film tells the story of Harsha Vardhan (Mahesh Babu), a young man who inherits a business empire from his father Ravikanth (played by Jagapati Babu). Urged by his friend Charuseela (Haasan) to learn about his and his father's ancestral roots in a remote village named Devarakota, Harsha adopts the village and spends some time trying to improve the standard of living of the local people and the infrastructure of the village", ". His efforts anger the local crime boss Sashi (played by Sampath Raj) and his brother Venkata Ratnam, a politician (played by Mukesh Rishi).", "Srimanthudu was initially going to be produced by UTV Motion Pictures, but the company backed out, citing differences with Siva. In addition to directing the film, Siva also wrote the screenplay. Devi Sri Prasad composed the score, and R. Madhi was the cinematographer. Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao edited the film. Production began on 11 August 2014 at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad. Principal photography began on 7 November 2014 in Pune, and lasted till mid-June 2015", ". Principal photography began on 7 November 2014 in Pune, and lasted till mid-June 2015. Though most of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad, a few portions were filmed in Tamil Nadu and Malaysia.", "Srimanthudu and its Tamil dubbed version, titled Selvandhan, were released simultaneously worldwide on 7 August 2015 in around 2500 screens. It opened to positive critical reception and was a commercial success, grossing over 140 crore globally on a budget of 4070 crore and becoming the third highest grossing Telugu film of all time", ". After the film's release, many actors, bureaucrats and politicians announced plans to develop the backward villages and encouraged the adoption of villages in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The film went onto win three Nandi Awards including Best Popular Feature Film and three Filmfare Awards South including Best Telugu Actor for Mahesh Babu.", "Plot", "Harsha Vardhan is the sole heir of his father Ravikanth's business empire worth 25,000 crore. After he meets Charuseela at his friend Apparao's birthday party, he enrolls in a university course on rural development. Charuseela wants to use technology for the benefit of Devarakota, a remote village in Uttarandhra from which she hails. A friendship blossoms between them, and as time passes they become attracted to each other", ". A friendship blossoms between them, and as time passes they become attracted to each other. The natural resources of Devarakota are being exploited by Sashi, the brother of Central minister Venkata Ratnam, whose tyranny has made many locals migrate to the city to seek a better life. Nevertheless, the village head Narayana Rao hopes that the standard of living will soon improve along with the general condition of the village", ". Meanwhile, Ratnam's son Radha uses blackmail to threaten harm to Ravikanth's family if he does not back out of a prestigious highway contract. Ravikanth's nephew Karthik, who hopes to succeed Ravikanth in the business empire, leaks to Radha details about an upcoming bid for the contract, which comes to the notice of Harsha. After subtly warning Ratnam at his residence in Delhi, Harsha secretly makes a lower bid on behalf of his father's company and wins the contract.", "When Charuseela learns that Harsha is Ravikanth's son, she starts avoiding him. When he asks the reason, she says that Ravikanth is a native of Devarakota who left for Hyderabad to earn wealth unlike her father Narayana Rao, and she bids farewell. After asking his father for a long holiday before joining the office, Harsha travels to Devarakota without his father's knowledge", ". In Devarakota he meets Rao and introduces himself as a student pursuing a course in rural development who has come to study the village. After learning more about Devarakota and Sashi's tyranny, Harsha announces that he will adopt the village and develop it. While he works to improve conditions in the village, Ratnam asks Sashi also to develop the village, partly to win in the upcoming elections, but he remains silent regarding his intention to gain credit for doing so", ". At the same time, Harsha learns from Rao that, as a young man, Ravikanth wishing, as Harsha does now, to see the village developed, established a dairy farm for the local welfare. After the farm was set up, Ratnam and Sashi set it on fire, causing many deaths and Ravikanth was blamed for the fire, Insulted, and arrested. He walked out of the village, moved to the city, and went on to acquire much wealth.", "Charuseela returns to Devarakota and assumes that Harsha is trying to impress her family with the intention of marrying her. Initially livid, Charuseela is impressed when Harsha succeeds in persuading her uncle's family not to migrate to the city to live with their employed son and instead makes their son agree to visit them every possible weekend", ". Later, Harsha and Charuseela learn that Ratnam is going to take over all the agricultural land around the village for political gain since the value of the land will appreciate following the official declaration of a new coastal industrial corridor. Harsha confronts them and warns them not to interfere in his work of developing the village. Harsha later visits a water bottling unit which not only produces alcoholic beverages but also draws from the village's source of drinking water", ". He tries to close it, but is attacked by Sashi's henchmen and is hospitalised. Ravikanth, who has been informed of Harsha's adoption of Devarakota, manages to bring Harsha back to Hyderabad, where he joins the office after he recovers. Ravikanth later confronts a visibly upset Harsha and decides to send him back to Devarakota, earning Harsha's love for which he has long yearned. Harsha hands over the reigns of the business empire to Karthik and leaves", ". Harsha hands over the reigns of the business empire to Karthik and leaves. At Devarakota, Harsha kills Ratnam and Sashi at the factory and construes it as an accident due to an inadvertent short circuit, similar to what Sashi had done before Ravikanth's arrest years before. The film ends with Ravikanth and his family visiting Rao's house on Sankranthi, where Harsha, now Charuseela's husband, receives them warmly.", "Cast", "Mahesh Babu as Harsha Vardhan\n Shruti Haasan as Charuseela\n Jagapathi Babu as Ravikanth\n Rajendra Prasad as Narayana Rao\n Sukanya as Harsha Vardhan's mother\n Sithara as Charuseela's mother\n Mukesh Rishi as Venkata Ratnam\n Sampath Raj as Sashi\n Harish Uthaman as Radha\n Vennela Kishore as Apparao\n Sriram Edida as Narayana Rao's brother\n Tulasi as Narayana Rao's sister-in-law\n Subbaraju as Ravikanth's brother\n Rahul Ravindran as Karthik\n Ali as Rajaratnam\n Sravan as Radha's sidekick \n Sivaji Raja as Suryam", "Rahul Ravindran as Karthik\n Ali as Rajaratnam\n Sravan as Radha's sidekick \n Sivaji Raja as Suryam\n Ravi Prakash as Dr. Ganesh\n Surya as Ravikanth's accountant\n Tejaswi Madivada as Venkata Ratnam's daughter\n Surekha Vani as Sumathi\n Anand as Meghna's father \n Sanam Shetty as Meghna\n Angana Roy as Harsha's cousin\n Ravi Varma as Charuseela's cousin\n Chatrapathi Sekhar as TV Reporter\n Rajitha as Apparao's mother\n Nikkita Anil Kumar as Harsha's sister\n Appaji Ambarisha Darbha as head of board of directors", "Nikkita Anil Kumar as Harsha's sister\n Appaji Ambarisha Darbha as head of board of directors\n Poorna in a cameo appearance in the song \"Rama Rama\"\n Ramajogayya Sastry in a cameo appearance in the song \"Rama Rama\"", "Production", "Development", "UTV Motion Pictures announced in October 2013 that they would produce a film starring Mahesh Babu and directed by Koratala Siva, marking their maiden Telugu production with Mahesh's sister Manjula Ghattamaneni and presenting the film under the banner Indira Productions. A possible delay was expected as Mahesh had earlier agreed to work on a film directed by Raj Nidimoru and Krishna D.K., produced by Ashwini Dutt, after completing Aagadu (2014). In late March 2014, G", ".K., produced by Ashwini Dutt, after completing Aagadu (2014). In late March 2014, G. Dhananjayan of UTV Motion Pictures announced that the film's production would commence in July 2014. UTV Motion Pictures backed out of the film citing differences with Siva, and the overseas distribution company Mythri Movie Makers agreed to become the major investor in the film.", "Mahesh opted to co-produce the film under the banner G. Mahesh Babu Entertainment Pvt. Ltd to control the film's budget, accepting a share in the profits in lieu of his remuneration. Devi Sri Prasad was signed to compose the film's music. R. Madhi, the film's cinematographer, charged 1.4 crore as his remuneration. The official launch ceremony was held on 11 August 2014 at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad. Mahesh participated in the story discussions with Siva and shared his ideas for improving the script", ". Srimanthudu was confirmed as the film's title on 29 May 2015, after registering it in December 2014.", "Casting", "Mahesh played the role of a billionaire's son in the film. For his character's appearance, he chose a casual look replete with cardigans, jackets and scarves. He sported various hair styles, including a layered look, a messy hair-do, and a conservative cut, for various episodes in the film. Shruti Haasan was selected as the heroine of the film; the role was supposed to be her first on-screen appearance with Mahesh though she had appeared in an item number in Aagadu after signing this film", ". She charged a remuneration of 1.25 crore, which was the highest she had received in her career until then. Haasan said that she would play a \"strong, independent, intelligent\" and simple girl in the film, adding that the romance between the lead pair would be a \"very calm, relaxed and classy\" one. Siva chose the name Charuseela for the female lead character after going through the lyrics during the recording of the song of the same name.", "Impressed with his work in Legend (2014), Siva chose Jagapati Babu to play the role of Harsha's father in the film. After considering Nadhiya and Gracy Singh for the role of Mahesh's mother, Sukanya was selected in January 2015. Rajendra Prasad, Sampath Raj, Brahmanandam and Tulasi were announced for the supporting roles. While Sampath Raj played the antagonist, Brahmanandam's inclusion was never confirmed. Harish Uthaman was signed to play one of the antagonists in the film", ". Harish Uthaman was signed to play one of the antagonists in the film. Uthaman told Indo-Asian News Service that a few scenes required numerous takes due to his difficulties with the language and called Mahesh considerate to have helped him.", "Rahul Ravindran made a small yet important cameo appearance. After considering actresses proficient in classical dance for performing a peppy dance number set in a rural backdrop, Poorna was selected as she was a trained Kathak dancer. After auditioning seventy actresses, Angana Roy was selected to play an \"important part\" in the film, marking her debut in Telugu cinema", ". Sanam Shetty was signed after one of the unit members of her unreleased Telugu debut Intinta Annamayya convinced the film-makers to consider her. Malayali actress Nikkita Anil Kumar played the role of Mahesh's sister in the film, and Vaishnav, a teenager who played the role of her cousin, helped the non-Telugu actors with their lines. Tejaswi Madivada, who earlier worked with Mahesh in Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu (2013), was signed to play a politician's daughter.", "Filming", "Principal photography commenced on 7 November 2014 at Pune, and Haasan joined the set on the next day. The two leads were mobbed by local people during the film's shoot at an IT hub in Pune. The next segment took place in Hyderabad at a private studio where a song was filmed with Mahesh and Haasan. The song that accompanies Mahesh's first appearance in the film was filmed at Ramoji Film City starting on 11 December 2014. The third filming segment commenced on 28 December 2014 at Hyderabad", ". The third filming segment commenced on 28 December 2014 at Hyderabad. Around the end of January 2015, it was estimated that the film's shooting would be wrapped up in a month.", "A song on Mahesh and Haasan was shot in a set erected at Annapurna 7 Acres Studios. Another filming segment commenced at Madurai, where Haasan and Kishore rejoined the film's sets. Shooting then moved to Karaikudi. An action sequence on Mahesh and others was filmed at Pollachi in February 2015. A song choreographed by Bosco-Caesar was filmed with Mahesh and Haasan. This marked the first Telugu film of Bosco-Caesar", ". This marked the first Telugu film of Bosco-Caesar. The filming continued at Palani until 3 March 2015, after which a few scenes focusing on Mahesh, Roy, and others were shot at Hyderabad.", "In April 2015, the next filming schedule began in Malaysia. Upon its completion, Mahesh took a break and then joined the set at Hyderabad on 6 May 2015. On 5 June 2015, Madhi said in an interview that twelve days of shooting were pending. He added that two types of camera – the Alexa XT and the Red Dragon – were being used to film a number of mild movement shots throughout the film. On 17 June 2015, Siva told the media that all filming except for a week of patchwork was finished", ". On 17 June 2015, Siva told the media that all filming except for a week of patchwork was finished. By then, a song sequence focusing on the lead pair was being filmed at Ramoji Film City.", "Soundtrack", "Devi Sri Prasad composed the film's soundtrack which consists of six songs; the lyrics were written by Ramajogayya Sastry except for \"Charuseela\" which was co-written by Prasad. Aditya Music marketed the film's soundtrack. Compared to other songs, Sastry took more time to complete the lyrics of the song \"Jaago\". Siva explained the situation to Sastry during the film's shoot at Karaikudi and at Ramoji Film City, and Sastry took input from him. Prasad composed it in the indie rock genre", ". Prasad composed it in the indie rock genre. Haasan revealed that \"Charuseela\" was based on her character in the film and that the tune had been inspired by one of Michael Jackson compositions. Regarding that song, Prasad said, \"It's a peppy dance number that has Mahesh sporting an uber stylish look. Lyricist Ramajogayya Sastry has come up with a fusion of chaste Telugu words and English slang and I incorporated the Michael Jackson rhythm in the song\".", "The soundtrack of the original and dubbed Tamil versions were released on 18 July 2015 and 4 August 2015, respectively.\n\nReception", "Reception\n\nThe Times of India gave the soundtrack 3.5 out of 5 stars. IndiaGlitz gave the soundtrack 3.25 out of 5 stars and stated, \"The album caters to the fan base of both DSP and Mahesh Babu. DSP delivers the output in such a way as to give 'Mirchi' feeling, adding an impressive array of tunes.\" Behindwoods gave the soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and called it a signature album with Prasad's trademark reflected all over it.", "Release \nIn December 2014, the producers announced a May 2015 release. Due to technical issues, the film's release was postponed to 17 July 2015. The film's release was postponed to 7 August 2015 after a personal request by Shobu Yarlagadda, the producer of Baahubali: The Beginning to do so. Srimanthudu was dubbed into Tamil as Selvandhan, which was released simultaneously along with the original on 7 August 2015.", "Srimanthudu was released in 2500 screens worldwide. While the Central Board of Film Certification passed the film in India with a 'U/A' certificate without any cuts, the British Board of Film Classification rated it '12A' and suggested a compulsory removal of a four-second long visual of rooster fighting as per the Cinematograph Films (Animals) Act 1937. It was also released in Santiago, the capital of Chile, thus becoming the first Indian film to be screened in a Latin American country.", "Distribution", "Classic Entertainments acquired the overseas distribution rights of the film in late February 2015, for an amount of 81 million, which was the highest price that any Telugu film had commanded in the overseas market until then. By the second week of June 2015, distribution rights for most of the regions were sold out while negotiations for a few were ongoing. Global Cinemas, Aditya films, and Vintage creations acquired the distribution rights of the Nizam, West and East Godavari regions for 14.5 crore, 3", ".5 crore, 3.25 crore, and 3.43 crore respectively.", "At the same time, 14 Reels Entertainment and Devi films were in talks with the makers for the rights of Krishna and Ceded regions, respectively while 'S' Creations was expected to acquire the Guntur region rights for an amount of 44.25 crore. However, a press release on 19 June 2015 stated that Abhishek Pictures had acquired the theatrical distribution rights of the Nizam region. The film's global theatrical rights were sold for a total of 59.6 crore", ". The film's global theatrical rights were sold for a total of 59.6 crore. The theatrical rights of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and the rest of India were sold for 21 crore, 6 crore, and 2 crore respectively. Eros International acquired the film's worldwide distribution rights on 5 August 2015.", "Marketing", "The first look poster featured Mahesh riding a Cannondale Scalpel 29 Carbon 3 bike costing approximately 3.5 lakh. The first look teaser of 60 seconds was released on 31 May 2015. The second poster featuring Mahesh was released on 14 July 2015. Another poster featuring Mahesh was released on 24 July 2015. Close-Up entered into a co-branding partnership with this film in late July 2015", ". Close-Up entered into a co-branding partnership with this film in late July 2015. A cycling rally was held on 16 August 2015 at Gachibowli, Hyderabad, where Mahesh met 2,500 cyclists as a part of the film's promotion.", "Close-Up announced a \"Closeup Srimanthudu Meet Mahesh Babu Contest\", where Mahesh's fans were asked to give a missed call to 1800-266-2444 to enter the contest which was open from 1 August 2015 to 4 September 2015. The makers announced the auction of the cycle used by Mahesh in the film, with interested people being directed to bid for the cycle at www.iamsrimanthudu.com by donating 999. Whilst the remaining donors received a special T-shirt, G", ".iamsrimanthudu.com by donating 999. Whilst the remaining donors received a special T-shirt, G. Nageswara Reddy from Karimnagar district was announced as the winner of the cycle by the film's unit in mid-November 2015.", "Home media \nThe global television broadcast rights were sold to Zee Telugu in late May 2015 for a high but undisclosed price, estimated to be around 12 crore. Srimanthudu had its global television premiere on 8 November 2015 at 6:00 pm IST. It registered a TRP rating of 21.24, the third-highest rating ever for a Telugu film after Magadheera (2009) and Baahubali: The Beginning (which registered TRP ratings of 22.00 and 21.84, respectively).\n\nReception\n\nCritical reception", "Telugu Version", "Srimanthudu received positive reviews from critics. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu called Srimanthudu a \"star-driven film with a strong plot that's worth a watch\". Dundoo further stated, \"This isn't Ashutosh Gowariker Swades, where Shah Rukh Khan finds his true calling in a much more realistic manner. The social consciousness comes coated with commercially viable ingredients and still, makes for an engaging watch\"", ". Sify called Srimanthudu a \"right mix of Mahesh's emotional and class performance, Shruthi's charisma, fine storyline and all materials that are needed for a good entertainer\". The reviewer appreciated Siva for not writing a separate comedy track to distract from the story. Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, \"You could say this movie is Mahesh Babu's Swades (the 2004 SRK film) albeit a little dumbed down. Or a Mirchi (the Prabhas film) rehashed", ". Or a Mirchi (the Prabhas film) rehashed. Yet there can be no denying that Srimanthudu achieves more than any big ticket Tollywood potboiler has in more in that last decade , for the simple reason that it is a drama made like one.\" Sethumadhavan N of the Bangalore Mirror rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, \"Make no mistake, Srimanthudu is certainly a big commercial entertainer and has most of the elements needed for the same", ". But to deliver a total commercial which doesn't have a great plot and yet remaining engaging all the way isn't easy at all. That is where the writing by Siva emerges triumphant.\" Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, \"Though there are a few hiccups, Srimanthudu is a good emotional drama with excellent performance by Mahesh Babu, supported by good content with neat dialogues\". Hemanth Kumar C. R. of Outlook India rated the film 3", ". Hemanth Kumar C. R. of Outlook India rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and stated, \"In an industry where weaving a story to suit the image of an A-list star is common, Mahesh Babu's latest, Srimanthudu, takes a different course. The film might lack a big-starrer firepower, but by letting go of such conventions, what we get in the end is a sensible film full of heart and humanity.\" IndiaGlitz rated the film 3", ".\" IndiaGlitz rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and called Srimanthudu a \"family entertainer with mass appeal, thanks to Mahesh's understated acting\" and added, \"Koratala Shiva doesn't really unleash a Mirchi-fied Mahesh Babu even in the second half. All throughout, the billionaire Srimanthudu maintains his composure even when he has to turn into a 'hanthakudu'. Things are so understated that the fight-to-finish itself looks half-done.\"", "Karthik Keramalu of IBNLive rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and stated \"All in all, Srimanthudu is a notch above the so-so model of commercial films. It'd have been neater had the gap between the intent and the content of the film narrowed down further\". Behindwoods rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and stated, \"Overall, Srimanthudu is a usual family entertainer presented in a style of its own", ". It is highly entertaining at points and keeps the attention of the audience intact with the show master, Mahesh Babu's magic.\" Kirubhakar Purushothaman of India Today rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and wrote, \"There are many cliches throughout the story, but still Srimanthudu manages to hold your attention. Though Srimanthudu has failed to serve anything new, he is rich and complete. When the film ends, everyone in the film is happy. As are Mahesh Babu's fans", ". When the film ends, everyone in the film is happy. As are Mahesh Babu's fans.\" Suhas Yellapuntala of The New Indian Express wrote, \"The director showcases power, greed, corruption as well as regression, hope and agony, in equal measure. However, while Mahesh Babu effortlessly sails through the movie, Srimanthudu is clichéd, unimaginative and stretched beyond its potential\". He added, \"Srimanthudu would have made for much better viewing if it had been cut shorter by about half an hour", ". At the end of it, watching the film becomes an endurance rather than an experience\".", "Tamil version \nSelvandhan, the film’s Tamil dubbed version too received positive responses. Indiaglitz ,reviewing the Tamil version gave 3 out of 5 stating that \"On the whole, Selvandhan is a commendable family entertainer with enough mass elements.Behindwoods gave 2.75 out of 5 stars stating that the film is a fulfilling outing for all the fans of Mahesh Babu. Avinash Gopinath of Filmbeat gave 3 out of 5 stars stating that", "\"It is a Mahesh Babu show all the way and the actor has done complete justice to his role. Maybe it's the selection of scripts he needs to concentrate more on if he desires to take up more challenging roles. Shruti Haasan has managed to bag a role of substance and has delivered the goods and yet some refinement is needed when it comes to her acting skills", ". Supporting actors and actresses have done their part neatly and Jagapati Babu earns himself a special mention for his realistic portrayal of a rich father. Though the film is highly entertaining with good action sequences and dialogues, it doesn't have enough to keep the audience hooked throughout. Both first and second half lacks pace and songs by Devi Sri Prasad only acts as a speed breaker. He scores through his background music and makes up for his lacklustre songs", ". He scores through his background music and makes up for his lacklustre songs. Real winner in Selvandhan is its cinematographer R. Madhi, for he has used specific colors to match the feel of each and every scene. His angles though are pretty straight forward. Editor Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao could've used his scissors more efficiently as 2 hours 45 minutes is a touch too long even for a Mahesh Babu starrer", ". Overall apart from its entertaining qualities, what really works in Selvandhan is its interesting script which might put this movie in the winners list.\"", "Box office", "Global", "Registering an occupancy of 200% across the globe on its first day, Srimanthudu collected approximately a distributor share of 200cr at the AP/Nizam box office and 50cr from Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, the rest of India and overseas markets, taking its first day global total share to 350cr. With this, it managed to break the records set by Attarintiki Daredi (2013) and S/O Satyamurthy (2015) and became the second-highest Telugu film opener of the year", ". Trade analyst Trinath told Indo-Asian News Service that the first day global gross stood at 310 million.", "The film grossed 1000 million on its second day at the global box office, taking its two-day global total gross to 5000 million. With this, it became the second-fastest Telugu film of the year after Baahubali: The Beginning to do so. The film managed to collect a total net of 2000 million and a distributor share of 1000 million in two days at the global box office", ". The film grossed 250 million on its third day, taking its three-day global total gross to 750 million, thus breaking the records set by Telugu films other than Baahubali: The Beginning. The film grossed a total of 1.0125 billion in its first week at the global box office.", "The film grossed 220 million in its second weekend, taking its ten-day global total gross to 1.23 billion. The net and share figures for the ten days stood at 980 million and 826.3 million, respectively. The film grossed 150 million during the weekdays, taking its second week total to 370 million and two-week global total gross to 1.38 billion. The two-week global net and distributor share figures stood at 1.1 billion and 900 million, respectively", ".1 billion and 900 million, respectively. Witnessing a decline of 50% in its trade due to new releases, the film grossed 180 million in its third week, taking its three-week global total gross to 1.56 billion, thus becoming the fourth highest grossing south Indian film of all time. The two-week global net and distributor share figures stood at 1.25 billion and 960 million, respectively.", "Witnessing a further drop of 50% in its trade, the film grossed 95 million in its fourth week, taking its 28-day global total gross to 1.655 billion. On 25 September 2015, it completed a 50-day run in 185 centres, which was considered a record. It also completed its 100-day run in 15 centres on 14 November 2015. Srimanthudu grossed more than 2 billion in its lifetime run at the global box office, and was declared the second-highest grossing Telugu film ever.", "Overseas", "Srimanthudu collected approximately US$0.5 million from 117 locations on Thursday premiere shows held in the United States. The film collected US$1,753,698 (111.8 million) from about 150 screens at the United States box office in two days, which Taran Adarsh called an \"impressive\" start. By the end of its first weekend, Srimanthudu collected a total of US$2.1 million at the United States box office and became the second-highest grossing Telugu film of all time in the country", ". It also became the second Telugu film to cross the US$2 million mark, after Baahubali: The Beginning.", "In its second weekend, Srimanthudu collected US$342,010 from 102 screens at the United States box office thus taking its ten-day total to US$2,654,658 (173.5 million). In ten days, the film collected US$8,036 (0.52 million) from two screens at the Canada box office and approximately 70 million at the United Arab Emirates box office. In its second weekend, Srimanthudu collected 4,764 from two screens in Malaysia, taking its ten-day total to 15,178 (0.24 million)", ".24 million). With this, it became the second-highest grossing Telugu film in the international market by collecting a total of approximately US$3,735,139 (242.2 million).", "In its third weekend, Srimanthudu stood at the second place in the Indian films at the United States box office. It collected US$94,498 (6.257 million) from 46 screens. The United States box office total stood at US$2,820,214 (188 million), which was considered quite a remarkable achievement for a South Indian film. After losing 49% of screens due to new releases, Srimanthudu collected US$27,647 from 24 screens in its fourth weekend. The United States box office total stood at US$2,869,560 (190.7 million)", ". The United States box office total stood at US$2,869,560 (190.7 million). By then, the film's screening had ended in Canada, the United Arab Emirates, and other key international markets. Srimanthudu lost eighteen screens to Bhale Bhale Magadivoy and other new releases, thus witnessing a drop of 75% in its business. Collecting US$7,538 from six screens, the film's 31-day United States box office total stood at US$2,882,809 (192.6 million), with a per-screen average of US$1,256.", "Accolades", "Legacy", "After the release of the movie, Srimanthudu, police officers and district level officers adopted 523 and 606 panchayats, respectively, in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, which Deccan Herald called a feat that India's prime minister Narendra Modi Saansad Adarsh Gram scheme had failed to do. Actors, bureaucrats, and politicians also announced plans to develop the backward villages", ". Actors, bureaucrats, and politicians also announced plans to develop the backward villages. Mahesh adopted his father Krishna native village Burripalem, a minor panchayat in Tenali, and announced a plan to address basic needs of the community such as potable drinking water and better roads and drainage systems. After discussing with Telangana's then Rural Development minister K. T. Rama Rao, Mahesh decided to adopt Siddhapuram, a village in Mahabubnagar district", ". T. Rama Rao, Mahesh decided to adopt Siddhapuram, a village in Mahabubnagar district. After the film's release, many of Mahesh's fans began using eco-friendly modes of transportation.", "According to Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu, Srimanthudu success \"heralded the acceptance of new stories and a rejection of template comedies that have been recycled for over ten years\". Similarly, writer Kona Venkat stated, \"People are ready to encourage new subjects, as it was proved with Srimanthudu. There are no comic scenes in the film and it runs purely on story and was successful\". Celebrities such as Manchu Vishnu, Nithin, Harish Shankar, Gopimohan and others praised the film. Director S. S", ". Director S. S. Rajamouli opined that Srimanthudu success lies in the \"clever mixture of village adoption with family sentiment\", adding that Mahesh \"looks cool, acts subtle, talks mellow\" and the overall effect is \"flabbergasting\". Director Ram Gopal Varma said that Srimanthudu proved that impact \"doesn't only come from 100 of crores and 100 days of shooting\" and \"a simple story and plain closeups of Mahesh can too\"", ". Kamal Haasan called Srimanthudu a \"classic Telugu commercial masala\" film and a \"complete, satisfying entertainer\".", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n \n\n2010s Telugu-language films\n2015 action drama films\n2015 films\nFilms scored by Devi Sri Prasad\nFilms about corruption in India\nFilms about farmers' suicides in India\nFilms about poverty in India\nFilms shot in Karaikudi\nFilms about social issues in India\nIndian action drama films\nFilms about Indian slavery\nFilms shot in Pollachi\nFilms shot in Malaysia\nFilms shot in Palani\nFilms directed by Koratala Siva\nMythri Movie Makers films" ]

[ "Jean-Philippe Rameau (; – ) was a French composer and music theorist. Regarded as one of the most important French composers and music theorists of the 18th century, he replaced Jean-Baptiste Lully as the dominant composer of French opera and is also considered the leading French composer of his time for the harpsichord, alongside François Couperin.", "Little is known about Rameau's early years. It was not until the 1720s that he won fame as a major theorist of music with his Treatise on Harmony (1722) and also in the following years as a composer of masterpieces for the harpsichord, which circulated throughout Europe. He was almost 50 before he embarked on the operatic career on which his reputation chiefly rests today", ". His debut, Hippolyte et Aricie (1733), caused a great stir and was fiercely attacked by the supporters of Lully's style of music for its revolutionary use of harmony. Nevertheless, Rameau's pre-eminence in the field of French opera was soon acknowledged, and he was later attacked as an \"establishment\" composer by those who favoured Italian opera during the controversy known as the Querelle des Bouffons in the 1750s", ". Rameau's music had gone out of fashion by the end of the 18th century, and it was not until the 20th that serious efforts were made to revive it. Today, he enjoys renewed appreciation with performances and recordings of his music ever more frequent.", "Life\nThe details of Rameau's life are generally obscure, especially concerning his first forty years, before he moved to Paris for good. He was a secretive man, and even his wife knew nothing of his early life, which explains the scarcity of biographical information available.\n\nEarly years, 1683–1732", "Early years, 1683–1732\n\nRameau's early years are particularly obscure. He was born on 25 September 1683 in Dijon, and baptised the same day. His father, Jean, worked as an organist in several churches around Dijon, and his mother, Claudine Demartinécourt, was the daughter of a notary. The couple had eleven children (five girls and six boys), of whom Jean-Philippe was the seventh.", "Rameau was taught music before he could read or write. He was educated at the Jesuit college at Godrans in Dijon, but he was not a good pupil and disrupted classes with his singing, later claiming that his passion for opera had begun at the age of twelve. Initially intended for the law, Rameau decided he wanted to be a musician, and his father sent him to Italy, where he stayed for a short while in Milan", ". On his return, he worked as a violinist in travelling companies and then as an organist in provincial cathedrals before moving to Paris for the first time. Here, in 1706, he published his earliest known compositions: the harpsichord works that make up his first book of Pièces de Clavecin, which show the influence of his friend Louis Marchand.", "In 1709, he moved back to Dijon to take over his father's job as organist in the main church. The contract was for six years, but Rameau left before then and took up similar posts in Lyon and Clermont-Ferrand. During this period, he composed motets for church performance as well as secular cantatas.", "In 1722, he returned to Paris for good, and here he published his most important work of music theory, Traité de l'harmonie (Treatise on Harmony). This soon won him a great reputation, and it was followed in 1726 by his Nouveau système de musique théorique. In 1724 and 1729 (or 1730), he also published two more collections of harpsichord pieces.", "Rameau took his first tentative steps into composing stage music when the writer Alexis Piron asked him to provide songs for his popular comic plays written for the Paris Fairs. Four collaborations followed, beginning with L'endriague in 1723; none of the music has survived.", "On 25 February 1726 Rameau married the 19-year-old Marie-Louise Mangot, who came from a musical family from Lyon and was a good singer and instrumentalist. The couple would have four children, two boys and two girls, and the marriage is said to have been a happy one.\n\nIn spite of his fame as a music theorist, Rameau had trouble finding a post as an organist in Paris.\n\nLater years, 1733–1764", "It was not until he was approaching 50 that Rameau decided to embark on the operatic career on which his fame as a composer mainly rests. He had already approached writer Antoine Houdar de la Motte for a libretto in 1727, but nothing came of it; he was finally inspired to try his hand at the prestigious genre of tragédie en musique after seeing Montéclair's Jephté in 1732. Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie premiered at the Académie Royale de Musique on 1 October 1733", ". Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie premiered at the Académie Royale de Musique on 1 October 1733. It was immediately recognised as the most significant opera to appear in France since the death of Lully, though its reception drew controversy. Some, such as the composer André Campra, were stunned by its originality and wealth of invention; others found its harmonic innovations discordant and saw the work as an attack on the French musical tradition", ". The two camps, the so-called Lullyistes and the Rameauneurs, fought a pamphlet war over the issue for the rest of the decade.", "Just before this time, Rameau had made the acquaintance of the powerful financier Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière, who became his patron until 1753. La Poupelinière's mistress (and later, wife), Thérèse des Hayes, was Rameau's pupil and a great admirer of his music. In 1731, Rameau became the conductor of La Poupelinière's private orchestra, which was of an extremely high quality. He held the post for 22 years; he was succeeded by Johann Stamitz and then François-Joseph Gossec", ". He held the post for 22 years; he was succeeded by Johann Stamitz and then François-Joseph Gossec. La Poupelinière's salon enabled Rameau to meet some of the leading cultural figures of the day, including Voltaire, who soon began collaborating with the composer. Their first project, the tragédie en musique Samson, was abandoned because an opera on a religious theme by Voltaire—a notorious critic of the Church—was likely to be banned by the authorities", ". Meanwhile, Rameau had introduced his new musical style into the lighter genre of the opéra-ballet with the highly successful Les Indes galantes. It was followed by two tragédies en musique, Castor et Pollux (1737) and Dardanus (1739), and another opéra-ballet, Les fêtes d'Hébé (also 1739). All these operas of the 1730s are among Rameau's most highly regarded works. However, the composer followed them with six years of silence, in which the only work he produced was a new version of Dardanus (1744)", ". The reason for this interval in the composer's creative life is unknown, although it is possible he had a falling-out with the authorities at the Académie royale de la musique.", "The year 1745 was a turning point in Rameau's career. He received several commissions from the court for works to celebrate the French victory at the Battle of Fontenoy and the marriage of the Dauphin to Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain. Rameau produced his most important comic opera, Platée, as well as two collaborations with Voltaire: the opéra-ballet Le temple de la gloire and the comédie-ballet La princesse de Navarre", ". They gained Rameau official recognition; he was granted the title \"Compositeur du Cabinet du Roi\" and given a substantial pension. 1745 also saw the beginning of the bitter enmity between Rameau and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Though best known today as a thinker, Rousseau had ambitions to be a composer. He had written an opera, Les muses galantes (inspired by Rameau's Indes galantes), but Rameau was unimpressed by this musical tribute", ". At the end of 1745, Voltaire and Rameau, who were busy on other works, commissioned Rousseau to turn La Princesse de Navarre into a new opera, with linking recitative, called Les fêtes de Ramire. Rousseau then claimed the two had stolen the credit for the words and music he had contributed, though musicologists have been able to identify almost nothing of the piece as Rousseau's work. Nevertheless, the embittered Rousseau nursed a grudge against Rameau for the rest of his life.", "Rousseau was a major participant in the second great quarrel that erupted over Rameau's work, the so-called Querelle des Bouffons of 1752–54, which pitted French tragédie en musique against Italian opera buffa. This time, Rameau was accused of being out of date and his music too complicated in comparison with the simplicity and \"naturalness\" of a work like Pergolesi's La serva padrona", ". In the mid-1750s, Rameau criticised Rousseau's contributions to the musical articles in the Encyclopédie, which led to a quarrel with the leading philosophes d'Alembert and Diderot. As a result, Jean-François Rameau became a character in Diderot's then-unpublished dialogue, Le neveu de Rameau (Rameau's Nephew).", "In 1753, La Poupelinière took a scheming musician, Jeanne-Thérèse Goermans, as his mistress. The daughter of harpsichord maker Jacques Goermans, she went by the name of Madame de Saint-Aubin, and her opportunistic husband pushed her into the arms of the rich financier", ". She had La Poupelinière engage the services of the Bohemian composer Johann Stamitz, who succeeded Rameau after a breach developed between Rameau and his patron; however, by then, Rameau no longer needed La Poupelinière's financial support and protection.", "Rameau pursued his activities as a theorist and composer until his death. He lived with his wife and two of his children in his large suite of rooms in Rue des Bons-Enfants, which he would leave every day, lost in thought, to take a solitary walk in the nearby gardens of the Palais-Royal or the Tuileries", ". Sometimes he would meet the young writer Chabanon, who noted some of Rameau's disillusioned confidential remarks: \"Day by day, I'm acquiring more good taste, but I no longer have any genius\" and \"The imagination is worn out in my old head; it's not wise at this age wanting to practise arts that are nothing but imagination.\"", "Rameau composed prolifically in the late 1740s and early 1750s. After that, his rate of productivity dropped off, probably due to old age and ill health, although he was still able to write another comic opera, Les Paladins, in 1760. This was due to be followed by a final tragédie en musique, Les Boréades; but for unknown reasons, the opera was never produced and had to wait until the late 20th century for a proper staging", ". Rameau died on 12 September 1764 after suffering from a fever, thirteen days before his 81st birthday. At his bedside, he objected to a song sung. His last words were, \"What the devil do you mean to sing to me, priest? You are out of tune.\" He was buried in the church of St. Eustache, Paris on the same day of his death", ".\" He was buried in the church of St. Eustache, Paris on the same day of his death. Although a bronze bust and red marble tombstone were erected in his memory there by the Société de la Compositeurs de Musique in 1883, the exact site of his burial remains unknown to this day.", "Rameau's personality", "While the details of his biography are vague and fragmentary, the details of Rameau's personal and family life are almost completely obscure. Rameau's music, so graceful and attractive, completely contradicts the man's public image and what we know of his character as described (or perhaps unfairly caricatured) by Diderot in his satirical novel Le Neveu de Rameau. Throughout his life, music was his consuming passion. It occupied his entire thinking; Philippe Beaussant calls him a monomaniac", ". It occupied his entire thinking; Philippe Beaussant calls him a monomaniac. Piron explained that \"His heart and soul were in his harpsichord; once he had shut its lid, there was no one home.\" Physically, Rameau was tall and exceptionally thin, as can be seen by the sketches we have of him, including a famous portrait by Carmontelle. He had a \"loud voice\". His speech was difficult to understand, just like his handwriting, which was never fluent", ". His speech was difficult to understand, just like his handwriting, which was never fluent. As a man, he was secretive, solitary, irritable, proud of his own achievements (more as a theorist than as a composer), brusque with those who contradicted him, and quick to anger", ". It is difficult to imagine him among the leading wits, including Voltaire (to whom he bears more than a passing physical resemblance), who frequented La Poupelinière's salon; his music was his passport, and it made up for his lack of social graces.", "His enemies exaggerated his faults; e.g. his supposed miserliness. In fact, it seems that his thriftiness was the result of long years spent in obscurity (when his income was uncertain and scanty) rather than part of his character, because he could also be generous. He helped his nephew Jean-François when he came to Paris and also helped establish the career of Claude-Bénigne Balbastre in the capital", ". Furthermore, he gave his daughter Marie-Louise a considerable dowry when she became a Visitandine nun in 1750, and he paid a pension to one of his sisters when she became ill. Financial security came late to him, following the success of his stage works and the grant of a royal pension (a few months before his death, he was also ennobled and made a knight of the Ordre de Saint-Michel). But he did not change his way of life, keeping his worn-out clothes, his single pair of shoes, and his old furniture", ". After his death, it was discovered that he possessed only one dilapidated single-keyboard harpsichord in his rooms in Rue des Bons-Enfants, yet he also had a bag containing 1691 gold louis.", "Music", "General character of Rameau's music", "Rameau's music is characterised by the exceptional technical knowledge of a composer who wanted above all to be renowned as a theorist of the art. Nevertheless, it is not solely addressed to the intelligence, and Rameau himself claimed, \"I try to conceal art with art.\" The paradox of this music was that it was new, using techniques never known before, but it took place within the framework of old-fashioned forms", ". Rameau appeared revolutionary to the Lullyistes, disturbed by complex harmony of his music; and reactionary to the , who only paid attention to its content and who either would not or could not listen to the sound it made", ". The incomprehension Rameau received from his contemporaries stopped him from repeating such daring experiments as the second Trio des Parques in Hippolyte et Aricie, which he was forced to remove after a handful of performances because the singers had been either unable or unwilling to execute it correctly.", "Rameau's musical works", "Rameau's musical works may be divided into four distinct groups, which differ greatly in importance: a few cantatas; a few motets for large chorus; some pieces for solo harpsichord or harpsichord accompanied by other instruments; and, finally, his works for the stage, to which he dedicated the last thirty years of his career almost exclusively", ". Like most of his contemporaries, Rameau often reused melodies that had been particularly successful, but never without meticulously adapting them; they are not simple transcriptions. Besides, no borrowings have been found from other composers, although his earliest works show the influence of other music. Rameau's reworkings of his own material are numerous; e.g", ". Rameau's reworkings of his own material are numerous; e.g., in Les Fêtes d'Hébé, we find L'Entretien des Muses, the Musette, and the Tambourin, taken from the 1724 book of harpsichord pieces, as well as an aria from the cantata Le Berger Fidèle.", "Motets", "For at least 26 years, Rameau was a professional organist in the service of religious institutions, and yet the body of sacred music he composed is exceptionally small and his organ works nonexistent. Judging by the evidence, it was not his favourite field, but rather, simply a way of making reasonable money. Rameau's few religious compositions are nevertheless remarkable and compare favourably to the works of specialists in the area", ". Only four motets have been attributed to Rameau with any certainty: Deus noster refugium, In convertendo, Quam dilecta, and Laboravi.", "Cantatas", "The cantata was a highly successful genre in the early 18th century. The French cantata, which should not be confused with the Italian or the German cantata, was \"invented\" in 1706 by the poet Jean-Baptiste Rousseau and soon taken up by many famous composers of the day, such as Montéclair, Campra, and Clérambault. Cantatas were Rameau's first contact with dramatic music. The modest forces the cantata required meant it was a genre within the reach of a composer who was still unknown", ". Musicologists can only guess at the dates of Rameau's six surviving cantatas, and the names of the librettists are unknown.", "Instrumental music", "Along with François Couperin, Rameau was a master of the 18th-century French school of harpsichord music, and both made a break with the style of the first generation of harpsichordists whose compositions adhered to the relatively standardised suite form, which had reached its apogee in the first decade of the 18th century and successive collections of pieces by Louis Marchand, Gaspard Le Roux, Louis-Nicolas Clérambault, Jean-François Dandrieu, Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre", ", Gaspard Le Roux, Louis-Nicolas Clérambault, Jean-François Dandrieu, Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, Charles Dieupart and Nicolas Siret", ". Rameau and Couperin had different styles, and it seems they did not know one another: Couperin was one of the official court musicians; Rameau, fifteen years his junior, achieved fame only after Couperin's death.", "Rameau published his first book of harpsichord pieces in 1706. (Cf. Couperin, who waited until 1713 before publishing his first \"Ordres\".) Rameau's music includes pieces in the pure tradition of the French suite: imitative (\"Le rappel des oiseaux\", \"La poule\") and characterful (\"Les tendres plaintes\", \"L'entretien des Muses\")", ". But there are also works of pure virtuosity that resemble Domenico Scarlatti (\"Les tourbillons\", \"Les trois mains\") as well as pieces that reveal the experiments of a theorist and musical innovator (\"L'enharmonique\", \"Les Cyclopes\"), which had a marked influence on Louis-Claude Daquin, Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer and Jacques Duphly. Rameau's suites are grouped in the traditional way, by key", ". Rameau's suites are grouped in the traditional way, by key. The first set of dances (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Les Trois Mains, Fanfairenette, La Triomphante, Gavotte et 6 doubles) is centred on A major and A minor, while the remaining pieces (Les tricoteuses, L'Indifferente, Première Menuet, Deuxième Menuet, La Poule, Les Triolets, Les Sauvages, L'Enharmonique, L'Egiptienne [sic]) are centred around G major and G minor.", "Rameau's second and third collections appeared in 1724 and 1727. After these he composed only one piece for the harpsichord, the eight-minute \"La Dauphine\" of 1747, while the very short \"Les petits marteaux\" (c. 1750) has also been attributed to him.", "During his semiretirement (1740 to 1744) he wrote the Pièces de clavecin en concerts (1741), which some musicologists consider the pinnacle of French Baroque chamber music. Adopting a formula successfully employed by Mondonville a few years earlier, Rameau fashioned these pieces differently from trio sonatas in that the harpsichord is not simply there as basso continuo to accompany melody instruments (violin, flute, viol) but as equal partner in \"concert\" with them", ". Rameau claimed that this music would be equally satisfying played on the harpsichord alone, but the claim is not wholly convincing because he took the trouble to transcribe five of them himself, those the lack of other instruments would show the least.", "Opera", "After 1733 Rameau dedicated himself mostly to opera. On a strictly musical level, 18th-century French Baroque opera is richer and more varied than contemporary Italian opera, especially in the place given to choruses and dances but also in the musical continuity that arises from the respective relationships between the arias and the recitatives. Another essential difference: whereas Italian opera gave a starring role to female sopranos and castrati, French opera had no use for the latter", ". The Italian opera of Rameau's day (opera seria, opera buffa) was essentially divided into musical sections (da capo arias, duets, trios, etc.) and sections that were spoken or almost spoken (recitativo secco). It was during the latter that the action progressed while the audience waited for the next aria; on the other hand, the text of the arias was almost entirely buried beneath music whose chief aim was to show off the virtuosity of the singer", ". Nothing of the kind is to be found in French opera of the day; since Lully, the text had to remain comprehensible—limiting certain techniques such as the vocalise, which was reserved for special words such as (\"glory\") or (\"victory\"). A subtle equilibrium existed between the more and the less musical parts: melodic recitative on the one hand and arias that were often closer to arioso on the other, alongside virtuoso \"ariettes\" in the Italian style", ". This form of continuous music prefigures Wagnerian drama even more than does the \"reform\" opera of Gluck.", "Five essential components may be discerned in Rameau's operatic scores:", "Pieces of \"pure\" music (overtures, ritornelli, music which closes scenes). Unlike the highly stereotyped Lullian overture, Rameau's overtures show an extraordinary variety. Even in his earliest works, where he uses the standard French model, Rameau—the born symphonist and master of orchestration—composes novel and unique pieces", ". A few pieces are particularly striking, such as the overture to Zaïs, depicting the chaos before the creation of the universe, that of Pigmalion, suggesting the sculptor's chipping away at the statue with his mallet, or many more conventional depictions of storms and earthquakes, as well perhaps as the imposing final chaconnes of Les Indes galantes or Dardanus.", "Dance music: the danced interludes, which were obligatory even in tragédie en musique, allowed Rameau to give free rein to his inimitable sense of rhythm, melody, and choreography, acknowledged by all his contemporaries, including the dancers themselves. This \"learned\" composer, forever preoccupied by his next theoretical work, also was one who strung together gavottes, minuets, loures, rigaudons, passepieds, tambourins, and musettes by the dozen", ". According to his biographer, Cuthbert Girdlestone, \"The immense superiority of all that pertains to Rameau in choreography still needs emphasizing\", and the German scholar Hermann Wolfgang von Waltershausen affirmed:", "Rameau was the greatest ballet composer of all times. The genius of his creation rests on one hand on his perfect artistic permeation by folk-dance types, on the other hand on the constant preservation of living contact with the practical requirements of the ballet stage, which prevented an estrangement between the expression of the body from the spirit of absolute music.", "Choruses: Padre Martini, the erudite musicologist who corresponded with Rameau, affirmed that \"the French are excellent at choruses\", obviously thinking of Rameau himself. A great master of harmony, Rameau knew how to compose sumptuous choruses—whether monodic, polyphonic, or interspersed with passages for solo singers or the orchestra—and whatever feelings needed to be expressed.", "Arias: less frequent than in Italian opera, Rameau nevertheless offers many striking examples. Particularly admired arias include Télaïre's \"Tristes apprêts\" from Castor et Pollux; \"Ô jour affreux\" and \"Lieux funestes\" from Dardanus; Huascar's invocations in Les Indes galantes; and the final ariette in Pigmalion. In Platée we encounter a showstopping ars poetica aria for the character of La Folie (the madness), \"Formons les plus brillants concerts / Aux langeurs d'Apollon\".", "Recitative: much closer to arioso than to recitativo secco. The composer took scrupulous care to observe French prosody and used his harmonic knowledge to give expression to his protagonists' feelings.", "During the first part of his operatic career (1733–1739), Rameau wrote his great masterpieces destined for the Académie royale de musique: three tragédies en musique and two opéra-ballets that still form the core of his repertoire. After the interval of 1740 to 1744, he became the official court musician, and for the most part, composed pieces intended to entertain, with plenty of dance music emphasising sensuality and an idealised pastoral atmosphere", ". In his last years, Rameau returned to a renewed version of his early style in Les Paladins and Les Boréades.", "His Zoroastre was first performed in 1749. According to one of Rameau's admirers, Cuthbert Girdlestone, this opera has a distinctive place in his works: \"The profane passions of hatred and jealousy are rendered more intensely [than in his other works] and with a strong sense of reality.\"", "Rameau and his librettists", "Unlike Lully, who collaborated with Philippe Quinault on almost all his operas, Rameau rarely worked with the same librettist twice", ". He was highly demanding and bad-tempered, unable to maintain longstanding partnerships with his librettists, with the exception of Louis de Cahusac, who collaborated with him on several operas, including Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour (1747), Zaïs (1748), Naïs (1749), Zoroastre (1749; revised 1756), La naissance d'Osiris (1754), and Anacréon (the first of Rameau's operas by that name, 1754). He is also credited with writing the libretto of Rameau's final work, Les Boréades (c. 1763).", "Many Rameau specialists have regretted that the collaboration with Houdar de la Motte never took place, and that the Samson project with Voltaire came to nothing because the librettists Rameau did work with were second-rate. He made his acquaintance of most of them at La Poupelinière's salon, at the , or at the house of the comte de Livry, all meeting places for leading cultural figures of the day.", "Not one of his librettists managed to produce a libretto on the same artistic level as Rameau's music: the plots were often overly complex or unconvincing. But this was standard for the genre, and is probably part of its charm. The versification, too, was mediocre, and Rameau often had to have the libretto modified and rewrite the music after the premiere because of the ensuing criticism. This is why we have two versions of Castor et Pollux (1737 and 1754) and three of Dardanus (1739, 1744, and 1760).", "Reputation and influence", "By the end of his life, Rameau's music had come under attack in France from theorists who favoured Italian models. However, foreign composers working in the Italian tradition were increasingly looking towards Rameau as a way of reforming their own leading operatic genre, opera seria. Tommaso Traetta produced two operas setting translations of Rameau libretti that show the French composer's influence, Ippolito ed Aricia (1759) and I Tintaridi (based on Castor et Pollux, 1760)", ". Traetta had been advised by Count Francesco Algarotti, a leading proponent of reform according to French models; Algarotti was a major influence on the most important \"reformist\" composer, Christoph Willibald Gluck. Gluck's three Italian reform operas of the 1760s—Orfeo ed Euridice, Alceste, and Paride ed Elena—reveal a knowledge of Rameau's works. For instance, both Orfeo and the 1737 version of Castor et Pollux open with the funeral of one of the leading characters who later comes back to life", ". Many of the operatic reforms advocated in the preface to Gluck's Alceste were already present in Rameau's works. Rameau had used accompanied recitatives, and the overtures in his later operas reflected the action to come, so when Gluck arrived in Paris in 1774 to produce a series of six French operas, he could be seen as continuing in the tradition of Rameau. Nevertheless, while Gluck's popularity survived the French Revolution, Rameau's did not", ". Nevertheless, while Gluck's popularity survived the French Revolution, Rameau's did not. By the end of the 18th century, his operas had vanished from the repertoire.", "For most of the 19th century, Rameau's music remained unplayed, known only by reputation. Hector Berlioz investigated Castor et Pollux and particularly admired the aria \"Tristes apprêts\", but \"whereas the modern listener readily perceives the common ground with Berlioz' music, he himself was more conscious of the gap which separated them.\" French humiliation in the Franco-Prussian War brought about a change in Rameau's fortunes. As Rameau biographer Jean Malignon wrote, \"..", ". As Rameau biographer Jean Malignon wrote, \"...the German victory over France in 1870–71 was the grand occasion for digging up great heroes from the French past. Rameau, like so many others, was flung into the enemy's face to bolster our courage and our faith in the national destiny of France.\" In 1894, composer Vincent d'Indy founded the Schola Cantorum to promote French national music; the society put on several revivals of works by Rameau", ". Among the audience was Claude Debussy, who especially cherished Castor et Pollux, revived in 1903: \"Gluck's genius was deeply rooted in Rameau's works... a detailed comparison allows us to affirm that Gluck could replace Rameau on the French stage only by assimilating the latter's beautiful works and making them his own", ".\" Camille Saint-Saëns (by editing and publishing the Pièces in 1895) and Paul Dukas were two other important French musicians who gave practical championship to Rameau's music in their day, but interest in Rameau petered out again, and it was not until the late 20th century that a serious effort was made to revive his works. Over half of Rameau's operas have now been recorded, in particular by conductors such as John Eliot Gardiner, William Christie, and Marc Minkowski.", "One of his pieces is commonly heard in the Victoria Centre in Nottingham by the Rowland Emett timepiece, the Aqua Horological Tintinnabulator. Emett quoted that Rameau made music for his school and the shopping centre without him knowing it.\n\nTheoretical works", "Treatise on Harmony, 1722", "Rameau's 1722 Treatise on Harmony initiated a revolution in music theory. Rameau posited the discovery of the \"fundamental law\" or what he referred to as the \"fundamental bass\" of all Western music. Heavily influenced by new Cartesian modes of thought and analysis, Rameau's methodology incorporated mathematics, commentary, analysis and a didacticism that was specifically intended to illuminate, scientifically, the structure and principles of music", ". With careful deductive reasoning, he attempted to derive universal harmonic principles from natural causes. Previous treatises on harmony had been purely practical; Rameau embraced the new philosophical rationalism, quickly rising to prominence in France as the \"Isaac Newton of Music\". His fame subsequently spread throughout all Europe, and his Treatise became the definitive authority on music theory, forming the foundation for instruction in western music that persists to this day.", "List of works\nRCT numbering refers to Rameau Catalogue Thématique established by Sylvie Bouissou and Denis Herlin.\n\nInstrumental works", "Pièces de clavecin. Trois livres. Pieces for harpsichord, 3 books, published 1706, 1724, 1726/27(?)\nRCT 1 – Premier livre de Clavecin (1706)\nRCT 2 – Pièces de clavecin (1724) – Suite in E minor\nRCT 3 – Pièces de clavecin (1724) – Suite in D major\nRCT 4 – Pièces de clavecin (1724) – Menuet in C major\nRCT 5 – Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin (1726/27) – Suite in A minor\nRCT 6 – Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin (1726/27) – Suite in G", "RCT 6 – Nouvelles suites de pièces de clavecin (1726/27) – Suite in G\n Pieces de clavecin en concerts Five albums of character pieces for harpsichord, violin and viol. (1741)\nRCT 7 – Concert I in C minor\nRCT 8 – Concert II in G major\nRCT 9 – Concert III in A major\nRCT 10 – Concert IV in B-flat major\nRCT 11 – Concert V in D minor\n RCT 12 – La Dauphine for harpsichord. (1747)\n RCT 12bis – Les petits marteaux for harpsichord.\n Several orchestral dance suites extracted from his operas.", "Motets\n\n RCT 13 – Deus noster refugium (c. 1713–1715)\n RCT 14 – In convertendo (probably before 1720, rev. 1751)\n RCT 15 – Quam dilecta (c. 1713–1715)\n RCT 16 – Laboravi (published in the Traité de l'harmonie, 1722)\n\nCanons", "RCT 17 – Ah! loin de rire, pleurons (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) (pub. 1722)\n RCT 18 – Avec du vin, endormons-nous (2 sopranos, Tenor) (1719)\n RCT 18bis – L'épouse entre deux draps (3 sopranos) (formerly attributed to François Couperin)\n RCT 18ter – Je suis un fou Madame (3 voix égales) (1720)\n RCT 19 – Mes chers amis, quittez vos rouges bords (3 sopranos, 3 basses) (pub. 1780)\n RCT 20 – Réveillez-vous, dormeur sans fin (5 voix égales) (pub. 1722)", "RCT 20 – Réveillez-vous, dormeur sans fin (5 voix égales) (pub. 1722)\n RCT 20bis – Si tu ne prends garde à toi (2 sopranos, bass) (1720)", "Songs\n\n RCT 21.1 – L'amante préoccupée or A l'objet que j'adore (soprano, continuo) (1763)\n RCT 21.2 – Lucas, pour se gausser de nous (soprano, bass, continuo) (pub. 1707)\n RCT 21.3 – Non, non, le dieu qui sait aimer (soprano, continuo) (1763)\n RCT 21.4 – Un Bourbon ouvre sa carrière or Un héros ouvre sa carrière (alto, continuo) (1751, air belonging to Acante et Céphise but censored before its first performance and never reintroduced in the work).\n\nCantatas", "Cantatas\n\n RCT 23 – Aquilon et Orithie (between 1715 and 1720)\n RCT 28 – Thétis (same period)\n RCT 26 – L'impatience (same period)\n RCT 22 – Les amants trahis (around 1720)\n RCT 27 – Orphée (same period)\n RCT 24 – Le berger fidèle (1728)\n RCT 25 – Cantate pour le jour de la Saint Louis (1740)\n\nOperas and stage works\n\nTragédies en musique", "Operas and stage works\n\nTragédies en musique\n\n RCT 43 – Hippolyte et Aricie (1733; revised 1742 and 1757)\n RCT 32 – Castor et Pollux (1737; revised 1754)\n RCT 35 – Dardanus (1739; revised 1744 and 1760)\n RCT 62 – Zoroastre (1749; revised 1756, with new music for Acts II, III & V)\n RCT 31 – Les Boréades or Abaris (unperformed; in rehearsal 1763)\n\nOpéra-ballets", "Opéra-ballets\n\n RCT 44 – Les Indes galantes (1735; revised 1736)\n RCT 41 – Les fêtes d'Hébé or les Talens Lyriques (1739)\n RCT 39 – Les fêtes de Polymnie (1745)\n RCT 59 – Le temple de la gloire (1745; revised 1746)\n RCT 38 – Les fêtes de l'Hymen et de l'Amour or Les Dieux d'Egypte (1747)\n RCT 58 – Les surprises de l'Amour (1748; revised 1757)\n\nPastorales héroïques\n\n RCT 60 – Zaïs (1748)\n RCT 49 – Naïs (1749)\n RCT 29 – Acante et Céphise or La sympathie (1751)\n RCT 34 – Daphnis et Eglé (1753)", "Comédies lyriques\n\n RCT 53 – Platée or Junon jalouse (1745)\n RCT 51 – Les Paladins or Le Vénitien (1760)\n\nComédie-ballet\n\n RCT 54 – La princesse de Navarre (1744)\n\nActes de ballet", "RCT 33 – Les courses de Tempé (1734)\n RCT 40 – Les fêtes de Ramire (1745)\n RCT 52 – Pigmalion (1748)\n RCT 42 – La guirlande or Les fleurs enchantées (1751)\n RCT 57 – Les sibarites or Sibaris (1753)\n RCT 48 – La naissance d'Osiris or La Fête Pamilie (1754)\n RCT 30 – Anacréon (1754)\n RCT 58 – Anacréon (completely different work from the above, 1757, 3rd Entrée of Les surprises de l'Amour)\n RCT 61 – Zéphire (date unknown)\n RCT 50 – Nélée et Myrthis (date unknown)\n RCT 45 – Io (unfinished, date unknown)", "Lost works\n\n RCT 56 – Samson (tragédie en musique) (first version written 1733–1734; second version 1736; neither were ever staged )\n RCT 46 – Linus (tragédie en musique) (1751, score stolen after a rehearsal)\n RCT 47 – Lisis et Délie (pastorale) (scheduled on November 6, 1753)\n\nIncidental music for opéras comiques\nMusic mostly lost.", "Incidental music for opéras comiques\nMusic mostly lost.\n\n RCT 36 – L'endriague (in 3 acts, 1723)\n RCT 37 – L'enrôlement d'Arlequin (in 1 act, 1726)\n RCT 55 – La robe de dissension or Le faux prodige (in 2 acts, 1726)\n RCT 55bis – La rose or Les jardins de l'Hymen (in a prologue and 1 act, 1744)\n\nWritings", "Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels (Paris, 1722)\n Nouveau système de musique théorique (Paris, 1726)\n Dissertation sur les différents méthodes d'accompagnement pour le clavecin, ou pour l'orgue (Paris, 1732)\n Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique théorique et pratique (Paris, 1737)\n Mémoire où l'on expose les fondemens du Système de musique théorique et pratique de M. Rameau (1749)\n Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie (Paris, 1750)", "Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie (Paris, 1750)\n Nouvelles réflexions de M. Rameau sur sa 'Démonstration du principe de l'harmonie (Paris, 1752)\n Observations sur notre instinct pour la musique (Paris, 1754)\n Erreurs sur la musique dans l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1755)\n Suite des erreurs sur la musique dans l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1756)\n Reponse de M. Rameau à MM. les editeurs de l'Encyclopédie sur leur dernier Avertissement (Paris, 1757)\n Nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore (1758–59)", "Nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore (1758–59)\n Code de musique pratique, ou Méthodes pour apprendre la musique...avec des nouvelles réflexions sur le principe sonore (Paris, 1760)\n Lettre à M. Alembert sur ses opinions en musique (Paris, 1760)\n Origine des sciences, suivie d'un controverse sur le même sujet (Paris, 1762)", "ReferencesNotesSources \n \n \n \n \n\nFurther reading\n Gibbons, William. Building the Operatic Museum: Eighteenth-Century Opera in Fin-de-siècle Paris (University of Rochester Press, 2013)\n Trowbridge, Simon, Rameau (2nd edition, Englance Press, 2017)\n\nExternal links", "(en) Gavotte with Doubles Hypermedia by Jeff Hall & Tim Smith at the BinAural Collaborative Hypertext – Shockwave Player required – (\"Gavotte with Doubles\" link NG)\n (en) jp.rameau.free.fr Rameau – Le Site\n (fr) musicologie.org Biography, List of Works, bibliography, discography, theoretical writings, in French\n (en) Jean-Philippe Rameau / Discography\n Magnatune Les Cyclopes by Rameau in on-line mp3 format (played by Trevor Pinnock)", "Magnatune Les Cyclopes by Rameau in on-line mp3 format (played by Trevor Pinnock)\n Jean-Philippe Rameau, \"L'Orchestre de Louis XV\" – Suites d'Orchestre, Le Concert des Nations, dir. Jordi Savall, Alia Vox, AVSA 9882Sheet music'\n \n \n Rameau free sheet music from the Mutopia Project", "1683 births\n1764 deaths\n18th-century classical composers\n18th-century French composers\n18th-century French male musicians\nComposers awarded knighthoods\nComposers for harpsichord\nFrench Baroque composers\nFrench ballet composers\nFrench opera composers\nFrench male classical composers\nFrench male non-fiction writers\nFrench music theorists\nMale opera composers\nMusicians from Dijon\nBurials at Saint-Eustache, Paris\n17th-century male musicians" ]

[ "The 7th Army was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation raised prior to the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, during World War II. It consisted of two divisions, two brigade-strength mountain detachments, and a brigade-strength infantry detachment. It formed part of the 1st Army Group, and was responsible for the defence of Yugoslavia's north-western frontier with Italy and Germany. Like all Yugoslav formations at the time, the 7th Army had serious deficiencies in both mobility and firepower.", "Despite concerns over a possible Axis invasion, orders for the general mobilisation of the Royal Yugoslav Army were not issued by the government until 3 April 1941, not to provoke Germany any further following the military coup d'état and precipitate war. When the invasion commenced on 6 April, the 7th Army was only partially mobilised, and on the first day the Germans seized several mountain passes and bridges over the Drava river", ". Slovene politicians formed a National Council of Slovenia with the intent of separating from Yugoslavia, and on the right flank of the 7th Army, the 4th Army was seriously weakened by Croat fifth column activities within its major units and higher headquarters from the outset", ". This alarmed the 7th Army commander, Divizijski đeneral Dušan Trifunović, but he was not permitted to withdraw from the border areas until the night of 7/8 April, and this was followed by the German capture of Maribor on 8 April as they continued to expand their bridgeheads, supported by the Luftwaffe.", "On 10 April, the German 14th Panzer Division captured Zagreb. Italian offensive operations began the following day, with thrusts towards Ljubljana and down the Adriatic coast that resulted in the capture of more than 30,000 Yugoslav troops near Delnice. When fifth column supporters of the Croatian nationalist Ustaše movement arrested the headquarters staff of the 7th Army later that day, the formation effectively ceased to exist", ". On 12 April, the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians near the Adriatic coast, encircling the remnants of the 7th Army, which offered no further resistance. Ceasefires were implemented from 15 April, and the Yugoslav Supreme Command surrendered unconditionally effective on 18 April.", "Background", "The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created with the merger of Serbia, Montenegro and the South Slav-inhabited areas of Austria-Hungary on 1 December 1918, in the immediate aftermath of World War I. The Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was established to defend the new state. It was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army, as well as armed formations raised in regions formerly controlled by Austria-Hungary", ". Many former Austro-Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army. From the beginning, much like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom, the army was dominated by ethnic Serbs, who saw it as a means by which to secure Serb political hegemony.", "The army's development was hampered by the kingdom's poor economy, and this continued during the 1920s. In 1929, King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, at which time the army was renamed the Royal Yugoslav Army (, VKJ). The army budget remained tight, and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s, it became difficult to secure weapons and munitions from other countries", ". Consequently, at the time World War II broke out in September 1939, the VKJ had several serious weaknesses, which included reliance on draught animals for transport, and the large size of its formations. Infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26,000–27,000 men, as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength", ". These characteristics resulted in slow, unwieldy formations, and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower. Generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I were combined with an army that was neither equipped nor trained to resist the fast-moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in their invasions of Poland and France.", "The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy, structure, equipment, mobility and supply were exacerbated by serious ethnic disunity within Yugoslavia, resulting from two decades of Serb hegemony and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government. Attempts to address the disunity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force", ". Attempts to address the disunity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force. Fifth column activity was also a serious concern, not only from the Croatian fascist Ustaše and the ethnic German minorities but also potentially from the pro-Bulgarian Macedonians and the Albanian population of Kosovo.", "Formation\n\nYugoslav war plans foresaw the headquarters of the 7th Army and its army-level supporting units being created at the time of mobilisation. Unlike the other six Yugoslav armies, the 7th Army did not have a corresponding army district during peacetime, and would be allocated divisions when it was formed. Zagreb, Karlovac, Trebnje and Velike Lašče were key centres for the mobilisation and concentration of the 7th Army due to their good rail infrastructure.", "Prior to the invasion, significant fortifications known as the Rupnik Line were constructed along the Italian and German borders, within what became the 7th Army's area of operations. Along the frontier with Italy, mutually supporting bunkers were established on forward slopes of the mountain ranges behind a belt of obstacles", ". The main positions followed a line from Mount Blegoš south-south-east through Hlavče Njive, Žirovski Vrh, Vrh Svetih Treh Kraljev, Zaplana, Mount Slivnica, Grahovo, and Lož to Petičak. To the north of Mount Blegoš, positions ran behind the lines of the Selška Sora and Sava Bohinjka rivers. Fortifications were also established in the mountainous Gorski kotar region between Karlovac and Fiume on the upper Adriatic coast", ". Along the German border, the Yugoslavs concentrated on preparing to block the passes through the Karawank and Kamnik Alps, and built bunkers behind obstacles along the routes leading south from the border towards Dravograd, Maribor and Ptuj. Preparations were also made to block routes north of the Drava and along the southern banks of the Mura and Drava. These fortifications were to be manned by border guard units, and were not the responsibility of the 7th Army.", "Composition\n\nThe 7th Army was commanded by Divizijski đeneral Dušan Trifunović, and his chief of staff was Pukovnik Vladimir Petrović. The 7th Army consisted of:\n 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski\n 38th Infantry Division Dravska\n Mountain Detachment Triglavski (brigade-strength)\n Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski (brigade-strength)\n Detachment Lika (infantry, brigade-strength)", "Army-level support was provided by the 71st Army Artillery Regiment, the 7th Anti-Aircraft Battalion, and the motorised 7th Army Anti-Aircraft Company. The 6th Air Reconnaissance Group comprising sixteen Breguet 19s was attached from the Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force (, VVKJ) and was based at Cerklje and Brege near Brežice.\n\nDeployment plan", "The 7th Army was part of the 1st Army Group, which was responsible for the defence of north and north-western Yugoslavia, with the 7th Army along the Italian and German borders, and the 4th Army defending the eastern sector along the Hungarian border. The 1st Cavalry Division was to be held as the 1st Army Group reserve around Zagreb", ". The 1st Cavalry Division was to be held as the 1st Army Group reserve around Zagreb. On the left of the 7th Army was the Adriatic coast at Karlobag, and the boundary with the 4th Army on the right flank ran from Gornja Radgona on the Mura through Krapina and Karlovac to Otočac. The Yugoslav defence plan saw the 7th Army deployed in a cordon along the border region from the Adriatic in the west to Gornja Radgona in the east", ". Of the formations of the 7th Army, the mobilisation of the three detachments was largely complete, but the two divisions had only commenced mobilisation. All 7th Army formations were to be deployed in a cordon, although each formation was to create a second line of defence from its own troops. The headquarters of the 7th Army was to initially be located in Brežice. The planned deployment of the 7th Army from west to east was:", "Detachment Lika on the upper Adriatic coast from Karlobag through Otočac to Ogulin\n Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski (MD Rišnajaski) around Delnice in the mountainous Gorski kotar region, with responsibility for the defence of the Italian border from Sušak on the upper Adriatic coast to Mount Bička\n 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski (32nd ID) southwest of Ljubljana in the Julian Alps, allocated the western border with Italy from Mount Bička north to Mount Blegoš", "Mountain Detachment Triglavski (MD Triglavski) north-west of Ljubljana around Kranj, tasked to defend the Italian border from Mount Blegoš to the triple border, then the German border east into the Savinja Alps", "38th Infantry Division Dravska (38th ID) in the Pohorje mountains around Maribor, responsible for the frontier from the Savinja Alps in the west to Radgon in the east, including the roads running south through Ptuj, Maribor and Dravograd, with its main positions on the southern bank of the Dravinja", "Army-level and rear area troops were to be deployed in the area of Brežice, Zidani Most and Novo Mesto. Border guard units were to man fortifications along the Italian and German frontiers in the 7th Army area of responsibility, and consisted of:\n the 554th and 555th Independent Battalions, in the sector of Detachment Lika\n the 1st Border Regiment and an independent border battalion, supported by one border artillery battalion fielding three batteries, in the sector of Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski", "the 2nd and 3rd Border Regiments supported by two border artillery battalions fielding eight batteries, in the sector of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski\n the 4th and 5th Border Regiments supported by one border artillery battalion fielding three batteries, in the sector of Mountain Detachment Triglavski\n the 6th, 7th and 8th Border Regiments supported by three border artillery battalions fielding a total of eight batteries, in the sector of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska", "Mobilisation", "After unrelenting pressure from Adolf Hitler, Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941. On 27 March, a military coup d'état overthrew the government that had signed the pact, and a new government was formed under the VVKJ commander, Armijski đeneral Dušan Simović. A general mobilisation was not called by the new government until 3 April, out of fear of offending Hitler and thus precipitating war", ". On the same day as the coup, Hitler issued Führer Directive 25 which called for Yugoslavia to be treated as a hostile state, and on 3 April, Führer Directive 26 was issued, detailing the plan of attack and command structure for the invasion, which was to commence on 6 April.", "According to a post-war U.S. Army study, by the time the invasion began, the three brigade-sized detachments had mobilised, but the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski and 38th Infantry Division Dravska had only commenced mobilising. The Yugoslav historian Velimir Terzić describes the mobilisation of the 7th Army as a whole on 6 April as \"only partial\", and states the headquarters of the 7th Army was mobilising in the Zagreb region.", "Detachment Lika\nDetachment Lika was an ad hoc formation consisting of the 44th Infantry Regiment and one battery of the 17th Artillery Regiment. On 6 April, it was concentrating in the Otočac region, but the poor response of personnel of the 44th Infantry Regiment to the mobilisation orders meant that it was only at 35–40 percent of its strength.\n\nMountain Detachment Rišnajaski", "Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski was commanded by Pukovnik Stojadin Milenković. On 6 April, the detachment, consisting of a headquarters, the 2nd Mountain Regiment of three battalions, the 5th Mountain Artillery Battery and supporting units, was deployed between various towns and villages in the areas of Čabar, Delnice, Gornje Jelenje, Kamenjak and Lokve, as follows:\n the 11th Mountain Battalion, with about 90 percent of its troops, in forward positions near the village of Klana", "the 13th Mountain Battalion, with about 90 percent of its strength, in depth, between the villages of Kamenjak and Gornje Jelenje\n the 12th Mountain Battalion, with about 96 percent of its planned strength, in reserve in Delnice\n the 5th Mountain Artillery Battery, deployed in the villages of Gerovo, Mrzle Vodica and Lokve\n an engineer company near Lokve", "32nd Infantry Division Triglavski\nA significant part of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski was moving from its mobilisation areas to its concentration areas, while some elements were still mobilising. On 6 April, the division was located as follows:\n the divisional commander Divizijski đeneral Dragiša Pandurović and his staff were mobilising in Ljubljana, and arrived in their concentration area at Grosuplje, just south of Ljubljana around noon on 6 April", "the 32nd Divisional Infantry Regiment was moving from Celje to Ljubljana\n the 39th Infantry Regiment was marching from Celje to Lepoglava to join Detachment Ormozki of the 4th Army, and had reached Logatec\n the 40th Infantry Regiment, with about 80 percent of its troops and 50 percent of its vehicles and animals, was located at its mobilisation centre in Ljubljana", "the 110th Infantry Regiment, with about 60 percent of its troops and 50 percent of its animals, was on the move from Celje to Zagreb, where it was to join the 1st Army Group reserve, and had reached Zidani Most\n the 32nd Artillery Regiment was marching from Ljubljana to Grosuplje\n the 37th Infantry Regiment was moving from its mobilisation centres to divisional reserve positions around Ribnica, Sodražica, Bloke, Lašče and Novo Mesto\n other divisional units were mobilising in Ribnica, Ljubljana and Celje", "Mountain Detachment Triglavski\nMountain Detachment Triglavski was commanded by Brigadni đeneral Mihailo Lukić. It consisted of the 1st Mountain Infantry Regiment of three battalions, supported by one battery of mountain artillery and other units. About 80 percent of the formation had answered the mobilisation order, and it was deployed in the vicinity of the towns of Jezersko, Tržič, Radovljica, Škofja Loka and Kranj.", "38th Infantry Division Dravska\nThe 38th Infantry Division Dravska had only commenced mobilisation, and was largely in its mobilisation centres or moving to concentration areas. On 6 April, the elements of the division were located as follows:\n the divisional commander Divizijski đeneral Čedomir Stanojlović and his headquarters staff were mobilising in Slovenska Bistrica\n the 38th Divisional Infantry and 45th Infantry Regiments were mobilising around Maribor", "the 38th Divisional Infantry and 45th Infantry Regiments were mobilising around Maribor\n the 112th Infantry Regiment (less its 1st Battalion) was marching north towards Slovenj Gradec from Slovenska Bistrica. The 1st Battalion of the 112th Infantry Regiment had already deployed near Dravograd, supporting the 6th Border Regiment\n the 128th Infantry Regiment was concentrating near Ptuj", "the 128th Infantry Regiment was concentrating near Ptuj\n the 38th Artillery Regiment (less one battery) was near Ptuj, while one battery was marching from Maribor to its planned position at Slovenj Gradec\n the divisional machine-gun battalion, which had only 50 percent of its establishment of men and animals, was marching from Maribor to Ptuj\n the remainder of the divisional units were mobilising in Slovenska Bistrica, Maribor, Ptuj and Ljubljana", "Overall condition of the 7th Army", "At the time of the invasion, both mountain detachments had completed mobilisation and concentration, and were in position. Detachment Lika was at its mobilisation centre, but the turn-out of men for its infantry component was low. The 38th Infantry Division Dravska was completing its concentration. A large proportion of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski was moving from its mobilisation centres to its concentration areas", ". Across the 7th Army, around 80 percent of troops had answered the mobilisation order, but only 45 to 50 percent of vehicles and animals were available.", "Operations\n\n5–6 April", "The border between Italy, Germany and Yugoslavia was largely unsuitable for motorised operations due to the mountainous terrain. Due to the short notice of the invasion, the elements of the invading German 2nd Army that would make up LI Infantry Corps and XXXXIX Mountain Corps had to be transported from Germany, German-occupied France and the Nazi puppet Slovak Republic, and nearly all encountered difficulties in reaching their assembly areas in time", ". In the interim, the Germans formed a special force under the code name Feuerzauber (Magic Fire). This force was initially intended to merely reinforce the 538th Frontier Guard Division, who were manning the border", ". On the evening of 5 April, a particularly aggressive Feuerzauber detachment commander, Hauptmann Palten, led his Kampfgruppe Palten across the Mura from Spielfeld and, having secured the bridge, began attacking bunkers and other Yugoslav positions on the high ground, and sent patrols deep into the Yugoslav border fortification system. Due to a lack of Yugoslav counter-attacks, many of these positions remained in German hands into 6 April.", "On the morning of 6 April, German aircraft conducted surprise attacks on Yugoslav airfields in the 7th Army area, including Ljubljana and Cerklje, where the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group was based. At 07:00, Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters of Jagdgeschwader 27 strafed Ljubljana airfield, attacking hangars and some Potez 25 biplanes.", "LI Infantry Corps, commanded by General der Infanterie Hans-Wolfgang Reinhard, were tasked with attacking towards Maribor then driving towards Zagreb, while the XXXXIX Mountain Corps, under General der Infanterie Ludwig Kübler, was to capture Dravograd then force a crossing on the Sava. At 05:00 on 6 April, LI Infantry Corps captured the Mura bridges at Mureck and Radkersburg (opposite Gornja Radgona) undamaged", ". In the sector of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska, one German column pushed towards Maribor from Mureck, and the other pushed on from Gornja Radgona through Lenart towards Ptuj. Some time later, other elements of LI Infantry Corps attacked the area between Sveti Duh and Dravograd. The 7th and 8th Border Regiments met these attacks with fierce resistance, but were forced to withdraw due to German pressure", ". The 183rd Infantry Division, under Generalmajor Benignus Dippold, captured 300 prisoners, and a bicycle-mounted detachment of the division reached Murska Sobota without striking any resistance. The 132nd Infantry Division, commanded by Generalmajor Rudolf Sintzenich, also pushed south along the Sejanski valley towards Savci. By the end of the first day, LI Infantry Corps had occupied Gornja Radgona, Murska Sobota and Radenci, and had crossed the Drava near Sveti Duh", ". XXXXIX Mountain Corps captured border crossings on the approaches to Dravograd, but were held up by the 6th Border Regiment in mountain passes located further west at Ljubelj, Jezerski vrh and Korensko sedlo. Late that day, mountain pioneers destroyed some isolated Yugoslav bunkers in the area penetrated by Kampfgruppe Palten.", "Later that day, German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77, escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters, caught the Breguet 19s of the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Cerklje and Brege, destroying most of them. This was followed by attacks by the Italian Air Force on Yugoslav troop concentrations of the 7th Army", ". The Yugoslav Air Force was unable to interdict the Axis air attacks because the Hawker Hurricanes and Ikarus IK-2 aircraft of its 4th Fighter Regiment were based away at Bosanski Aleksandrovac. After having been grounded for most of the day by poor weather, in the afternoon Bristol Blenheim Mk I light bombers of the Yugoslav 68th Bomber Group flew missions against airfields and railway stations across the German frontier at Graz, Fürstenfeld, Steyr and Wiener Neustadt.", "By the close of the first day, the 7th Army was still largely mobilising and concentrating, and fifth column actions meant that nearly all the fighting was conducted by border troops", ". The 38th Infantry Division Dravska was deployed along the southern bank of the Drava, with the 128th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battalion around Ptuj, the 45th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battalion around Maribor and the 112th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battalion were at Slovenj Gradec and marching east towards Dravograd. German and Italian air attacks interfered with the deployment of troops and command was hampered by reliance on civilian telegraph and telephone services.", "On that day, Marko Natlačen—the governor of the Drava Banovina—met with representatives of the major Slovene political parties, and created the National Council of Slovenia (, NszS), whose aim was to establish a Slovenia independent of Yugoslavia. When he heard the news of fifth-column-led revolts within the 4th Army, Trifunović was alarmed, and proposed withdrawal from the border areas, but this was rejected by the commander of the 1st Army Group, Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović", ". The front along the border with Italy was relatively quiet, with some patrol clashes occurring, some sporadic artillery bombardments of border fortifications, and an unsuccessful raid by the Italians directed at Mount Blegoš.", "7 April\nIn the early hours of 7 April, three Blenheims of the Yugoslav 8th Bomber Regiment took off from Rovine to bomb the railway junction at Feldbach, but became disoriented in bad weather. Only one aircraft found a target in Austria, bombing a bridge and road near Steyr before continuing on to Wiener Neustadt where it was hit by anti-aircraft fire and made an emergency landing.", "Over the period 7–9 April, LI Infantry Corps held the lead elements of its two divisions back to some extent while the rest of each division de-trained in Graz and made their way to the border. German forces along the front of the 7th Army continued to push towards Ptuj, Maribor and Dravograd on 7 April, against significant resistance from the 6th, 7th and 8th Border Regiments", ". The German thrusts towards Ptuj and Maribor broke through the Yugoslav defensive line Pesnica–Lenart–Sveta Trojica v Slovenskih Goricah–Kapelski Vrh, but those advancing towards Dravograd were held up by the 6th Border Regiment and a battalion of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska. Along the Italian border there were only skirmishes caused by Italian reconnaissance-in-force to a depth of .", "The Yugoslav Supreme Command ordered Petrović to use Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski to capture Fiume, across the Rječina river from Sušak, but the order was soon rescinded due to the deteriorating situation in the flanking 4th Army. In the afternoon of 7 April, Trifunović again pressed Petrović to order a withdrawal from the border", ". Petrović accepted that this might become necessary if the situation on the immediate right flank of the 7th Army deteriorated further, but the idea was opposed by the chief of staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group, Armijski đeneral Leon Rupnik, who suggested that Trifunović should personally lead night attacks to push the Germans back. At 19:30, the Yugoslav Supreme Command advised Petrović that he had approval to withdraw endangered units on the right wing of the 7th Army", ". Morale in the 7th Army had started to decline due to fifth column elements encouraging soldiers to stop resisting the enemy.", "8 April", "On the night of 7/8 April, Petrović ordered Trifunović to begin to withdraw, first to a line through the Dravinja river, Zidani Most bridge and the right bank of the Krka river. Later in the day this was moved back to the line of the Kupa river. This ended the successful defence of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska along the line of the Drava, and meant their withdrawal from Maribor", ". Disregarding orders from above, Palten exploited their withdrawal by leading his kampfgruppe south towards the town, and crossing the Pesnica river in inflatable boats, leaving his unit vehicles behind. In the evening, Palten and his force entered Maribor unopposed, taking 100 prisoners. For disregarding orders, Palten and his kampfgruppe were ordered to return to Spielfeld, and spent the rest of the invasion guarding the border", ". In the meantime, the forward elements of the two divisions consolidated their bridgeheads, with the 132nd Infantry Division securing Maribor, and the 183rd Infantry Division pushing past Murska Sobota, reaching Kapelski Vrh.", "Some bridges over the Sava were blown before all elements of the 7th and 8th Border Regiments had withdrawn, but some soldiers were able to swim across, the rest being captured by the advancing Germans. German patrols reached the Drava at Ptuj, and further east at Ormož they found the bridge had been blown. Elements of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps had pushed forward to Poljana and Dravograd", ". Elements of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps had pushed forward to Poljana and Dravograd. The German troops received close air support from dive bombers and fighters during their advance, while medium bombers hit targets throughout the 7th Army area. The 4th Fighter Regiment clashed several times with German aircraft on 8 April without result", ". The 4th Fighter Regiment clashed several times with German aircraft on 8 April without result. Three Blenheims of the Yugoslav 8th Bomber Regiment again flew a mission to attack a target in southern Austria, escorted by 4th Fighter Regiment Hurricanes, but the rest of the 8th Bomber Regiment was awaiting orders to bomb a rebelling Yugoslav regiment of the neighbouring 4th Army in Bjelovar; the orders were subsequently cancelled", ". During the day, the Italian 3rd Alpine Group captured Kranjska Gora at the headwaters of the Sava in the sector of Mountain Detachment Triglavski. The German orders for the following day were for LI Infantry Corps to force a crossing of the Drava near Varazdin and advance on Zagreb, while XXXXIX Mountain Corps were to drive towards Celje.", "9 April", "On 9 April, the Germans continued their advance, and all elements of both divisions of LI Infantry Corps had finally unloaded in Graz. In view of German success, the Italian 2nd Army in north-eastern Italy accelerated its preparations and issued orders for its V and XI Corps to conduct preliminary operations aimed at improving their starting positions for the planned attack on Yugoslavia", ". In the meantime, the 7th Army continued rapidly withdrawing its right wing, while withdrawing its centre and keeping the Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski in place on its left flank. The 38th Infantry Division Dravska continued to withdraw south from Ptuj through Krapina towards Zagreb, while the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski and Mountain Detachment Triglavski fell back to the southern bank of the Krka river", ". Units of LI Infantry Corps crossed the Drava along the line Maribor—Ptuj and further east, and continued to expand their bridgehead south of Maribor. Elements of XXXXIX Mountain Corps secured the southern exit of the Karawanks railway tunnel near Jesenice and expanded their bridgehead at Dravograd. Italian units made several weak attacks on the sector of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski and against Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski, and Detachment Lika took up positions on the coast", ". On the same day, the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group airfield at Cerklje was again attacked by German aircraft.", "As the activities of Natlačen and his NszS were continuing, the Yugoslav Supreme Command ordered their arrest. Rupnik and the head of the operations staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group, Pukovnik Franjo Nikolić, hid the orders from Petrović and did not carry them out.\n\n10 April", "On the evening of 9 April, the commander of the German 2nd Army, Generaloberst Maximilian von Weichs, ordered the XXXXVI Motorised Corps to break out of its bridgeheads in the 4th Army's sector the following day. The thrust from the Zákány bridgehead was to drive straight west to Zagreb then continue west to cut off the withdrawing 7th Army. This attack was led by the 14th Panzer Division, supported by dive bombers, and was a resounding success", ". By 19:30 on 10 April, lead elements of the 14th Panzer Division had reached the outskirts of Zagreb, having covered nearly in a single day. Before it arrived, the Ustaše, supported by German agents, had proclaimed the creation of the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH). By the time it entered Zagreb, the 14th Panzer Division was met by cheering crowds, and had captured 15,000 Yugoslav troops, including 22 generals.", "In the 7th Army sector, about 09:45, the LI Infantry Corps began crossing the Drava, but construction of a bridge near Maribor was suspended because the river was in flood. Despite this, the 183rd Infantry Division managed to secure an alternative crossing point, and established a bridgehead. This crossing point was a partially destroyed bridge, guarded by a single platoon of the 1st Bicycle Battalion of Detachment Ormozki, the far left formation of the 4th Army", ". This crossing, combined with the withdrawal of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska from the line from Slovenska Bistrica to Ptuj, exposed the left flank of Detachment Ormozki. The Detachment attempted to withdraw south, but began to disintegrate during the night of 10/11 April.", "That same night, the 1st Mountain Division, the most capable formation of XXXXIX Mountain Corps, had de-trained, crossed the border near Bleiburg, and advanced southeast towards Celje, reaching a point about from the town by evening. The rest of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps encountered little resistance, and by nightfall had reached the line Šoštanj–Mislinja", ". Luftwaffe reconnaissance sorties revealed that the main body of the 7th Army was withdrawing towards Zagreb, leaving behind light forces to maintain contact with the German bridgeheads. When it received this information, 2nd Army headquarters ordered LI Infantry Corps to form motorised columns to pursue the 7th Army south, but extreme weather conditions and flooding of the Drava at Maribor on 10 April slowed the German pursuit.", "On 10 April, as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country, Simović, who was both the Prime Minister and Chief of the General Staff, broadcast the following message:\n\nAll troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal. Don't wait for direct orders from above, but act on your own and be guided by your judgement, initiative, and conscience.", "During the night of 10/11 April, XXXXIX Mountain Corps was ordered to bridge the Savinja river at Celje, then advance towards Brežice on the Sava, and LI Infantry Corps was directed to link up with the 14th Panzer Division which would then drive west to Karlovac. The Italians were expected to commence offensive action by attacking southwards to link up with the 14th Panzer Division in the vicinity of Karlovac.", "11 April", "On 11 April, Ustaše elements captured the staff of the 7th Army at Topusko and handed them over to the Germans shortly thereafter, and the 7th Army effectively ceased to exist as a formation. Petrović and the staff of 1st Army Group headquarters were also captured by Ustaše at Petrinja", ". Petrović and the staff of 1st Army Group headquarters were also captured by Ustaše at Petrinja. Chaos ensued throughout the 7th Army, whose Croat and Slovene soldiers could hear fifth column radio broadcasts telling them of their pending encirclement by the Germans and encouraging them to return to their homes and not fight against the invaders. This was reinforced by Natlačen and his NszS, who had distributed leaflets on the night of 10/11 April urging soldiers not to resist the Italians or Germans", ". To maintain public order, the NszS also formed a \"Slovenian Legion\" on 11 April, and encouraged Slovene nationalists among the 7th Army to join it. This force, split into a dozen units and totalling 2,000–3,000 men, then began to assist the Germans in disarming units of the Yugoslav Army on Slovene territory", ". The NszS authorised Natlačen to negotiate with the Germans for the creation of a Slovene client state along the lines of the NDH and the Slovak Republic, and Natlačen appointed the Ljubljana police chief Lovro Hacin to make contact with the Germans.", "Proxies for the NszS approached Generalmajor Hubert Lanz, the commander of the 1st Mountain Division, when his formation approached Celje, but Lanz was not empowered to negotiate with civilians, and sought direction from higher headquarters. All German commanders were authorised to negotiate with the commanders of Yugoslav military formations so long as they agreed to surrender all weapons. Later that day, Lanz was authorised to meet with Natlačen the following day, and XXXXIX Mountain Corps took Celje", ". Held up by freezing weather and snow storms, LI Infantry Corps was approaching Zagreb from the north, and broke through a hastily established defensive line between Pregrada and Krapina. Bicycle-mounted troops of the 183rd Infantry Division turned east to secure Ustaše-controlled Varaždin", ". In the evening, LI Infantry Corps entered Zagreb and relieved the 14th Panzer Division but lead elements of that division had already thrust west from Zagreb into the rear of the withdrawing 7th Army and captured Karlovac.", "Around 12:00, the Italians went over to the offensive, with the 3rd Alpine Group tasked to advance to the line Selca–Radovljica, XI Corps to push via Logatec to Ljubljana, VI Corps to drive on Prezid, and V Corps to advance from Fiume towards Kraljevica then Lokve", ". While one Italian attack south of the Snežnik plateau was stopped by elements of the Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski and the Italian advance was held up by border troops in some areas, there was little significant resistance, and by the end of the day they had captured Sušak, Bakar, Delnice, Jesenice, Vrhnika, Logatec and Ljubljana", ". To assist the Italian advance, the Luftwaffe attacked Yugoslav troops in the Ljubljana region, and the 14th Panzer Division, which had captured Zagreb on 10 April, drove west to encircle the withdrawing 7th Army. The Italians faced little resistance, and captured about 30,000 troops of the 7th Army waiting to surrender near Delnice", ". When the Italian 14th Infantry Division Isonzo entered Ljubljana, a delegate of the NszS greeted its commander, Generale di Divisione Federico Romero, and symbolically handed him the keys to the city. An official reception was held for Romero that evening, attended by Natlačen and most of the members of the NszS, but because Natlačen and the council preferred that the Germans occupy Ljubljana, he asked Romero for permission to travel to Celje the following day to meet with Lanz.", "Fate", "On 12 April, the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians at Vrbovsko, closing the ring around the remnants of the 7th Army, which surrendered, and the 1st Mountain Division pushed through Novo Mesto and Črnomelj without facing resistance, reaching Vinice by the end of the day. At Celje, Lanz received a delegation led by Natlačen which included Andrej Gosar", ". At Celje, Lanz received a delegation led by Natlačen which included Andrej Gosar. The meeting was very formal and cold, as Lanz had already received orders regarding the break-up of Slovenia into Italian and German-controlled territories, and the council and its goal of an independent Slovenia were superfluous from a German perspective.", "Remnants of the 4th Army conducted a fighting withdrawal through Bosnia towards Sarajevo over the following days, pursued by the 14th Panzer Division and elements of LI Infantry Corps but a ceasefire was declared at noon on 15 April. After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document, the Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12:00 on 18 April", ". Yugoslavia was then occupied and dismembered by the Axis powers, with Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria and Albania all annexing parts of its territory. Most of the Slovene members of the 7th Army taken as prisoners of war were soon released by the Axis powers, as 90 per cent of those held for the duration of the war were Serbs.", "Notes\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences\n\nBooks\n\nJournals and papers\n\nWeb\n\n \n \n \n\nField armies of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia\nMilitary units and formations of Yugoslavia in World War II\nMilitary units and formations established in 1941\nMilitary units and formations disestablished in 1941" ]

[ "The mysteries of Isis were religious initiation rites performed in the cult of the Egyptian goddess Isis in the Greco-Roman world. They were modeled on other mystery rites, particularly the Eleusinian mysteries in honor of the Greek goddesses Demeter and Persephone, and originated sometime between the and the . Despite their mainly Hellenistic origins, the mysteries alluded to beliefs from ancient Egyptian religion, in which the worship of Isis arose, and may have incorporated aspects of Egyptian ritual", ". Although Isis was worshipped across the Greco-Roman world, the mystery rites are only known to have been practiced in a few regions. In areas where they were practiced, they served to strengthen devotees' commitment to the Isis cult, although they were not required to worship her exclusively, and devotees may have risen in the cult's hierarchy by undergoing initiation", ". The rites may also have been thought to guarantee that the initiate's soul, with the goddess's help, would continue after death into a blissful afterlife.", "Many texts from the Roman Empire refer to the Isis mysteries, but the only source to describe them is a work of fiction, the novel The Golden Ass, written in the second century CE by Apuleius. In it, the initiate undergoes elaborate ritual purification before descending into the innermost part of Isis's temple, where he experiences a symbolic death and rebirth and has an intense religious experience, seeing the gods in person.", "Some aspects of the mysteries of Isis and of other mystery cults, particularly their connection with the afterlife, resemble important elements of Christianity. The question of whether they influenced Christianity is controversial and the evidence is unclear; some scholars today attribute the similarities to a shared cultural background rather than direct influence. In contrast, Apuleius's account has had direct effects in modern times", ". In contrast, Apuleius's account has had direct effects in modern times. Through his description, the mysteries of Isis have influenced many works of fiction and modern fraternal organizations, as well as a widespread belief that the ancient Egyptians themselves had an elaborate system of mystery initiations.", "Origins\n\nGreek and Egyptian precedents", "Greco-Roman mysteries were voluntary, secret initiation rituals. They were dedicated to a particular deity or group of deities,", "and used a variety of intense experiences, such as nocturnal darkness interrupted by bright light, or loud music or noise, that induced a state of disorientation and an intense religious experience. Some of them involved cryptic symbols. Initiates were not supposed to discuss the details of what they experienced, and modern understanding of these rites is limited by this secrecy", ". The most prestigious mysteries in the Greek world were the Eleusinian initiations dedicated to the goddess Demeter, which were performed at Eleusis near Athens, from at least the sixth century BCE to the end of the fourth century CE. They centered on Demeter's search for her daughter Persephone. Eleusinian initiates passed into a dark hall, the Telesterion, and were subjected to terrifying sights before entering a room brightly lit by fire", ". There the hierophant who presided over the ceremony shouted a cryptic announcement that may have alluded to the birth of the god Ploutos and displayed objects that represented Demeter's power over fertility, such as a sheaf of wheat.", "In the mysteries of the god Dionysus, which were performed in many places across the Greek world, participants drank and danced in frenzied nocturnal celebrations. Dionysian celebrations were connected in some way with Orphism, a group of mystical beliefs about the nature of the afterlife.", "Isis was originally a goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, which did not include Greek-style mysteries, although it did contain elements that resembled those in later Greek mysteries. Pharaohs underwent a consecration, related to their coronation rites, in which they were said to have close contact with the gods. Priests may have also undergone a consecration ceremony of some kind, connected with the specialized religious knowledge or training required for their positions", ". Ancient Egyptian funerary texts contained knowledge about the Duat, or underworld, that was characterized as profoundly secret and was believed to allow deceased souls to reach a pleasant afterlife. Some Egyptologists, such as Jan Assmann, have suggested some funerary texts were also used in priestly consecration rituals; Assmann argues that \"initiation into the temples and cults of Egypt anticipated and prefigured the ultimate initiation into the mysteries of the realm of the dead", ".\" Other Egyptologists contest the idea that funerary texts were ever used in rituals by the living.", "An element of Greek mysteries that did not exist in Egypt was the opportunity for ordinary individuals to undergo initiation. The most sacred rituals in Egyptian temples were performed by high-ranking priests out of public view, and festivals formed the main opportunity for commoners to participate in formal ceremonies", ". Some of these festivals reenacted events from Egyptian mythology, notably the Khoiak Festival in honor of Osiris, the god of the afterlife and the mythological husband of Isis, in which Osiris's mythological death, dismemberment, and restoration to life were played out in public view. Greek writers called these Egyptian rites \"mysteries\". Herodotus, a Greek historian writing in the fifth century BCE, was the first to do so", ". Herodotus, a Greek historian writing in the fifth century BCE, was the first to do so. He used the term for the Khoiak Festival, likening it to the mysteries of Dionysus with which he was familiar, because both took place at night and involved a myth in which the god in question was dismembered. He further said that the Greek worship of Dionysus was influenced by the worship of Osiris in Egypt.", "Greek writers who came after Herodotus viewed Egypt and its priests as the source of all mystical wisdom. They claimed that many elements of Greek philosophy and culture, including their own mystery rites, came from Egypt", ". The classicist Walter Burkert and the Egyptologist Francesco Tiradritti both argue that there is a grain of truth in these claims, as the oldest Greek mysteries developed in the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, at the same time that Greece was developing closer contacts with Egyptian culture. The imagery of the afterlife found in those mysteries may thus have been influenced by that in Egyptian afterlife beliefs.", "Spread of the Isis cult", "Isis was one of many non-Greek deities whose cults diffused beyond their home lands and became part of Greek and Roman religion during the Hellenistic period (323–30 BCE), when Greek people and culture spread to lands across the Mediterranean and most of those same lands were conquered by the Roman Republic. Under the influence of Greco-Roman tradition, some of these cults, including that of Isis, developed their own mystery rites", ". Much of Isis's cult involved activities that were far more public than the mystery rites, such as the adoration of cult statues within her temples, or outdoor festivals such as the Navigium Isidis, yet scholars often regard the mysteries as one of the most characteristic features of her cult.", "The Isis cult developed its mysteries in response to the widespread belief that the Greek mystery cults had originated with Isis and Osiris in Egypt. As the classicist Miguel John Verlsuys puts it, \"For the Greeks, the image of Egypt as old and religious was so strong that they could not but imagine Isis as a mystery goddess.\" Isis's devotees may have adapted aspects of Egyptian ritual to fit the model of the Eleusinian mysteries, perhaps incorporating Dionysian elements as well", ". The end product would have seemed to the Greeks like an authentic Egyptian precursor to Greek mysteries. Many Greco-Roman sources claim that Isis herself devised these rites.", "Scholars disagree on whether the mysteries developed before the time of the Roman Empire, as the evidence about them from the Hellenistic period is ambiguous. Yet they could have emerged as far back as the early third century BCE, after the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty had taken control of Egypt. The Ptolemies promoted the cult of the god Serapis, who incorporated traits of Osiris and of Greek deities like Dionysus and the underworld god Pluto. Isis's cult was conjoined with that of Serapis", ". Isis's cult was conjoined with that of Serapis. She too was reinterpreted to resemble Greek goddesses, particularly Demeter, while retaining many of her Egyptian characteristics. The mysteries of Isis, modeled on those in Demeter's honor at Eleusis, could have been developed at the same time", ". According to the Greek historian Plutarch and the Roman historian Tacitus, a man named Timotheus, a member of the Eumolpid family that oversaw the Eleusinian mysteries, helped establish Serapis as a patron god in the court of the Ptolemies. The classicist Jaime Alvar suggests that Timotheus could have introduced elements of the Eleusinian mysteries into the worship of Isis at the same time", ". Another possibility is that the mysteries emerged in Greece itself, sometime after the Isis cult became established there and came into direct contact with Demeter's rites at Eleusis.", "Sources\n\nFragmentary evidence", "The evidence about the mysteries of Isis is sparse, although some information can be gleaned from passing mentions in inscriptions and literary texts. One possible early indication is a stela from Thessalonica in the late second century BCE that connects Osiris with mystery rites. Other evidence of Isis's worship in Greece comes from aretalogies, texts in praise of the goddess", ". Other evidence of Isis's worship in Greece comes from aretalogies, texts in praise of the goddess. The wording of aretalogies from Maroneia and Andros, both from the first century BCE, say Isis gave sacred or hidden writings to initiates. The classicist Petra Pakkanen says that these aretalogies prove the mysteries of Isis existed by that time, but Jan N. Bremmer argues that they only connect Isis with the Eleusinian mysteries, not with distinctive rites of her own", ". The Roman poet Tibullus, also in the first century BCE, refers to the vows to Isis taken by his mistress, Delia, which may indicate that she was an initiate.", "Inscriptions from the second century CE use language, such as the epithet in reference to Isis, that suggest the mysteries of Isis were practiced nearby. These inscriptions are found in cities such as Rome and Brindisi in Italy, Cenchreae and Samos in Greece, and Tralles in Asia Minor. Bremmer argues that such inscriptions are only found in Italy and the eastern Mediterranean and that the mysteries were only practiced in those regions, whereas temples to Isis were found in every province of the empire", ". In Egypt itself, there are only two known texts, both papyri from Oxyrhynchus, that may allude to the mysteries of Isis.", "One inscription, from Prusa in Bithynia, mentions a priest of Isis named Meniketes who furnished beds that were \"forbidden to the laymen\", suggesting that they were connected in some way with the mysteries, although they may have served some other ritual function instead. Burkert suggested that these beds were involved in some kind of ritual relating to the marriage of Isis and Osiris.", "Some imagery found in art may refer to the mysteries. A , a type of basket in which ritual objects were stored in several Greek mystery cults, was also used in the cult of Isis. Richard Veymiers, a classicist, argues that images of devotees of Isis carrying indicate that they were initiates", ". Devotees of Isis were often portrayed wearing a mantle with a large knot at the chest, borrowed from the iconography of Isis herself, and the art historian Elizabeth Walters suggests that this garment is a sign that the devotee was an initiate. The Tigrane tomb at Kom El Shoqafa, near Alexandria, contains a painting of a man carrying palm branches that the art historian Marjorie Venit interpreted as an image of a new initiate emerging from the rites.", "Hellenistic and Roman temples to Isis varied widely in form, and although some contained underground areas that have been proposed to have been sites where the mysteries were performed, the evidence is inconclusive. The archaeologist William Y. Adams argued that the remains of a shrine at Qasr Ibrim in the Meroitic Kingdom, outside the Roman Empire but near the frontier of Roman Egypt, indicated that the mysteries of Isis were practiced there.\n\nApuleius's description\n\nContext and reliability", "Apuleius's description\n\nContext and reliability\n\nThe only direct description of the mysteries of Isis comes from The Golden Ass, also known as Metamorphoses, a comic novel from the late second century CE by the Roman author Apuleius.", "The novel's protagonist is Lucius, a man who has been magically transformed into a donkey. In the eleventh and last book of the novel, Lucius, after falling asleep on the beach at Cenchreae in Greece, wakes to see the full moon. He prays to the moon, using the names of several moon goddesses known in the Greco-Roman world, asking her to restore him to human form. Isis appears in a vision before Lucius and declares herself the greatest of all goddesses", ". Isis appears in a vision before Lucius and declares herself the greatest of all goddesses. She tells him that a festival in her honor, the Navigium Isidis, is taking place nearby, and that the festival procession carries with it garlands of roses that will restore his human form if he eats them", ". After Lucius becomes human again, the high priest at the festival declares that Lucius has been saved from his misfortunes by the goddess, and that he will now be free of the inquisitiveness and self-indulgence that drew him into many of the misadventures he has experienced. Lucius joins the local temple of Isis, becomes her devoted follower, and eventually undergoes initiation.", "Lucius's apparently solemn devotion to the Isis cult in this book contrasts strongly with the comic misadventures that make up the rest of the novel. Scholars debate whether the account is intended to seriously represent Lucius's devotion to the goddess, or whether it is ironic, perhaps a satire of the Isis cult. Those who believe it is satirical point to the way Lucius is pushed to undergo several initiations, each requiring a fee, despite having little money", ". Although many of the scholars who have tried to analyze the mysteries based on the book have assumed it is serious, the descriptions may be broadly accurate even if the book is satirical. Apuleius's description of the Isis cult and its mysteries generally fits with much of the outside evidence about them. The classicist Stephen Harrison says it shows \"detailed knowledge of Egyptian cult, whether or not Apuleius himself was in fact an initiate of Isiac religion\"", ". In another of his works, the Apologia, Apuleius claims to have undergone several initiations, though he does not mention the mysteries of Isis specifically. In writing The Golden Ass, he may have drawn on personal experience of the Isiac initiation or of other initiations that he underwent. Even so, the detailed description given in The Golden Ass may be idealized rather than strictly accurate, and the Isis cults may have included many varieties of mystery rite", ". The novel actually mentions three distinct initiation rites in two cities, although only the first is described in any detail.", "Rites", "According to The Golden Ass, the initiation \"was performed in the manner of voluntary death and salvation obtained by favor\". Only Isis herself could determine who should be initiated and when; thus, Lucius only begins preparing for the mysteries after Isis appears to him in a dream", ". The implication that Isis was thought to command her followers directly is supported by Pausanias, a Greek writer in the same era as Apuleius, who said no one was allowed to participate in Isis's festivals in her shrine at Tithorea without her inviting them in a dream, and by inscriptions in which priests of Isis write that she called them to become her servants. In Apuleius's description, the goddess also determines how much the initiate must pay to the temple to undergo the rites.", "The priests in Lucius's initiation read the procedure for the rite from a ritual book kept in the temple that is covered in \"unknown characters\", some of which are \"shapes of all sorts of animals\" while others are ornate and abstract", ". The use of a book for ritual purposes was much more common in Egyptian religion than in Greek or Roman tradition, and the characters in this book are often thought to be hieroglyphs or hieratic, which in the eyes of Greek and Roman worshippers would emphasize the Egyptian background of the rite and add to its solemnity. David Frankfurter, a scholar of ancient Mediterranean religions, suggests that they are akin to the deliberately unintelligible magical symbols that were commonly used in Greco-Roman magic", ".", "Before the initiation proper, Lucius must undergo a series of ritual purifications. The priest bathes him, asks the gods for forgiveness on his behalf, and sprinkles him with water. This confession of and repentance for past sins fits with an emphasis on chastity and other forms of self-denial found in many other sources about the Isis cult. Lucius next has to wait ten days, while abstaining from meat and wine, before the initiation begins", ". Purifying baths were common in many rituals across the Greco-Roman world. The plea for forgiveness may derive from the oaths that Egyptian priests were required to take, in which they declared themselves to be free of wrongdoing. The sprinkling with water and the refraining from certain foods probably come from the purification rituals that Egyptian priests had to undergo before entering a temple", ". On the evening of the tenth day, Lucius receives a variety of unspecified gifts from fellow devotees of Isis before donning a clean linen robe and entering the deepest part of the temple.", "The description of what happens next is deliberately cryptic. Lucius reminds the reader that the uninitiated are not allowed to know the details of the rites, before describing his experience in vague terms.", "I came to the boundary of death and, having trodden on the threshold of Proserpina, I travelled through all the elements and returned. In the middle of the night I saw the sun flashing with bright light, I came face to face with the gods below and the gods above and paid reverence to them from close at hand.", "In a series of paradoxes, Lucius travels to the underworld and to the heavens, sees the sun amid darkness, and approaches the gods. Many people have speculated about how the ritual may have simulated these impossible experiences. The bright \"sun\" Lucius mentions may have been a fire in the darkness, a feature known to have existed at the climax of the Eleusinian mysteries. The gods he saw face to face may have been statues or frescoes of deities", ". The gods he saw face to face may have been statues or frescoes of deities. Some scholars believe that the initiation also entailed some kind of reenactment of or reference to the death of Osiris, but if it did, Apuleius's text does not mention it.", "Lucius emerges from this experience in the morning, and the priests dress him in an elaborately embroidered cloak. He then stands on a dais carrying a torch and wearing a crown of palm leaves—\"decorated in the likeness of the Sun and set up in the guise of a statue\", as Apuleius describes it. The priests draw back curtains to reveal Lucius to a crowd of his fellow devotees", ". The priests draw back curtains to reveal Lucius to a crowd of his fellow devotees. During the next three days, Lucius enjoys a series of banquets and sacred meals with his fellow worshippers, completing the initiation process.", "After this initiation, Lucius moves to Rome and joins its main temple to the goddess, the Iseum Campense. Urged by more visions sent by the gods, he undergoes two more initiations, incurring more expenses each time, such as having to buy a replacement for the cloak he left behind at Cenchreae. These initiations are not described in as much detail as the first. The second is dedicated to Osiris and is said to be different from the one dedicated to Isis", ". The second is dedicated to Osiris and is said to be different from the one dedicated to Isis. Apuleius calls it \"the nocturnal mysteries of the foremost god\" but gives no other details. The third initiation may be dedicated to both Isis and Osiris. Before this initiation, Lucius has a vision where Osiris himself speaks to him, suggesting that he is the dominant figure in the rite", ". At the novel's end Lucius has been admitted to a high position in the cult by Osiris, and he is confident that the god will ensure his future success in his work as a lawyer.", "Significance", "Deities and religious symbolism", "Most mystery rites were connected with myths about the deities on which they focused, and claimed to convey to initiates details about the myths that were not generally known. Several Greco-Roman writers produced theological and philosophical interpretations. Spurred by the fragmentary evidence, modern scholars have often tried to discern what the mysteries may have meant to their initiates", ". The classicist Hugh Bowden argues that there may have been no single, authoritative interpretation of the rites and that \"the desire to identify a lost secret—something that, once it is correctly identified, will explain what a mystery cult was all about—is bound to fail.\" He regards the effort to meet the gods directly, exemplified by the climax of Lucius's initiation in The Golden Ass, as the most important feature of the rites", ". The notion of meeting the gods face to face contrasted with classical Greek and Roman beliefs, in which seeing the gods, though it might be an awe-inspiring experience, could be dangerous and even deadly. In Greek mythology, for example, the sight of Zeus's true form incinerated the mortal woman Semele. Yet Lucius's meeting with the gods fits with a trend, found in several religious groups in Roman times, toward a closer connection between the worshipper and the gods.", "The \"elements\" that Lucius passes through in the first initiation may refer to the classical elements of earth, air, water and fire that were believed to make up the world, or to regions of the cosmos. The religious studies scholar Panayotis Pachis suggests the word refers specifically to the planets in Hellenistic astrology. Astrological themes appeared in many other cults in the Roman Empire, including another mystery cult, dedicated to Mithras", ". In the Isis cult, Pachis writes, astrological symbols may have alluded to the belief that Isis governed the movements of the stars and thus the passage of time and the order of the cosmos, beliefs that Lucius refers to when praying to the goddess.", "Ancient Egyptian beliefs are one possible source for understanding the symbolism in the mysteries of Isis. J. Gwyn Griffiths, an Egyptologist and classical scholar, extensively studied Book 11 of The Golden Ass and its possible Egyptian background in 1975. He pointed out similarities between the first initiation in The Golden Ass and Egyptian afterlife beliefs, saying that the initiate took on the role of Osiris by undergoing symbolic death", ". In his view, the imagery of the initiation refers to the Egyptian underworld, the Duat. Griffiths argued that the sun in the middle of the night, in Lucius's account of the initiation, might have been influenced by the contrasts of light and dark in other mystery rites, but it derived mainly from the depictions of the underworld in ancient Egyptian funerary texts", ". According to these texts, the sun god Ra passes through the underworld each night and unites with Osiris to emerge renewed, just as deceased souls do. The five scholars who authored a 2015 commentary on Book 11 caution that the solar and underworld imagery could be based solely on Greek and Roman precedents, and they doubt Griffiths's assertion that Lucius undergoes a mystical union with Osiris.", "In the course of the book, as Valentino Gasparini puts it, \"Osiris explicitly snatches out of Isis's hands the role of Supreme Being\" and replaces her as the focus of Lucius's devotion. Osiris's prominence in The Golden Ass is in keeping with other evidence about the Isis cult in Rome, which suggests that it adopted themes and imagery from Egyptian funerary religion and gave increasing prominence to Osiris in the late first and early second centuries CE", ". In contrast, Serapis, whose identity largely overlapped with that of Osiris and who was frequently worshipped jointly with Isis, is mentioned only once in the text, in the description of the festival procession. Jaime Alvar considers the text to treat Serapis and Osiris as distinct figures, whereas the authors of the 2015 commentary doubt that Apuleius meant to sharply distinguish the two. They point out that Lucius refers to Osiris using epithets that were often given to Serapis", ". They point out that Lucius refers to Osiris using epithets that were often given to Serapis. Gasparini argues that the shift in focus in the book reflects a belief that Osiris was the supreme being and Isis was an intermediary between him and humanity. This interpretation is found in the essay On Isis and Osiris by Plutarch, which analyzes the Osiris myth based on Plutarch's own Middle Platonist philosophy, and Gasparini suggests that Apuleius shared Plutarch's views", ". Stephen Harrison suggests that the sudden switch of focus from Isis to Osiris is simply a satire of grandiose claims of religious devotion.", "Commitment to the cult\nBecause not all local cults of Isis held mystery rites, not all her devotees would have undergone initiation. Both Apuleius's story and Plutarch's On Isis and Osiris, which briefly refers to initiates of Isis, suggest that initiation was considered part of the larger process of joining the cult and dedicating oneself to the goddess.", "The Isis cult, like most in the Greco-Roman world, was not exclusive; worshippers of Isis could continue to revere other gods as well. Devotees of Isis were among the very few religious groups in the Greco-Roman world to have a distinctive name for themselves, loosely equivalent to \"Jew\" or \"Christian\", that might indicate they defined themselves by their exclusive devotion to the goddess", ". However, the word— or \"Isiac\"—was rarely used, and the level of commitment it implied seems to have varied according to the circumstances. Many priests of Isis officiated in other cults as well. Several people in late Roman times, such as the aristocrat Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, joined multiple priesthoods and underwent several initiations dedicated to different gods", ". Mystery initiations thus did not require devotees to abandon whatever religious identity they originally had, and they would not qualify as religious conversions under a narrow definition of the term. Some of these initiations did involve smaller changes in religious identity, such as joining a new community of worshippers or strengthening devotees' commitment to a cult of which they were already part, that would qualify as conversions in a broader sense", ". Many ancient sources, both written by Isiacs and by outside observers, suggest that many of Isis's devotees considered her the focus of their lives and that the cult emphasized moral purity, self-denial, and public declarations of devotion to the goddess. Joining Isis's cult was therefore a sharper change in identity than in some other mystery cults, such as the cult dedicated to Dionysus", ". The account in The Golden Ass suggests that initiation may have been classifiable as a mystical conversion, characterized by visionary experiences, intense emotions, and a dramatic change in the convert's behavior, whereas, for instance, the evidence about Mithraism suggests the process of joining it was less mystical and more intellectual.", "The Golden Ass does not say how initiation may have affected a devotee's rank within the cult. After going through his third initiation, Lucius becomes a pastophoros, a member of a particular class of priests. If the third initiation was a requirement for becoming a pastophoros, it is possible that members moved up in the cult hierarchy by going through the series of initiations. Apuleius refers to initiates and to priests as if they are separate groups within the cult", ". Apuleius refers to initiates and to priests as if they are separate groups within the cult. Initiation may have been a prerequisite for a devotee to become a priest but not have automatically made him or her into one.", "Connection with the afterlife", "Many pieces of evidence suggest that the mysteries of Isis were connected in some way to salvation and the guarantee of an afterlife. The Greek conception of the afterlife included the paradisiacal Elysian Fields, and philosophers developed ideas about the immortality of the soul, but Greeks and Romans expressed uncertainty about what would happen to them after death. In both Greek and Roman traditional religion, no god was thought to guarantee a pleasant afterlife to his or her worshippers", ". The gods of some mystery cults may have been exceptions, but evidence about those cults' afterlife beliefs is vague. Apuleius's account, if it is accurate, provides stronger evidence for Isiac afterlife beliefs than is available for the other cults. The book says Isis's power over fate, which her Greek and Roman devotees frequently mentioned, gives her control over life and death", ". According to the priest who initiates Lucius, devotees of Isis \"who had finished their life's span and were already standing on the threshold of light’s end, if only they could safely be trusted with the great unspoken mysteries of the cult, were frequently drawn forth by the goddess' power and in a manner reborn through her providence and set once more on the course of renewed life", ".\" In another passage, Isis herself says that when Lucius dies he will be able to see her shining in the darkness of the underworld and worship her there.", "Some scholars are skeptical that the afterlife was a major focus of the cult. The historian Ramsay MacMullen says that when characters in The Golden Ass call Lucius \"reborn\", they refer to his new life as a devotee and never call him , or \"eternally reborn\", which would refer to the afterlife", ". The classicists Mary Beard, John North, and Simon Price say The Golden Ass shows that \"the cult of Isis had implications for life and death, but even so more emphasis is placed on extending the span of life than on the after-life—which is pictured in fairly undifferentiated terms.\"", "Some funerary inscriptions provide evidence of Isiac afterlife beliefs outside Apuleius's work. They show that some of Isis's followers thought she would guide them to a better afterlife, but also suggest the Isis cult had no firm picture of the afterlife and that its members drew upon both Greek and Egyptian precedents to envision it. Some inscriptions say that devotees would benefit from Osiris's enlivening water, while others refer to the Fortunate Isles of Greek tradition", ". None of them make specific reference to mystery rites, although the inscription of Meniketes asserts that he is blessed in part because of his work furnishing the ritual beds. Initiation may not have been considered necessary for receiving Isis's blessing.", "The ancient Egyptians believed that Osiris lived on in the Duat after death, thanks in part to Isis's help, and that after their deaths they could be revived like him with the assistance of other deities, including Isis. These beliefs may have carried over into the Greco-Roman Isis cult, although the myth of Osiris's death was rarely referred to in the Greco-Roman Isis cult and may not have played a major role in its belief system, even if the nocturnal union of Osiris and Ra did so", ". If the symbolism in Lucius's first initiation was a reference to the sun in the Egyptian underworld, that would indicate that it involved Osirian afterlife beliefs, even though Osiris is not mentioned in the description of the rite. As the classicist Robert Turcan put it, when Lucius is revealed to the crowd after his initiation he is \"honoured almost like a new Osiris, saved and regenerated through the ineffable powers of Isis", ". The palms radiating from his head were the signs of the Sun triumphing over death.\"", "Influence on other traditions", "Possible influence on Christianity", "The mysteries of Isis, like those of other gods, continued to be performed into the late fourth century CE. Toward the end of the century, Christian emperors increasingly restricted the practice of non-Christian religions. Mystery cults died out near the start of the fifth century. They existed alongside Christianity for centuries before their extinction, and some elements of their initiations resembled Christian beliefs and practices", ". As a result, the possibility has often been raised that Christianity was directly influenced by the mystery cults. Evidence about interactions between Christianity and the mystery cults is poor, making the question difficult to resolve.", "Most religious traditions in the Greco-Roman world centered on a particular city or ethnic group and did not require personal devotion, only public ritual. In contrast, the cult of Isis, like Christianity and some other mystery cults, was made up of people who joined voluntarily, out of their personal commitment to a deity that many of them regarded as superior to all others", ". Furthermore, if Isiac initiates were thought to benefit in the afterlife from Osiris's death and resurrection, this belief would parallel the Christian belief that the death and resurrection of Jesus make salvation available to those who become Christians.", "Some scholars have specifically compared baptism with the Isiac initiation. Before the early fourth century CE, baptism was the culmination of a long process, in which the convert to Christianity fasted for the forty days of Lent before being immersed at Easter in a cistern or natural body of water. Thus, like the mysteries of Isis, early Christian baptism involved a days-long fast and a washing ritual", ". Both fasting and washing were common types of ritual purification found in the religions of the Mediterranean, and Christian baptism was specifically derived from the baptism of Jesus and Jewish immersion rituals. Therefore, according to Hugh Bowden, these similarities are likely to come from the shared religious background of Christianity and the Isis cult, not from the influence of one tradition upon the other.", "Similarly, the sacred meals shared by the initiates of many mystery cults have been compared with the Christian rite of communion. For instance, the classicist R. E. Witt called the banquet that concluded the Isiac initiation \"the pagan Eucharist of Isis and Sarapis\". Feasts in which worshippers ate the food that had been sacrificed to a deity were a nearly universal practice in Mediterranean religions and do not prove a direct link between Christianity and the mysteries of Isis", ". The most distinctive trait of Christian communion—the belief that the god himself was the victim of the sacrifice—was not present in the cult, or in any other mystery cults.", "Bowden doubts that afterlife beliefs were a very important aspect of mystery cults and therefore thinks their resemblance to Christianity was small. Jaime Alvar, in contrast, argues that the mysteries of Isis, along with those of Mithras and Cybele, did involve beliefs about salvation and the afterlife that resembled those in Christianity. But they did not become similar by borrowing directly from each other, only by adapting in similar ways to the Greco-Roman religious environment", ". He says: \"Each cult found the materials it required in the common trough of current ideas. Each took what it needed and adapted these elements according to its overall drift and design.\"", "Influence in modern times\nMotifs from Apuleius's description of the Isiac initiation have been repeated and reworked in fiction and in esoteric belief systems in modern times, and they form an important part of the Western perception of ancient Egyptian religion. People reusing these motifs often assume that mystery rites were practiced in Egypt long before Hellenistic times.", "An influential example is the 1731 novel Life of Sethos by a French cleric and classicist, Jean Terrasson. He claimed to have translated this book from an ancient Greek work of fiction that was based on real events. The book was actually his own invention, inspired by ancient Greek sources that assumed Greek philosophers had derived their wisdom from Egypt. In his novel, Egypt's priests run an elaborate education system like a European university", ". In his novel, Egypt's priests run an elaborate education system like a European university. To join their ranks, the protagonist, Sethos, undergoes an initiation presided over by Isis, taking place in hidden chambers beneath the Great Pyramid of Giza", ". Based on Lucius's statement in The Golden Ass that he was \"borne through all the elements\" during his initiation, Terrasson describes the initiation as an elaborate series of ordeals based on the classical elements: running over hot metal bars for fire, swimming a canal for water, and swinging through the air over a pit.", "The Divine Legation of Moses, a treatise by the Anglican theologian William Warburton published from 1738 to 1741, included an analysis of ancient mystery rites that drew upon Sethos for much of its evidence. Assuming that all mystery rites derived from Egypt, Warburton argued that the public face of Egyptian religion was polytheistic, but the Egyptian mysteries were designed to reveal a deeper, monotheistic truth to elite initiates", ". One of them, Moses, learned the elite belief system during his Egyptian upbringing and developed Judaism to reveal monotheism to the entire Israelite nation.", "Freemasons developed many pseudohistorical origin myths tracing their history back to ancient times. Egypt was among the civilizations that Masons claimed had influenced their traditions. After Sethos was published, several Masonic lodges developed rites based on those in the novel. Late in the eighteenth century, Masonic writers, still assuming that Sethos was an ancient story, used the resemblance between their rites and the initiation of Sethos as evidence of Freemasonry's supposedly ancient origin", ". Many works of fiction from the 1790s to the 1820s reused and modified the signature traits of Terrasson's Egyptian initiation: trials by three or four elements, often taking place under the pyramids. The best-known of these works is the 1791 opera The Magic Flute by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Emanuel Schikaneder, in which the main character, Tamino, undergoes a series of trials overseen by priests who invoke Isis and Osiris.", "Karl Leonhard Reinhold, a philosopher and Freemason writing in the 1780s, drew upon and modified Warburton's claims in an effort to reconcile Freemasonry's traditional origin story, which traces Freemasonry back to ancient Israel, with its enthusiasm for Egyptian imagery. He claimed that the sentence \"I am that I am\", spoken by the Jewish God in the Book of Exodus, had a pantheistic meaning", ". He compared it with an Egyptian inscription on a veiled statue of Isis recorded by the Roman-era authors Plutarch and Proclus, which said: \"I am all that is, was, and shall be,\" and argued that Isis was a personification of Nature. According to Reinhold, it was this pantheistic belief system that Moses imparted to the Israelites, so that Isis and the Jewish and Christian conception of God shared a common origin.", "Others treated the pantheistic Isis as superior to Christianity. In 1790, the poet Friedrich Schiller wrote an essay based on Reinhold's work that treated the mystery rite as a meeting with the awe-inspiring power of nature. He argued that Moses's people were not prepared to grasp such an understanding of divinity, and thus the Jewish and Christian conception of God was a compromised version of the truth devised for public consumption", ". Throughout the eighteenth century, the veiled Isis was used as a symbol of modern science, which hoped to uncover nature's secrets. In the wake of the dechristianization of France during the French Revolution, Isis was treated as a symbol of opposition to the clergy and to Christianity in general, as she represented both scientific knowledge and the mystical wisdom of the mystery rites, which offered an alternative to traditional Christianity.", "Scholars abandoned the concept of Egyptian mysteries in the early nineteenth century as the emergence of Egyptology undermined old assumptions about ancient Egyptian society, but the concept lingered among Freemasons and esotericists", ". Several esoteric organizations that emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as the Theosophical Society and the Ancient and Mystical Order Rosae Crucis, repeated the belief that Egyptians underwent initiation within the pyramids and that Greek philosophers were initiates who learned Egypt's secret wisdom", ". Writers influenced by Theosophy, such as Reuben Swinburne Clymer in his book The Mystery of Osiris (1909) and Manly Palmer Hall in Freemasonry of the Ancient Egyptians (1937), wrote of an age-old Egyptian mystery tradition. An elaborate example of such beliefs is the 1954 book Stolen Legacy by George G. M. James", ". An elaborate example of such beliefs is the 1954 book Stolen Legacy by George G. M. James. Stolen Legacy asserts that Greek philosophy was built on knowledge taken from the Egyptian school of initiates, and it was an influence on the Afrocentrist movement, which asserts that ancient Egyptian civilization was more sophisticated and more closely connected to other African civilizations than mainstream scholars believe it to have been", ". James envisioned the mystery school in terms reminiscent of Freemasonry and believed it was a grandiose organization with branches on several continents, including the Americas, so that the purported system of Egyptian mysteries extended across the world.", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nWorks cited\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n Lucius Apuleius: The Golden Ass, Book XI, translated by A. S. Kline\n\nIsis\nGreco-Roman mysteries\nAncient Egypt in the Western imagination" ]

[ "The House of Commons of Canada () is the lower house of the Parliament of Canada. Together with the Crown and the Senate of Canada, they comprise the bicameral legislature of Canada.", "The House of Commons is a democratically elected body whose members are known as members of Parliament (MPs). There have been 338 MPs since the most recent electoral district redistribution for the 2015 federal election, which saw the addition of 30 seats. Members are elected by simple plurality (\"first-past-the-post\" system) in each of the country's electoral districts, which are colloquially known as ridings", ". MPs may hold office until Parliament is dissolved and serve for constitutionally limited terms of up to five years after an election. Historically, however, terms have ended before their expiry and the sitting government has typically dissolved parliament within four years of an election according to a long-standing convention. In any case, an act of Parliament now limits each term to four years", ". In any case, an act of Parliament now limits each term to four years. Seats in the House of Commons are distributed roughly in proportion to the population of each province and territory. However, some ridings are more populous than others, and the Canadian constitution contains provisions regarding provincial representation. As a result, there is some interprovincial and regional malapportionment relative to the population.", "The British North America Act 1867 (now called the Constitution Act, 1867) created the House of Commons, modelling it on the British House of Commons. The lower of the two houses making up the parliament, the House of Commons, in practice holds far more power than the upper house, the Senate. Although the approval of both chambers is necessary for legislation to become law, the Senate very rarely rejects bills passed by the House of Commons (though the Senate does occasionally amend bills)", ". Moreover, the Cabinet is responsible solely to the House of Commons. The prime minister stays in office only so long as they retain the support, or \"confidence\", of the lower house.", "The House of Commons currently meets in a temporary chamber in the West Block of the parliament buildings on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, while the Centre Block, which houses the traditional Commons chamber, undergoes renovation.\n\nName", "Name\n\nThe term derives from the Anglo-Norman word communes, referring to the geographic and collective \"communities\" of their parliamentary representatives and not the third estate, the commonality. This distinction is made clear in the official French name of the body, . Canada and the United Kingdom remain the only countries to use the name \"House of Commons\" for a lower house of parliament. The body's formal name is: The Honourable the Commons of Canada in Parliament assembled ().", "History", "The House of Commons came into existence in 1867, when the British Parliament passed the British North America Act 1867, uniting the Province of Canada (which was divided into Quebec and Ontario), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into a single federation called Canada. The new Parliament of Canada consisted of the monarch (represented by the governor general, who also represented the Colonial Office), the Senate and the House of Commons", ". The Parliament of Canada was based on the Westminster model (that is, the model of the Parliament of the United Kingdom). Unlike the UK Parliament, the powers of the Parliament of Canada were limited in that other powers were assigned exclusively to the provincial legislatures. The Parliament of Canada also remained subordinate to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire British Empire", ". Greater autonomy was granted by the Statute of Westminster 1931, after which new acts of the British Parliament did not apply to Canada, with some exceptions. These exceptions were removed by the Canada Act 1982.", "From 1867, the Commons met in the chamber previously used by the Legislative Assembly of Canada until the building was destroyed by fire in 1916. It relocated to the amphitheatre of the Victoria Memorial Museum — what is today the Canadian Museum of Nature, where it met until 1922. Until the end of 2018, the Commons sat in the Centre Block chamber", ". Until the end of 2018, the Commons sat in the Centre Block chamber. Starting with the final sitting before the 2019 federal election, the Commons sits in a temporary chamber in the West Block until at least 2028, while renovations are undertaken in the Centre Block of Parliament.", "Members and electoral districts", "The House of Commons has 338 members, each of whom represents a single electoral district (also called a riding). The constitution specifies a basic minimum of 295 electoral districts, but additional seats are allocated according to various clauses. Seats are distributed among the provinces in proportion to population, as determined by each decennial census, subject to the following exceptions made by the constitution", ". Firstly, the \"senatorial clause\" guarantees that each province will have at least as many MPs as senators. Secondly, the \"grandfather clause\" guarantees each province has at least as many Members of Parliament now as it had in 1985. (This was amended in 2021 to be the number of members in the 43rd Canadian Parliament.)", "As a result of these clauses, smaller provinces and territories that have experienced a relative decline in population have become over-represented in the House. Ontario, British Columbia, and Alberta are under-represented in proportion to their populations, while Quebec's representation is close to the national average. The other six provinces (Saskatchewan, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador) are over-represented", ". Boundary commissions, appointed by the federal government for each province, have the task of drawing the boundaries of the electoral districts in each province. Territorial representation is independent of the population; each territory is entitled to only one seat", ". The electoral quotient was defined by legislation as 111,166 for the redistribution of seats after the 2011 census and is adjusted following each decennial census by multiplying it by the average of the percentage of population change of each province since the previous decennial census. The population of the province is then divided by the electoral quotient to equal the base provincial-seat allocation", ". The \"special clauses\" are then applied to increase the number of seats for certain provinces, bringing the total number of seats (with the three seats for the territories) to 338.", "The most recent redistribution of seats occurred subsequent to the 2011 census. The Fair Representation Act was passed and given royal assent on December 16, 2011, and effectively allocated fifteen additional seats to Ontario, six new seats each to Alberta and British Columbia, and three more to Quebec.", "A new redistribution began in October 2021 subsequent to the 2021 census, it is expected to go into effect at the earliest for any federal election called after April 2024", ". After initial controversy that Quebec would lose a seat in the redistribution under the existing representation formula established by the Fair Representation Act, the Preserving Provincial Representation in the House of Commons Act was passed and given royal assent on June 23, 2022, and effectively allocated three additional seats to Alberta and one new seat each to Ontario and British Columbia.", "The following tables summarize representation in the House of Commons by province and territory:\n\nElections", "General elections occur whenever parliament is dissolved by the governor general on the monarch's behalf. The timing of the dissolution has historically been chosen by the Prime minister. The Constitution Act, 1867, provides that a parliament last no longer than five years. Canadian election law requires that elections must be held on the third Monday in October in the fourth year after the last election, subject to the discretion of the Crown. Campaigns must be at least 36 days long", ". Campaigns must be at least 36 days long. Candidates are usually nominated by political parties. A candidate can run independently, although it is rare for such a candidate to win. Most successful independent candidates have been incumbents who were expelled from their political parties (for example, John Nunziata in 1997 or Jody Wilson-Raybould in 2019) or who failed to win their parties' nomination (for example, Chuck Cadman in 2004)", ". Most Canadian candidates are chosen in meetings called by their party's local association. In practice, the candidate who signs up the most local party members generally wins the nomination.", "To run for a seat in the house, candidates must file nomination papers bearing the signatures of at least 50 or 100 constituents (depending on the size of the electoral district). Each electoral district returns one member using the first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. To vote, one must be a citizen of Canada and at least eighteen years of age", ". To vote, one must be a citizen of Canada and at least eighteen years of age. Declining the ballot, which is possible in several provinces, is not an option under current federal regulations.", "Once elected, a member of Parliament normally continues to serve until the next dissolution of parliament. If a member dies, resigns, or ceases to be qualified, their seat falls vacant. It is also possible for the House of Commons to expel a member, but this power is only exercised when the member has engaged in serious misconduct or criminal activity. Formerly, MPs appointed to the cabinet were expected to resign their seats, though this practice ceased in 1931", ". In each case, a vacancy may be filled by a by-election in the appropriate electoral district. The first-past-the-post system is used in by-elections, as in general elections.", "Prerequisites \nThe term member of Parliament is usually used only to refer to members of the House of Commons, even though the Senate is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters \"MP\". The annual salary of each MP, was $185,800; members may receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold (for instance, the speakership). MPs rank immediately below senators in the order of precedence.\n\nQualifications", "Under the Constitution Act, 1867, Parliament is empowered to determine the qualifications of members of the House of Commons. The present qualifications are outlined in the Canada Elections Act, which was passed in 2000. Under the Act, individuals must be eligible voters as of the day of nomination, to stand as a candidate. Thus, minors and individuals who are not citizens of Canada are not allowed to become candidates", ". Thus, minors and individuals who are not citizens of Canada are not allowed to become candidates. The Canada Elections Act also bars prisoners from standing for election (although they may vote). Moreover, individuals found guilty of election-related crimes are prohibited from becoming members for five years (in some cases, seven years) after conviction.", "The Act also prohibits certain officials from standing for the House of Commons. These officers include members of provincial and territorial legislatures (although this was not always the case), sheriffs, crown attorneys, most judges, and election officers. The chief electoral officer (the head of Elections Canada, the federal agency responsible for conducting elections) is prohibited not only from standing as candidate but also from voting", ". Finally, under the Constitution Act, 1867, a member of the Senate may not also become a member of the House of Commons and MPs must give up their seats when appointed to the Senate or the bench.", "Officers and symbols", "The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the speaker, at the beginning of each new parliamentary term, and also whenever a vacancy arises. Formerly, the prime minister determined who would serve as speaker. Although the House voted on the matter, the voting constituted a mere formality. Since 1986, however, the House has elected speakers by secret ballot. The speaker is assisted by a deputy speaker, who also holds the title of chair of Committees of the Whole", ". Two other deputies—the deputy chair of Committees of the Whole and the assistant deputy chair of Committees of the Whole—also preside. The duties of presiding over the House are divided between the four officers aforementioned; however, the speaker usually presides over Question Period and over the most important debates.", "The speaker controls debates by calling on members to speak. If a member believes that a rule (or standing order) has been breached, they may raise a \"point of order\", on which the speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any debate or appeal. The speaker may also discipline members who fail to observe the rules of the House. When presiding, the speaker must remain impartial", ". When presiding, the speaker must remain impartial. The speaker also oversees the administration of the House and is chair of the Board of Internal Economy, the governing body for the House of Commons. The current speaker of the House of Commons is Greg Fergus.", "The member of the Government responsible for steering legislation through the House is leader of the Government in the House of Commons. The government house leader (as they are more commonly known) is a member of Parliament selected by the prime minister and holds cabinet rank. The leader manages the schedule of the House of Commons and attempts to secure the Opposition's support for the Government's legislative agenda.", "Officers of the House who are not members include the clerk of the House of Commons, the deputy clerk, the law clerk and parliamentary counsel, and several other clerks. These officers advise the speaker and members on the rules and procedure of the House in addition to exercising senior management functions within the House administration", ". Another important officer is the sergeant-at-arms, whose duties include the maintenance of order and security on the House's premises and inside the buildings of the parliamentary precinct. (The Royal Canadian Mounted Police patrol Parliament Hill but are not allowed into the buildings unless asked by the speaker). The sergeant-at-arms also carries the ceremonial mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and the House of Commons, into the House each sitting", ". The House is also staffed by parliamentary pages, who carry messages to the members in the chamber and otherwise provide assistance to the House.", "The Commons' mace has the shape of a medieval mace which was used as a weapon, but in brass and ornate in detail and symbolism. At its bulbous head is a replica of the Imperial State Crown; the choice of this crown for the Commons' mace differentiates it from the Senate's mace, which has St. Edward's Crown at its apex", ". Edward's Crown at its apex. The Commons mace is placed upon the table in front of the speaker for the duration of the sitting with the crown pointing towards the prime minister and the other cabinet ministers, who advise the monarch and governor general and are accountable to this chamber (in the Senate chamber, the mace points towards the throne, where the king has the right to sit himself).", "Carved above the speaker's chair is the royal arms of the United Kingdom. This chair was a gift from the United Kingdom Branch of the Empire Parliamentary Association in 1921, to replace the chair that was destroyed by the fire of 1916, and was a replica of the chair in the British House of Commons at the time. These arms at its apex were considered the royal arms for general purposes throughout the British Empire at the time", ". Since 1931, however, Canada has been an independent country and the Canadian coat of arms are now understood to be the royal arms of the monarch. Escutcheons of the same original royal arms can be found on each side of the speaker's chair held by a lion and a unicorn.", "In response to a campaign by Bruce Hicks for the Canadianization of symbols of royal authority and to advance the identity of parliamentary institutions, a proposal that was supported by speakers of the House of Commons John Fraser and Gilbert Parent, a Commons committee was eventually struck following a motion by MP Derek Lee, before which Hicks and Robert Watt, the first chief herald of Canada, was called as the only two expert witnesses", ", the first chief herald of Canada, was called as the only two expert witnesses, though Senator Serge Joyal joined the committee on behalf of the Senate", ". Commons' speaker Peter Milliken then asked the governor general to authorize such a symbol. In the United Kingdom, the House of Commons and the House of Lords use the royal badge of the portcullis, in green and red respectively, to represent those institutions and to distinguish them from the government, the courts and the monarch", ". The Canadian Heraldic Authority on April 15, 2008, granted the House of Commons, as an institution, a badge consisting of the chamber's mace (as described above) behind the escutcheon of the shield of the royal arms of Canada (representing the monarch, in whose name the House of Commons deliberates).", "Procedure", "Like the Senate, the House of Commons meets on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. The Commons Chamber is modestly decorated in green, in contrast with the more lavishly furnished red Senate Chamber. The arrangement is similar to the design of the Chamber of the British House of Commons. The seats are evenly divided between both sides of the Chamber, three sword-lengths apart (about three metres). The speaker's chair (which can be adjusted for height) is at the north end of the Chamber", ". The speaker's chair (which can be adjusted for height) is at the north end of the Chamber. In front of it is the Table of the House, on which rests the ceremonial mace. Various \"table officers\"—clerks and other officials—sit at the table, ready to advise the speaker on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the speaker's right, while members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the speaker's left", ". Government ministers sit around the prime minister, who is traditionally assigned the 11th seat in the front row on the speaker's right-hand side. The leader of the Official Opposition sits directly across from the prime minister and is surrounded by a Shadow Cabinet or critics for the government portfolios. The remaining party leaders sit in the front rows. Other members of Parliament who do not hold any kind of special responsibilities are known as \"backbenchers\".", "The House usually sits Monday to Friday from late January to mid-June and from mid-September to mid-December according to an established calendar, though it can modify the calendar if additional or fewer sittings are required. During these periods, the House generally rises for one week per month to allow members to work in their constituencies. Sittings of the House are open to the public", ". Sittings of the House are open to the public. Proceedings are broadcast over cable and satellite television and over live streaming video on the Internet by CPAC owned by a consortium of Canadian cable companies. They are also recorded in text form in print and online in Hansard, the official report of parliamentary debates.", "The Constitution Act, 1867 establishes a quorum of twenty members (including the member presiding) for the House of Commons. Any member may request a count of the members to ascertain the presence of a quorum; if however, the speaker feels that at least twenty members are clearly in the Chamber, the request may be denied", ". If a count does occur, and reveals that fewer than twenty members are present, the speaker orders bells to be rung, so that other members on the parliamentary precincts may come to the Chamber. If, after a second count, a quorum is still not present, the speaker must adjourn the House until the next sitting day.", "During debates, members may only speak if called upon by the speaker (or, as is most often the case, the deputy presiding). The speaker is responsible for ensuring that members of all parties have an opportunity to be heard. The speaker also determines who is to speak if two or more members rise simultaneously, but the decision may be altered by the House. Motions must be moved by one member and seconded by another before debate may begin. Some motions, however, are non-debatable.", "Speeches may be made in either of Canada's official languages (English and French), and it is customary for bilingual members of parliament to respond to these in the same language they were made in. It is common for bilingual MPs to switch between languages during speeches. Members must address their speeches to the presiding officer, not the House, using the words \"Mr. Speaker\" () or \"Madam Speaker\" (). Other members must be referred to in the third person", ". Speaker\" () or \"Madam Speaker\" (). Other members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency or cabinet post, using forms such as \"the honourable member for [electoral district]\" or \"the minister of...\" Members' names are routinely used only during roll call votes, in which members stand and are named to have their vote recorded; at that point they are referred to by title (Ms", ". or mister for Anglophones and madame, mademoiselle, or monsieur for Francophones) and last name, except where members have the same or similar last names, at which point they would be listed by their name and riding (\"M. Massé, Avignon—La Mitis—Matane—Matapédia; Mr. Masse, Windsor West....).", "No member may speak more than once on the same question (except that the mover of a motion is entitled to make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end). Moreover, tediously repetitive or irrelevant remarks are prohibited, as are written remarks read into the record (although this behaviour is creeping into the modern debate). The speaker may order a member making such remarks to cease speaking. The Standing Orders of the House of Commons prescribe time limits for speeches", ". The Standing Orders of the House of Commons prescribe time limits for speeches. The limits depend on the nature of the motion but are most commonly between ten and twenty minutes. However, under certain circumstances, the prime minister, the Opposition leader, and others are entitled to make longer speeches. The debate may be further restricted by the passage of \"time allocation\" motions. Alternatively, the House may end debate more quickly by passing a motion for \"closure\".", "When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either \"yea\" (in favour of the motion) or \"nay\" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but five or more members may challenge the assessment, thereby forcing a recorded vote (known as a division, although, in fact, the House does not divide for votes the way the British House of Commons does)", ". First, members in favour of the motion rise, so that the clerks may record their names and votes. Then, the same procedure is repeated for members who oppose the motion. There are no formal means for recording an abstention, though a member may informally abstain by remaining seated during the division. If there is an equality of votes, the speaker has a casting vote.", "The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some members of Parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that all party members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions since those who do so are unlikely to reach higher political ranks in their parties", ". Errant members may be deselected as official party candidates during future elections, and, in serious cases, may be expelled from their parties outright. Thus, the independence of members of Parliament tends to be extremely low, and \"backbench rebellions\" by members discontent with their party's policies are rare. In some circumstances, however, parties announce \"free votes\", allowing members to vote as they please. This may be done on moral issues and is routine on private members' bills.", "Committees\n\nThe Parliament of Canada uses committees for a variety of purposes. Committees consider bills in detail and may make amendments. Other committees scrutinize various Government agencies and ministries.", "Potentially, the largest of the Commons committees are the Committees of the Whole, which, as the name suggests, consist of all the members of the House. A Committee of the Whole meets in the Chamber of the House but proceeds under slightly modified rules of debate. (For example, a member may make more than one speech on a motion in a Committee of the Whole, but not during a normal session of the House.) Instead of the speaker, the chair, deputy chair, or assistant deputy chair presides", ".) Instead of the speaker, the chair, deputy chair, or assistant deputy chair presides. The House resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole to discuss appropriation bills, and sometimes for other legislation.", "The House of Commons also has several standing committees, each of which has responsibility for a particular area of government (for example, finance or transport). These committees oversee the relevant government departments, may hold hearings and collect evidence on governmental operations and review departmental spending plans. Standing committees may also consider and amend bills. Standing committees consist of between sixteen and eighteen members each, and elect their chairs.", "Some bills are considered by legislative committees, each of which consists of up to fifteen members. The membership of each legislative committee roughly reflects the strength of the parties in the whole House. A legislative committee is appointed on an ad hoc basis to study and amend a specific bill. Also, the chair of a legislative committee is not elected by the members of the committee but is instead appointed by the speaker, normally from among the speaker's deputies", ". Most bills, however, are referred to standing committees rather than legislative committees.", "The House may also create ad hoc committees to study matters other than bills. Such committees are known as special committees. Each such body, like a legislative committee, may consist of no more than fifteen members. Other committees include joint committees, which include both members of the House of Commons and senators; such committees may hold hearings and oversee government, but do not revise legislation.", "Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development\n Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics\n Agriculture and Agri-Food\n Canadian Heritage\n Citizenship and Immigration\n Electoral Reform\n Environment and Sustainable Development\n Finance\n Fisheries and Oceans\n Foreign Affairs and International Development\n Government Operations and Estimates\n Health\n Human Resources, Social Development and the Status of Persons with Disabilities\n Industry, Science and Technology\n International Trade\n Justice and Human Rights", "Industry, Science and Technology\n International Trade\n Justice and Human Rights\n Liaison Committee\n National Defence\n Natural Resources\n Official Languages\n Procedure and House Affairs\n Public Accounts\n Public Safety and National Security\n Status of Women\n Transport, Infrastructure and Communities\n Veterans Affairs", "Legislative functions\n\nAlthough legislation may be introduced in either chamber, most bills originate in the House of Commons.", "In conformity with the British model, the Lower House alone is authorized to originate bills imposing taxes or appropriating public funds. This restriction on the power of the Senate is not merely a matter of convention, but is explicitly stated in the Constitution Act, 1867. Otherwise, the power of the two Houses of Parliament is theoretically equal; the approval of each is necessary for a bill's passage.", "In practice, however, the House of Commons is the dominant chamber of Parliament, with the Senate very rarely exercising its powers in a way that opposes the will of the democratically elected chamber. The last major bill defeated in the Senate came in 2010, when a bill passed by the Commons concerning climate change was rejected in the Senate.", "A clause in the Constitution Act, 1867 permits the governor general (with the approval of the monarch) to appoint up to eight extra senators to resolve a deadlock between the two houses. The clause was invoked only once, in 1990, when Prime Minister Brian Mulroney advised the appointment of an additional eight senators to secure the Senate's approval for the Goods and Services Tax.\n\nRelationship with the Government of Canada", "As a Westminster democracy, the Government of Canada, or more specifically the -in-Council, exercising the executive power on behalf of the prime minister and Cabinet, enjoys a complementary relationship with the House of Commons—similar to the UK model, and in contrast to the US model of separation of powers. Though it does not formally elect the prime minister, the House of Commons indirectly controls who becomes prime minister", ". By convention, the prime minister is answerable to and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the governor general has the duty of appointing the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally the leader of the largest party in the lower house, although the system allows a coalition of two or more parties. This has not happened in the Canadian federal parliament but has occurred in Canadian provinces", ". This has not happened in the Canadian federal parliament but has occurred in Canadian provinces. The leader of the second-largest party (or in the case of a coalition, the largest party out of government) usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition. Moreover, the prime minister is, by unwritten convention, a member of the House of Commons, rather than of the Senate. Only two prime ministers governed from the Senate: Sir John Abbott (1891–1892) and Sir Mackenzie Bowell (1894–1896)", ". Both men got the job following the death of a prime minister and did not contest elections.", "The prime minister may only stay in office as long as he or she retains the confidence of the House of Commons. The lower house may indicate its lack of support for the government by rejecting a motion of confidence, or by passing a motion of no confidence. Important bills that form a part of the government's agenda are generally considered matters of confidence, as is any taxation or spending bill and the annual budget", ". When a government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obliged to either resign or request the governor general to dissolve parliament, thereby precipitating a general election. The governor general may theoretically refuse to dissolve parliament, thereby forcing the prime minister to resign. The last instance of a governor general refusing to grant a dissolution was in 1926.", "Except when compelled to request a dissolution by an adverse vote on a confidence issue, the prime minister is allowed to choose the timing of dissolutions, and consequently the timing of general elections. The time chosen reflects political considerations, and is generally most opportune for the prime minister's party. However, no parliamentary term can last for more than five years from the first sitting of Parliament; a dissolution is automatic upon the expiry of this period", ". Normally, Parliaments do not last for full five-year terms; prime ministers typically ask for dissolutions after about three or four years. In 2006, the Harper government introduced a bill to set fixed election dates every four years, although snap elections are still permitted. The bill was approved by Parliament and has now become law.", "Whatever the reasonthe expiry of parliament's five-year term, the choice of the prime minister, or a government defeat in the House of Commonsa dissolution is followed by general elections. If the prime minister's party retains its majority in the House of Commons, then the prime minister may remain in power. On the other hand, if their party has lost its majority, the prime minister may resign or may attempt to stay in power by winning support from members of other parties", ". A prime minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons); in such a case, the new leader of the outgoing prime minister's party becomes prime minister.", "The House of Commons scrutinizes the ministers of the Crown through Question Period, a daily forty-five-minute period during which members have the opportunity to ask questions of the prime minister and other Cabinet ministers. Questions must relate to the responding minister's official government activities, not to their activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Members may also question committee chairmen on the work of their respective committees", ". Members may also question committee chairmen on the work of their respective committees. Members of each party are entitled to the number of questions proportional to the party caucus' strength in the house. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Period, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.", "In times where there is a majority government, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the government is weak. Since elections use the first-past-the-post electoral system, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. (Minority governments, however, are not uncommon.) Modern Canadian political parties are so tightly organized that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs", ". In many cases, MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party leaders. As well, the major parties require candidates' nominations to be signed by party leaders, thus giving the leaders the power to, effectively, end a politician's career. Thus, defeats of majority governments on issues of confidence are very rare", ". Thus, defeats of majority governments on issues of confidence are very rare. Paul Martin's Liberal minority government lost a vote of no confidence in 2005; the last time this had occurred was in 1979, when Joe Clark's Progressive Conservative minority government was defeated after a term of just six months.", "Current composition\n\nNotes\n\nSeating plan\nSeating plan for the current House of Commons:\n Party leaders are italicized. Bold indicates cabinet minister.\n\nChamber design\nThe current and original Canadian House of Commons chamber was influenced by the British House of Commons rectangular layout and that of the original St. Stephen's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster. The difference from the British layout is with the use of individual chairs and tables for members, absent in the British Commons' design.", "With the exception of the legislatures in Nunavut (circular seating), the Northwest Territories (circular seating), and Manitoba (U-shaped seating), all other Canadian provincial legislatures share the common design of the Canadian House of Commons.", "The Department of Public Works and Government Services undertook work during the 41st Parliament to determine how the seating arrangement could be modified to accommodate the additional 30 seats added in the 2015 election. Ultimately, new \"theatre\" seats were designed, with five seats in a row at one desk, the seats pulling down for use. Such seat sets now form almost the entire length of the last two rows on each side of the chamber.", "Renovations\nThe current chamber is currently undergoing an estimated decade-long restoration and renovation, which began in December 2018. Parliamentarians have relocated to the courtyard of the 159-year-old West Block which also underwent seven years of renovations and repairs to get ready for the move. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau marked the closing of the Centre Block on December 12, 2018. The final sittings of both the House of Commons and the Senate in Centre Block took place on December 13, 2018.", "See also\n\nParties and elections\n Elections Canada\n List of Canadian federal electoral districts\n List of Canadian federal general elections\n List of political parties in Canada\n\nParliaments and members\n List of Canadian federal parliaments\n Procedural officers and senior officials of the parliament of Canada\n Senate of Canada\n Centre Block\n Joint Address\n\nOffices\nOff Parliament Hill MPs have some offices at Justice Building or Confederation Building down Wellington Street near the Supreme Court of Canada.", "References\n\nBibliography\n\n \n Department of Justice. (2004). Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982. \n Also under .\n House of Commons Table Research Branch. (2006). Compendium of Procedure. \n The Parliament of Canada. Official Website. \n Canada's House of Commons from The Canadian Encyclopedia\n\nExternal links\n \n \n \n\n \nWestminster system in Canada\n1867 establishments in Canada\nNational lower houses" ]

[ "Events from the year 1993 in the United States.\n\nIncumbents", "Incumbents\n\nFederal government \n President: George H. W. Bush (R-Texas) (until January 20), Bill Clinton (D-Arkansas) (starting January 20)\n Vice President: Dan Quayle (R-Indiana) (until January 20), Al Gore (D-Tennessee) (starting January 20)\n Chief Justice: William Rehnquist (Wisconsin)\n Speaker of the House of Representatives: Tom Foley (D-Washington)\n Senate Majority Leader: George J. Mitchell the 45th\n Congress: 102nd (until January 3), 103rd (starting January 3)\n\nEvents\n\nJanuary", "January 3 – In Moscow, George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin sign the second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty.\n January 5\nThe state of Washington executes Westley Allan Dodd by hanging (the first legal hanging in America since 1965).", "$7,400,000 USD is stolen from Brinks Armored Car Depot in Rochester, New York in the fifth-largest robbery in U.S. history. Four men, Samuel Millar, Father Patrick Moloney, former Rochester Police officer Thomas O'Connor, and Charles McCormick, all of whom have ties to the Provisional Irish Republican Army, are accused.\n January 19\nIBM announces a $4,970,000,000 loss for 1992, the largest single-year corporate loss in United States history to date.", "Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraq refuses to allow UNSCOM inspectors to use its own aircraft to fly into Iraq, and begins military operations in the demilitarized zone between Iraq and Kuwait, and the northern Iraqi no-fly zones. U.S. forces fire approximately forty Tomahawk cruise missiles at Baghdad factories linked to Iraq's illegal nuclear weapons program. Iraq then informs UNSCOM that it will be able to resume its flights.", "January 20 – Bill Clinton is sworn in as the 42nd president of the United States, and Al Gore is sworn in as the 45th vice president.\n January 25 – Mir Aimal Kasi fires a rifle and kills two employees outside CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia.\n January 31 – Super Bowl XXVII: The Buffalo Bills become the first team to lose three consecutive Super Bowls as they are defeated by the Dallas Cowboys, 52–17.", "February", "February 6 – Former tennis player Arthur Ashe, 49, dies of complications due to HIV in New York. Ashe was believed to have contracted the virus from a blood transfusion during a heart surgery ten years earlier.\n February 8 – General Motors Corporation sues NBC, after Dateline NBC allegedly rigged two crashes showing that some GM pickups can easily catch fire if hit in certain places. NBC settles the lawsuit the following day.", "February 11 – Janet Reno is selected by President Clinton as Attorney General of the United States.\n February 26 – 1993 World Trade Center bombing: In New York City, a van bomb parked below the North Tower of the World Trade Center explodes, killing six and injuring over 1,000.", "February 28 – Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms agents raid the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, Texas, with a warrant to arrest leader David Koresh on federal firearms violations. Four agents and five Davidian followers die in the raid and a 51-day standoff begins.", "March \n March 1-April 28 – An outbreak of Cryptosporidium protozoan affects Milwaukee, Wisconsin, infecting over 400,000 people, hospitalizing over 4,000, and killing at least 100, making it the largest waterborne disease outbreak in United States history.\n March 1 - The NFL introduces its current free agent system.\n March 4 – Authorities announce the capture of suspected World Trade Center bombing conspirator Mohammad Salameh.", "March 9 – Rodney King testifies at the federal trial of four Los Angeles, California police officers accused of violating his civil rights when they beat him during an arrest.\n March 11 – Janet Reno is confirmed by the United States Senate and sworn in the next day, becoming the first female Attorney General of the United States.", "March 13–14 – The Great Blizzard of 1993 strikes the eastern United States, bringing record snowfall and other severe weather all the way from Cuba to Quebec; the storm kills 318 people.\n March 22 – The Intel Corporation ships the first Pentium chips.", "March 22 – The Intel Corporation ships the first Pentium chips.\n March 29 – The 65th Academy Awards, hosted by Billy Crystal, are held at Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles, with Clint Eastwood's Unforgiven winning four awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. Both the film and James Ivory's Howards End lead the nominations with nine each. The telecast garners 45.7 million viewers.", "April", "April–May – A virus strikes the Four Corners, killing at least 13 people.\n April–October: The Great Flood of 1993: The Mississippi and Missouri Rivers flood large portions of the American Midwest.\n April 2 – The Adventures of Huck Finn, directed by Stephen Sommers and based on Mark Twain's 1884 novel of the same name, is released in theaters.\n April 9 – The rock band Nirvana plays a benefit concert for rape victims in war-torn Bosnia-Herzegovina at San Francisco's Cow Palace.", "April 13 – The Kuwaiti government claims to uncover an Iraqi assassination plot against former U.S. President George H. W. Bush shortly after his visit to Kuwait. Two Iraqi nationals confess to driving a car bomb into Kuwait on behalf of the Iraqi Intelligence Service.\n April 19 – A 51-day stand-off at the Branch Davidian compound near Waco, Texas, ends with a fire that kills 76 people, including David Koresh.", "April 28 – An executive order is issued requiring the United States Air Force to allow women to fly war planes.", "May \n May 1 – An outbreak of a respiratory illness later identified as hantavirus pulmonary syndrome begins in the southwestern United States; 32 patients die by the end of the year.\n May 3 – Rio Grande City in Texas officially incorporates into a city.", "May 5 – The West Memphis Three are three men who – while teenagers – were tried and convicted, in 1994, of the May 5, 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas. Damien Echols was sentenced to death, Jessie Misskelley Jr. was sentenced to life imprisonment plus two 20-year sentences, and Jason Baldwin was sentenced to life imprisonment. During the trial, the prosecution asserted that the children were killed as part of a Satanic ritual.", "May 20 – President Bill Clinton signs the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 into federal law.", "June \n June 5 – Minnesota v. Dickerson: The United States Supreme Court rules that the seizure of evidence during a pat-down search is constitutional.\n June 9 – The Montreal Canadiens win their 24th Stanley Cup, defeating the Los Angeles Kings in the Finals.\n June 11 – Jurassic Park, directed by Steven Spielberg, is released in theaters as the first film in the Jurassic Park saga.", "June 20 – John Paxson's 3-point shot in Game 6 of the NBA Finals helps the Chicago Bulls secure a 99–98 win over the Phoenix Suns, and their third consecutive championship.\n June 24 – A Unabomber bomb injures computer scientist David Gelernter at Yale University.", "June 24 – A Unabomber bomb injures computer scientist David Gelernter at Yale University.\n June 27 – U.S. President Bill Clinton orders a cruise missile attack on Iraqi intelligence headquarters in the Al-Mansur District of Baghdad, in response to the attempted assassination of former U.S. President George H. W. Bush during his visit to Kuwait in mid-April.", "July \n July 1 – Gian Ferri kills eight and injures six before committing suicide at a law firm in San Francisco, sparking new legislative actions for gun control.\n July 19 – U.S. President Bill Clinton announces his 'Don't ask, don't tell' policy regarding homosexuals serving in the American military.", "July 15 – 1993 child sexual abuse accusations against Michael Jackson: Evan Chandler institutes legal accusations against singer Michael Jackson of sexually molesting Jordan Chandler, Evan's 13-year-old son.\n July 20 – White House deputy counsel Vince Foster dies by suicide in Virginia.\n July 25 – Greg Nicholson, his girlfriend and her two young daughters are murdered in Iowa by Dustin Honken and Angela Johnson. Nicholson was due to testify against Honken in court in relation to his drug activities.", "July 27 – Windows NT 3.1, the first version of Microsoft's line of Windows NT operating systems, is released to manufacturing.", "August \n August 1 – The Great Flood of 1993 comes to a peak.\n August 4 – A federal judge sentences LAPD officers Stacey Koon and Laurence Powell to 30 months in prison for violating motorist Rodney King's civil rights.\n August 10 \n Ruth Bader Ginsburg is sworn in as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.\n World Youth Day 1993 in Denver, Colorado. \n August 21 – NASA loses contact with the Mars Observer spacecraft.", "August 21 – NASA loses contact with the Mars Observer spacecraft.\n August 28 – Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, the first Power Rangers entry, debuts on Fox Kids.", "September \n September 4 – The second World Parliament of Religions is held in Chicago.\n September 6 – Canadian software specialist Peter de Jager publishes an article titled \"Doomsday 2000\" in the U.S. weekly magazine Computerworld, which is the first known reference to Y2K – the Year 2000 problem.\n September 10 – Bill Nye the Science Guy first airs in syndication.\n September 13\n PLO leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin shake hands in Washington D.C., after signing a peace accord.", "Animaniacs makes its debut on Fox Kids.\n September 18 – Rocko's Modern Life makes its debut on Nickelodeon, becoming the network's fourth \"Nicktoon\" in the line-up.\n September 22 – Big Bayou Canot rail accident: An Amtrak Sunset Limited derails on a bridge which had been damaged by a barge near Mobile, Alabama. It is the deadliest train wreck in Amtrak's history.", "October \n October 3 – A large-scale battle erupts between U.S. forces and local militia in Mogadishu, Somalia; eighteen Americans and over 1,000 Somalis are killed.\n October 8 – David Miscavige announces the IRS has granted full tax exemption to the Church of Scientology International and affiliated churches and organizations, ending the Church's 40-year battle with the IRS and resulting in religious recognition in the United States.", "October 16 – U.S. President Bill Clinton sends six American warships to Haiti to enforce United Nations trade sanctions against their military-led regime.\n October 25 – Actor Vincent Price dies of lung cancer.\n October 27 – Wildfires begin in California, which eventually destroy over and 700 homes.\n October 31 – Actor River Phoenix dies of drug-induced heart failure on the sidewalk outside the West Hollywood nightclub The Viper Room.", "November \n November 11 – Microsoft releases Windows 3.11 for Workgroups to manufacturing.\n November 16 – President Bill Clinton signs the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993 into federal law.\n November 18 – In a status referendum, Puerto Rico residents vote with a slim margin to maintain Commonwealth status.\n November 17–22 – The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) passes the legislative houses in the United States, Canada and Mexico.", "November 18 – The first meeting of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation opens in Seattle.\n November 20 – Savings and loan crisis: The United States Senate Ethics Committee issues a stern censure of California senator Alan Cranston for his dealings with savings-and-loan executive Charles Keating.\n November 22 – TV Food Network makes its debut.\n November 30 – President Clinton signs the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act into law, requiring purchasers of handguns to pass a background check.", "December \n December\n The unemployment rate falls to 6.5%, the lowest since January 1991.\n ProCharger, an automotive aftermarket manufacturer is founded in Kansas.\n December 2 – STS-61: NASA launches the Space Shuttle Endeavour on a mission to repair an optical flaw in the Hubble Space Telescope.\n December 7\n Colin Ferguson opens fire with his Ruger 9 mm pistol on a Long Island Rail Road train, killing six and injuring 29.\n Avi Arad founds Marvel Studios.", "Avi Arad founds Marvel Studios.\n December 11 – A variety of Soviet space program paraphernalia are put to auction in Sotheby's New York, and sell for a total of US$6,800,000. One of the items is Lunokhod 1 and its spacecraft Luna 17; they sell for $68,500.", "Ongoing \n Iraqi no-fly zones (1991–2003)\n\nUndated \n Rufus King, an alternative rock band from California is formed.\n\nSport\nFebruary 23 - Sacramento Gold Miners are established as the First American franchise in the Canadian Football League\nThe Colorado Rockies and the Miami Marlins become baseball teams.\n\nBirths\n\nJanuary", "Births\n\nJanuary \n\n January 3 – Kevin Ware, basketball player\n January 5 – De'Anthony Thomas, American football player\n January 8 – Brooke Greenberg, woman with rare slow-aging condition (d. 2013)\n January 9\n Ashley Argota, actress\n Marcus Peters, American football player\n January 13 – Tyler Barnhardt, actor\n January 15 – Wil Trapp, soccer player\n January 18 – Morgan York, actress\n January 19 – Zyon Cavalera drummer\n January 27 – Joe Landolina, inventor and entrepreneur\n January 29 – Lewis Pullman, actor", "February", "February 2 – Karsta Lowe, volleyball player\n February 3 – Brandon Micheal Hall, actor\n February 7 – David Dorfman, actor\n February 12 \n Taylor Dearden, actress\n Sam Kazemian, Iranian-American software programmer, co-founder of Everipedia\n Jennifer Stone, actress\n February 14\n Shane Harper, actor and singer\n Alberto Rosende, actor\n February 18\n Kentavious Caldwell-Pope, basketball player\n Unbridled's Song, thoroughbred horse, winner of Breeders' Cup Juvenile (1995) (d. 2013)\n February 19", "February 19\n Patrick Johnson, actor\n Victoria Justice, actress and singer\n February 25 – Timmy Hill, race car driver\n February 27 – Jessica Korda, golfer", "March \n\n March 3 – Nicole Gibbs, tennis player\n March 4\n Jenna Boyd, actress\n Abigail Mavity, actress\n March 5 – Josh Briggs, pro wrestler\n March 7 – Alex Broadhurst, ice hockey player\n March 10 – Peniel Shin, rapper and dancer (BTOB)\n March 11 – Anthony Davis, basketball player\n March 16 – Tucker Boner, YouTuber and twitch streamer\n March 29 – Joe Adler, actor\n\nApril", "April \n\n April 2 – Aaron Kelly, singer\n April 10 – Sofia Carson, actress and singer\n April 12\nDorial Green-Beckham, American football player\nKatelyn Pippy, actress\n April 13 – Hannah Marks, actress\n April 14 \n Vivien Cardone, actress\nKent Jones, rapper\nGraham Phillips, actor\nEllington Ratliff, singer and actor\nBurnell Taylor, singer\n April 15 – Madeleine Martin, television and voice actress\n April 16 \nMirai Nagasu, figure skater\nChance The Rapper, singer/songwriter\n April 25 – Alex Bowman, race car driver", "May", "May 2 – Jarred Brooks, mixed martial artist and current ONE Strawweright World Champion\n May 6 – Alex Preston, singer\n May 10 \n Spencer Fox, actor, musician, and singer\n Halston Sage, actress\n May 13 – Debby Ryan, actress and singer\n May 14 – Miranda Cosgrove, actress and singer\n May 18 – Kyle, rapper\n May 19 – Daisy Mallory, country singer\n May 20 – Caroline Zhang, figure skater\n May 21 – Laura Loomer, Alt-right politician\n May 23\n Andy Janovich, American football player", "May 21 – Laura Loomer, Alt-right politician\n May 23\n Andy Janovich, American football player\n Stephon Tuitt, American football player", "June", "June 1 – Sam Anas, ice hockey player\n June 4 – Adam Saleh, YouTuber\n June 5 – Tyre Nichols, victim of police brutality (died 2023)\n June 6 – Vic Mensa, rapper\n June 7\n Swae Lee, singer, rapper and songwriter\n Amanda Leighton, actress\n June 14 \n Gunna, rapper\n Ryan McCartan, actor and singer\n Sammy Watkins, American football player\n June 21 – Hungrybox, esports athlete\n June 22 \n Caydee Denney, pair skater\n Izzy Miller, musician\n June 26 – Ariana Grande, actress and singer\n June 29", "Izzy Miller, musician\n June 26 – Ariana Grande, actress and singer\n June 29\n Lorenzo James Henrie, actor\n Oliver Tree, singer, record producer, director and comedian", "July", "July 1 – Raini Rodriguez, actress and singer\n July 2 – Saweetie, rapper\n July 5 – Hollie Cavanagh, British-American singer\n July 7\n Ally Brooke, singer\n Jackson Withrow, tennis player\n July 9\n Bret Loehr, actor\n DeAndre Yedlin, soccer player\n July 10 – Carlon Jeffery, actor\n July 18 – Casey Veggies, rapper and songwriter\n July 21 – Aaron Durley, baseball player\n July 23 – Lili Simmons, actress and model\n July 26\n Elizabeth Gillies, actress and singer\n Taylor Momsen, actress, musician, and model\n July 28", "Elizabeth Gillies, actress and singer\n Taylor Momsen, actress, musician, and model\n July 28\n Sammy Guevara, pro wrestler\n La'Porsha Renae, singer\n July 29 – Dak Prescott, American football player", "August", "August 2 – Manika, singer-songwriter \n August 3 – Thomas Rawls, American football player\n August 7 – Francesca Eastwood, actress, model, and socialite\n August 9 – Rydel Lynch, singer and actress\n August 11 – Alyson Stoner, actress, dancer, and singer\n August 13 – Kevin Cordes, swimmer\n August 20 – MK Nobilette, singer\n August 22 – Dillon Danis, martial artist\n August 26 – Keke Palmer, actress and singer\n August 28 – Cody Frost, artist, tiger, hunk", "August 26 – Keke Palmer, actress and singer\n August 28 – Cody Frost, artist, tiger, hunk\n August 29 – Lucas Cruikshank, actor and YouTube personality", "September", "September 1 – Megan Nicole, singer-songwriter\n September 5 – Gage Golightly, actress\n September 6 – Famous Dex, rapper\n September 7 – Taylor Gray, actor and model\n September 9 – Brian Pillman Jr., professional wrestler\n September 10 – Sarah Logan, professional wrestler\n September 11 – Farrah Moan, drag queen and entertainer\n September 12 – Kelsea Ballerini, singer-songwriter\n September 14\n Ashley Caldwell, freestyle skier\n Blaire White, transgender YouTuber\n September 16", "September 14\n Ashley Caldwell, freestyle skier\n Blaire White, transgender YouTuber\n September 16\n Metro Boomin, record producer, songwriter, and DJ\n Bryson DeChambeau, golfer\n September 18 – Patrick Schwarzenegger, actor and model\n September 23 – Duke Johnson, American football player\n September 24\n Sonya Deville, professional wrestler\n Ben Platt, actor and singer\n September 25 – Zach Tyler Eisen, voice actor\n September 30 – Cameron Grimes, pro wrestler", "October", "October 2 – Tara Lynne Barr, actress\n October 6 \n Angus T. Jones, actor\n Jourdan Miller, actress\n Molly Quinn, actress\n October 8 – Saucy Santana, rapper\n October 9 \n Lauren Davis, tennis player\n Scotty McCreery, singer-songwriter and guitarist\n October 11 – Brandon Flynn, actor\n October 13 – Tiffany Trump, socialite and model\n October 14 – Charlie Kirk, conservative commentator\n October 17 – Witney Carson, dancer and choreographer\n October 19 – Hunter King, actress\n October 22 \n Josiah Jones, filmmaker", "October 19 – Hunter King, actress\n October 22 \n Josiah Jones, filmmaker\n Omer Adam, Israeli singer\n October 23 – Taylor Spreitler, actress\n October 26 – Drew Gooden, comedian\n October 27 – Troy Gentile, actor\n October 30 – Marcus Mariota, American football player", "November \n November 3 – Benito Skinner, online personality\n November 9 – Steven Taylor, cricketer\n November 12 – Mackensie Alexander, American football player\n November 16 – Pete Davidson, comedian\n November 27\n Hannah Brandt, ice hockey player\n Aubrey Peeples, actress and singer \n November 28\n Shiann Darkangelo, ice hockey player\n Bryshere Y. Gray, actor and rapper\n November 29\n Stefon Diggs, American football player\n David Lambert, actor\n November 30 – Kevon Seymour, American football player\n\nDecember", "December 1 – Drakeo the Ruler, rapper (died 2021)\n December 2\n Amouranth, internet personality\n Dylan McLaughlin, actor\n December 3 – Marques Brownlee, YouTuber\n December 7 – Jasmine Villegas, singer\n December 8 – AnnaSophia Robb, actress\n December 10 – Joey Salads, YouTuber\n December 11 – Sonny Kiss, pro wrestler\n December 18 \n Byron Buxton, baseball player\n John Cihangir, actor, stuntman and YouTuber\n December 19 – Corey Snide, actor and dancer\n December 21 – Jinger Vuolo, author\n December 22", "December 19 – Corey Snide, actor and dancer\n December 21 – Jinger Vuolo, author\n December 22\n Ali Lohan, actress and model\n Meghan Trainor, singer\n December 25 – Andrea Drews, volleyball player\n December 31 – Ryan Blaney, race car driver", "Date unknown \n David Benoit, pro wrestler and son of Chris Benoit\n\nDeaths\n\nJanuary", "January 1 \n Eddie Arning, American farming community (b. 1898)\n Jean Mayer, French-born American scientist (b. 1920)\n January 3\n Johnny Most, American sportscaster (b. 1923)\n Will Walls, American football player and coach (b. 1912)\n January 6 – Dizzy Gillespie, American musician, bandleader, singer and composer (b. 1917)\n January 10\n Diana Adams, American ballet dancer (b. 1926)\n Luther Gulick, expert on public administration (b. 1892)\n January 15\n Sammy Cahn, American lyricist (b. 1913)", "January 15\n Sammy Cahn, American lyricist (b. 1913)\n Henry Iba, American basketball coach and college athletics administrator (b. 1904)\n January 16\n Glenn Corbett, American actor (b. 1930)\n Freddie 'Red' Cochrane, American boxer; welterweight champion between 1941 and 1946 (b. 1915)\n Stan Sheriff, American football player, coach, and college athletics administrator (b. 1932)\n January 19\n Reginald Lewis, American businessman (b. 1942)\n Chris Street, American college basketball player (b. 1972)", "Chris Street, American college basketball player (b. 1972)\n January 20 – Audrey Hepburn, Belgian-born British actress (b. 1929)\n January 21 – Charlie Gehringer, American baseball player (b. 1903)\n January 22 – Jim Pollard, American professional basketball player and coach (b. 1922)\n January 23\n Thomas A. Dorsey, American musician (b. 1899)\n Keith Laumer, American science fiction author (b. 1925)\n January 24 – Thurgood Marshall, American jurist, First African-American on the Supreme Court (b. 1908)", "January 25 – Bernard Joseph Smith, American marathon runner; winner of the 1942 Boston Marathon (b. 1917)\n January 27 – J. T. King, American football player, coach, and college athletics administrator (b. 1912)\n January 28 – Vern Kennedy, American MLB pitcher (b. 1907)\n January 29\n Gustav Hasford, American marine, novelist, journalist, poet and book thief (b. 1947)\n Ron Kostelnik, American football player in the National Football League (b. 1940)", "February", "February 5 – Joseph L. Mankiewicz, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1909)\n February 6 – Arthur Ashe, American tennis player (b. 1943)\n February 7 – Buddy Pepper, American songwriter and accompanist (b. 1922)\n February 9 – Kate Wilkinson, American stage and television actress (b. 1916)\n February 11 \n Joy Garrett, American actor and vocalist (b. 1945)\n Robert W. Holley, American biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1922)\n February 18 – Kerry Von Erich, American professional wrestler (b. 1960)", "February 18 – Kerry Von Erich, American professional wrestler (b. 1960)\n February 23 – Phillip Terry, American actor (b. 1909)\n February 25 – Eddie Constantine, American-born French actor and singer (b. 1917)\n February 26 – Beaumont Newhall, American curator (b. 1908)\n February 27 – Lillian Gish, American actress (b. 1893)\n February 28 – Ruby Keeler, American actress (b. 1909)", "March", "March 1 – Terry Frost, American actor (b. 1906)\n March 3 – Albert Sabin, American biologist, developer of the oral polio vaccine (b. 1906)\n March 4 – Izaak Kolthoff, Dutch-born American chemist (b. 1894)\n March 7\n Duane Carter, American racing driver (b. 1913)\n Whitey Kachan, American basketball player (b. 1925)\n Eleanor Sanger, American television producer (b. 1929)\n Jim Spavital, footballer (b. 1926)\n Earl Wrightson, American singer and actor (b. 1913)\n March 8", "Jim Spavital, footballer (b. 1926)\n Earl Wrightson, American singer and actor (b. 1913)\n March 8 \n Don Barksdale, American basketball player (b. 1923)\n Billy Eckstine, American musician (b. 1914)\n March 9 – Max August Zorn, German-born mathematician (b. 1906)\n March 16 – Ralph Fults, America outlaw (b. 1910)\n March 17 – Helen Hayes, American actress (b. 1900)\n March 20\n Percy Johnston, African-American poet, playwright, and professor (b. 1930)", "March 20\n Percy Johnston, African-American poet, playwright, and professor (b. 1930)\n Polykarp Kusch, German-born American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)\n Paul László, Hungarian-born architect (b. 1900)\n March 22 – Steve Olin, American baseball player (b. 1965)\n March 23 – Tim Crews, American baseball player (b. 1961)\n March 24 – John Hersey, American writer and journalist (b. 1914)\n March 26 – Louis Falco, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1942)", "March 26 – Louis Falco, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1942)\n March 27 – Elizabeth Holloway Marston, American psychologist (b. 1893)\n March 30 – Richard Diebenkorn, American painter (b. 1922)\n March 31\n Brandon Lee, American actor and martial artist, son of Bruce Lee (b. 1965)\n Mitchell Parish, American lyricist (b. 1900)", "April", "April 1 – Alan Kulwicki, U.S. race car driver (b. 1954)\n April 3\n Peter J. De Muth, American politician (b. 1892)\n Pinky Lee, American comedian (b. 1907)\n April 8 – Marian Anderson, American singer (b. 1897)\n April 13 – Wallace Stegner, American writer (b. 1909)\n April 19 – David Koresh, American spiritualist, leader of the Branch Davidian religious cult (b. 1959)\n April 23 – Cesar Chavez, Mexican American civil rights activist (b. 1927)\n April 26 – Julia Davis, American educator (b. 1891)", "April 26 – Julia Davis, American educator (b. 1891)\n April 28 – Jim Valvano, American basketball player (b. 1946)", "May\n\n May 5 – Irving Howe, American literary and social critic (b. 1920)\n May 7 – Mary Philbin, American actress (b. 1902)\n May 8\n Avram Davidson, American writer (b. 1923)\n Alwin Nikolais, American choreographer (b. 1912)\n May 14 – William Randolph Hearst Jr., American businessman (b. 1908)\n May 26 – Catherine Caradja, Romanian aristocrat and philanthropist (b. 1893)\n May 30 – Sun Ra, American jazz musician (b. 1914)\n\nJune", "June 2 – Johnny Mize, American baseball player (b. 1913)\n June 5 – Conway Twitty, American musician (b. 1933)\n June 6 – James Bridges, American screenwriter and director (b. 1936)\n June 8 – Nolan Bailey Harmon, bishop of The Methodist Church and the United Methodist Church (b. 1892)\n June 9 – Alexis Smith, Canadian-born American actress and singer (b. 1921)\n June 10\n Arleen Auger, American soprano singer (b. 1939)\n Milward L. Simpson, American politician (b. 1897)", "Arleen Auger, American soprano singer (b. 1939)\n Milward L. Simpson, American politician (b. 1897)\n June 13 – Deke Slayton, American astronaut (b. 1924)\n June 15 – John Connally, American politician (b. 1917)\n June 19 – Szymon Goldberg, Polish-born violinist (b. 1909)\n June 22 – Pat Nixon, wife of Richard Nixon, First Lady of the United States, Second Lady of the United States (b. 1912)\n June 24 – Archie Williams, American Olympic athlete (b. 1915)", "June 24 – Archie Williams, American Olympic athlete (b. 1915)\n June 26 – Roy Campanella, American baseball player (b. 1921)\n June 28 – GG Allin, American musician (b. 1956)\n June 30 – Spanky McFarland, American actor (b. 1928)", "July", "July 2 \n Fred Gwynne, American actor and comedian (b. 1926)\n Elizabeth M. Ramsey, American research physician (b. 1906)\n July 3\n Don Drysdale, American baseball player (b. 1936)\n Joe DeRita, American comedian (b. 1909)\n July 4 – Anne Shirley, American actress (b. 1918)\n July 7\n William McElwee Miller, American missionary to Persia and author (b. 1892)\n Mia Zapata, American punk musician (b. 1965)\n July 12 – James Peck, American civil rights activist (b. 1914)", "July 12 – James Peck, American civil rights activist (b. 1914)\n July 13 – Davey Allison, American stock car driver (b. 1961)\n July 15 – David Brian, American actor (b. 1914)\n July 20 – Vince Foster, attorney (b. 1945)\n July 24 – Abram L. Sachar, American historian and educator (b. 1899)\n July 25\n Nan Grey, American actress (b. 1918)\n Cecilia Parker, American actress (b. 1914)\n July 26 – Matthew Ridgway, American army general (b. 1895)\n July 27 – Reggie Lewis, American basketball player (b. 1965)\n July 30", "July 27 – Reggie Lewis, American basketball player (b. 1965)\n July 30\n William Guglielmo Niederland, German-born American psychoanalyst (b. 1904)\n Bob Wright, American baseball player (b. 1891)\n July 31 – Paul B. Henry, American politician (b. 1942)", "August\n\n August 1 – Claire Du Brey, American actress (b. 1892)\n August 3 – Theodore A. Parker III, American ornithologist (b. 1953)\n August 7 – Christopher Gillis, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1951)\n August 10 – Irene Sharaff, American costume designer (b. 1910)\n August 16 – Stewart Granger, Anglo-American actor (b. 1913)\n August 26 − Roy Raymond, American entrepreneur (b. 1947)\n August 30 – Richard Jordan, American actor (b. 1937)\n\nSeptember", "September 2 – Eric Berry, British actor (b. 1913)\n September 3 – Wesley Englehorn, American football player (b. 1890)\n September 4 – Hervé Villechaize, French-born actor (b. 1943)\n September 9 – Helen O'Connell, American singer (b. 1920)\n September 12\n Raymond Burr, Canadian-American actor (b. 1917)\n Charles Lamont, Russian-born film director (b. 1895)\n September 13 – Steve Jordan, American jazz guitarist (b. 1919)\n September 22\n Maurice Abravanel, Greek-born American conductor (b. 1903)", "September 22\n Maurice Abravanel, Greek-born American conductor (b. 1903)\n Regina Fryxell, American composer (b. 1899)\n September 27 – Jimmy Doolittle, American aviation pioneer and World War II United States Army Air Forces general (b. 1896)\n September 28 – Alexander A. Drabik, American soldier (b. 1910)\n September 29 – Gordon Douglas, American film director (b. 1907)", "October", "October 5 – Agnes de Mille, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1905)\n October 12 – Leon Ames, American actor (b. 1903)'\n October 13 – Ruth Gilbert, American actress (b. 1912)\n October 17 – Criss Oliva, American metal guitarist (b. 1963)\n October 21 – James Leo Herlihy, American novelist and playwright (b. 1927)\n October 25 – Vincent Price, American actor (b. 1911)\n October 26 – Harold Rome, American composer (b. 1908)\n October 31 – River Phoenix, American actor, musician and activist (b. 1970)", "November", "November 1 – Severo Ochoa, Spanish-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1905)\n November 6 – Ralph Randles Stewart, American botanist (b. 1890)\n November 12\n Bill Dickey, American baseball player (b. 1907)\n H. R. Haldeman, 4th White House Chief of Staff (b. 1926)\n Anna Sten, Ukrainian-born American actress (b. 1908)\n November 13 – Rufus R. Jones, American wrestler (b. 1933)\n November 15 – Evelyn Venable, American actress (b. 1913)", "November 15 – Evelyn Venable, American actress (b. 1913)\n November 20 – Emile Ardolino, American film director (b. 1943)\n November 21 – Bill Bixby, American actor (b. 1934)\n November 24 – Albert Collins, African-American blues guitarist and singer (b. 1932)\n November 28 – Garry Moore, American television host and comedian (b. 1915)", "December", "December 4 – Frank Zappa, American guitarist and composer (b. 1940)\n December 6 – Don Ameche, American actor (b. 1908)\n December 14 – Myrna Loy, American actress (b. 1905)\n December 16\n Charles Willard Moore, American architect (b. 1926)\n Moses Gunn, American actor (b. 1929)\n December 17 – Janet Margolin, American actress (b. 1943)\n December 18 – Sam Wanamaker, American film director and actor (b. 1919)\n December 19 – Michael Clarke, American musician (b. 1946)", "December 19 – Michael Clarke, American musician (b. 1946)\n December 20 – W. Edwards Deming, American engineer, professor, author, lecturer, and management consultant (b. 1900)\n December 21 – Gussie Nell Davis, American educator and founder of the Kilgore College Rangerettes (b. 1906)\n December 22\n Don DeFore, American actor (b. 1917)\n Alexander Mackendrick, British-American film director (b. 1912)\n December 23 – James Ellison, American actor (b. 1910)", "December 23 – James Ellison, American actor (b. 1910)\n December 24 – Norman Vincent Peale, American preacher and writer (b. 1898)\n December 28\n William L. Shirer, American journalist and historian (b. 1904)\n Howard Caine, American actor (b. 1926)\n December 31\n Brandon Teena, American murder victim (b. 1972)\n Thomas Watson Jr., American businessman, political figure, and philanthropist (b. 1914)", "See also \n 1993 in American television\n List of American films of 1993\n Timeline of United States history (1990–2009)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n \n\n \n1990s in the United States\nUnited States\nUnited States\nYears of the 20th century in the United States" ]

[ "Baron Pavel Lvovitch Schilling (1786–1837), also known as Paul Schilling, was a Russian military officer and diplomat of Baltic German origin. The majority of his career was spent working for the imperial Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a language officer at the Russian embassy in Munich. As a military officer, he took part in the War of the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon", ". As a military officer, he took part in the War of the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon. In his later career, he was transferred to the Asian department of the ministry and undertook a tour of Mongolia to collect ancient manuscripts.", "Schilling is best known for his pioneering work in electrical telegraphy, which he undertook at his own initiative. While in Munich, he worked with Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring who was developing an electrochemical telegraph. Schilling developed the first electromagnetic telegraph that was of practical use. Schilling's design was a needle telegraph using magnetised needles suspended by a thread over a current-carrying coil", ". His design also greatly reduced the number of wires compared to Sömmerring's system by the use of binary coding. Tsar Nicholas I planned to install Schilling's telegraph on a link to Kronstadt, but cancelled the project after Schilling died.", "Other technological interests of Schilling included lithography and remote detonation of explosives. For the latter, he invented a submarine cable, which he later also applied to telegraphy. Work on telegraphy in Russia, and other electrical applications, was continued after Schilling's death by Moritz von Jacobi, his assistant and successor as head of the St. Petersburg electrical engineering workshop.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life", "Baron Pavel Lvovitch Schilling von Cannstadt was born in Reval (now Tallinn), Estonia, on 16 April 1786 (N.S.). He was an ethnic German of Swabian and Baltic descent. Soon after the birth of Pavel, their first child, Ludwig von Schilling was promoted to the commander of the 23rd Nizovsky infantry regiment, and the family relocated to Kazan where the regiment was based. Pavel spent his childhood years in Kazan; early exposure to diverse Asiatic cultures explains his lasting interest in the Orient", ". He was expected to follow a military career like his father, so at the age of nine he was formally enrolled at the Nizovsky regiment, and two years later, after his father's death, he was sent to the First Cadet Corps. By this time, tsar Paul's haphazard management had reduced military education to mere exhibition drill; Schilling's proper training commenced only after graduation, in 1802", ". He was commissioned as a podporuchik, posted to the Quartermaster general's office commanded by Theodor von Schubert and assigned cartographical surveying duties.", "Family circumstances obliged Schilling to resign his commission in 1803. He then joined the foreign service as a language officer, and dispatched to the Russian legation in Munich, where his stepfather Karl von Bühler was the minister. After Bühler's retirement, Schilling served as an attaché to the legation in Munich from 1809 to 1811. He first became interested in electrical science while he was in Munich through contact with Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring who was developing an electrical telegraph", ". Since his duties as a diplomat were light, he spent much time with Sömmerring, and brought many Russian dignitaries to see Sömmerring's apparatus.", "Napoleonic wars", "When war threatened between France and Russia, Schilling put his mind to applying his electrical knowledge to military purposes. In July 1812 he, along with all Russian diplomats in Germany, was recalled to Saint Petersburg in anticipation of the impending French invasion of Russia. He brought with him a complete set of Sömmerring's telegraph, and demonstrated it to military engineers and tsar Alexander. He continued work on remote mine detonation", ". He continued work on remote mine detonation. However, none of his inventions were ready for field service, and Schilling requested transfer to a military position in the fighting Army.", "Placing him into the military structure was not easy. Schilling did not have any combat experience. As a retired Army officer, he was merely a second lieutenant (podporuchik); as a civil servant, he has reached a rank equivalent to Army major. The situation was not uncommon for the volunteers of 1812, yet it had puzzled military authorities and Schilling's application was rejected", ". In May 1813 he appealed directly to Alexander I, who authorised placing Schilling to horse artillery reserves; on he was posted to Alexander Seslavin's 3rd Sumskoy dragoons with the rank of Stabs-rotmistr (equivalent to infantry staff captain) Schilling arrived at the regiment shortly after the Battle of Dresden. He was initially employed as a liaison with Saxon authorities, and had not seen real combat until December 1813, when Russian troops advanced into French territory", ". He received his first combat award for the Battle of Bar-sur-Aube of 27 February 1814; his actions during the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube and the Battle of Fère-Champenoise were rewarded with the Golden Weapon for Bravery.", "Return to foreign service", "After the fall of Paris Schilling requested transfer from the Army back to civil service, and in October of the same year he returned to Foreign Affairs in Saint Petersburg. Russian foreign policy of the immediate post-war period concentrated on eastward expansion, thus Schilling was placed with the growing Asiatic Department. He continued to take an interest in electricity and lithography, a new method of printing which he wished to introduce into Russia", ". His presentation of the latest German lithographic printing technology aroused interest in the Ministry, and very soon he was dispatched back to Bavaria, with instructions to secure supplies of lithographic stone from the Solnhofen quarries. In July 1815 he arrived in Munich to meet with Alois Senefelder, the inventor of the lithographic process, who assisted Schilling with his errand; in December Schilling briefly visited Bavaria again, to take delivery of finished stones", ". During 1815 he met many French and German orientalists and physicists, particularly André-Marie Ampère, François Arago and Johann Schweigger.", "On his return to Saint Petersburg Schilling was appointed head of the Ministry's lithographic print shop, which was established in the spring of 1816. Curiously, the first document printed there was an erotic poem by Vasily Pushkin, the only Russian verse that Schilling could recite by heart. Setting up the print shop was rewarded with the Order of Saint Anna", ". Setting up the print shop was rewarded with the Order of Saint Anna. Apart from disseminating reports, maps and instructions within the foreign service, Schilling's shop also produced daily summaries of intercepted letters and other covert surveillance. These were delivered to foreign minister Karl Nesselrode, and then, at the minister's discretion, to the tsar", ". Not later than 1818 Schilling began experiments with Manchu and Mongolian typography; from 1820 he assisted father Peter Kamensky in preparation of the Chinese-Mongolian-Manchu-Russian-Latin dictionary. His Chinese editions had exemplary quality for the time, on a par with the Peking Palace originals.", "Schilling retained control of the print shop until the end of his life, however, this was only one of his side activities. His main responsibilities at the foreign service were development, distribution and safeguarding of ciphers for Russian embassies and overseas agents. After the 1823 service reform Schilling was appointed head of the 2nd Secret Branch, and held this post until his death", ". The secretive nature of this work remained classified throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and escaped notice by contemporaries and biographers. Friends and correspondents knew that he was a middle-level servant in the foreign service, but nothing more. Schilling was not engaged in diplomacy, but was perceived as a diplomat; the deception was supported by the facts that he often travelled abroad and met foreign dignitaries without apparent restrictions", ". Secrecy was compensated with generous payouts, for example in 1830 Nicholas I authorised a bonus payment of 1000 golden ducats; Schilling's subordinates received lesser, but still substantial rewards.", "Work at the Cipher Branch left plenty of time for unrelated research, from studying Tibetan scriptures to developing electrical telegraph, which became Schilling's best known work. Schilling set up an electrical engineering workshop in the Peter and Paul Fortress, and recruited Moritz von Jacobi from Dorpat University to act as his assistant there. In 1828 Schilling was made a State Councillor and he became a corresponding member of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences", ". In May 1830, he was sent on a two-year reconnaissance mission to the Russo-Chinese frontier. He returned to St. Petersburg in March 1832, bringing with him a valuable collection of documents in Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian and other languages. These were deposited in the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Some of these documents were obtained in exchange for a demonstration of the small telegraph apparatus Schilling had carried with him. Back in St", ". Back in St. Petersburg, Schilling returned to developing a telegraph. There were plans to put it into service, but Schilling died before these could be completed.", "Decline and death", "Schilling's state of health deteriorated through the 1830s. He was morbidly obese, and by 1835 suffered pains of unknown nature. He requested permission to travel to Europe for medical help, and with the help of Nesselrode secured the tsar's written consent that was actually an order for an industrial espionage mission, in areas from telegraphy to charcoal kilns. In September 1835 Schilling attended a conference in Bonn, as instructed by Nicholas I, and delivered his telegraph set to Georg Wilhelm Muncke", ". Upon return to Saint Petersburg, he conducted further experiments in telegraphy. In 1836 he briefly appeared at Andreas von Ettingshausen's laboratory in Vienna, researching new insulation materials. In May 1837 Schilling received instructions to draw a budget for a telegraph line connecting Peterhof with Kronstadt, and to begin preliminary field work. By this time he experienced regular pain caused by a tumour", ". By this time he experienced regular pain caused by a tumour. Doctor Nicholas Arendt, his childhood friend from Kazan years, now Life Medic to the tsar, performed a surgery that did not help. Schilling died a few months later, and was buried with honours at the Smolenskoye Lutheran Cemetery in Saint Petersburg", ". All records, models and equipment left by Schilling passed to Moritz von Jacobi, who would build the first operational telegraph line in Russia, connecting the Winter Palace with the Army Headquarters, in 1841.", "Works", "Cryptography", "Schilling's main contribution to cryptography was his bigram cipher, adopted for government use in 1823. The Schilling ciphers combined features of substitution ciphers and multiple-choice polyalphabetic ciphers using bigrams as source input. Each bigram consisted of two letters of source plaintext (in French language, the lingua franca of diplomacy), separated with a predetermined number of characters", ". The bigram was then converted to a number using permanent codetables containing 992 (32x31) pairs of alternative numbers. The method also involved padding source plaintext with random garbage and occasional encoding of single characters instead of bigrams.", "The first three sets of codetables prepared by Schilling were issued to viceroy of Poland Grand Duke Konstantin, special envoy to Persia prince Alexander Menshikov, and to foreign minister Karl Nesselrode on his journey to the United States. The method was used by Russian diplomats until the 1900s. Individual ciphers were rated safe for up to six years of service, later downrated to three years; in reality, some codetables remained in use for up to twenty years, violating all security protocols.", "Oriental expedition", "In the 1820s Schilling's scholarly papers on oriental languages brought him degrees and membership in British, French and Russian learned societies. He was a long-time friend to the chief of the Russian Orthodox mission in Peking, and leading Russian orientalist Nikita Bichurin (father Hyacinth)", ". After Bichurin was disgracefully demoted and exiled, Schilling advocated for his pardon, and in 1826 he secured the transfer of Bichurin from imprisonment at Valaam Monastery to a desk job at the Foreign Ministry in Saint Petersburg. Schilling assisted Alexander von Humboldt during the initial stages of the 1829 expedition to Russia. After Humboldt had declined an offer to lead another expedition into the Russian Far East, the role was awarded to Schilling", ". Preparations began immediately after signing of the Treaty of Adrianople in September 1829. Core staff of the expedition included Schilling himself, Bichurin and Vladimir Solomirsky, bastard son of Dmitry Tatishchev. Alexander Pushkin, well acquainted to all three, wanted to join, but Nicholas I ordered him to stay in Russia.", "Schilling's main, covert mission was to evaluate the spread of Buddhism among local tribes, to outline the course of action to contain it, and to compile a binding statute that would regulate all aspects of Buddhist religious practice. The imperial government did not tolerate any independent ideologies and settled on subjugating the Buddhist leaders to the state. Meanwhile, the number of Buddhist monks was increasing at pace, almost doubling over a decade", ". Meanwhile, the number of Buddhist monks was increasing at pace, almost doubling over a decade. Outright repressions were ruled out, for fears of mass emigration of nomads, and of potential conflict with China. The government was also concerned with the decline of border trade at the Kyakhta checkpoint and the increase in smuggling; Schilling was tasked with identifying the routes and the markets used by smugglers and to evaluate the volume of illegal trade", ". Officially, the mission was limited to \"studies of population and international trade on the Russo-Chinese frontier\"; any research apart from these tasks had to be paid by Schilling personally. To raise money, Schilling sold his scientific library to the Ministry of Education.", "In May 1830 Schilling began the journey from Saint Petersburg to Kyakhta, a frontier market town that became his base for the next 18 months. His travels out of Kyakhta to various Buddhist shrines and border stations amounted, in total, to 7208 versts (7690 kilometers). Schilling himself wrote that the purpose of these travels was primarily ethnographic research", ". Schilling himself wrote that the purpose of these travels was primarily ethnographic research. According to Bichurin, Schilling spent most of his time with Tibetan and Mongolian lamas, studying ancient Buddhist scriptures; he was concerned more with linguistics and history of Far Eastern peoples, rather than ethnography. His main quest was the search for the Kangyur - a Tibetan religious text closely guarded by the lamas and known to Europeans only in fragments", ". At the beginning, Schilling tried to obtain the complete Kangyur from China. He could not imagine that poor nomadic Buryats and Mongols could create, own and safeguard whole libraries of sacred literature. However, he soon found out that the Buryats of the Russian Empire owned three copies of three different editions of the Kangyur; one of the three was preserved in Chikoy, less than twenty miles east from Kyakhta", ". Schilling earned the respect of the lamas for being the only Russian who could read Tibetan texts, and easily obtained permission to read and copy them. According to Leonid Chuguevsky, it is likely that the lamas were aware of Schilling's mission and his liberal view towards state control over religion, and in their own way tried to appease the friendly but dangerous visitor.", "The Chikoy Kangyur could only be copied, but Schilling managed to acquire parts of a different copy from the chief of the Tsongol tribe. Later the Khambo Lama of the Buryats sent Schilling a collection of medical and astrological treatises. Schilling became a celebrity among the Buryats: some lamas preached that he was the prophet that would convert the Europeans, others believed that he was the reincarnated Khubilgan", ". His house in Kyakhta became the object of mass pilgrimage that brought more and more manuscripts. Schilling realised that, apart from the complete Kangyur, his collection missed only a few essential texts of the Tibetan Buddhist canon. He filled the gaps by hiring more than twenty calligraphists who copied the missing books. Józef Kowalewski, who witnessed the process, wrote that \"the Baron\", although an amateur, \"influenced the Buriats immensely ... There appeared experts in", "the Tibetan and even in Sanskrit languages, painters, engravers; the monks began to inquire more deeply into the foundations of their faith and to read books; there were discovered many books which had been before claimed as being non-extant\".", "Finally, in March 1831 Schilling obtained the Kangyur and the 224-volume Tengyur at a remote datsan on the Onon River. Local lamas struggled to print 100 million copies of Om mani padme hum that they once vowed to contribute to a new shrine, and Schilling came to the rescue promising to print the whole lot, in tiny lithographed Tibetan script, in Saint Petersburg. He fulfilled the promise, and was rewarded with the precious books", ". He fulfilled the promise, and was rewarded with the precious books. This Derge edition of the Kangyur, which Schilling mistook for the older, classic Narthang version, was the first Kangyur owned by a European. Once the collection was complete, Schilling began cataloguing and indexing; his Index of the Narthang Kangyur, printed posthumously and anonymously in 1845, contains 3800 pages in four volumes.", "Schilling returned to Moscow in March 1832, and one month later arrived in Saint Petersburg with reports and drafts of statutes on cross-border trade and on Buddhist clergy. He recommended keeping the status quo on both issues, while keeping an eye on similar problems of the British administrators in Canton. The government decided not to press the issue of religion; a statute regulating the Buddhists was enacted only in 1853", ". Having fulfilled the mission, Schilling concentrated on telegraphy and cryptography. His work on the Kangyur was completed by an educated lay Buryat man brought from Siberia specifically for this purpose.", "Telegraphy", "Schilling first became involved in telegraphy while he was in Munich. He assisted Sömmerring with his experiments with an electrochemical telegraph. This form of telegraph uses electricity to cause a chemical reaction at the far end, such as bubbles forming in a glass tube of acid. After returning to St. Petersburg he conducted his own experiments with this type of telegraph. He demonstrated this to Tsar Alexander I in 1812, but Alexander declined to take it up", ". He demonstrated this to Tsar Alexander I in 1812, but Alexander declined to take it up. His successor Nicholas I (ascended 1825), wary about the spread of \"subversive\" ideas, was particularly opposed to introducing any mass communications. He agreed with the use of electrical telegraphy for selected military and civil offices, but prohibited public discussion of telegraph technology, including even reports on foreign inventions", ". Schilling could demonstrate his experiments to the public with no ill consequences, but he never tried to publish his research in print. After the death of Schilling, in 1841, Moritz von Jacobi tried to do it, and the journal containing his review article was confiscated and destroyed by a special order of the tsar", ". When Schilling learned of Hans Christian Ørsted's discovery in 1820 that electric current could deflect compass needles, he decided to switch investigation into needle telegraphs, that is, telegraphs that used Ørsted's principle. Schilling used from one to six needles in various demonstrations to represent letters of the alphabet or other information.", "1828 prototype", "The first Schilling telegraph was completed in 1828. The demonstration set consisted of a double-wire copper line and two terminals, each having a voltaic pile providing current of around 200 mA, a Schweigger multiplier for indication, a send-receive switch and a bidirectional telegraph key. There were no intermediate repeaters yet, limiting the potential range of the system. The switches and the keys used open vials filled with mercury", ". The switches and the keys used open vials filled with mercury. Likewise, the shaft of the multiplier pointer was hydraulically dampened by suspending its paddle in a pool of mercury. The coil of each multiplier contained 1760 turns of copper wire insulated with silk. Two magnetized steel pegs ensured that in absence of current the pointer always returned to its off-state, and provided some additional dampening.", "The 40-character code table used variable-length coding, from one to five bits per character. Unlike the dot-dash bits of the Morse code, the bits of Schilling telegraph were encoded by current direction, and marked as either \"left\" or \"right\" in the codetable. The economic value of variable-length coding was not obvious yet; relying on operator's memory or scratchpads to record incoming bits was deemed too unreliable", ". Thus, fellow researchers compelled Schilling to design an alternative multi-wire, parallel-send system. Von Sömmerring used eight bits; Schilling reduced the number of bits to six (again, for a 40-character alphabet).", "Schilling took a single-needle instrument with him for demonstration purposes on his journey to the Far East. When he returned, Schilling used a binary code on his telegraph with multiple needles, inspired by the hexagrams from I Ching which he had become familiar with in the East. These hexagrams are figures used in divination, each of which consist of a figure of six stacked lines. Each line can be solid or broken, two binary states, leading to a total of 64 figures", ". Each line can be solid or broken, two binary states, leading to a total of 64 figures. The six units of the I Ching fitted in perfectly with the six needles he needed to code the Russian alphabet. This was the first use of binary coding in telecommunications, predating the Baudot code by several decades.", "1832 demonstration", "On 21 October 1832 (O.S.), Schilling set up a demonstration of his six-needle telegraph between two rooms in his apartment building at Marsovo Pole, about 100 metres apart. To get the space to demonstrate a credible distance, he hired the entire floor of the building and ran a mile and a half of wire around the building. The demonstration was so popular that it stayed open until the Christmas break", ". The demonstration was so popular that it stayed open until the Christmas break. Notable visitors included Nicholas I (who had already seen an earlier version in April 1830), Moritz von Jacobi, Alexander von Benckendorff, and Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich. A ten-word message in French was dictated by the Tsar and successfully sent over the apparatus. Alexander von Humboldt, after seeing Schilling's telegraph demonstrated in Berlin, recommended to the Tsar that a telegraph should be built in Russia.", "In May 1835, Schilling began a tour of Europe demonstrating a one-needle instrument. He conducted experiments in Vienna with other scientists, including an investigation into the relative merits of rooftop and buried cables. The buried cable was not successful because his thin India rubber and varnish insulation was inadequate. In September he was at a meeting in Bonn where Georg Wilhelm Muncke saw the instrument. Muncke had a copy made for use in his lectures", ". Muncke had a copy made for use in his lectures. In 1835, Schilling demonstrated a five-needle telegraph to the German Physical Society in Frankfurt. By the time Schilling returned to Russia, his telegraph was well known throughout Europe and was frequently discussed in the scientific literature. In September 1836, the British government offered to buy the rights to the telegraph but Schilling declined, wishing to use it to pursue telegraphy in Russia.", "Planned installation", "In 1836, Nicholas I created a commission of inquiry to advise on installation of Schilling's telegraph between Kronstadt, an important naval base, and Peterhof Palace. Prince Alexander Menshikov, the Minister of Marine, was appointed president of the commission. An experimental line was set up in the Admiralty building, connecting Menshikov's study with his subordinates' offices", ". The five-kilometer line was partly overground and partly submerged in the canals, with three interemediate Schweigger multipliers. Menshikov submitted a favourable report and secured the tsar's approval to connect Peterhof with the naval base at Kronstadt, across the Gulf of Finland.", "The 1836 telegraph proposed by Schilling was very similar to the 1828 experimental set, with minor improvements made during the Far Eastern expedition. It consisted of voltaic piles, wires, multipliers coupled to repeater switches, and alarm bells. Thin copper wires were insulated with silk-reinforced latex and suspended to load-bearing hemp cables. Each multiplier contained several hundred turns of silver of copper wire on a brass spool. The shaft of its pointer was dampened by immersion in mercury", ". The shaft of its pointer was dampened by immersion in mercury. Signal currents were by design bidirectional (\"left\" or \"right\" in Schilling's code tables). Later, Schilling's telegraph was often described as a multi-wire device for sending five or six bits in parallel, however, his 1836 proposal clearly describes a double-wire, serial device.", "Schilling knew that all means of insulating submerged cables were inferior to bare overhead wires, and intended to keep the length of submerged cable as short as possible. He proposed laying a 7.5 kilometer submerged cable from Kronstadt to Oranienbaum, the nearest coastal town, and an 8 kilometer surface overhead line along the coast from Oranienbaum to Peterhof. The Committee chaired by Menshikov ridiculed the idea", ". The Committee chaired by Menshikov ridiculed the idea. There were many objections, most important being the breach of security: the coastal line would be visible to any boat passing through the Gulf. Menshikov pressed for the alternative route, a fully submerged 13-kilometer cable directly to Peterhof.", "On Menshikov notified Schilling that the tsar had approved a fully submerged construction. Schilling took the project as far as ordering the submarine cable from a rope factory in St. Petersburg, but he died on 6 August (N.S.), and the project was subsequently cancelled.", "Single-wire code", "Schilling is sometimes credited with being the first to devise a code for a single-wire telegraph, but there is some doubt about how many needles he used and at what dates. It may be that Schilling used a single-needle-only setup on demonstrations around Europe merely for ease of transport, or it may have been a later design inspired by the Gauss and Weber telegraph, in which case he would not have been the first", ". The code alleged to have been used with this telegraph can be traced to Alfred Vail, but the variable-length code (like Morse code) given by Vail is merely shown as an example of how it could be used. In any case, two-element signalling alphabets predate any form of electrical telegraphy by some time. According to Hubbard, it is more likely that Schilling used the same code as used on the six-needle telegraph, but with the bits sent serially instead of in parallel.", "Automatic recording \nSchilling looked into the possibility of automatic recording of telegraph signals, but could not make it work due to the complexity of the device. His electrical engineering successor, Jacobi, succeeded in doing this in 1841 on a telegraph line from the Winter Palace to the General Staff Headquarters.\n\nMines and fuses", "Another field of Schilling's research, directly related to telegraphy, was practical military applications of electricity for remote control of land and naval mines. In 1811 Johann Schweigger suggested the idea of exploding bubbles of hydrogen released from the electrolyte by passing electric current. Schilling discussed the idea with Sommering, and realised the military prospects for the invention. He devised a water resistant conducting wire that could be laid in wet earth or through rivers", ". He devised a water resistant conducting wire that could be laid in wet earth or through rivers. It consisted of a copper wire insulated with a mixture of India-rubber and varnish. Schilling had in mind the military use of telegraphy in the field as well, and was excited about the prospects. Sömmerring wrote in his diary \"Schilling is quite childish about his electro-conducting cord.\"", "In September 1812 Schilling demonstrated his first remote-controlled naval fuse to Alexander I on the Neva River in Saint Petersburg. The invention was intended for coastal defense and sieges, and was deemed unsuitable for the fast-paced maneuver warfare of the 1812 campaign. The Schilling fuse, patented in 1813, contained two pointed carbon electrodes that produced an electric arc. The electrode assembly was placed in a sealed box filled with fine-grained gunpowder, which was ignited by the arc.", "In 1822 Schilling demonstrated the land version of his fuse to Alexander I at Krasnoye Selo; in 1827 another Schilling mine was shown to Nicholas I. This time the test was supervised by military engineer Karl Schilder, an influential Imperial Guard officer and an inventor in his own right. Schilder pushed the proposal through the bureaucracy, and in April 1828 the Inspector general of military engineers authorised development of electrically-fired mines for series production", ". Russia had just entered the war with the Ottoman Empire, which frequently involved sieges of Turkish defenses in the Caucasus. The main problem that Schilling faced was the lack of batteries fit for field service, an issue not resolved until after the end of hostilities. According to Russian biographers of both Schilling and Schilder, reports of electrically-fired mines being used during the siege of Silistra are almost certainly incorrect.", "Immediately after his return from Siberia Schilling resumed work on mines and fuses. In September 1832 a series of electrically-fired land mines, imitating both defensive and offensive operations, were successfully tested by Schilder's battalion. This time the technology was ready for deployment and was issued to the Army; Schilling was awarded the Order of Saint Vladimir, 2nd class. Schilling continued improving land mines until the end of his life", ". Schilling continued improving land mines until the end of his life. In March 1834 Schilder test-fired the first naval mine employing insulated wires invented by Schilling; in 1835 the military performed the first test demolition of a bridge with an electrically-fired underwater charge. These demolition sets were produced and issued to military engineers' units from 1836 onwards", ". These demolition sets were produced and issued to military engineers' units from 1836 onwards. On the other hand, the Russian Navy resisted the novelty until the invention of a reliable contact fuse by Moritz von Jacobi in 1840.", "Legacy", "Schilling maintained regular correspondence with many scientists, writers and politicians, and was well known to Western European academic communities. He arranged publications of historical manuscripts and provided oriental sorts and matrices to European print shops; however, during his lifetime he never attempted to publish a book in his own name or to submit an article to a journal. The only known publication, the preface to the Index of the Narthang Kangyur, was printed posthumously and anonymously", ". His studies of oriental languages and Buddhist texts were soon forgotten. The real author of the Index was \"rediscovered\" in 1847, and then forgotten again. Schilling's research into telegraphy is much better known; the physicists and engineers who wrote about Schilling were concerned primarily with his telegraph, and thus shaped the public image of Schilling as an engineer", ". Later, various authors wrote about Schilling's oriental studies and travels, his collaborations with European academics and Russian poets, but none managed to grasp all the facets of his personality. Schilling the linguist, Schilling the engineer and Schilling the socialite apparently acted as three different persons. Moritz von Jacobi was probably the only contemporary who directly linked Schilling's achievements in telecommunications to his underlying proficiency in linguistics.", "The Schilling needle telegraph was never used as such, but it is partly the ancestor of the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, a system widely used in the United Kingdom and British Empire in the nineteenth century. Some of the instruments of that system remained in use well into the twentieth century. Schilling's demonstration in Frankfurt was attended by Georg Wilhelm Muncke who subsequently had an exact copy of Schilling's apparatus made. Muncke used this for demonstrations in lectures", ". Muncke used this for demonstrations in lectures. One of these lectures was attended by William Fothergill Cooke, who was inspired to build a version of Schilling's telegraph of his own, although he did not realise that the instrument he saw was due to Schilling. He abandoned this method for practical use in favour of electromagnetic clockwork solutions for a while, apparently believing that needle telegraphs always required multiple wires", ". That Schilling's method of suspending the needle by a thread horizontally was not very convenient was also an influence. This changed when he partnered with Charles Wheatstone and the telegraph they then built together was a multiple-needle telegraph, but with a rather more robust mounting based on the galvanometer of Macedonio Melloni", ". There is no evidence for the claim sometimes advanced that Wheatstone also lectured with a copy of Schilling's telegraph, although he certainly knew about it and lectured on its implications.", "Schilling's original telegraph of 1832 is currently displayed in the telegraph collection of the A.S. Popov Central Museum of Communications. The instrument was previously on exhibition at the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881. His contributions to electrical telegraphy were named an IEEE Milestone in 2009. The Adamini Building at 7 Marsovo Pole, St. Petersburg, where Schilling lived in the 1830s and where he died, has a memorial plaque placed in 1886 to mark the centennial of his birth.\n\nNotes", "Notes\n\nReferences", "Bibliography \n Artemenko, Roman, \"Павел Шиллинг - изобретатель электромагнитного телеграфа\" [\"Pavel Schilling - inventor of the electromagnetic telegraph\"], ITWeek, vol. 3, iss. 321, 29 January 2002 (in Russian).\n Bermel, Neil, Linguistic Authority, Language Ideology, and Metaphor: The Czech Orthography Wars, Walter de Gruyter, 2008 .\n Dudley, Leonard, Mothers of Innovation: How Expanding Social Networks Gave Birth to the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012 .", "Fahie, John Joseph, A History of Electric Telegraphy, to the Year 1837, London: E. & F.N. Spon, 1884 .\n Garratt, G.R.M., \"The early history of telegraphy\", Philips Technical Review, vol. 26, no. 8/9, pp. 268–284, 21 April 1966.\n Hamel, Joseph von, Historical Account of the Introduction of the Galvanic and Electro-magnetic Telegraph, London: W. Trounce, 1859 .\n Hubbard, Geoffrey, Cooke and Wheatstone: And the Invention of the Electric Telegraph, Routledge, 2013 .", "Huurdeman, A.A., The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, Wiley, 2003 \n Shaffner, Taliaferro Preston, The Telegraph Manual, Pudney & Russell, 1859 .\n Siegert, Bernard, Relays: Literature as an Epoch of the Postal System, Stanford University Press, 1999 .\n \n Vail, Alfred, The American Electro Magnetic Telegraph, Lea & Blanchard, 1845 .\n \n Yarotsky, A.V., \"150th anniversary of the electromagnetic telegraph\", Telecommunication Journal, vol. 49, no. 10, pp. 709–715, October 1982.", "1786 births\n1837 deaths\nDiplomats from Tallinn\nMilitary personnel from Tallinn\nPeople from the Governorate of Estonia\nBaltic German people from the Russian Empire\nInventors from the Russian Empire\nElectrical engineers from the Russian Empire\nTelegraph engineers and inventors\nOrientalists from the Russian Empire\nSinologists from the Russian Empire\nPrinters from the Russian Empire\nCryptographers from the Russian Empire\nScientists from Saint Petersburg\nRussian military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars", "Scientists from Saint Petersburg\nRussian military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars\nRecipients of the Gold Sword for Bravery\nRecipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class\nRecipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 2nd class\n19th-century engineers from the Russian Empire\nBarons of the Russian Empire\nRussian scientists" ]

[ "The Grand Prix racing history of Scuderia Ferrari dates back to 1947. The team is the most successful team in the history of Formula One racing, contesting every World Championship season since , winning 15 Drivers' Championships and 16 Constructors' Championships.\n\nHistory", "History\n\n1940s\nIn May 1947, Ferrari constructed the 12-cylinder, 1.5 L Tipo 125, the first racing car to bear the Ferrari name. A Formula One version of the Tipo 125, the Ferrari 125 F1 was developed in 1948 and entered in several Grands Prix, when a World Championship had not yet been established.", "1950s\nIn 1950, the Formula One World Championship was established, and Scuderia Ferrari entered in this first season. It is the only team to have competed in every season of the World Championship, from its inception to the current day.", "In fact the Ferrari team missed the first race of the championship, the 1950 British Grand Prix, due to a dispute about the 'start money' paid to entrants, and the team debuted in the 1950 Monaco Grand Prix with the 125 F1, sporting a supercharged version of the 125 V12, and three experienced and successful drivers, Alberto Ascari, Raymond Sommer and Gigi Villoresi.", "The company later switched to the large-displacement naturally aspirated formula for the 275, 340, and 375 F1 cars. The Alfa Romeo team won all eleven events it entered in 1950 (six World Championship events and five non-championship races), but Ferrari broke their streak in 1951 when José Froilán González took first place at the 1951 British Grand Prix.", "After the 1951 Formula One season the Alfa team withdrew from F1, causing the authorities to adopt the Formula Two regulations due to the lack of suitable F1 cars. Ferrari entered the 2.0 L 4-cyl Ferrari Tipo 500, which went on to win almost every race in which it competed in the 1952 Formula One season with drivers Ascari, Giuseppe Farina, and Piero Taruffi; Ascari took the World Championship after winning six consecutive races", ". In the 1953 Formula One season, Ascari won only five races but another world title; at the end of that season, Juan Manuel Fangio beat the Ferraris in a Maserati for the first time.", "The 1954 Formula One season brought new rules for 2.5 L engines; Ferrari's new car, designated the Ferrari Tipo 625, could barely compete against Fangio with the Maserati and then the Mercedes-Benz W196 which appeared in July. Ferrari had only two wins, González at the 1954 British Grand Prix and Mike Hawthorn at the 1954 Spanish Grand Prix. In the 1955 Formula One season Ferrari did no better, winning only the 1955 Monaco Grand Prix with driver Maurice Trintignant", ". Late in the tragic 1955 season, the Ferrari team purchased the Lancia team's D50 chassis after they had retired following Ascari's death; Fangio, Peter Collins, and Eugenio Castellotti raced the D50s successfully in the 1956 Formula One season: Collins two races, Fangio won three races and the championship.", "In the 1957 Formula One season Fangio returned to Maserati. Ferrari, still using its ageing Lancias, failed to win a race. Drivers Luigi Musso and the Marquis Alfonso de Portago joined Castellotti; Castellotti died while testing and Portago crashed into a crowd at the Mille Miglia, killing twelve and causing Ferrari to be charged with manslaughter.", "In the 1958 Formula One season, a Constructors' Championship was introduced and won by Vanwall. Carlo Chiti designed an entirely new car for Ferrari: the Ferrari 246 F1, with a V6 engine named after Enzo Ferrari's recently deceased son. The team retained drivers Collins, Hawthorn, and Musso, but Musso died at the 1958 French Grand Prix and Collins died at the 1958 German Grand Prix; Hawthorn won the World Championship and announced his retirement, and died months later in a road accident.", "Ferrari hired five new drivers, Tony Brooks, Jean Behra, Phil Hill, Dan Gurney, and occasionally Cliff Allison, for the 1959 Formula One season. The team did not get along well; Behra was fired after punching team manager Romolo Tavoni. Brooks was competitive until the end of the season, but in the end, he narrowly lost the championship to Jack Brabham with the rear-engined Cooper.", "1960s", "The 1960 Formula One season proved little better than 1959. Ferrari kept drivers Hill, Allison and Wolfgang von Trips and added Willy Mairesse to drive the dated front-engined 246s and Richie Ginther, who drove Ferrari's first rear-engined car", ". Allison was severely injured in testing and Hill gave the team its lone win by heading a hollow podium sweep at Monza after top British teams, with the championship already decided, boycotted Italian organizers' decision to contest the race on a high-speed circuit which combined Monza's high-banked oval with the normal road course.", "In the 1961 Formula One season, with new rules for 1500 cc, the team kept Hill, von Trips and Ginther, and débuted another Chiti-designed car, the Ferrari 156 based on the Formula 2 car of 1960, which was dominant throughout the season. Ferrari drivers Hill and Von Trips competed for the championship. Giancarlo Baghetti joined in midseason and became the first driver to win on his debut race (the 1961 French Grand Prix)", ". However, at the end of the season, von Trips crashed at the 1961 Italian Grand Prix and was killed, together with over a dozen spectators. Hill won the championship.", "At the end of the 1961 season, in what is called \"the walk-out\", car designer Carlo Chiti and team manager Romolo Tavoni left to set up their own team, ATS. Ferrari promoted Mauro Forghieri to racing director and Eugenio Dragoni to team manager.", "For the 1962 Formula One season, Hill and Baghetti stayed on with rookies Ricardo Rodríguez and Lorenzo Bandini. Richie Ginther had left for BRM, leaving a big gap in the development of new models. The somewhat volatile Willy Mairesse took his place. The team used the 1961 cars for a second year while Forghieri worked on a new design; the team won no race. After a prolonged metalworkers' strike in Italy Ferrari missed two races", ". After a prolonged metalworkers' strike in Italy Ferrari missed two races. This, combined with the betrayal of the 1961 walk-out and various troubles arising from Enzo's refusal to accompany the team to the races (having his wife stand in for him instead) led to Enzo withdrawing from the last two races of the year. The drivers were free to drive for anyone, as long as it did not contradict the existing sponsor contracts with Dunlop, Shell, Marchal, and Ferodo.", "There had been talk of a Gilera-Ferrari in late 1962, with technical drawings released but no car ever seen, using a transversely mounted eight-cylinder engine based on two Gilera four-cylinder motorcycle blocks combined. This came to naught, however, and Ferrari ran smaller lighter 156 cars for the 1963 Formula One season. This time the team depended on drivers Bandini, John Surtees, Willy Mairesse and Ludovico Scarfiotti", ". Surtees won the 1963 German Grand Prix, at which Mairesse crashed heavily, rendering him unable to drive again.", "The new 158 model was at last finished in late 1963 and developed into raceworthiness for the 1964 Formula One season, featuring an eight-cylinder engine designed by Angelo Bellei. Surtees and Bandini were joined by young Mexican Pedro Rodríguez, brother of Ricardo (who had been killed at the end of 1962), to drive the new cars. Surtees won two races and Bandini one; the Ferrari was slower than Jim Clark's Lotus but its vastly superior reliability gave Surtees the championship and Bandini fourth place", ". In the last two races in North America, the Ferrari's were entered by private team NART and painted in the US colour scheme of blue and white, as Enzo was protesting against the Italian sporting authority.", "The 1965 Formula One season was the last year of the 1.5 L formula, so Ferrari opted to use the same V8 engine another year together with a new flat-12 which had debuted at the end of 1964; they won no races as Clark dominated in his now more reliable Lotus. Surtees and Bandini stayed on as drivers, with odd races for Rodríguez, Vaccarella and Bob Bondurant.", "For the 1966 Formula One season with new rules, the Ferrari 312 of Surtees consisted of a 3.0 L version of the 3.3 L V12 which they had previously used in Ferrari P sports car racers, mounted in the back of a rather heavy F1 chassis. Bandini drove a Tasman Series 2.4 L V6 car early in the season. Surtees won one race, the 1966 Belgian Grand Prix, but departed after a row with manager Eugenio Dragoni; he was replaced by Mike Parkes", ". Scarfiotti also won a race, the 1966 Italian Grand Prix at Monza, with an improved 36-valve engine.", "In the 1967 Formula One season, the team fired Dragoni and replaced him with Franco Lini; Chris Amon partnered Bandini to drive a somewhat improved version of the 1966 car. At the 1967 Monaco Grand Prix Bandini crashed and suffered heavy injuries when he was trapped under his burning car; several days later he succumbed to his injuries", ". Ferrari kept Mike Parkes and Scarfiotti, but Parkes suffered career-ending injuries weeks later at the 1967 Belgian Grand Prix and Scarfiotti temporarily retired from racing after witnessing his crash.", "The 1968 Formula One season was better; Jacky Ickx drove with one win in France and several good positions, which gave him a chance at the World Championship until a practise crash in Canada, and Amon led several races but won none. At the end of the season, manager Franco Lini quit and Ickx went to the Brabham team", ". At the end of the season, manager Franco Lini quit and Ickx went to the Brabham team. During the summer of 1968, Ferrari worked out a deal to sell his road car business to Fiat for $11 million; the transaction took place in early 1969, leaving 50% of the business still under the control of Ferrari himself.", "During the 1969 Formula One season, Enzo Ferrari set about wisely spending his new-found wealth to revive his struggling team; though Ferrari did compete in Formula One in 1969, it was something of a throwaway season while the team was restructured. Amon continued to drive an older model and Pedro Rodríguez replaced Ickx; at the end of the year, Amon left the team.\n\n1970s", "In , a new car and engine was produced for that season, the 312B. It had an all-new flat-12 engine, which was to be the engine used by the team for the next 10 seasons. Jacky Ickx rejoined the team and won the , the and the to become second in the Drivers' Championship. Clay Regazzoni made his debut that season and won the , finishing third in the standings", ". Clay Regazzoni made his debut that season and won the , finishing third in the standings. Ferrari driver Pedro Rodríguez was killed in an Interserie sports car race at Norisring in Nuremberg, Germany, on 11 July 1971, at the wheel of a Ferrari 512M.", "After three poor years, including a disastrous 1973 season which saw Ferrari failing to attend two races – the Dutch and German Grands Prix – for the first time since the team had started racing in Formula One, Ferrari signed Niki Lauda in 1974, and made the momentous decision to pull out of sportscar racing to concentrate upon F1. The same year Luca di Montezemolo was appointed Team Principal", ". The same year Luca di Montezemolo was appointed Team Principal. Ferrari won the , the and the , but Regazzoni lost the World Championship to Emerson Fittipaldi at the final race of the season, the United States Grand Prix.", "The new Ferrari 312T, developed fully with Lauda and Regazzoni and designed by Mauro Forghieri, was introduced in 1975, and brought the team back to winning ways, Lauda won five races and took the drivers' crown, and Ferrari won the Constructors' Championship.", "In 1976 Lauda was comfortably leading the championship when he crashed at the , seriously injuring himself. Carlos Reutemann was hired as a replacement, and Ferrari fielded three cars in the 1976 Italian Grand Prix when Lauda returned unexpectedly soon (only six weeks after his accident)", ". Lauda scored points twice in the races following his severe crash, but voluntarily withdrew from the season-ending Grand Prix at Fuji after two laps because of heavy rain, and James Hunt won the drivers' title by a single point, but Ferrari won the constructors' title for the second year in a row.", "In 1977 Lauda, having come back from his near-fatal crash the previous year, took the title again for Ferrari (and the team won the Constructors' Championship), overcoming his more fancied, and favoured, teammate Reutemann. His relations with the team, especially Forghieri, continued to deteriorate, and he decided finally to leave for Brabham at the end of the season.", "In 1978, Ferrari raced with Reutemann and Gilles Villeneuve, and while they managed to produce a solid car, winning five races, it was outclassed by the ground effect Lotus 79.", "Jody Scheckter replacing the Lotus bound Argentinian in 1979, took the title, supported by Gilles Villeneuve (who dutifully followed the South African home at Monza), and won the last World Drivers' Championship in a Ferrari until Michael Schumacher 21 years later", ". The car was a compromise ground effect design due to the configuration of the Ferrari wide-angle flat-12, which was overtaken in due course by the extremely successful Williams FW07, but not before racking up the necessary points to take both titles that year.", "1980s", "Ferrari and Jody Scheckter's title defence was unsuccessful, as the team's rivals made up ground at the expense of the reigning champions. The team scored a meagre total of eight points all season, and Scheckter elected to retire at its conclusion. For the season, Ferrari signed Didier Pironi to partner Gilles Villeneuve and also introduced its own turbo-charged engine, which provided more power in a more compact design than the previous normally aspirated, twelve-cylinder arrangement", ". The season was a distinct improvement on the last, Villeneuve winning the Monaco and Spanish Grands Prix, but a potential championship challenge was stymied by the difficult handling and extremely poor aerodynamics of the car. However, the lessons learnt from the team's first racing experience with a turbo car in F1 prepared it well for .", "Throughout the 1982 season, the Ferrari was the best package, in terms of a balance between speed and reliability. The year was, however, marred by the loss of both of Ferrari's drivers. Team leader and favourite driver of Enzo Ferrari, Villeneuve, died in a crash during qualifying at the , while Pironi suffered career-ending injuries before the later in the season", ". Ferrari first called up Patrick Tambay, in place of the late Villeneuve, and later Mario Andretti in an effort to protect Pironi's lead in the championship, but to no avail. Ferrari did, however, win the Constructors' Championship. The same year, the Formula One works moved partially out of the original Maranello factory into its own autonomous facility, still in Maranello but directly next to the Fiorano test circuit.", "Four wins by René Arnoux and Patrick Tambay won the team another constructors' title in 1983, but neither driver was consistent enough to challenge for the drivers' title. Patrick Tambay took an especially emotional victory at San Marino in front of the Tifosi, but left to join the Renault team at the end of the season. Michele Alboreto was hired for following his impressive performances during the previous year driving a Cosworth-powered Tyrrell", ". He won the , but the team's performance was not competitive enough to challenge the TAG-Porsche-powered McLarens of Niki Lauda and Alain Prost. In the following year, however, Alboreto was Prost's closest challenger for the championship, leading it at one stage before the team's competitiveness slumped in the final races. Arnoux, meanwhile, fell out with the team and was replaced by Stefan Johansson after the first race of the season", ". continued the disappointing trend of the previous season as neither Alboreto nor Johansson could win a race, and never looked like doing so. For , Johansson moved to McLaren and was replaced by Gerhard Berger, who got the better of Alboreto as the season progressed and won the final two races of the championship as the car's form improved towards the end of the season", ". The team remained competitive into , finishing second in the Constructors' Championship, but a long way behind McLaren, who now used the works Honda engines which had won the previous two Constructors' Championships.", "The season also witnessed the end of Enzo Ferrari's ownership of the team. On 14 August 1988, Ferrari died at the age of 90. Fiat's share of the company was raised to 90% with Enzo's only remaining son, Piero Ferrari, inheriting the remaining share from his father. Just under a month after Enzo's death, Berger and Alboreto completed a historic 1–2 at the , the only time a team other than McLaren-Honda won a Grand Prix in the 1988 season. Berger dedicated the win to the late Enzo Ferrari.", "saw the end of turbo-charging in Formula One. From this date, the formula was for 3.5-litre normally aspirated engines of no greater than 12 cylinders, which was a direct consequence of lobbying by Ferrari for the previous few years. The team went so far as to construct an Indycar, the Ferrari 637, as a threat to the FIA that if they did not get what they wanted, namely the allowance of V12 engines under the revised formula, they could take part in another series", ". Due to the expected extreme high revs and consequent narrow power band expected of the new engines, technical director John Barnard insisted upon the development of a revolutionary new gear-shifting arrangement – the paddle-operated, semi-automatic gearbox. In pre-season testing, the experimental system proved extremely troublesome, with newly arrived driver Nigel Mansell being unable to compete more than a handful of laps, but nonetheless they managed a debut win at the opening round in Brazil", ". Horrendous reliability led to Berger being unable to score a point until a run of podiums at Monza, Estoril and Jerez including a win at Estoril. Mansell scored a memorable win at Budapest where he overtook world champion Ayrton Senna for the win after qualifying far down the field in twelfth. He then dedicated the race to the memory of Enzo Ferrari as the win came a year after the latter's death.", "1990s", "Then triple world champion Alain Prost left McLaren to partner Mansell at Ferrari for the 1990 Formula One season. As reigning world champion, Prost assumed the role of lead driver, much to teammate Mansell's dismay. In his autobiography, Mansell claimed that Ferrari had switched his car with Prost's at the 1990 British Grand Prix without his foreknowledge. Mansell departed Ferrari at the end of the 1990 season", ". Mansell departed Ferrari at the end of the 1990 season. Prost won five races and entered the penultimate round of the season, the controversial 1990 Japanese Grand Prix, with a nine-point deficit to McLaren driver and former teammate Ayrton Senna. A controversial first-lap collision between Senna and Prost allowed Senna to secure the 1990 FIA Formula One World Drivers' Championship, with Prost ranking second.", "Mansell was replaced by Frenchman Jean Alesi, previously driving for Tyrrell, for the 1991 Formula One season. However, Ferrari had entered a downturn in 1991, partially as their famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller, lighter and more fuel-efficient V10s of their competitors. Prost won no races, only getting onto the podium five times. He criticised the team, described his car as harder to drive than \"a truck\", and was fired prior to the end of the season, right before the", ". Prost was replaced by Italian Gianni Morbidelli. The team won no races between 1991 and 1993.", "Gerhard Berger returned to Ferrari to partner Alesi in 1993, and Jean Todt was hired as team principal. With the Ferrari 412T, Berger and Alesi achieved two podiums and four pole positions. However the next seasons' poor reliability and fuel consumption limited the number of wins to just one each for Berger (1994 German Grand Prix) and Alesi (1995 Canadian Grand Prix), despite Alesi being in a good position to win at Monza and the Nürburgring in 1995", ". Nevertheless the car was a solid and competitive upgrade, and with Berger's victory, achieved after three seasons without a race win, started a record of at least one GP victory in the following twenty consecutive seasons.", "Ferrari completely changed their driver line-up for the 1996 Formula One season, replacing Berger and Alesi with former Jordan driver Eddie Irvine, and two-time defending world champion (former Benetton driver) Michael Schumacher, for a salary of around $30 million a year. Many members of the Benetton team's technical staff followed, namely Ross Brawn (technical director), Rory Byrne (chief designer), Nikolas Tombazis (head of aerodynamics) and Tad Czapski (head of electronics)", ". New engine rules reducing engine capacity from 3500cc to 3000cc required Ferrari to switch to the (3.0L) V10 engine for 1996.", "Despite poor reliability, Michael Schumacher managed to score three wins during the 1996 season with the Ferrari F310. In very wet conditions at the , despite starting from the second row and having a poor start, Schumacher climbed back up the order to win the race by 45 seconds over now Benetton driver Jean Alesi. This was the first Formula One victory for a Ferrari V10 engine", ". This was the first Formula One victory for a Ferrari V10 engine. Both Ferrari drivers retired from the three subsequent rounds on the calendar, the , the , where Schumacher had qualified in pole position but failed to start after an engine failure on the formation lap, and the respectively. At the 1996 Belgian Grand Prix, superior pit strategy enabled Schumacher to emerge ahead of Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve to score his second win of the season", ". Schumacher followed up his Belgian win by winning the at Monza, Ferrari's first win on home soil since 1988. Ferrari finished second in the Constructors' Championship, with Schumacher finishing third in the drivers' standings and Irvine tenth.", "For the 1997 Formula One season, the increased reliability of the F310B enabled Ferrari to challenge for its first Drivers' Championship since Jody Scheckter had won Ferrari's last drivers' title 18 years earlier, in 1979. Michael Schumacher finished on the podium eight times during the course of the season, including five wins, and went into the final round leading Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve by one point", ". On Lap 48 of the final round of the 1997 season, the 1997 European Grand Prix at Jerez, Michael Schumacher and Jacques Villeneuve collided as the latter attempted to overtake for the race lead down the inside of the Dry Sac corner. Schumacher retired from the race, and Villeneuve clinched the 1997 Drivers' Championship with a third-place finish. The stewards of the event had initially deemed the collision a racing incident", ". The stewards of the event had initially deemed the collision a racing incident. However, Schumacher was then summoned and disqualified from the 1997 World Drivers' Championship for unsportsmanlike conduct in an extraordinary meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council on 11 November 1997. Ferrari's Constructors' Championship points, however, remained intact, and the team finished second overall", ". Eddie Irvine, having scored five podiums throughout the season, was classified seventh in the drivers' standings.", "Following the dramatic 1997 season, Ferrari came out with an all-new car to fit the new regulations for 1998, the F300. Although it was a competitive package, the McLaren–Mercedes MP4/13 was most often stronger. Schumacher won six races that season including three in a row at Canada, France and Great Britain. The Hungarian Grand Prix was won after a tactical master-stroke by Brawn decided to make the car run a 3-stop strategy as opposed to McLaren's 2", ". Schumacher then went on to lead Irvine home to Ferrari's first 1–2 at Monza since the memorable 1988 race after Enzo Ferrari's death. Schumacher lost the title to McLaren's Mika Häkkinen at Suzuka after he stalled on the front row then suffered a mid-race puncture. Irvine was fourth in the championship with Ferrari second in the constructors' title.", "The 1999 Formula One season started well for Ferrari, the team winning three of the first four races of the season. Eddie Irvine scored his maiden career win at the season-opening . Michael Schumacher scored back-to-back victories at the and the . The team's fortunes began to change in Canada, however, with Michael Schumacher retiring from the lead of the race after sliding into the wall at the exit of the final chicane of the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve, since known as the \"Wall of Champions\"", ". On Lap 1 of the at Silverstone, Schumacher crashed heavily at Stowe Corner after his rear brake failed, sending him off the circuit after he locked up at approximately 130 mph. He broke his lower right leg as a result, forcing him to miss the next six races and ending his bid for the 1999 Drivers' Championship. Ferrari replaced him with Mika Salo. Irvine became Ferrari's main contender for the drivers' title. He won the next two rounds in Austria and in Germany", ". He won the next two rounds in Austria and in Germany. Schumacher returned for the final two races of the season, handing Irvine the race lead and eventual win at the inaugural . Both Ferrari drivers had been disqualified after the race as the side deflector panel on both cars was deemed to have been one centimetre too long, making Mika Häkkinen the provisional Drivers' Champion", ". However, both Ferrari cars were reinstated on appeal, and Irvine led the drivers' standings by four points over Häkkinen going into the final round. Irvine ultimately fell short of the 1999 Drivers' Championship at the season-ending , where he finished third, losing to Häkkinen by two points in the final standings. Schumacher's second place in the race helped Ferrari secure the 1999 Constructors' Championship, their first since 1983.", "2000s", "Ferrari replaced Irvine with Rubens Barrichello ahead of the 2000 Formula One season. The season started well, with Schumacher and Barrichello scoring a 1–2 finish in Australia after both McLaren drivers retired from the race. Schumacher followed his Australian win with consecutive victories in Brazil and in San Marino, to lead the drivers' standings by 21 points after only three races", ". Schumacher's early points lead was minimised, however, after a string of consecutive retirements in France, Austria, and Germany left him with only a two-point lead over reigning world champion Mika Häkkinen. At the German Grand Prix at Hockenheim, Barrichello scored his maiden career win after starting 18th on the grid. At the 2000 Italian Grand Prix, Schumacher scored his 41st career victory to match the victory tally of Ayrton Senna", ". During the post-race press conference, he burst into tears when asked if the record \"meant a lot\" to him. Schumacher won the 2000 Drivers' Championship in the F1-2000 at the , becoming Ferrari's first Drivers' Champion since Jody Scheckter in 1979. Barrichello was classified fourth in the final standings, and Ferrari took its second consecutive Constructors' Championship.", "Michael Schumacher and Ferrari continued their good form into the 2001 Formula One season, winning the first two races in Australia and in Malaysia. Schumacher took his third victory of the season when, on the last lap of the , McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen retired from the race lead with mechanical failure. Wins in Monaco, Europe, and France helped Schumacher secure his lead in the drivers' standings, and he secured his fourth Drivers' Championship after winning the , with four races remaining", ". At the , Michael Schumacher scored his 52nd career victory to surpass Alain Prost's record of most Grand Prix victories. The was the first Formula One race held after the September 11 attacks in the United States. Ferrari removed all advertising and painted the nosecones of both of its cars black as a mark of respect to the victims. Ferrari won their third consecutive Constructors' Championship, as Barrichello was classified third in the drivers' standings, despite scoring no wins.", "In 2002, Ferrari won 15 out of 17 races (Schumacher 11, Barrichello 4) to match McLaren's record number of wins in a season, set in . Their successful run, however, was tainted by a team orders controversy at the . In a replay of 2001, Barrichello was asked to give way to Schumacher on the final lap of the Grand Prix, except this time for the win", ". An embarrassed Schumacher then pushed Barrichello to the top step of the podium, and Ferrari were subsequently fined $1 million by the FIA for interfering with podium procedures. This debacle eventually led to the banning of team orders ahead of the season. Schumacher matched Juan Manuel Fangio's record of five world championships, set in the 1950s, at the 2002 French Grand Prix", ". Ferrari finished 1–2 at the , Barrichello leading Schumacher after the latter had slowed down on the last lap to attempt a 'dead heat' with his teammate, by a margin of 0.011 seconds, in one of the closest finishes in Formula One history.", "The first race of the 2003 Formula One season, the , was the first race since the 1999 European Grand Prix where neither Ferrari driver had finished on the podium. McLaren had an early lead in the standings, but Ferrari had closed the points gap by the . Both championships were still undecided at the last round of the 2003 season, the", ". Both championships were still undecided at the last round of the 2003 season, the . After having started 14th, Schumacher finished eighth in the race, and clinched his sixth championship by two points over McLaren driver Kimi Räikkönen, surpassing Juan Manuel Fangio's record; Ferrari managed to win their 13th Constructors' Championship with Rubens Barrichello winning the race after starting from pole position. In 2003, F1 magazine reported that Ferrari's budget was $443,800,000.", "Ferrari rebounded in 2004, with Schumacher winning 13 of the 18 races, and 12 of the first 13 of the season, both F1 records. He won his seventh and final Drivers' Championship by finishing second at the , with four races still remaining. Barrichello finished second in the standings, and Ferrari easily wrapped up the Constructors' Championship. Barrichello won twice, at the and the respectively.", "The 2005 Formula One season saw a change of fortune for Ferrari. The team started the year with the F2004M, a modified version of the previous year's car pending full development of their new car, the F2005, which was scheduled to be introduced at the . The car lacked pace in comparison with other teams (particularly McLaren and Renault who started the year with brand new cars)", ". Alarmed by poor performances in the and in the , the F2005 was rushed into service at the third round, the , where Schumacher retired from hydraulics failure, his first mechanical failure since the 2001 German Grand Prix, ending a run of 58 Grands Prix without technical failure.", "The poor relative performance of the team's Bridgestone tyres was also cited as a reason for Ferrari's lack of performance in 2005. The Bridgestone tyres failed to give sufficient grip in qualifying and were not as durable as their Michelin rivals during races. However, the tyres provided for the were more competitive, and the Bridgestone tyres supplied for the allowed the three Bridgestone teams to race, while the seven Michelin teams were forced to withdraw.", "In August 2005, Rubens Barrichello announced that he was leaving Ferrari at the end of the year to join the Honda team, citing a need for 'renewed motivation', and rumoured to have been 'unhappy with his continued status as number two to Schumacher'. Ferrari named then Sauber driver Felipe Massa as Barrichello's replacement for the 2006 Formula One season.", "Ferrari's 2006 car, the 248 F1, was the first car developed entirely under Aldo Costa, after the departure of Rory Byrne. Ferrari finished 1–2 in the . Massa won his first race at the , and Schumacher announced his retirement at the , which he won. Kimi Räikkönen was announced as Schumacher's replacement for the 2007 season. Still in contention for the championship, Schumacher won his final race at the , but ultimately fell short of an eighth drivers title", ". At the Schumacher finished fourth in his final race for Ferrari, setting the fastest lap following a puncture, the race was won by Massa. Ferrari finished five points behind Renault for the Constructors' Championship.", "In the F2007, Kimi Räikkönen won the inaugural race of the 2007 Formula One season, the first Ferrari driver to win on his Ferrari debut since Nigel Mansell in 1989. Räikkönen subsequently won the Drivers' Championship by one point over both McLaren drivers, and, with nine victories, Ferrari won the Constructors' Championship.", "The 2007 Formula One espionage controversy directly concerned Ferrari employee Nigel Stepney, who was dismissed by the team as a result. The case revolved around the theft of technical information.", "After the end of the 2007 season, Ferrari President Luca Cordero di Montezemolo announced a new structure for the team, with Jean Todt departing the team principal role and moving up to his senior role as CEO of the company, Stefano Domenicali took over as team principal as Ross Brawn declined a return following his sabbatical (he became Team Principal of Honda), Aldo Costa as technical director and Mario Almondo as Operations Director", ". It had been reported that this completed a shift in Ferrari personnel where the older foreign leadership was replaced with a new one composed mostly of Italians.", "The F2008 was Ferrari's car for the 2008 Formula One season. Räikkönen led the championship early on after taking two victories from the early rounds, but multiple incidents for him later saw Massa battle McLaren's Lewis Hamilton for the Drivers' Championship until the end of the season. Massa went into the final race of the season, the , in contention for the championship", ". Massa went into the final race of the season, the , in contention for the championship. Massa won the race, but ultimately lost the drivers' title to Hamilton after the latter managed to get past Timo Glock for fifth place on the final lap of the race. However, Ferrari did win the Constructors' World Championship", ". However, Ferrari did win the Constructors' World Championship. In October 2008, Ferrari issued a statement saying that they would reconsider their participation in Formula One beyond the 2009 Formula One season, due to the FIA's desire to introduce standardised engines from 2010. The FIA's plan was never implemented.", "Ferrari started the 2009 Formula One season poorly with the F60, recording their worst start to a season since . During qualifying for the 2009 Hungarian Grand Prix, Felipe Massa was injured when he was struck by a spring that had detached from the rear suspension of Rubens Barrichello's Brawn BGP 001", ". He was poised to be replaced by former Ferrari teammate and seven-time Formula One champion Michael Schumacher as of the , but the latter was sidelined by a motorbike injury he had sustained earlier in the year. Massa was eventually replaced by Luca Badoer, and later by Giancarlo Fisichella, for the remainder of the 2009 season. Ferrari recorded their only win of the 2009 season at the , where Kimi Räikkönen won ahead of pole-sitter Giancarlo Fisichella (Force India) after having started sixth.", "Domination in the early 2000s\n\n2010s\n\nDespite still having a year of his contract remaining, Räikkönen left Ferrari and was replaced by the double world champion Fernando Alonso.\nFerrari announced that Felipe Massa would partner Fernando Alonso until at least the end of the 2012 Formula One season.", "The 2010 Formula One season started with Fernando Alonso leading a Ferrari 1–2, with Massa second, at the 2010 Bahrain Grand Prix. However, after the first seven races, Ferrari were lying third in the Constructors' Championship, following a string of low points finishes. Ferrari remained third in the Constructors' Championship following a controversial 1–2 finish at the , where Ferrari were deemed to have given an order to Felipe Massa to give the lead of the race to Fernando Alonso", ". Team orders had been banned in Formula One since 2003. The stewards fined Ferrari $100,000 – the maximum penalty race stewards could impose. The incident was referred to the FIA World Motor Sport Council for review, and no further action was taken. Alonso won further races at Monza, Singapore and the inaugural race in Korea as he finished the season second to Sebastian Vettel.", "Ferrari launched its 2011 car, the Ferrari 150º Italia in January 2011, with Ford declaring intentions to sue over the use of the F150 name – under which the car had been launched – Ferrari began referring to the car as the \"F150th Italia\". In March 2011, the car's name was changed again to \"150º Italia\", with the Italian language ordinal indicator º being used to replace the English language -th. Ford and Ferrari also settled their legal matter, asking for the case to be dismissed at a court in Detroit", ". In 2011 Alonso renewed his contract with Ferrari to at least the end of the 2016 season. Massa renewed his contract for one more season alongside Alonso.", "The 2012 Formula One season saw Ferrari continue with the driver pairing of the previous two years of Fernando Alonso and Felipe Massa, with Alonso once again narrowly missing out on the drivers' title.", "Ferrari's car for the 2013 Formula One season is the Ferrari F138. Massa was replaced by Kimi Räikkönen for 2014, while Alonso was retained. Despite having such a line-up, the team struggled throughout the season, only achieving two podiums and finishing fourth in the Constructors' Championship behind a resurgent Williams, marking Ferrari's first winless season since . Stefano Domenicali was replaced as team principal by Marco Mattiacci", ". Stefano Domenicali was replaced as team principal by Marco Mattiacci. Prior to the 2014 Italian Grand Prix, Luca Cordero di Montezemolo announced his resignation as Ferrari chairman. Räikkönen was retained for the season while Alonso left the team, to rejoin McLaren. He was replaced by Sebastian Vettel, who left Red Bull Racing. In October 2014, the team announced replacing its outdated simulator software to the more capable rFpro.", "After a massive management overhaul, with Sergio Marchionne and Maurizio Arrivabene replacing di Montezemolo and Mattiacci as Ferrari President and Team Principal respectively, the team enjoyed an improved start to the season, with Sebastian Vettel taking third in Australia. However, Räikkönen was forced to retire from the race due to a loose wheel", ". However, Räikkönen was forced to retire from the race due to a loose wheel. The team ended their 34-race winless streak in Malaysia when Vettel held off both Mercedes cars to claim his first victory since leaving Red Bull at the end of the previous year. Sebastian Vettel managed to win twice more for Ferrari in 2015, at the 2015 Hungarian Grand Prix, and finally at the 2015 Singapore Grand Prix. Vettel and Räikkönen finished third and fourth respectively in the drivers' standings.", "After scoring no wins during the season, Ferrari scored their 225th Formula One victory at the 2017 Australian Grand Prix, courtesy of Sebastian Vettel, who had not won a race since the 2015 Singapore Grand Prix. Vettel took the lead of the", "World Drivers' Championship standings, the first time a Ferrari driver had done so since the 2012 Japanese Grand Prix, 1,625 days prior, and became the first non-Mercedes driver to do so since Vettel himself had done so at the end of the season. It was also the first time a team other than Mercedes led the World Constructors' Championship standings since the start of . At the , Vettel finished second behind Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton, while Kimi Räikkönen finished fifth", ". Vettel took his second victory of the season at the 2017 Bahrain Grand Prix after starting third to extend his lead in the Drivers' Championship standings. Räikkönen's fourth place in the race gave Ferrari a three-point lead in the Constructors' Championship standings.", "Ferrari's first 1–2 finish since 2010 came at the , where Vettel became the first Ferrari driver to win in Monaco since Michael Schumacher had done so 16 years earlier, in 2001. The event also marked Kimi Räikkönen's first pole position since the 2008 French Grand Prix, almost nine years earlier, after beating Vettel by 0.043 seconds in qualifying. Controversy followed at the 2017 Azerbaijan Grand Prix", ".043 seconds in qualifying. Controversy followed at the 2017 Azerbaijan Grand Prix. On lap 19 of the Grand Prix, immediately prior to the Safety Car restart, Sebastian Vettel and Lewis Hamilton collided after the former hit the latter in the rear. Vettel, having judged Hamilton, the leader, to have brake-tested him at the exit of Turn 15 of the Baku City Circuit, then drove alongside him and turned into him", ". Vettel was awarded a 10-second stop-and-go penalty for his actions, losing a win after Hamilton had issues of his own. Vettel, however, still re-emerged ahead of Hamilton after the former served his penalty and extended his lead in the Drivers' Championship. The FIA, the sport's governing body, summoned Vettel to an extraordinary meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council for his actions at the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, but ruled that no further action was necessary after Vettel issued a full apology", ". After four races without a win, Ferrari returned to success at the Hungarian Grand Prix with a victory by Sebastian Vettel and their second 1–2 of the season. Vettel lost his lead in the Drivers' Championship to Hamilton at the Italian Grand Prix, on Ferrari home ground.", "After taking pole position at the next race in Singapore and Hamilton only qualifying fifth, Vettel looked set to regain the championship lead, however a crash between him, Raikkonen and Red Bull's Max Verstappen right after the start of the race took all three drivers out and elevated Hamilton to the lead. Hamilton went on to win the Grand Prix and extended his championship lead to 28 points", ". Hamilton went on to win the Grand Prix and extended his championship lead to 28 points. In Malaysia, Vettel failed to set a time in qualifying due to an engine issue he suffered in Free Practice 3, a few hours earlier, and therefore started last on the grid, while Hamilton took pole. Raikkonen qualified second but failed to even start the race after yet another engine issue. Vettel climbed up to fourth in the race, but Hamilton extended his advantage to 34 points after finishing second", ". In Japan, Vettel and Ferrari's championship aspirations took yet another blow, after the German retired on lap 4 due to a spark plug failure. Mercedes claimed the Constructos' Championship at the United States Grand Prix, while Hamilton claimed the Drivers' Championship at the next race in Mexico. Vettel took Ferrari's first win since Hungary and the last of 2017 in Brazil.", "On 22 August 2017, Ferrari announced that Kimi Räikkönen had been re-signed for the 2018 season. On 26 August 2017, Ferrari announced that Sebastian Vettel had also re-signed, meaning that Ferrari's duo of drivers would remain unchanged for the fourth consecutive year in 2018. On 11 September 2018, Ferrari announced that Räikkönen would be leaving for Sauber (which subsequently became Alfa Romeo) and Charles Leclerc and Vettel would be the team's race drivers for 2019", ". On 7 January 2019, Ferrari announced that Maurizio Arrivabene had been replaced by Mattia Binotto as team principal for the 2019 season.", "At the 2019 Belgian Grand Prix, Leclerc took his third pole position of the season alongside teammate Sebastian Vettel in 2nd—the second Ferrari front row lockout of the season. During the race, Leclerc fended off the charging Mercedes of Lewis Hamilton to record his maiden Grand Prix win", ". At the Italian Grand Prix, Leclerc won the race from pole position after defending his position from both Mercedes drivers and became the first Ferrari driver to win at Monza since Fernando Alonso won there for the team in 2010 in front of the tifosi. Sebastian Vettel won the 2019 Singapore Grand Prix from teammate Leclerc. That win remained Ferrari's last victory in Formula 1 until Charles Leclerc won the 2022 Bahrain Grand Prix on the opening round of the season, ending the team's 45-race winless streak", ".", "2020s", "Sebastian Vettel and Charles Leclerc were retained for the 2020 Formula One World Championship, Leclerc was contracted to drive for the team through to 2024 and Vettel left the team at the end of 2020 joining Aston Martin F1 Team for 2021. Carlos Sainz Jr. joined the team from the season as Vettel's replacement, coming from McLaren", ". Carlos Sainz Jr. joined the team from the season as Vettel's replacement, coming from McLaren. In August 2020, the Scuderia signed the new Concorde Agreement to compete in the Formula 1 World Championship from 2021 to 2025 coinciding with the new rule changes while also expressing their synonymity and commitment with the sport. The 2020 Tuscan Grand Prix marked Ferrari's 1,000th Grand Prix start as a constructor", ". The 2020 Tuscan Grand Prix marked Ferrari's 1,000th Grand Prix start as a constructor. Ferrari finished the season in 6th place in the Constructors' Championship, their worst finish since 1980. Following controversy over the high straight-line speed of the previous car, the 2020 car was notably slower than last year's entry, losing .", "At the 2020 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, the Ferrari Team Principal Mattia Binotto announced the name of the 2021 car, Ferrari SF21, with the 2020 Ferrari SF1000 chassis with a new aerodynamic design for earn less drag and a new powertrain for more horsepower. While scoring no wins with the SF21, Ferrari finished third in the Constructors' Championship.", "For the 2022 season, the team used the Ferrari F1-75, which celebrated the 75th anniversary of the first Ferrari production car. The F1-75 brought Ferrari their first race win at Bahrain under Leclerc, their first since the 2019 season. For the first half of the championship, Ferrari looked to be back on form after the winless seasons of the past two years, showing consistent results", ". However, a string of strategy errors and mechanical failures soon ensued, and in France, Leclerc, due to driver error, spun out and crashed. He subsequently retired, locking Ferrari out of first place in the Constructors' Championship. However, Leclerc would secure another win, and Ferrari's last win of the season, in the Austrian Grand Prix at the expense of Sainz, whose engine blew up", ". Ferrari would go on to finish second in the Constructors' Championship with Leclerc in second and Sainz in fifth in the Drivers' Championship.", "Ferrari went into with the Ferrari SF-23, which suffered a retirement at Bahrain with Leclerc, who started third, reporting a mechanical failure, and Sainz bringing the car to fourth. Ferrari secured their first pole position of the season with Leclerc taking pole at the Azerbaijan and Belgian Grands Prix. The Italian Grand Prix saw Sainz take his first pole position of the season, ultimately finishing third and fourth to propel Scuderia Ferrari to third place in the Constructors' Championship", ". The team secured its first win of the season with Sainz converting his Singapore Grand Prix pole position to a victory.", "References\n\nExternal links\n \n\nFerrari in motorsport\nHistory of motorsport" ]

[ "Horse symbolism is the study of the representation of the horse in mythology, religion, folklore, art, literature and psychoanalysis as a symbol, in its capacity to designate, to signify an abstract concept, beyond the physical reality of the quadruped animal. The horse has been associated with numerous roles and magical gifts throughout the ages and in all regions of the world where human populations have come into contact with it, making it the most symbolically charged animal, along with the snake.", "Mythical and legendary horses often possess marvellous powers, such as the ability to speak, cross waters, travel to the Other World, the underworld and heaven, or carry an infinite number of people on their backs. They can be as good and Uranian as they are evil and Chtonian. Through the \"centaur myth\", expressed in most stories featuring a horse, the rider seeks to become one with his mount, combining animal instinct with human intelligence.", "The horse's main function is as a vehicle, which is why it has become a shamanic and psychopomp animal, responsible for accompanying mankind on all its journeys. A loyal ally to the hero in epic tales, a tireless companion in cowboy adventures, the horse has become a symbol of war and political domination throughout history, a symbol of evil through its association with nightmares and demons, and a symbol of eroticism through the ambiguity of riding", ". The horse is familiar with the elements, especially water, from which the aquatic horse known in Celtic countries is derived. Air gave rise to the winged horse, known in Greece, China and Africa.", "Literature, role-playing games and cinema have taken up these symbolic perceptions of the horse.", "Origins and development of symbolic perception", "The horse may have occupied a key symbolic position from the very beginning, since it is the most represented animal in prehistoric art, favoured since the XXXV millennium BC, well before its domestication. Representing the horse more than other equally (if not more) abundant animals was already a choice for prehistoric man", ". In the absence of concrete evidence to explain this choice, all interpretations remain possible, from the symbol of power (according to the exhibition Le cheval, symbole de pouvoirs dans l'Europe préhistorique) to the shamanic animal (according to Jean Clottes' theory taken up by Marc-André Wagner). The horse also became a totemic ancestor, more or less deified.", "The symbolism of the horse is complex and multiple. It is not clearly defined, since authors attribute a wide variety of meanings to the animal, with no one meaning standing out above the others", ". In the stories associated with it, it has all kinds of roles and symbolisms, both beneficial and malefic: a dynamic, impulsive mount, it is associated with all the points of the compass, with each of the four elements, with maternal figures (Carl Gustav Jung sees the horse as one of the archetypes of the mother, because it carries its rider just as the mother carries her child, \"In contrast, Sigmund Freud notes a case in which the horse is the image of the castrating father)", ", \"In contrast, Sigmund Freud notes a case in which the horse is the image of the castrating father), to the sun as well as the moon, to life as well as death, to the Chtonian as well as the Uranian world", ". In its earliest symbolic perception, the horse was disquieting and chtonian, but later became associated with the sun as a result of its domestication. It is most often a lunar animal linked to mother earth, water, sexuality, dreams, divination and the renewal of vegetation", ". Gilbert Durand notes, in his Structures anthropologiques de l'imaginaire, that the horse \"is linked to the great natural clocks\", and that all stories, whether of solar horses or chtonian steeds, have in common \"the fear of the passage of time\".", "Ancient studies suggest that the origin of the marvellous \"magical powers\" attributed to the horse is Indian. Henri Gougaud notes that \"since time immemorial, strong, deep, unalterable bonds have attached man to his mount\". The horse is both the animal most dear to man and the only one that man can respect as his equal, so much so that it is seen as a gift from the gods capable of lifting man out of his primate condition and into the celestial spheres.\n\nDomestication", "The domestication of the horse, the feeling of freedom and the warlike power gained by cavaliers, means that this animal, a factor in major progress over the centuries, finds itself at the center of so many stories and is charged with multiple meanings. In myths, this domestication is often presented as an immediate and tacit understanding between rider and mount, sometimes with the help of the gods, as illustrated by Pegasus, Bucephalus and Grani", ". The historical reality, however, is one of a very long process. In the cinema, this domestication is \"an initiatory stage, a rite of passage between the wild state of childhood and the civilized state of adulthood\".", "The centaur myth and the unconscious", "The \"centaur myth\" refers to \"the perfect coupling between instinct and reason, between intelligence and brute force\", as symbolized by the image of a human bust attached to a horse's body, rump and limbs", ". The Dictionnaire des symboles asserts that all the rites, myths, poems and tales evoking the horse simply highlight this relationship between rider and mount, considered, in psychoanalytical terms, to represent that of the psychic and the mental: \"if there is conflict between the two, the horse's race leads to madness and death, but if there is agreement, the race is triumphant\". For riders, it's a matter of controlling instinct (the animal part) with the mind (the human part)", ". For riders, it's a matter of controlling instinct (the animal part) with the mind (the human part). Carl Gustav Jung notes an intimate relationship between riders and mounts. In Métamorphoses de l'âme et ses symboles (Metamorphoses of the Soul and its Symbols), he argues that \"the horse seems to represent the idea of man, with the instinctual sphere subject to him [...] legends attribute to it characters that are psychologically linked to the unconscious of man: [they] are endowed with clairvoyance [..", "...] they guide the lost [...] they have mantic faculties [... they also see] ghosts\". For him, the horse seems to metaphorize the libido, the psychic energy emanating from the unconscious, and the animal part of the human being. According to Marie-Louise von Franz, the horse represents animal, instinctual psychic energy, considered in its purest essence and often linked to the shadow, notably in Le Cycle du Graal.", "In his The Uses of Enchantment, Bruno Bettelheim explains the attraction of many little girls to the toy horses they comb or dress, and later the continuity of this attraction through riding and caring for horses, by the need to compensate for emotional desires: \"by controlling an animal as large and powerful as the horse, the young girl has the feeling of controlling the animality or masculine part in her\"", ". Freud, too, sees the horse as a \"symbol of the unconscious psyche or the non-human psyche\", the beast in man.", "According to Cadre Noir equestrian Patrice Franchet d'Espèrey, the myth of the centaur contains \"everything related to the horse in the imagination\", the rider's quest being to achieve perfect harmony with his mount, to \"become one\" with it. Franchet d'Espèrey believes that this myth is recalled in all equestrian treatises from the 16th to the 20th century, reflecting man's mastery over nature.", "Symbolism evolution", "Despite its disappearance from everyday life in favor of motorized vehicles, the horse remains \"lurking in the deep collective subconscious\". Olivier Domerc, former editor-in-chief of Culture Pub, argues that \"unlike dogs and cats, the horse sells everything. Few animals have such a strong and universal image as a 'courier'\"", ". Few animals have such a strong and universal image as a 'courier'\". Advertising specialists love the horse's unifying quality, which enables them to erase problems of race or religion in their advertising campaigns: the horse knows how to catch the eye when it's in the spotlight, thanks to its blend of power, grace, speed and strength, and is now seen as an alliance between dream and reality, virility and femininity.", "Patrice Franchet d'Espèrey points out that, at the beginning of the 21st century, equestrianism has made the horse the embodiment of journeys into the great outdoors, of self-mastery, of mastery of others and of communication with nature.\n\nThe vehicle", "The first symbolic perception of the horse is that of a \"vehicle\" directed by man's will (volition) or guide, enabling it to be carried more rapidly from one point to another: \"the horse is not an animal like any other, it is the mount, the vehicle, the vessel, and its destiny is inseparable from that of man\". Gilbert Durand speaks of \"a violent vehicle, a steed whose strides surpass human possibilities\"", ". Gilbert Durand speaks of \"a violent vehicle, a steed whose strides surpass human possibilities\". In Métamorphoses de l'âme et ses symboles, Carl Gustav Jung speaks of the horse as \"one of the most fundamental archetypes of mythologies, close to the symbolism of the tree of life\". Like the tree of life, the horse connects all levels of the cosmos: the earthly plane where it runs, the subterranean plane with which it is familiar, and the celestial plane", ". It is \"dynamism and vehicle; it carries towards a goal like an instinct, but like instincts it is subject to panic\". In this sense, the horse motif is a fitting symbol for the Self, as it represents a meeting of antithetical and contradictory forces, conscious and unconscious, and the relationship linking them (just as an indefinable relationship unites rider and mount). This perception derives directly from the physical qualities of mobility", ". This perception derives directly from the physical qualities of mobility. It transcends known space, since riding is a \"transgression of psychic or metaphysical limits\": the horse enables us to cross the gates of hell as well as the boundaries of heaven, the disciple attains knowledge on his back, and many beliefs in metempsychosis relate adventures on horseback prior to reincarnation. The horse can also play the role of captor", ". The horse can also play the role of captor. Donald Woods Winnicott develops the importance of \"carrying\", which \"enables liberation from physical and psychic constraints\", and refers to sensations of early childhood.", "Shamanism \n\nThe horse is the animal of shamanism and initiation rituals, an association it owes to its instinct, its clairvoyance, its psychoanalytical perception as the animal and intuitive part of man that illuminates reason, and its knowledge of the Other World. This could be the horse's earliest and most ancient function, possibly dating back to prehistoric times, according to Jean Clottes' controversial theory that a number of cave paintings depict shamanic visions.", "According to Mircea Eliade, in his trance, which aims to step outside himself and cross the limits of the known world, the shaman obtains the help of an animal-spirit and uses several objects, such as the horse-stick and the drum (usually stretched out in horsehide), which refer to the real animal. He then passes through other states of consciousness and can travel in a hellish direction or to heaven. In this sense, the horse, linked to the beating of the drum, enables the shaman to achieve a level break", ". The horse is also the shaman's protector: the spirit-horse of Altai shamans is said to see thirty days into the future, watching over the lives of men and informing the deities.", "A shamanic background is perceptible in several ancient myths featuring a horse, notably that of Pegasus (whose background is Asian), which symbolizes sublimated instinct and the wise man initiated through the ascent of Olympus, and that of Sleipnir. The Kyrgyz legend of Tchal-Kouyrouk is more broadly linked to this, as the hero Töshtük must rely on the powers of his mount, which speaks and understands human language, to guide him through a subterranean universe to retrieve his soul", ". The same applies to the epic of Niourgoun the Yakut, celestial warrior who rides a flying red steed endowed with speech.", "In Western medieval literature, however, the horse is presented as an anchor in the real world, as opposed to the Otherworld of fantasy and wonder. The knight who enters the realm of the fairies often abandons his mount, or has to make his way through dense vegetation at night.", "Rituals and possessions", "A metamorphosis ritual from man to horse can be found in initiation rites involving possession. A man who surrenders to a higher spirit may be possessed by a demonic or positive entity, the \"horse\" being the channel through which they express themselves. Voodoo in Haiti, Brazil and Africa, Egypt until the early 20th century, and Abyssinia are all involved. The possessed are straddled by spirits, then ruled by their will", ". The possessed are straddled by spirits, then ruled by their will. Followers of the Dionysus Mysteries in Asia Minor were symbolically straddled by their gods. These possessions may also be found in ancient China, where new initiates were known as \"young horses\", while initiators were known as \"horse traders\", like the propagators of Taoism and Amidism. The organization of an initiation meeting is known as a \"horse release\".", "Hippomancy \nAs the intermediary between gods and men, responsible for carrying divine messages, the horse was given the role of oracle or diviner, notably among the Persians and Celts of Antiquity. It can be a harbinger of triumph, war or even death: according to the Greek Artemidorus of Daldis, dreaming of a horse during an illness heralds imminent death.\n\nFrom shamanism to witchcraft", "Several authors have noted the proximity between the horse-headed shamanic cane and the witch's broom in folklore. According to Marc-André Wagner, the shamanic function of the horse has survived, if only symbolically, in Germanic folklore linked to witchcraft, with the sorceress using a staff as a mount", ". He also notes, thanks to a few etymological clues, that the generalization of the broom (after the 13th century) as a means of transport for witches probably stems from the previous figure, and originally from the shamanic horse, with which it retains as a link only its straw, reminiscent of the animal's tail. The witch's broom is thus equivalent to the shamanic horse, the animal that enables her to reach the Other World, seen here as that of evil powers.", "The nocturnal flight of the witch (or her double) is also reminiscent of that of the shaman, except that the witch is supposed to do evil by tormenting sleepers and going to the Sabbath. She could take on the form of a horse herself, transforming her victims so that she can ride them. The Devil could also take horse form to carry her", ". The Devil could also take horse form to carry her. Reports of witchcraft trials are replete with anecdotes mentioning the horse: a \"sorcerer\" from Ensisheim confessed on March 15, 1616 \"that after attending a wedding of the Devil, he woke up lying in the carcass of a punctured horse\". In witchcraft tricks, the money given to witches by the Devil is often changed into horse manure", ". In witchcraft tricks, the money given to witches by the Devil is often changed into horse manure. When members newly admitted to the practice of witchcraft wake up after the Sabbath, they have in their hand, instead of a cup, a horse's hoof; instead of a roast, a horse's head.", "Chtonian horse \nThe horse has always aroused a sense of respect mixed with anguish and fear, a perception found in stories about horses of death, the underworld, nightmares, storms and other cursed hunts featuring carnivorous or evil animals. The chtonian horse belongs \"to the fundamental structures of the imaginary\". Harpies are sometimes represented in the form of mares, one of which gives birth to Balius and Xanthus, Achilles' horses, one of which prophesies its master's death in the Iliad.", "Association with death", "\"Death horses or omens of death are very common, from the ancient Greek world to the Middle Ages, and with many interesting linguistic aspects\". They successively embody a messenger of death, a demon bringing death, and a guide to the afterlife, representing a psychic and spiritual reality. The color black is strongly associated with them in Western traditions. The death horse is associated with Demeter and the chtonian god Hades. Death horsemen include the Valkyries, the Schimmel Reiter and the Helhest", ". Death horsemen include the Valkyries, the Schimmel Reiter and the Helhest. Historically, the horse has more than once been called upon to deliver death by disembowelment, which may have marked the death-horse association, but is not the only explanation. The horse is also one of the few animals to have been buried by man, as soon as it was domesticated.", "Passenger of the dead", "The horse's role as \"psychopomp\", the animal responsible for carrying the souls of the deceased between earth and heaven, is attested to in many civilizations, notably by the Greeks and Etruscans, where it was part of mortuary statuary, but also by the Germans and Central Asians. On most ancient funerary stelae, it becomes an ideogram of death. It would seem that the death-horse association stems from this role", ". It would seem that the death-horse association stems from this role. According to Franz Cumont, its origins go back to the practice of burying or burning dogs and horses with their masters, so that they could enjoy being together again.", "Norse mythology provides numerous examples of the horse becoming the intermediary between the mortal world and the underworld, making it the best animal to guide the dead on their final journey, thanks to its mobility. The psychopomp horse of Greek mythology has a deep connection with water, seen as the boundary between the world of the living and the afterlife: the horse competes with the ferryman's boat (such as Charon) in this role, just as it enables the shaman to complete his ecstatic journey", ". This function has survived the centuries: in the Middle Ages, the stretcher was called \"Saint Michael's horse\". This function is also found in China, where a horse-headed genie assists the judge of the underworld and transports souls. Similarly, the souls of male babies who died in infancy were represented on horseback by boatmen, and placed on the ancestral altar.", "The legend of Theodoric of Verona has it that the king was carried off on a \"diabolical\" black horse and subsequently became a ghost. Sometimes interpreted as evidence of the demonization of the horse in Germania, it would seem that this legend refers more to the belief that immortality could be attained on horseback.", "Funerary offering", "The horse is buried, saddled and bridled, alongside its master, to fulfill this psychopomp role in the Altai region, among the Avars, Lombards, Sarmatians, Huns, Scythians, Germans and many primitive Asian civilizations, where this burial is preceded by a ritual sacrifice. Greek mythology relates, in The Iliad, that Achilles sacrifices four horses on the funeral pyre where his friend Patroclus is consumed, so that they can guide him to the kingdom of Hades", ". The Franks, who see the horse above all as a warrior animal, also sacrifice the king's horse to be buried alongside him. These ritual sacrifices are sometimes preceded by a horse race.", "The pagan practice of burying a horse alive when a prestigious man dies is known to the Danes, and gives rise to the Helhest, or \"horse of the dead\", which is said to have been sacrificed and buried in a cemetery, then returned in a new form to guide dead humans. The mere sight of a Helhest would be lethal. Most of these rites were combated during successive Christianizations, and in Western Europe they disappeared in Carolingian times.\n\nFantastic hunting", "The wild hunt, which pursues and terrorizes nocturnal travelers according to Christian folklore, is linked to the death horse, since it is made up of ghosts and the damned. It is often led by a black rider, such as Gallery (or Guillery), who chased a stag at mass time, and was condemned by a hermit to run after the inaccessible game in the sky every night, forever. This belief, shared by many countries, has its origins as much in the belief in ghosts as in the din of storms", ". The horse is present in both Arthur's and Odin's hunts. According to Marc-André Wagner, this association in Germanic countries may be due to the banning and demonization of horsemeat, since they include the theme of a part of the hunt, often the animal's thigh. Other authors point to the clandestine practice of ritual equine sacrifice.", "Anthropophagy", "Several anthropophagous mares are mentioned in Greek mythology. Owned by a king who feeds them human flesh, they devour their master, whom Hercules has placed in their manger. Glaucus' mares do the same to their master after Iolaos wins a chariot race. There are several possible interpretations: the consumption of magic herbs, the condemnation of the king to suffer the end he himself programmed (by feeding his mares human flesh), or Aphrodite's revenge for Glaucus' refusal to let his mares mate", ". The devouring of Glaucus would then be an erotic theme, a violent liberation of desire. The horse Bucephalus is presented as an anthropophagus in an anonymous text from the 2nd century. The presence of monstrous horses is not confined to antiquity: in fantasy literature, the Hrulgae are aggressive carnivorous quasi-horses with claws and fangs, from the Belgariade cycle", ". They are also found in Celtic foklore in the form of water horses: Each Uisge (Scottish Gaelic) or Each Uisce (Irish Gaelic) offers himself as a mount to unwary passers-by, taking them into the water to devour them, leaving only the liver floating on the water. Similar stories of men being devoured by water horses can also be found in the Scottish legend of the Kelpies.", "Horsemen of the Apocalypse \n\nOne of the best-known evil representations of the horse is that of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, in the Bible. The horses' colors are white, fiery red, black and pale green. Their riders' mission is to exterminate through conquest, war, hunger and disease. Numerous interpretations of this passage have been proposed, including that the horses represent the four elements, in order: air, fire, earth and water.\n\nAssociation to the Devil", "Association to the Devil \n\nAccording to Éric Baratay and Marc-André Wagner, during the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church passed off the horse as a diabolical animal, in order to combat the survival of pagan traditions (Celtic and Germanic in particular) that made it sacred. The Devil thus appears on horseback, as a hippomorph, or with equine feet. Although the horse is mentioned more often than the donkey in the Bible, the latter almost always has a positive symbolism, unlike the horse.", "Some Goethean demons ride horses, such as Eligos, Marquis Sabnock on his \"pale horse\", Duke Berith on his \"red horse\", and Alloces on his \"huge horse\". Captain Orobas was originally described as a horse demon capable of taking on human form at will. Carl Jung notes an analogy between the Devil as representative of the sexual instinct, and the horse: \"This is why the Devil's sexual nature is also communicated to the horse: Loki takes this form in order to procreate\".", "This association is no longer limited to Europe with the colonization of the Americas, since the black horse forced to build a church featured in many Quebec folklore stories is in fact the Devil in disguise. The Mallet horse, another incarnation of the Devil as described by Claude Seignolle, lures its riders to death or serious injury", ". The drac, a legendary creature linked to the Devil, dragons and water, takes the form of a black horse to tempt a marquis from the Basse Auvergne region to ride him, then nearly drowns him in a pond, according to a local legend.", "This Devil-horse association is particularly strong throughout ancient Germania, and hence in Alsace, where stories circulate of black horses appearing alone in the middle of the night. One of Strasbourg's animal ghosts is a three-legged horse believed to be the Devil. A rare book from 1675 tells of the Devil, disguised as an officer, riding the blacksmith's wife, whom he had transformed into a mare.", "The Christian Devil is not the only one associated with the horse, however, since Ahriman, the evil god of Zoroastrianism, takes this form in order to kidnap or kill his victims.\n\nNightmare horses", "The mare is etymologically close to the word nightmare in many languages: \"mähre\" means mare in German, and also refers to a fabulous chtonian mare. The word is spelled nightmare in English, which also means \"mare of the night\", while in French quauquemaire means \"witch\". In Old Irish, mahrah means \"death\" and \"epidemic\". A long-held theory is that the black or pale horses and mares gave rise to the french word \"cauchemar\" and its English equivalent nightmare", ". March Malaen, the demonic horse of Welsh folklore, is also cited as the origin of nightmare manifestations (suffocation, oppression, fear of being trampled, etc.).", "Although the origin of the word \"nightmare\" is different, popular belief has taken hold of this association, notably through Henry Fuseli's The Nightmare painting, although the horse is a late addition not appearing on the author's sketches. In its role as a supernatural mount with demonic powers, the nightmare horse carries demons and sometimes merges with them", ". His figure derives from the psychopomp and chtonian horse, and his familiarity with darkness and death, which made him part of the \"mythology of the nightmare\". However, this perception has been lost over time, especially with the end of the horse's everyday use.", "A creature known in the Anglosphere as the Nightmare, translated as \"nightmare mare\", \"infernal steed\" or even \"palefroi of the underworld\", was popularized thanks to its inclusion in the bestiary of the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game, in the form of a large black horse with fiery manes, although its characteristics derive from older folklore.\n\nPolitical and military dominance", "Political and military dominance \n\nFrom a political and military point of view, the symbolism of the horse is above all used to enhance the power of its rider. This function is clearly visible in the abundant equestrian statuary, where the horse highlights a warrior or a man of power, particularly in the quadriga of Saint Mark. The horse is used to dominate both the environment and men on foot. In many cultures, the ability to organize horse races is seen as an assertion of political power.\n\nWar animal", "The horse is \"the quintessential war animal\": Georges Dumézil associated it solely with the second Indo-European function, but this assertion needs to be qualified in the light of more recent discoveries, since the horse also participates in the royal function and fertility cults. The author also draws inspiration from the Romans, who unambiguously associated the horse with the warrior function, as opposed to donkeys and mules, which were agricultural animals", ". The Equus October ritual thus dedicated the horse to Mars. Equiria, horse races dedicated to Mars, may also have had an agrarian function. It is in Celtic epics that this warlike aspect of the horse is most emphasized, associated with the chestnut coat. While the initiation of chivalry is closely linked to this perception of the animal, the symbolism of the horse as the \"privileged mount of the spiritual quest\" should not be overlooked.", "The image of the horse as an animal of military domination became so entrenched that in France, with the advent of the Third Republic, no head of state dared ride a horse. However, it remained a feature of the July 14th Bastille Day military parade. When striking workers pushed back horsemen, it was a strong sign of the workers' domination of the army. Although repression by horsemen is a thing of the past in most countries, this symbolic image endures.", "Royal symbol", "The link between the horse and royalty has existed in many civilizations, notably among the Persians. Some myths, such as that of Hippodamia in ancient Greece, use the horse as a means of acceding to royal marriage. An Irish enthronement rite involved sacrificing a white mare, boiling it and sharing its flesh at a banquet. The pretender to the throne would then bathe in the animal's broth and emerge invested with secret powers. Here, the sacrificial mare symbolizes the earth, and the king the sky", ". Here, the sacrificial mare symbolizes the earth, and the king the sky. King Mark's horse's ears, often equated with a shameful animal mark in the earliest interpretations, are more likely a mark of royalty legitimizing the sovereign's function in Celtic society.", "Western kings often commissioned their own equestrian statue or portrait: the horse's back acted as a throne, enhancing their qualities of goodness, majesty and sovereign power. The representation of a horse with a raised foreleg is that of royal authority ready to strike down opponents. The white horse is the most popular in this role, with Henri IV of France's famous white horse undoubtedly a factor: it \"attracts the eye and focuses attention\"", ". What's more, the symbolism of the white coat is more charged than with horses of other colors. During political upheavals, the destruction of depictions of kings on horseback was a sign of protest.", "Adventure companion \n\nIn both literature and film, mounting a horse is often seen as the starting point for adventure. This is the case in the novels of Chrétien de Troyes: Erec, for example, chooses a horse and a sword, \"following a creative impulse that leads him towards his own realization\", and thus begins his initiatory quest for power and purity. Closely linked to this is the image of the knight-errant, seeking adventure and deeds as he travels the world on horseback.", "In most epics, the horse is the hero's faithful and devoted ally, assisting him whatever the dangers. Bayard, the fairy-horse given to Renaud de Montauban, remains his faithful protector and ally even when Renaud betrays him by handing him over to Charlemagne, who then orders him drowned.", "In fairy tales, the horse is never the hero of the story, even when it gives the tale its name, as in the case of Le Petit Cheval bossu. Unlike other animals in fairy tales, which are merely \"masks for human weaknesses\", the horse's powers seem limitless, and his loyalty to his master is always unwavering.", "In Westerns, the horse is omnipresent, allowing the cowboy to dream during the long hours he spends in the saddle. The symbolism of the marvellous horse of mythology is largely reflected: the horse of the Wild West is often capable of galloping for hours on end without ever tiring, obeys only its master and even feels affection for him, and proves to be extraordinarily intelligent", ". Henri Gouraud says that \"a cowboy without his mount is nothing but a centaur broken in two, a soul separated from a body, a being without deep existence, too alone, too clumsy to give our unconscious the speech nourished by an age-old dream. The true western hero is the horse, cinema's noblest conquest.", "Fertility and sexuality", "There are other accounts, notably in the Rig-Veda, where the animal is associated with strength, fertility, creative power and youth, in both the sexual and spiritual sense. Demeter's horse head refers to the mare's role as mother goddess", ". Demeter's horse head refers to the mare's role as mother goddess. Celtic mare-goddesses such as Epona, Rhiannon and Macha seem to have descended from a prehistoric mother-earth deity \"with whom kings mated on fixed dates to ensure the people a new year of prosperity\", and Marc-André Wagner postulates the existence of \"a great Celtic goddess, equestrian or partially hippomorphic, linked to the earth and dispensing sovereignty and prosperity\". However, this myth weakened over time.", "Fertility rituals", "Most Chtonian figures were associated with fertility, including the horse, and more frequently the mare. From the first century to the fifth, numerous archaeological findings attest to the existence of equine sacrifices for this purpose. They sometimes shared a cosmogonic role", ". They sometimes shared a cosmogonic role. In the past, this sacrifice gave legitimacy to a king: for example, the Christian Håkon I of Norway had to comply with the pagan ritual by consuming the liver of a sacrificed horse in order to guarantee the prosperity of his people, and to be accepted by them", ". According to Georges Dumézil, the centaur myth may stem from an Indo-European rite involving men dressed as horses as part of fertilizing festivals at the end of winter, which would also explain why centaurs are linked to primitive instincts and nature. In the Ashvamedha, the sovereign mimes an act of fertilization with the still-warm sex of the sacrificed horse, and in the Irish enthronement rite, the pretender to the throne does the same with the mare", ". It's a sacred marriage in both cases, and the incarnation of divinity in the horse, a probable Indo-European archetype.", "The Roman ritual Equus October consists of such a ritual sacrifice to thank the god Mars for protecting the year's harvests. As Georges Dumézil points out, the horse's tail was credited with fertilizing powers in Roman times, as was the ox's tail in Africa. As for its role as the spirit of wheat, it is common to German and French agrarian societies. In Assam, a white horse effigy is thrown into the river at the end of the harvest, after a dance in which it is bombarded with eggs", ". This role as the spirit of wheat takes on its full meaning in autumn, when the harvest has been gathered, and the field dies until the spring rebirth. The horse, \"companion of all quests\", helps the seed to get through the winter safely.", "The meat of a horse sacrificed as part of these rituals was sometimes eaten, and supposed to transmit the animal's strengths. The Völsa þáttr, where a couple of pagan farmers keep a horse's penis and regard it as a god, bears witness to these \"ancient ritual practices\", and underlines the sacred nature of the horse.\n\nSexual energy and eroticism", "Paul Diel speaks of the horse as a symbol of \"the impetuosity of desire\", and many texts, notably the Greek epics, tell of gods changing into horses to mate. In the Finnish epic Kalevala, Lemminkäinen interrupts a gathering of young girls, mounted on his steed, and abducts Kylliki. For Henri Gougaud, the horse symbolizes \"sexual energy released without constraint\"", ". For Henri Gougaud, the horse symbolizes \"sexual energy released without constraint\". Carl Jung links the Devil in his role as lightning god (\"the horse's foot\") to the animal's sexual and fertilizing role: the storm fertilizes the earth, and the lightning takes on a phallic meaning, making the horse's foot \"the dispenser of the fertilizing liquid\", and the horse a priapic animal whose hoofprints \"are idols that dispense blessing and abundance, found property and serve to establish boundaries\"", ". This symbolism is echoed in the lucky horseshoe.", "The horse is a phallic animal, if only because of the ambiguity of the word chevaucher, widely shared by several languages. This image stems from the proximity between the rider, who \"has the beast between his legs\" and moves with cadenced movements, and coitus, during which we experience the exhilaration, sweat and sensations of an equestrian ride. The satyrs of Greek mythology, known for their lecherous side, were originally partly hippomorphic, as they had a tail, ears and horse feet.", "Some poets use the word \"pouliche\" to designate a feisty young woman. According to Jean-Paul Clébert, the white horse plays an erotic role in myths about the abduction, kidnapping and rape of foreign women. The Hippomanes, a floating structure found in the amniotic fluid of mares, has long been attributed with aphrodisiac virtues, although it possesses no particular properties.", "Pederasty and homosexuality", "Bernard Sergent has noted the proximity between the horse and pederasty in ancient Greece. The driving of a chariot appears to be an integral part of the initiation of an Eraste to his Eromenos. In medieval Scandinavia, the passive homosexual was referred to as a \"mare\", which was tantamount to an insult, while the active homosexual was valued in his role as stallion", ". The horse-skirt, a carnival mask often performed by male brotherhoods and known since the Middle Ages, may have been linked to initiations (or hazing) between pederasts.", "Rape", "Like the satyr, the centaur is renowned for its insatiable sexual appetite, going so far as to kidnap women and rape them. Because of its symbolic (eroticism, fear of being trampled and bitten) and etymological proximity to the nightmare, the horse is considered an incubus animal in many countries, i.e. a rapist of women. This perception is evident in Füssli's Le Cauchemar, where \"the horse comes from the outside and forces the space inside\"", ". The mere presence of his head and neck between the curtains symbolizes rape, while his body remains outside, in the night. Carl Jung recounts the case of a woman whose husband had brutally grabbed her from behind, and who often dreamed \"that a furious horse was leaping on her, trampling her belly with its hind legs\".", "According to some versions of Merlin's birth, the incubus who gave birth to him had horse's feet.", "Links with the stars and elements", "The horse has the peculiarity of being associated with each of the three constituent elements (air, water and fire) and the stars (sun and moon), appearing as their avatar or friend. Unlike the other three elements, which correspond to the etymology of the horse as an animal in motion, the earth appears far removed from its symbolism", ". The positive chtonian horse, capable of guiding its rider through subterranean and infernal regions, is especially present in Central Asia, notably through the myth of Tchal-Kouirouk.", "Gilbert Durand distinguishes several types of animal, such as the chtonian, the winged and the solar. The horse appears \"galloping like blood in the veins, springing from the bowels of the earth or the abysses of the sea\". The bearer of life and death, it is linked to \"destructive and triumphant fire\" and \"nourishing and asphyxiating water\". Among \"the horses of fire and light represented by the mystical quadriga\", Carl Jung cites a particular motif, that of the signs of the planets and constellations", ". He adds that \"the horses also represent the four elements\".", "Water \n\nOf the four elements, water is the one most often associated with the horse, whether the animal is assimilated to an aquatic creature, linked to fairy-like beings such as Japan's kappa, or mounted by water deities. He may be born of water himself, or cause it to gush forth as he passes. This association can be as much about the positive and fertilizing aspects of water as about its dangerous aspects.", "Origins of the water-horse association", "For Marc-André Wagner, this association dates back to Indo-European prehistory. For Ishida Eiichiro, its widespread use throughout Eurasia, from the Mediterranean to Japan, may date back to an ancient fertility cult and the first agricultural societies, where the water animal was initially the bull. The horse replaced the bull as its use expanded", ". The horse replaced the bull as its use expanded. Marlene Baum traces the first water-horse association back to the Scandinavian peoples of the Baltic and North Seas, who also used kenning as \"wave horse\" to designate the longest Viking boats. This proximity could be due to a \"symbolic agreement between two moving bodies\", the horse enabling man to cross the waves thanks to its strength and understanding of the elements.", "Legend aside, popular imagination frequently associates horses with waves breaking on the shore. Traditionally, the tide at Mont Saint-Michel is said to arrive \"at the speed of a galloping horse\", although in reality the horse's gallop is five times faster.\n\nThe water-revealing horse", "The most common myth is that of the horse revealing the water, such as Pegasus bringing forth the Hippocrene spring, the dowsing horse of the god Baldr according to Scandinavian folklore, Charlemagne's white horse digging a spring to quench the thirst of soldiers on campaign, Bertrand Du Guesclin's mare discovering the waters of La Roche-Posay, or Bayard, creator of numerous fountains bearing his name in the Massif Central", ". One possible explanation lies in a belief shared throughout Eurasia, according to which the horse perceives the path of underground waters and can reveal them with a stroke of its hoof.", "Virtues are sometimes associated with these waters born beneath the horse's hoof. The Hippocrene acquires the gift of changing whoever drinks from it into a poet, which symbolizes the image of a child drinking from the spring, an \"awakening of impulsive and imaginative forces\". At Stoumont, the Bayard horse is said to have left his mark on a quartzite boulder. The stagnant water in the basin of this Pas-Bayard is reputed to cure eye diseases and warts.\n\nThe water-born horse", "The water-born horse \n\nOne of the oldest sources of legends associating water and horses can be found in the Rig-Veda, which gives birth to the horse from the ocean. In Greek mythology, the horse is the attribute of the Greek sea god Poseidon, who is said to have created it with his trident. Seahorses pull his chariot through the waves. The Celtic epic by Giolla Deacar speaks of palfrey born of the waves and coming from the Sidh, capable of carrying six warriors underwater as well as in the air.", "According to Raymond Bloch, this association, taken up in the Roman realm by Neptune, is then found, in medieval times, in the character of the pixie, following a linguistic evolution in which Neptune becomes the sea monster Neptunus, then the Neitun of the Romance of Thebes, the Nuitun under the influence of the words \"night\" and \"nuire\", and finally the pixie", ". The memory of mythological horses, which are generally white and emerge from the sea, is present in medieval times, albeit in a very faded form: this is the case in the Tydorel lai, where a mysterious knight emerges from his maritime kingdom on the back of a white mount.", "The association between the horse and the sea is very common in Celtic countries (in France, for example, it's found mainly on the Breton coast and in Poitou, where the sea is called Grand'jument), which suggests that in France at least, its origins are Celtic. Water horses (Kelpie, Aughisky, Bäckahäst...), often seen as fairy-like, are still mentioned in the folklore of many Western European countries. They share a strong affinity with the liquid element, as well as an irresistible beauty", ". They share a strong affinity with the liquid element, as well as an irresistible beauty. Some are reputed to be extremely dangerous, seducing humans into riding them, then drowning or even devouring them. Their most common form is that of a beautiful black, white or dapple-gray horse that looks lost and stands at the water's edge, quietly grazing", ". In Brittany, according to Pierre Dubois, all fabulous horses \"reign over the sea\" and three mares, aspects of the waves, possess the power to regulate the tides, calm the swell and the waves. Another leads the fish. This symbolic association continues into modern times, as evidenced by films such as White Mane (Crin-Blanc) and Into the West (Le Cheval venu de la mer).", "Horse sacrifice in the water", "Horse sacrifice in water seems to have been practiced by many Indo-European peoples. The Persians performed this type of sacrifice in honor of the goddess Anahita, and the Russians drowned a stolen horse in the river Oka, as a seasonal offering to the \"Great Father\", the water genie. In ancient Greece, the purpose of the sacrifice was to win Poseidon's good graces before a sea expedition", ". According to Pausanias, the inhabitants of Argolida sacrificed harnessed horses to the god, hurling them into the Dine river. In the Iliad, the Trojans sacrifice horses to the river Scamandre, seen as a divinity.", "The horse and the rain \nThe rain horse is seen as a fertility demon with a positive role. Particularly in Africa, it assists deities. This is the case among the Ewes, where the mount of the rain god is seen as a shooting star. The Kwore, Bambara initiates, know a ritual for calling down rain, in which they ride a wooden horse symbolizing the winged mounts of their genies fighting against those who would prevent regenerative water from falling from the sky.", "In ancient Nordic religion, valkyries ride cloud horses whose manes bring dew to the valleys and hail to the forests. In Lower Austria, the appearance of a giant on a white horse heralds the arrival of rain.\n\nAir\n\nHorses of the wind", "Air\n\nHorses of the wind \n\nAn archaic conception gives the wind hippomorphic traits, and the alliance of horse and wind is often born of a common quality: speed. Carl Jung speaks of the wind's speed in the sense of intensity, \"i.e. the tertium comparationis is still the symbol of libido. ... the wind a wild and lustful chaser of girls\". He adds that centaurs are also wind gods.", "The winds are symbolized by four horses in Arab countries, where it is said that Allah created the animal from this element. In India, the god of the winds, Vâyu, rides an antelope \"as swift as the wind\". In Greece, Aeolus was originally perceived as a horse, and Boreas became a stallion in order to sire twelve foals as light as the wind with the mares of Erichthonios, illustrating the epic mythological image of the wind fertilizing mares.", "A Tibetan belief taken up by Buddhism makes the wind horse an allegory of the human soul. Several antecedents can be traced. There has long been confusion between klung rta (river horse) and rlung rta (wind horse). \"River horse\" may have been the original concept, but the drift towards \"wind horse\" was reinforced by the association of the \"ideal horse\" (rta chogs) with speed and wind.\n\nWinged horses", "As its name suggests, the winged horse has a pair of wings, generally feathered and inspired by those of birds, which enable it to fly through the air. Its earliest representations date back to the proto-Hittite period in the 19th century BC. It's possible that this myth later spread to the Assyrians, then to Asia Minor and Greece. It can be found in regions as varied as China, Italy, Africa and even North America after its colonization by Europeans", ". It combines the usual symbolism of the horse with that of the bird, lightness and elevation. The winged horse is associated with spiritual elevation and victory over evil. The origin of the iconography and traditions that mention it is probably the ecstasy of the shaman who ascends to heaven on a winged creature, usually a bird. In all shamanic practices, the man who undertakes a spiritual journey is assisted by an \"animal who has not forgotten how to acquire wings\", failing which he cannot ascend", ". Like the Bambara's winged horse, Pegasus is linked to notions of imagination, speed and immortality.", "Solar and Uranian horse", "The association of the horse with the sun is known as far back as the Bronze Age: it would seem that several peoples imagined and then represented the sun on a chariot to signify its movement. According to Ernest Jones, the addition of the horse in front of this chariot may also have stemmed from man's early perception of the horse as a \"shiny\" animal: the Indo-European linguistic root for shine, MAR, is thought to have given rise to the English word \"mare\"", ". Most mythological accounts testify to an evolution in this association. Initially assimilated to a horse, often white, the sun is anthropomorphized to become a divinity of which the horse is an attribute. The solar horse is the animal of phallic worship, fertility and reproduction. In China, the horse is typically yang.", "Venceslas Kruta explains many artistic representations of horses from the Hallstatt period as being linked to a solar divinity. Several authors even speculate that the earliest Celtic peoples knew of a divine solar horse or a fast-running sidereal equestrian deity, and that the horse was a symbol of the solar god, or at least of Eochaid Ollathair in his role as master of the heavens.", "The oldest attestation of the solar horse is found in the Ashvamedha sacrificial ritual in India, which includes a hymn from the Rig-Veda, saying that the gods \"fashioned the horse from the substance of the sun\". The sun also appears in the form of a horse or a bird. Indra's steeds have \"eyes as bright as the sun\". They harness themselves to their golden-yoked chariot, their speed beyond thought", ". They harness themselves to their golden-yoked chariot, their speed beyond thought. The name of the Indian horse, asha, is closely linked to the penetrating light that embodies dharma and knowledge. The ashvins, divine horse-headed twins born of these animals, are linked to the cycle of day and night. Ratnasambhava, symbol of the sun, is represented on horseback.", "Among the ancient Scandinavians, this association appears on petroglyphs and numerous objects, the best known being the Trundholm Sun Chariot. Among the Germanic peoples, the Skinfaxi and Árvak & Alsvid myths refer to a cosmic mount whose mane creates the day, and to a horse-drawn solar chariot, but there are few relevant links to any equine solar cults. The peoples of the Urals and Altai associate the earth with the ox and the sky with the solar male horse.", "In Greek mythology, Apollo replaces Helios and his chariot harnessed to the sun's horses, but retains the horse as an attribute. Roman mythology popularized the steeds of Helios' chariot by naming them and recounting the myth of Phaethon. Solar cults and races in honor of this star bear witness to this association in Antiquity, both among the Romans through chariot races, and among the Persians at Salento, as well as among the Greeks in Laconia and Rhodes.", "A solar chariot is attested to in the Bible (Second Book of Kings, II), harnessed to horses of fire, it carries Elijah into the sky. Vertical and aerial, the horses mark a break between the celestial and terrestrial worlds. The Hortus Deliciarum, a medieval Christian encyclopedia, features a miniature of a solar chariot pulled by horses, probably a reworking of an ancient theme.", "Thunder and lightning", "Gilbert Durand notes that the animal is associated with \"dread of the passage of time symbolized by change and noise\", most often in connection with aquatic constellations, thunder and the underworld. Thunder horses\" are characterized by their noisy gallop, a sound \"isomorphic to the leonine roar\". Carl Jung also notes this analogy between the horse and lightning, and cites the case of a hysterical woman terrorized by thunderstorms, who saw a huge black horse fly up to the sky every time lightning struck", ". Mythology also knows of lightning-horse associations, notably with the Hindu god Yama. Finally, the horse's thigh was reputed to deflect lightning \"according to the principle similia similibus\".", "The importance of appearance \nThe horse's appearance also has symbolic significance, especially when it comes to coat color. Slavic and Germanic peoples may have used horses with mullet stripes and roan coats as totemic signs. Numerous Icelandic documents in Old Norse mention horses with \"Faxi\" in their name, meaning \"mane\". This could be a distinctive mark. The white and black horses are the best known.\n\nWhite", "Like Pegasus, the positive animal of the celestial spheres, the white horse is most often a symbol of majesty and spiritual quest: Christ and his armies are sometimes depicted on its back, and the animal carries gods, heroes, saints and all kinds of prophets, such as Buddha. Kalki, the future avatar of Vishnu, will take the form of a white horse and fight the evil that plagues the world. Svetovit, the powerful Slavic god of the Rugians, owns a sacred white horse", ". Svetovit, the powerful Slavic god of the Rugians, owns a sacred white horse. Henri Dontenville reports a Jura belief in a white lady accompanied by greyhounds and white horses, playing harmonious, uplifting music with her horn.", "However, cursed horses of a cold, empty, pale white color, \"lunar\", \"nocturnal, livid like mists, ghosts, suars\", are known from folklore, such as the blanque mare and the Schimmel Reiter. Their whiteness has an opposite meaning to that of Uranian white horses: they evoke mourning, just as the white mount of one of the horsemen in the Apocalypse heralds death", ". It's an inversion of the usual symbolism of the color white, a \"deceptive appearance\" and \"gender confusion\" that has become an archetypal horse of death. In England and Germany, meeting a white horse is a sign of bad omen or impending death.", "Black \n\nIn Western Europe, like most animals of this color (cats, ravens, etc.), the black horse suffered a symbolic decline, probably due to the influence of Christianity and the Bible. It is now most often associated with the Devil, the Chtonian underworld and nightmares, but in Russia, it symbolizes vivacity and spirited youth, and is found harnessed to the bride and groom's chariot.", "In Breton legend, Morvac'h, who can run on the waves, is not described as evil, although storytellers say he exhales flames through his nostrils when galloping. The black horse is also a magical mount capable of speech in a tale from the More Celtic Fairy Tales, and a young man who has learned to metamorphose in a Russian folk tale by Alexander Nikolayevich Afanasyev.", "In British folklore, the leprechaun Puck sometimes takes on the appearance of the black horse to frighten people. In an Irish tale, Morty Sullivan rides a black horse that is in fact Phooka (Puck) in disguise, and knocks him down.\n\nThe black knight is well known to folk traditions and writers alike. In the Arthurian legend, Perceval defeats a black knight and takes his mount with him, an episode with a possible alchemical symbolism linked to the animal's color.", "Recent films and literature, such as the saga of The Black Stallion, have given the black horse a new image, that of a wild, spirited animal that can only be ridden by a single person, with whom it shares a bond of trust close to the totemic kinship of medieval legends.\n\nSymbolic links \nThe horse has close links with other animals and mythical creatures, both according to myth and historical findings.", "Deer", "Marc-André Wagner notes a symbolic proximity between horses and cervids, no doubt linked to the domestication of reindeer, which served as mounts in the Nordic Eurasian steppes before the horse. One piece of evidence lies in the exhumation of Scythian horses wearing reindeer antler masks, another in Kazakh and Siberian drawings blending equine features with those of deer", ". Ancient Germanic and Celtic tombs have revealed deer and horses buried in ritual fashion, presumably to help accompany a warrior into the afterlife. It would seem that deer preceded horses in their role as mounts and carriage animals, which also implies the loss of the psychopomp role initially attributed to them in favor of the horse.", "Elves", "As Anne Martineau points out, \"there are very close links between goblins and horses. So close, in fact, that in both medieval chansons de geste and more modern folklore, when the goblin takes animal form, it almost always adopts the former", ". In addition to the aforementioned link to the liquid element, the reason for this seems to be that the horse, an animal familiar to humans, is also the most appropriate for travelling to fairytale worlds and playing the elf's characteristic tricks, such as throwing a rider into a pool of mud, a river or a fountain. In medieval literature, Malabron (chanson de Gaufrey) and Zéphir (Perceforest) change into horses", ". In medieval literature, Malabron (chanson de Gaufrey) and Zéphir (Perceforest) change into horses. Paul Sébillot reports popular beliefs about several horse sprites: the Bayard in Normandy, the Mourioche in Upper Brittany, Maître Jean, the Bugul Noz and the white mare of Bruz. In the Anglo-Saxon islands, Puck (or the Phooka) takes this form.", "Jean-Michel Doulet's study of changelins states that \"at the water's edge, the silhouettes of goblin and horse tend to merge and merge into a single figure whose role is to lead astray, frighten and precipitate those who ride them into some pond or river\"", ". Elficologist Pierre Dubois cites numerous household elves, one of whose roles is to look after the stables, and other, wilder ones, who visit the same places at night, leaving visible traces of their passage, for example by braiding the horses' manes, a trick known as fairy -lock. Marc-André Wagner notes the Kobold, a Germanic household goblin seen as \"he who watches over and administers the Kobe, the hut, the hearth, and by extension the house\"", ". As Kobe can also mean \"stable\", the Kobold would be the \"guardian of horses\", located in \"the intermediate space between human civilization, the wild element and the supernatural world\".", "Snakes and dragons", "The Dictionnaire des Symbols identifies a number of links between snakes, dragons and horses. All are linked first and foremost to springs and rivers, such as the dragon-horse. Horses and dragons are often interchangeable in China, both associated with the quest for knowledge and immortality. They are opposed in the West, in the duel of the knight against the dragon, the horse symbolizing victorious good, and the dragon the beast to be destroyed, as illustrated by the legend of Saint George.", "One of Western Europe's best-known fabulous horses, Bayard, is a fairy-horse born of a dragon and a snake on a volcanic island, as well as an animal linked to earth and fire, embodying telluric energy and vigor. It could himself be a metamorphosed dragon.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSee also\n\nRelated articles \n\n :fr:Cheval dans la fiction\n\nExternal links \n\n D.A.R. Sokoll, \"Symbolisme du cheval\" archive\n\nBibliography\n\nExclusively devoted to horse symbolism", "Bibliography\n\nExclusively devoted to horse symbolism \n\n (fr) Marie-Luce Chênerie, La symbolique du cheval, Lettres modernes, coll. \"Archives des lettres modernes\", 1972, 44 p. (OCLC 32484312, online presentation archive), chap. 163.\n\nAcademic works\n\nEncyclopedias and dictionaries\n\nNon-Academic works", "Marie de Vaux Phalipau, Les chevaux merveilleux dans l'histoire, la légende, les contes populaires, J. Peyronnet & cie, 1939, 286 p.\n \n M. Oldfield Howey, Horse in Magic and Myth, Kessinger Publishing, 2003 (1st ed. 1923), 252 p. (, read online archive)\n \n (fr) Jacques Duchaussoy, Le bestiaire divin: ou, La symbolique des animaux, Le Courrier du livre, 1973, 2nd ed., 219 pp.", "Loretta Hausman, The mythology of horses: horse legend and lore throughout the ages, Three Rivers Press, 2003 (, read online archive)}}\n Sophie Jackson, The Horse in Myth and Legend, Tempus, 2006, 192 p. ()\n \n (fr) [Ronecker 1994] Jean-Paul Ronecker, \"Le cheval\", in Le symbolisme animal: mythes, croyances, légendes, archétypes, folklore, imaginaire..., Dangles, coll. \"Horizons ésotériques\", 1994, 2nd ed. ( and 9782703304166)", "Articles \n\n \n \n \n (fr) Amélie Tsaag Valren, \"Une histoire symbolique et culturelle du cheval noir (I)\", Cheval Savoir, no. 30, March 2012 (read online archive)\n \n\nHorse anatomy\nHorses\nHorses and humans\nHorses by country\nHorse history and evolution\nDivination\nMythology\nSymbolism" ]

[ "A lot of sequels and sometimes prequels to the old silver screen feature films have been released in many of the Indian languages. A film series is a collection of related films in succession. Their relationship is not fixed, but generally share a common diegetic world. The film series have been listed according to the date on which the first film of the series was released. Notes have been used to indicate relation to other films.", "Only those film series with minimum 2 released films, are listed. Films without two released films can be listed only if the sequel is confirmed to be made and will be released in the near future.\n\nAssamese / Jollywood\n\nStory-line / Character followup \n\nDr. Bezbaruah film series (2 films)\n Dr. Bezbaruah (1969)\n Dr. Bezbaruah 2 (2023)\nLocal Kung Fufilm series (2 films)\n Local Kung Fu (2013)\n Local Kung Fu 2 (2017)\n\nBengali / Tollywood\n\nStory-line / Character followup", "The Apu Series (4 films)\n The Apu Trilogy\n Pather Panchali (1955)\n Aparajito (1956)\n The World of Apu (1959)\n Avijatrik (2021)\n Kanchenjungha film series (2 films)\n Kanchenjungha (1962)\n Abar Kanchanjangha (2022)\n Byomkesh Bakshi film series (20 films)\n With Uttam Kumar as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Chiriyakhana (1967)\n With Satindra Bhattacharya as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Shajarur Kanta (1974)\n With Subhrajit Dutta as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Magno Mainak (2009)", "Shajarur Kanta (1974)\n With Subhrajit Dutta as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Magno Mainak (2009)\n With Abir Chatterjee as Byomkesh Bakshi (9 films)\n Byomkesh Bakshi (2010)\n Abar Byomkesh (2012)\n Byomkesh Phire Elo (2014)\n Har Har Byomkesh (2015)\n Byomkesh Pawrbo (2016)\n Byomkesh Gotro (2018)\n Biday Byomkesh (2018)\n Byomkesh Hatyamancha (2022)\n With Sujoy Ghosh as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Satyanweshi (2013)\n With Soumitra Chatterjee as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Doorbeen (2014)", "Satyanweshi (2013)\n With Soumitra Chatterjee as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Doorbeen (2014)\n With Dhritiman Chatterjee as Byomkesh Bakshi (1 film)\n Shajarur Kanta (2015)\n With Jisshu Sengupta as Byomkesh Bakshi (3 films)\n Byomkesh Bakshi (2015)\n Byomkesh O Chiriyakhana (2016)\n Byomkesh O Agnibaan (2017)\n With Parambrata Chatterjee as Byomkesh Bakshi (2 films)\n Satyanweshi Byomkesh (2019)\n Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne trilogy (3 films)\n Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne (1969)\n Hirak Rajar Deshe (1980)", "Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne trilogy (3 films)\n Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne (1969)\n Hirak Rajar Deshe (1980)\n Goopy Bagha Phire Elo (1992)\n Aranye film series (2 films)\n Aranyer Din Ratri (1970)\n Abar Aranye (2003)\n Feluda film series (12 films)\n With Soumitra Chatterjee as Feluda (2 films)\n Sonar Kella (1974)\n Joi Baba Felunath (1979)\n With Sabyasachi Chakrabarty as Feluda (8 films)\n Baksho Rahashya (2001)\n Bombaiyer Bombete (2003)\n Kailashey Kelenkari (2007)\n Tintorettor Jishu (2008)\n Gorosthaney Sabdhan (2010)", "Kailashey Kelenkari (2007)\n Tintorettor Jishu (2008)\n Gorosthaney Sabdhan (2010)\n Royal Bengal Rohosso (2011)\n Doorbeen (2014)\n Double Feluda (2016)\n With Abir Chatterjee as Feluda (1 film)\n Badshahi Angti (2014)\n With Indraneil Sengupta as Feluda (1 film)\n Hatyapuri (2022)\n Kakababu film series (6 films)\n With Samit Bhanja as Kakababu (1 film)\n Sabuj Dwiper Raja (1979)\n With Sabyasachi Chakrabarty as Kakababu (2 films)\n Kakababu Here Gelen? (1995)\n Ek Tukro Chand (2001)", "Kakababu Here Gelen? (1995)\n Ek Tukro Chand (2001)\n With Prosenjit Chatterjee as Kakababu (3 films)\n Mishawr Rawhoshyo (2013)\n Yeti Obhijaan (2017)\n Kakababur Protyaborton (2022)\n Banchha film series (2 films)\n Banchharamer Bagan (1980)\n Banchha Elo Phire (2016)\n Anjan-Mamata film series (2 films)\n Kharij (1982)\n Palan (2023)\n Agantuk film series (2 films)\n Agantuk (1991)\n Agantuker Pore (2016)\n Fatakeshto film series (2 films)\n MLA Fatakeshto (2006)\n Minister Fatakeshto (2007)", "Fatakeshto film series (2 films)\n MLA Fatakeshto (2006)\n Minister Fatakeshto (2007)\n The Bongs film series (2 films)\n The Bong Connection (2006)\n The Bongs Again (2017)\n Cross Connection film series (2 films)\n Cross Connection (2009)\n Cross Connection 2 (2015)\nSrijit Mukherji's Cop Universe (4 films)\n Baishe Srabon (2011)\n Vinci Da (2019)\n Dwitiyo Purush (2020)\n Dawshom Awbotaar (2023)\n Gogol film series (2 films)\n Goyenda Gogol (2013)\n Gogoler Kirti (2014)\n Boss film series (2 films)", "Goyenda Gogol (2013)\n Gogoler Kirti (2014)\n Boss film series (2 films)\n Boss: Born to Rule (2013)\n Boss 2: Back to Rule (2017)\n Chander Pahar film series (2 films)\n Chander Pahar (2013)\n Amazon Obhijaan (2017)\n Goenda Shabor film series (4 films)\n Ebar Shabor (2015)\n Eagoler Chokh (2016)\n Aschhe Abar Shabor (2018)\n Tirandaj Shabor (2022)\n Kiriti Roy film series (4 films)\n With Indraneil Sengupta as Kiriti Roy (2 films)\n Kiriti O Kalo Bhromor (2016)\n Nilacholey Kiriti (2018)", "Kiriti O Kalo Bhromor (2016)\n Nilacholey Kiriti (2018)\n With Chiranjeet Chakraborty as Kiriti Roy (1 film)\n Kiriti Roy (2016 film) (2016)\n With Priyanshu Chatterjee as Kiriti Roy (1 film)\n Ebong Kiriti (2017)\nDetective Chandrakanta film series (2 films)\n Shororipu (2016)\n Shororipu 2: Jotugriho (2021)\nPadma-Naseer film series (2 films)\n Bishorjan (2017)\n Bijoya (2019)\n Jawkher Dhan film series (2 films)\n Jawker Dhan (2017)\n Sagardwipey Jawker Dhan (2019)\n Sonada film series (3 films)", "Jawker Dhan (2017)\n Sagardwipey Jawker Dhan (2019)\n Sonada film series (3 films)\n Guptodhoner Sandhane (2018)\n Durgeshgorer Guptodhon (2019)\n Karnasubarner Guptodhon (2022)\n Bibaho Obhijaan film series (2 films)\n Bibaho Obhijaan (2019)\n Abar Bibaho Obhijaan (2023)\n Ekenbabu film series (2 films)\n The Eken (2022)\n The Eken: Ruddhaswas Rajasthan (2023)\n Mitin Mashi film series (2 films)\n Mitin Mashi (2019)\n Jongole Mitin Mashi (2023)", "Common diegetic world", "Calcutta trilogy by Satyajit Ray (3 films)\n Pratidwandi (1970)\n Seemabaddha (1971)\n Jana Aranya (1976)\n Calcutta trilogy by Mrinal Sen (3 films)\n Interview (1971)\n Calcutta 71 (1972)\n Padatik (1973)\n Bou film series (5 films)\n Choto Bou (1988)\n Mejo Bou (1995)\n Baro Bou (1997)\n Sundar Bou (1999)\n Sejo Bou (2003)\n Chirodini Tumi Je Amar film series (2 films)\n Chirodini Tumi Je Amar (2008)\n Chirodini Tumi Je Amar 2 (2014)\n Challenge film series (2 films)\n Challenge (2009)\n Challenge 2 (2012)", "Challenge film series (2 films)\n Challenge (2009)\n Challenge 2 (2012)\n Amanush film series (2 films)\n Amanush (2010)\n Amanush 2 (2015)\n Paglu film series (2 films)\n Paglu (2011)\n Paglu 2 (2012)\n Khoka film series (2 films)\n Khokababu (2012)\n Khoka 420 (2013)", "Bhojpuri\n\nStory-line / Character followup \n\nBairi Kangana film series (2 films)\nBairi Kangana (1982)\nBairi Kangana 2 (2018)\n\nPandit Ji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi film series (2 films)\n Pandit Ji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi (2005)\n Pandit Ji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi 2 (2015)\n\nNirahua Rikshawala (2 films)\n Nirahua Rickshawala (2007)\n Nirahua Rickshawala 2 (2015)\n\nPratigya film series (2 films)\n Pratigya (2008)\n Pratigya 2 (2014)\n\nDarar film series (2 films)\n Darar (2010)\n Darar 2 (2018)", "Darar film series (2 films)\n Darar (2010)\n Darar 2 (2018)\n\nSajan Chale Sasural film series (2 films)\n Sajan Chale Sasural (2011)\n Sajan Chale Sasural 2 (2016)\n\nTruck Driver film series\n Truck Driver (2011)\n Truck Driver 2 (2016)\n\nEk Duje Ke Liye film series\n Ek Duje Ke Liye (2012)\n Ek Duje Ke Liye 2 (2021)\n\nNirahua Hindustani film series (3 films)\n Nirahua Hindustani (2014)\n Nirahua Hindustani 2 (2017)\n Nirahua Hindustani 3 (2018)", "Dulhan Chahi Pakistan Se (2 films)\n Dulhan Chahi Pakistan Se (2016)\n Dulhan Chahi Pakistan Se 2 (2018)\n\nMehandi Laga Ke Rakhna film series (2 films)\n Mehandi Laga Ke Rakhna (2017)\n Mehandi Laga Ke Rakhna 2 (2018)\n\nSangharsh film series\n Sangharsh (2018)\n Sangharsh 2 (2023)\n\nVivah film series (2 films)\n Vivah (2019)\n Vivah 2 (2021)\n\nCommon diegetic world \nNirahua Chalal film series (3 films)\n Nirahua Chalal Sasural (2008)\n Nirahua Chalal Sasural 2 (2016)\n Nirahua Chalal London (2019)\n\nBodo", "Bodo\n\nStory-line / Character followup \n\nHainamuli film series (2 films)\nHainamuli (2009)\nHainamuli 2 (2010)\nHainamuli 3 (2011)\nHainamuli 4 (2013)\nHainamuli 5 (2009)\nHainamuli 6 (2014)\nHainamuli 7 (2019)\n\nDeccani\n\nStory-line / Character followup \n The Angrez film series (2 films)\n The Angrez (2005)\n The Angrez 2 (2015)\nHyderabad Nawabs film series (2 films)\n Hyderabad Nawabs (2006)\n Hyderabad Nawabs 2 (2019)\n Stepney film series (2 films)\n Stepney (2014)\n Stepney 2 Returns (2017)\n\nGujarati / Dhollywood", "Gujarati / Dhollywood\n\nStory-line / Character followup \n Gunsundari (3 films)\n Gunsundari (silent film, 1924)\n Gunsundari (1934)\n Gunsundari (1948)\n Maiyar Ma Manadu Nathi Lagtu series (2 films)\n Maiyar Ma Manadu Nathi Lagtu (2001)\n Maiyar Ma Manadu Nathi Lagtu Part II (2008)\n Chal Man Jeetva Jaiye (2 films)\n Chal Man Jeetva Jaiye (2017)\n Chal Man Jeetva Jaiye 2 (2023)\n\nCommon diegetic world \n Gujjubhai series (2 films)\nGujjubhai the Great (2015)\n GujjuBhai - Most Wanted (2018)\n\nHaryanvi", "Haryanvi\n\nStory-line / Character followup \nChandrawal film series\n Chandrawal (1982)\n Chandrawal 2 (2012)\n\nCommon diegetic world \nChora film series\n Chora Jaat Ka (1985)\n Chora Haryane Ka (1987)\n\nHindi / Bollywood\n\nStory-line / Character followup", "Hunterwali film series (2 films)\n Hunterwali (1935)\n Hunterwali Ki Beti (1943) \n Jewel Thief film series (2 films)\n Jewel Thief (1967)\n Return of Jewel Thief (1996) \n Arun film series (2 films)\n Ankhiyon Ke Jharokhon Se (1978)\n Jaana Pehchana (2011)\n Don film Trilogy (3 films)\n Don (1978)\n Don (2006)\n Don 2 (2011)\n Gunmaster G9 film series (2 films)\n Surakksha (1979)\n Wardat (1981) \n Nagin film series (2 films)\n Nagina (1986)\n Nigahen: Nagina Part II (1989)\n Ghayal film series (2 films)\n Ghayal (1990)", "Nagina (1986)\n Nigahen: Nagina Part II (1989)\n Ghayal film series (2 films)\n Ghayal (1990)\n Ghayal: Once Again (2016)\nSadak film series (2 films)\n Sadak (1991)\n Sadak 2 (2020)\n Hyderabad Blues film series (2 films)\n Hyderabad Blues (1998)\n Hyderabad Blues 2 (2004)\n Gangster film series (4 films)\n Satya (1998)\n Company (2002)\n D (2005)\n Satya 2 (2013)\n Raghu film series (2 films)\n Vaastav (1999)\n Hathyar (2002)\n Hera Pheri Trilogy (2 films)\n Hera Pheri (2000)\n Phir Hera Pheri (2006)\n Hera Pheri 3 (2024)", "Hera Pheri Trilogy (2 films)\n Hera Pheri (2000)\n Phir Hera Pheri (2006)\n Hera Pheri 3 (2024)\n Style-Xcuse Me film series (2 films)\n Style (2001)\n Xcuse Me (2003)\nGadar film series (2 films)\n Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001)\n Gadar 2 (2023)\n Krrish Trilogy (3 films)\n Koi... Mil Gaya (2003)\n Krrish (2006)\n Krrish 3 (2013)\n Dhoom Trilogy (3 films)\n Dhoom (2004)\n Dhoom 2 (2006)\n Dhoom 3 (2013)\nAb Tak Chhappan film series (2 films)\n Ab Tak Chhappan (2004)\n Ab Tak Chhappan 2 (2015)\n Sarkar Trilogy (3 films)", "Ab Tak Chhappan (2004)\n Ab Tak Chhappan 2 (2015)\n Sarkar Trilogy (3 films)\n Sarkar (2005)\n Sarkar Raj (2008)\n Sarkar 3 (2017)\nBunty Aur Babli film series (2 films)\n Bunty Aur Babli (2005)\n Bunty Aur Babli 2 (2021)\nTom, Dick and Harry film series (2 films)\n Tom, Dick, and Harry (2006)\n Tom, Dick, and Harry, Rock Again! (2009)\nBheja Fry film series (2 films)\n Bheja Fry (2007)\n Bheja Fry 2 (2011)\n Welcome series (3 films)\n Welcome (2007)\n Welcome Back (2015)\n Dhamaal Trilogy (3 films)\n Dhamaal (2007)", "Welcome (2007)\n Welcome Back (2015)\n Dhamaal Trilogy (3 films)\n Dhamaal (2007)\n Double Dhamaal (2011)\n Total Dhamaal (2019)\n Phoonk film series (2 films)\n Phoonk (2008)\n Phoonk 2 (2010)\n Jumbo film series (2 films)\n Jumbo (2008)\n Jumbo 2: The Return of the Big Elephant (2011)\nBhoothnath film series (2 films)\n Bhoothnath (2008)\n Bhoothnath Returns (2014)\nRock On!! film series (2 films)\n Rock On!! (2008)\n Rock On II (2016)\n Race Trilogy (3 films)\n Race (2008)\n Race 2 (2013)\n Race 3 (2018)", "Rock On II (2016)\n Race Trilogy (3 films)\n Race (2008)\n Race 2 (2013)\n Race 3 (2018)\nLove Aaj Kal film series (2 films)\n Love Aaj Kal (2009)\n Love Aaj Kal (2020)\nRakta Charitra film series (2 films)\n Rakta Charitra (2010)\n Rakt Charitra: Part II (2010)\nOnce Upon A Time in Mumbaai film series (2 films)\n Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai (2010)\n Once Upon Ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara! (2013)\nIshqiya film series (2 films)\n Ishqiya (2010)\n Dedh Ishqiya (2014)\n Dunno Y... film series (2 films)", "Ishqiya (2010)\n Dedh Ishqiya (2014)\n Dunno Y... film series (2 films)\n Dunno Y... Na Jaane Kyon (2010)\n Dunno Y2... Life Is a Moment (2015)\n Dabangg Trilogy (3 films)\n Dabangg (2010)\n Dabangg 2 (2012)\n Dabangg 3 (2019)\nKhichdi film series (2 films)\n Khichdi: The Movie (2010)\n Khichdi 2: Mission Paanthukistan (2023)\nRagini MMS film series (2 films)\n Ragini MMS (2011)\n Ragini MMS 2 (2014)\nTanu Weds Manu film series (2 films)\n Tanu Weds Manu (2011)\n Tanu Weds Manu: Returns (2015)\nForce film series (2 films)", "Tanu Weds Manu (2011)\n Tanu Weds Manu: Returns (2015)\nForce film series (2 films)\n Force (2011)\n Force 2 (2016)\nSaheb, Biwi Aur Gangster film series (3 films)\n Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster (2011)\n Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster Returns (2013)\n Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster 3 (2018)\n Cop Universe (5 films)\n Singham (2011)\n Singham Returns (2014)\n Simmba (2018)\n Sooryavanshi (2021)\n Singham Again (2024)\n Gangs of Wasseypur film series (2 films)\n Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 1 (2012)\n Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 2 (2012)", "Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 1 (2012)\n Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 2 (2012)\nOh My God film series (2 films)\n OMG – Oh My God! (2012)\n OMG 2 (2023)\nStudent of the Year film series (2 films)\n Student of the Year (2012)\n Student of the Year 2 (2019)\nYRF Spy Universe (5 Films)\n Ek Tha Tiger (2012)\n Tiger Zinda Hai (2017)\n War (2019)\n Pathaan (2023)\n Tiger 3 (2023)\n Jolly LLB film series (2 films)\n Jolly LLB (2013)\n Jolly LLB 2 (2017)\n Commando Trilogy (3 films)\n Commando: A One Man Army (2013)", "Jolly LLB (2013)\n Jolly LLB 2 (2017)\n Commando Trilogy (3 films)\n Commando: A One Man Army (2013)\n Commando 2: The Black Money Trail (2017)\n Commando 3 (2019)\nFukrey film series (3 films)\n Fukrey (2013)\n Fukrey Returns (2017)\n Fukrey 3 (2023)\nMardaani film series (2 films)\n Mardaani (2014)\n Mardaani 2 (2019)\nEk Villain film series (2 films)\n Ek Villain (2014)\n Ek Villain Returns (2022)\nBaby film series (2 films)\n Baby (2015)\n Naam Shabana (2017)\nDrishyam film series (2 films)\n Drishyam (2015)", "Baby (2015)\n Naam Shabana (2017)\nDrishyam film series (2 films)\n Drishyam (2015)\n Drishyam 2 (2022)\nHappy Bhag Jayegi film series (2 films)\n Happy Bhag Jayegi (2016)\n Happy Phirr Bhag Jayegi (2018)\nMaddock Supernatural Universe (5 films)\n Stree (2018)\n Roohi (2021)\n Bhediya (2022)\n Munjhya (2024)\n Stree 2 (2024)\nKhuda Haafiz film series (2 films)\n Khuda Haafiz (2020)\n Khuda Haafiz: Chapter 2 – Agni Pariksha (2022)\nChhorii film series (2 films)\n Chhorii (2021)\n Chhorii 2 (2023)", "Chhorii film series (2 films)\n Chhorii (2021)\n Chhorii 2 (2023)\nHaseen Dillruba film series (2 films)\n Haseen Dillruba (2021)\n Phir Aayi Haseen Dillruba (2023)", "Common diegetic world", "Love in Trilogy (3 films)\n Love in Simla (1960)\n Love in Tokyo (1966)\n Love in Bombay (2013)\nAashiqui Trilogy (2 films)\n Aashiqui (1990)\n Aashiqui 2 (2013)\n Khiladi film series (8 films)\n Khiladi (1992)\n Main Khiladi Tu Anari (1994)\n Sabse Bada Khiladi (1995)\n Khiladiyon Ka Khiladi (1996)\n Mr. and Mrs. Khiladi (1997)\n International Khiladi (1999)\n Khiladi 420 (2000)\n Khiladi 786 (2012)\n No. 1 (film series) (8 films)\n Starring Govinda (6 films)\n Coolie No. 1 (1995)\n Hero No. 1 (1997)\n Aunty No. 1 (1998)", "Starring Govinda (6 films)\n Coolie No. 1 (1995)\n Hero No. 1 (1997)\n Aunty No. 1 (1998)\n Anari No. 1 (1999)\n Beti No. 1 (2000)\n Jodi No. 1 (2001)\n Directed by David Dhawan (6 films)\n Coolie No. 1 (1995)\n Hero No. 1 (1997)\n Biwi No.1 (1999)\n Jodi No. 1 (2001)\n Shaadi No. 1 (2005)\n Coolie No. 1 (2020)\n Produced by Vashu Bhagnani (6 films)\n Coolie No. 1 (1995)\n Hero No. 1 (1997)\n Anari No.1 (1999)\n Biwi No.1 (1999)\n Shaadi No. 1 (2005)\n Coolie No. 1 (2020)\n Sudhir Mishra Thriller film series (2 films)", "Shaadi No. 1 (2005)\n Coolie No. 1 (2020)\n Sudhir Mishra Thriller film series (2 films)\n Is Raat Ki Subah Nahin (1996)\n Yeh Saali Zindagi (2011)\nJudwaa film series (2 films)\n Judwaa (1997)\n Judwaa 2 (2017)\nSatya film series (2 films)\n Satya (1998)\n Satya 2 (2013)\nTum Bin film series (2 films)\n Tum Bin (2001)\n Tum Bin II (2016)\nDeewana Paagal film series (2 films)\n Awara Paagal Deewana (2002)\n Deewane Huye Paagal (2005) \n Raaz Tetralogy (4 films)\n Raaz (2002)\n Raaz: The Mystery Continues (2009)", "Raaz Tetralogy (4 films)\n Raaz (2002)\n Raaz: The Mystery Continues (2009)\n Raaz 3D (2012)\n Raaz: Reboot (2016)\n Darna Mana/Zaroori Hai film series (2 films)\n Darna Mana Hai (2003)\n Darna Zaroori Hai (2006)\n Munna Bhai film series (2 films)\n Munna Bhai M.B.B.S (2003)\n Lage Raho Munna Bhai (2006)\n Bhoot film series (3 films)\n Bhoot (2003)\n Bhoot Returns (2012)\n Bhoot – Part One: The Haunted Ship (2020)\nJism film series (2 films)\n Jism (2003)\n Jism 2 (2012)\nGangaaJal film series (2 films)\n Gangaajal (2003)", "Jism (2003)\n Jism 2 (2012)\nGangaaJal film series (2 films)\n Gangaajal (2003)\n Jai Gangaajal (2016)\nHungama film series (2 films)\n Hungama (2003)\n Hungama 2 (2021)\n Murder Trilogy (3 films)\n Murder (2004)\n Murder 2 (2011)\n Murder 3 (2013)\n Masti Trilogy (3 films)\n Masti (2004)\n Grand Masti (2013)\n Great Grand Masti (2016)\n Julie film series (2 films)\n Julie (2004)\n Julie 2 (2017)\n Tauba Tauba film series\n Tauba Tauba (2004)\n Phir Tauba Tauba (2008)\n Kyaa Kool Hain Hum Trilogy (3 films)", "Tauba Tauba (2004)\n Phir Tauba Tauba (2008)\n Kyaa Kool Hain Hum Trilogy (3 films)\n Kyaa Kool Hai Hum (2005)\n Kyaa Super Kool Hain Hum (2012)\n Kyaa Kool Hain Hum 3 (2016)\n Hanuman Trilogy (3 films)\n Hanuman (2005)\n Return of Hanuman (2007)\n Hanuman: Da' Damdaar (2017)\nMalamaal film series (2 films)\n Malamaal Weekly (2006)\n Kamaal Dhamaal Malamaal (2012)\nSide Effects film series (2 films)\n Pyaar Ke Side Effects (2006)\n Shaadi Ke Side Effects (2014)\nAksar film series (2 films)\n Aksar (2006)\n Aksar 2 (2017)", "Shaadi Ke Side Effects (2014)\nAksar film series (2 films)\n Aksar (2006)\n Aksar 2 (2017)\n Golmaal film series (5 films)\n Golmaal (2006)\n Golmaal Returns (2008)\n Golmaal 3 (2010)\n Golmaal Again (2017)\n Cirkus (2022)\nMetro film series (2 films)\n Life in a... Metro (2007)\n Metro... In Dino (2024)\n My Friend Ganesha Tetralogy (4 films)\n My Friend Ganesha (2007)\n My Friend Ganesha 2 (2009)\n My Friend Ganesha 3 (2010)\n My Friend Ganesha 4 (2013)\nShootout film series (2 films)\n Shootout at Lokhandwala (2007)", "My Friend Ganesha 4 (2013)\nShootout film series (2 films)\n Shootout at Lokhandwala (2007)\n Shootout at Wadala (2013)\n Bal Ganesh Trilogy (3 films)\n Bal Ganesh (2007)\n Bal Ganesh 2 (2009)\n Bal Ganesh 3 (2015)\nSurroor film series (2 films)\n Aap Kaa Surroor (2007)\n Teraa Surroor (2016)\nNamastey film series (2 films)\n Namastey London (2007)\n Namaste England (2018)\nBhool Bhulaiyaa film series (2 films)\n Bhool Bhulaiyaa (2007)\n Bhool Bhulaiyaa 2 (2022)\nJannat film series (2 films)\n Jannat (2008)", "Bhool Bhulaiyaa (2007)\n Bhool Bhulaiyaa 2 (2022)\nJannat film series (2 films)\n Jannat (2008)\n Jannat 2 (2012)\n 1920 Pentalogy (5 films)\n 1920 (2008)\n 1920: Evil Returns (2012)\n 1920: London (2016)\n 1921 (2018)\n 1920: Horrors of the Heart (2023)\nTere Bin Laden film series (2 films)\n Tere Bin Laden (2010)\n Tere Bin Laden: Dead or Alive (2016)\nAtithi film series (2 films)\n Atithi Tum Kab Jaoge? (2010)\n Guest iin London (2017)\n Housefull Tetralogy (4 films)\n Housefull (2010)\n Housefull 2 (2012)", "Guest iin London (2017)\n Housefull Tetralogy (4 films)\n Housefull (2010)\n Housefull 2 (2012)\n Housefull 3 (2016)\n Housefull 4 (2019)\nLove Sex Aur Dhokha film series (2 films)\n Love Sex Aur Dhokha (2010)\n LSD 2 (2024)\nPyaar Ka Punchnama film series (2 films)\n Pyaar Ka Punchnama (2011)\n Pyaar Ka Punchnama 2 (2015)\nYamla Pagla Deewana Trilogy (3 films)\n Yamla Pagla Deewana (2011)\n Yamla Pagla Deewana 2 (2013)\n Yamla Pagla Deewana: Phir Se (2018)\n Hate Story Tetralogy (4 films)\n Hate Story (2012)", "Yamla Pagla Deewana: Phir Se (2018)\n Hate Story Tetralogy (4 films)\n Hate Story (2012)\n Hate Story 2 (2014)\n Hate Story 3 (2015)\n Hate Story 4 (2018)\nKahaani film series (3 films)\n Kahaani (2012)\n Kahaani 2: Durga Rani Singh (2016)\n Bob Biswas (2021)\nB.A. Pass Trilogy (3 films)\n B.A. Pass (2013)\n B.A. Pass 2 (2017)\n B.A. Pass 3 (2021)\nABCD film series (2 films)\n ABCD: Any Body Can Dance (2013)\n ABCD 2 (2015)\nAnthology Tetralogy (4 films)\n Bombay Talkies (2013)\n Lust Stories (2018)\n Ghost Stories (2020)", "Anthology Tetralogy (4 films)\n Bombay Talkies (2013)\n Lust Stories (2018)\n Ghost Stories (2020)\n Lust Stories 2 (2023)\nDulhania film series (2 films)\n Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania (2014)\n Badrinath Ki Dulhania (2017)\nHeropanti film series (2 films)\n Heropanti (2014)\n Heropanti 2 (2022)\nThe Xposé film series (2 films)\n The Xposé (2014)\n Badass RaviKumar (2024)\nYaariyan film series (2 films)\n Yaariyan (2014)\n Yaariyan 2 (2023)\nMSG film series (4 films)\n The Messenger films (2 films)\n MSG: The Messenger (2015)", "MSG film series (4 films)\n The Messenger films (2 films)\n MSG: The Messenger (2015)\n MSG-2 The Messenger (2015)\n The Lion Heart films (2 films)\n MSG: The Warrior Lion Heart (2016)\n Hind Ka Napak Ko Jawab: MSG Lion Heart 2 (2017)\n Baaghi Trilogy (3 films)\n Baaghi (2016)\n Baaghi 2 (2018)\n Baaghi 3 (2020)\nMedium film series (2 films)\n Hindi Medium (2017)\n Angrezi Medium (2020)\nShubh Mangal Saavdhan film series (2 films)\n Shubh Mangal Saavdhan (2017)\n Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan (2020)", "Shubh Mangal Saavdhan (2017)\n Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan (2020)\nSatyameva Jayate film series (2 films)\n Satyameva Jayate (2018)\n Satyameva Jayate 2 (2021)\nBadhaai film series (2 films)\n Badhaai Ho (2018)\n Badhaai Do (2022)\nDream Girl film series (2 films)\n Dream Girl (2019)\n Dream Girl 2 (2023)\nFiles Trilogy (3 films)\n The Tashkent Files (2019)\n The Kashmir Files (2022)\n The Delhi Files (2024)\nConfidential film series (2 films)\n London Confidential (2020)\n Lahore Confidential (2021)", "Kannada / Sandalwood\n\nStory-line / Character followup", "James Bond Type Series (4 Films)\nJedara Bale (1968)\nGoa Dalli CID 999 (1968)\nOperation Jackpot Nalli C.I.D 999 (1969)\nOperation Diamond Racket (1978)\n Gandhada Gudi film Series (2 Films)\nGandhada Gudi (1973)\nGandhada Gudi Part 2 (1994)\n Antha film Series (2 Films)\nAntha (1981)\nOperation Antha (1995)\n Sangliyana film Series (3 Films) \nSangliyana (1988)\nS. P. Sangliyana Part 2 (1988)\nSangliyana Part 3 (1997)\n Upendra film series (2 films)\n Upendra (1999)\n Uppi 2 (2015)\n Saar film series (4 films)", "Upendra film series (2 films)\n Upendra (1999)\n Uppi 2 (2015)\n Saar film series (4 films)\n Kurigalu Saar Kurigalu (2001)\n Kothigalu Saar Kothigalu (2001)\n Katthegalu Saar Katthegalu (2002)\n Chathrigalu Saar Chathrigalu (2013)\n Kotigobba film series (3 Films)\nKotigobba (2001)\nKotigobba 2 (2016)\nKotigobba 3 (2021)\n Rakhta Kanneeru film series (2 films)\n Rakhta Kanneeru (2003)\n Katariveera Surasundarangi (2012)\n Nagavalli film series (2 films)\n Apthamitra (2004)\n Aptharakshaka (2010)", "Nagavalli film series (2 films)\n Apthamitra (2004)\n Aptharakshaka (2010)\n Deadly film series (2 films)\n Deadly Soma (2005)\n Deadly-2 (2010)\n Jogi film series (2 films)\n Jogi (2005)\n Jogayya (2011)\n Mungaru Male Series (2 films)\nMungaru Male (2006)\nMungaru Male 2 (2016)\n Gaalipata Series (2 films)\nGaalipata (2008)\nGaalipata 2 (2022)\n Krishnan film series (2 films)\nKrishnan Love Story (2010)\nKrishnan Marriage Story (2011)\n Rambo film Series (2 films)\n Rambo (2012)\nRaambo 2 (2018)", "Krishnan Marriage Story (2011)\n Rambo film Series (2 films)\n Rambo (2012)\nRaambo 2 (2018)\nKalpana film series (2 films)\n Kalpana (2012)\n Kalpana 2 (2016)\n Bhajarangi Series (2 films)\nBhajarangi (2013)\nBhajarangi 2 (2021)\n Drishya film series (2 films)\nDrishya (2014)\nDrishya 2 (2021)\n K.G.F. film series (3 films)\nK.G.F: Chapter 1 (2018)\nK.G.F: Chapter 2 (2022)\nK.G.F: Chapter 3 (2024)\nBicchugatti film series\n Bicchugatti: Chapter 1 − Dalvayi Dange (2020)\n Bicchugatti: Chapter 2 (TBA)", "Bicchugatti: Chapter 1 − Dalvayi Dange (2020)\n Bicchugatti: Chapter 2 (TBA)\n Love Mocktail Series (2 films)\nLove Mocktail (2020)\nLove Mocktail 2 (2022)\n Shivaji Surathkal Series (2 films)\nShivaji Surathkal (2020)\nShivaji Surathkal 2 (2023)\nKantara film series (2 films)\n Kantara (2022)\n Kantara 2 (2023)\nAvatara Purusha film series (2 films)\n Avatara Purusha Part 1: Astadigbandanamadalakam (2022)\n Avatara Purusha Part 2: Trishankupayanam (TBA)\nTotapuri film series (2 films)\n Totapuri: Chapter 1 (2022)", "Totapuri film series (2 films)\n Totapuri: Chapter 1 (2022)\n Totapuri: Chapter 2 (2023)\nSapta Sagaradaache Ello film series (2 films)\n Sapta Sagaradaache Ello - Side A (2023)\n Sapta Sagaradaache Ello - Side B (2023)", "Common diegetic world \n Ganesha film series (6 films) \nGaneshana Maduve (1990)\nGauri Ganesha (1991)\nGanesha Subramanya (1992)\nGaneshana Galate (1995)\nGanesha I Love You (1997)\nGanesha Matte Banda (2008)\nGolmaal film series (3 films)\n Golmaal Radhakrishna (1990)\n Golmaal Part 2 (1991)\n Samsaaradalli Golmaal (2012)\n Police Story film series (3 films)\nPolice Story (1996)\nPolice Story 2 (2007)\nPolice Story 3 (2011)\n Huchcha film series (2 films)\nHuchcha (2001)\nHuccha 2 (2018)\n Kariya film series (2 films)", "Huchcha film series (2 films)\nHuchcha (2001)\nHuccha 2 (2018)\n Kariya film series (2 films)\n Kariya (2003)\n Kariya 2 (2017)\n Savaari film series (2 films)\n Savaari (2009)\n Savaari 2 (2014)\n Kempegowda film series (2 films)\n Kempe Gowda (2011)\n Kempe Gowda 2 (2019)\n Dandupalya film series (4 films)\n Dandupalya (2012)\n Dandupalya 2 (2017)\n Dandupalya 3 (2018)\n Dandupalya 4 (2019)\nKendasampige film series (2 films)\n Kendasampige (2016) Popcorn Monkey Tiger (2020)\n Victory film series (2 films)\n Victory (2013)", "Kendasampige (2016) Popcorn Monkey Tiger (2020)\n Victory film series (2 films)\n Victory (2013)\n Victory 2 (2018)", "Meitei / Manipuri \n\n Story-line / Character followup \n\n Chanu IPS film series (2 films)\n Chanu IPS (2017)\n Chanu IPS 2 (2019)\n\n Malayalam / Mollywood \n\n Story-line / Character followup", "Aana Valarthiya film series (2 films)\n Aana Valarthiya Vanampadi (1959)\n Aana Valarthiya Vanampadiyude Makan (1971)\n Othenan film series (3 films)\n Thacholi Othenan (1964)\n Othenante Makan (1970)\n Kadathanadan Ambadi (1990)\n Kattuthulasi film series (2 films)\n Kattuthulasi (1965)\n Thenaruvi (1973)\n Chemmeen film series (3 films)\n Chemmeen (1965)\n Thirakalkkappuram (1998)\n Kayamkulam Kochunni film series (2 films)\n Kayamkulam Kochunni (1966)\n Kayamkulam Kochunniyude Makan (1976)", "Kayamkulam Kochunni (1966)\n Kayamkulam Kochunniyude Makan (1976)\n Ashwamedham film series (2 films)\n Ashwamedham (1967)\n Sarasayya (1971)\n Chellamma film series (2 films)\n Kallichellamma (1969)\n Arikkari Ammu (1981)\n C.I.D. Nazir film series (3 films)\n C.I.D. Nazir (1971)\n Taxi Car (1972)\n Preathangalude Thazhvaram (1973)\n Lisa film series (2 films)\n Lisa (1978)\n Veendum Lisa (1987)\n Tharadas & Balram film series (4 films)\n Athirathram (1984)\n Aavanazhi (1986)\n Inspector Balram (1991)", "Athirathram (1984)\n Aavanazhi (1986)\n Inspector Balram (1991)\n Balram vs. Tharadas (2006)\n Ninnishtam Ennishtam film series (2 films)\n Ninnishtam Ennishtam (1986)\n Ninnishtam Ennishtam 2 (2011)\n Dasan and Vijayan film series (3 films)\n Nadodikkattu (1987)\n Pattanapravesham (1988)\n Akkare Akkare Akkare (1990)\n Sagar Alias Jacky film series (2 films)\n Irupatham Noottandu (1987)\n Sagar Alias Jacky Reloaded (2009)\n CBI film series (5 films)\n Oru CBI Diary Kurippu (1988)\n Jagratha (1989)", "CBI film series (5 films)\n Oru CBI Diary Kurippu (1988)\n Jagratha (1989)\n Sethurama Iyer CBI (2004)\n Nerariyan CBI (2005)\n CBI 5: The Brain (2022)\n August 1-film series (2 films)\n August 1? (1988)\n August 15 (2011)\n Kireedam film series (2 films)\n Kireedam (1989)\n Chenkol (1993)\n Ramji Rao Speaking film series (3 films)\n Ramji Rao Speaking (1989)\n Mannar Mathai Speaking (1995)\n Mannar Mathai Speaking 2 (2014)\n Harihar Nagar film series (3 films)\n In Harihar Nagar (1990)\n 2 Harihar Nagar (2009)", "Harihar Nagar film series (3 films)\n In Harihar Nagar (1990)\n 2 Harihar Nagar (2009)\n In Ghost House Inn (2010)\nSamrajyam film series (3 films)\n Samrajyam (1990)\n Samrajyam II: Son of Alexander (2015)\n Kilukkam film series (2 films)\n Kilukkam (1991)\n Kilukkam Kilukilukkam (2006)\n Khader Bhai film series (3 films)\n Mimics Parade (1991)\n Kasargod Khader Bhai (1992)\n Again Kasargod Khader Bhai (2010)\n Devasuram film series (2 films)\n Devasuram (1993)\n Raavanaprabhu (2001)", "Devasuram film series (2 films)\n Devasuram (1993)\n Raavanaprabhu (2001)\n Dr. Sunny Joseph film series (2 films)\n Manichitrathazhu (1993)\n Geethaanjali (2013)\n Uppukandam film series (2 films)\n Uppukandam Brothers (1993)\n Uppukandam Brothers Back in Action (2011)\nAkashadoothu film-TV series (1 film, 1 series)\n Akashadoothu (1993)\n Akashadoothu (TV series) (2011)\nMikhayel sons TV-film series (1 serial, 1 film)\n Mikhayelinte Santhathikal [TV serial] (1993) \n Puthran (1994)", "Mikhayelinte Santhathikal [TV serial] (1993) \n Puthran (1994)\n Commissioner and The King film series (4 films)\n Commissioner (1994)\n The King (1995)\n Bharathchandran I.P.S. (2005)\n The King & the Commissioner (2012)\nAzhagiya Ravanan-Ambujakshan film series (2 films)\n Azhakiya Ravanan (1996)\n Chirakodinja Kinavukal (2015)\n Mandrake film series (2 films)\n Junior Mandrake (1997)\n Senior Mandrake (2010)\n Kannur film series (2 films)\n Kannur (1997)\n Veendum Kannur (2012)\n Aakasha Ganga film series (2 films)", "Kannur (1997)\n Veendum Kannur (2012)\n Aakasha Ganga film series (2 films)\n Aakasha Ganga (1999)\n Aakasha Ganga 2 (2019)\n Saathan and Don film series (2 films)\n Stop Violence (2002)\n Asuravithu (2012)\n The People film series (3 films)\n 4 the People (2004)\n By the People (2005)\n Of the People (2008)\n Udayananu Tharam film series (2 films)\n Udayananu Tharam (2005)\n Padmasree Bharat Dr. Saroj Kumar (2012)\n Lisamma film series (2 films)\n Achanurangatha Veedu (2006)\n Lisammayude Veedu (2013)", "Lisamma film series (2 films)\n Achanurangatha Veedu (2006)\n Lisammayude Veedu (2013) \n Major Mahadevan film series (4 films)\n Keerthi Chakra (2006)\n Kurukshetra (2008)\n Kandahar (2010)\n 1971 Beyond Borders (2017)\n Pokkiri Raja film series (3 films)\n Pokkiri Raja (2010)\n Madhura Raja (2019)\n Minister Raja (2023)\n Salt N' Pepper film series (2 films)\n Salt N' Pepper (2011)\n Black Coffee (2021)\n Honey Bee film series (3 films)\n Honey Bee (2013)\n Honey Bee 2 (2017)\n Honey Bee 2.5 (2017)", "Honey Bee film series (3 films)\n Honey Bee (2013)\n Honey Bee 2 (2017)\n Honey Bee 2.5 (2017)\n Punyalan film series (2 films)\n Punyalan Agarbattis (2013)\n Punyalan Private Limited (2017)\n Drishyam film series (3 films)\n Drishyam (2013)\n Drishyam 2 (2021)\n Drishyam 3 (2024)\n Aadu film series (3 films)\n Aadu (2015)\n Aadu 2 (2017)\n Aadu 3 (2023)\n Pretham film series (2 films)\n Pretham (2016)\n Pretham 2 (2018)", "Common diegetic world\n Mimics film series (2 films)\n Mimics Action 500 (1995)\n Mimics Super 1000 (1996)\n Bharya film series (2 films)\n Veruthe Oru Bharya (2008)\n Bharya Athra Pora (2013)\n Husbands film series (2 films)\n Happy Husbands (2010)\n Husbands in Goa (2012)\n\n Marathi / Mollywood \n\n Story-line / Character followup", "Zapatlela film series (2 films)\n Zapatlela (1993)\n Zapatlela 2 (2013)\nAga Bai Arrecha film series (2 films)\n Aga Bai Arrecha! (2004)\n Aga Bai Arechyaa 2 (2015)\nDe Dhakka film series (2 films)\n De Dhakka (2008)\n De Dhakka 2 (2022)\nGallit Gondhal Dillit Milujra film series (2 films)\n Gallit Gondhal, Dillit Mujra (2009)\n Punha Gondhal Punha Mujra (2014)\n Mumbai-Pune-Mumbai film series (3 films)\n Mumbai-Pune-Mumbai (2010)\n Mumbai-Pune-Mumbai 2 (2015)\n Mumbai Pune Mumbai 3 (2018)\nAgadbam film series (2 films)", "Mumbai-Pune-Mumbai 2 (2015)\n Mumbai Pune Mumbai 3 (2018)\nAgadbam film series (2 films)\n Agadbam (2010)\n Maza Agadbam (2018)\n Chintoo film series (2 films)\n Chintoo (2012)\n Chintoo 2 (2013)\n Timepass film series (3 films)\n Timepass (2014)\n Timepass 2 (2015)\n Timepass 3 (2022)\nDagadi Chawl film series (2 films)\n Dagadi Chawl (2015)\n Daagadi Chawl 2 (2022)\nBoyz film series (4 films)\n Boyz (2017)\n Boyz 2 (2018)\n Boyz 3 (2022)\n Boyz 4 (2023)\nYe Re Ye Re Paisa film series (2 films)\n Ye Re Ye Re Paisa (2018)", "Boyz 3 (2022)\n Boyz 4 (2023)\nYe Re Ye Re Paisa film series (2 films)\n Ye Re Ye Re Paisa (2018)\n Ye Re Ye Re Paisa 2 (2019)\nBhai film series (2 films)\n Bhai: Vyakti Ki Valli (2019)\n Bhai - Vyakti Ki Valli 2 (2019)\nShri Shivraj Ashtak (6 films)\n Farzand (2018)\n Fatteshikast (2019)\n Pawankhind (2022)\n Sher Shivraj (2022)\n Subhedar (2023)\n Shivrayancha Chhava (2024) \nNaal film series (2 films)\n Naal (2018)\n Naal 2 (2023)\nTakatak film series (2 films)\n Takatak (2019)\n Takatak 2 (2022)", "Naal (2018)\n Naal 2 (2023)\nTakatak film series (2 films)\n Takatak (2019)\n Takatak 2 (2022)\nJhimma film series (2 films)\n Jhimma (2021)\n Jhimma 2 (2023)", "Odia / Ollywood \n\n Story-line / Character followup \n Something Something film series (2 films)\n Something Something (2011)\n Something Something 2 (2014)\n Something Something film series (2 films)\n Tu Mora Sathire (2020)\n Tu Mora Sathire-2 (2021)\n\n Punjabi / Pollywood \n\n Story-line / Character followup", "Munde U.K. De film series (2 films)\n Munde U.K. De (2009)\n Aa Gaye Munde U.K. De (2014)\n Yaar Annmulle\t film series (3 films)\n Yaar Annmulle (2011)\n Yaar Annmulle 2 (2017)\n Yaar Anmulle Returns (2021)\n Jatt & Juliet film series (2 films)\n Jatt & Juliet (2012)\n Jatt & Juliet 2 (2013)\n Carry On Jatta Trilogy (3 films)\n Carry On Jatta (2012)\n Carry On Jatta 2 (2018)\n Carry on Jatta 3 (2023)\n Sikander film series (3 films)\n Sikander (2013)\n Sikander 2 (2019)\n Sikander 3 (TBA)", "Sikander film series (3 films)\n Sikander (2013)\n Sikander 2 (2019)\n Sikander 3 (TBA)\n Daddy Cool Munde Fool film series (2 films)\n Daddy Cool Munde Fool (2013)\n Daddy Cool Munde Fool 2 (TBA)\n Chaar Sahibzaade film series (2 films)\n Chaar Sahibzaade (2014)\n Chaar Sahibzaade: Rise of Banda Singh Bahadur (2016)\n Mr & Mrs 420 film series (3 films)\n Mr & Mrs 420 (2014)\n Mr & Mrs 420 Returns (2018)\n Mr & Mrs 420 3 (2023)\nRupinder Gandhi film series (3 films)\n Rupinder Gandhi the Gangster..? (2015)", "Rupinder Gandhi film series (3 films)\n Rupinder Gandhi the Gangster..? (2015)\n Rupinder Gandhi 2: The Robinhood (2017)\n Rupinder Gandhi 3 (TBA)\nShareek film series (2 films)\n Shareek (2015)\n Shareek 2 (2022)\n Ardaas film series (3 films)\n Ardaas (2016)\n Ardaas Karaan (2019)\n Ardaas Sarbat De Bhalle Di (2024)\n Nikka Zaildar Trilogy (3 films)\n Nikka Zaildar (2016)\n Nikka Zaildar 2 (2017)\n Nikka Zaildar 3 (2019)\n Jora film series (2 films)\n Jora 10 Numbaria (2017)\n Jora: The Second Chapter (2020)", "Jora film series (2 films)\n Jora 10 Numbaria (2017)\n Jora: The Second Chapter (2020)\n Manje Bistre Trilogy (3 films)\n Manje Bistre (2017)\n Manje Bistre 2 (2019)\n Manje Bistre 3 (2024)\n Rabb Da Radio film series (2 films)\n Rabb Da Radio (2017)\n Rabb Da Radio 2 (2019)\n Rabb Da Radio 3 (2024)\n Dakuaan Da Munda film series (2 films)\n Dakuaan Da Munda (2018)\n Dakuaan Da Munda 2 (2022)\n Golak Bugni Bank Te Batua film series (2 films)\n Golak Bugni Bank Te Batua (2018)\n Golak Bugni Bank Te Batua 2 (2023)", "Golak Bugni Bank Te Batua (2018)\n Golak Bugni Bank Te Batua 2 (2023)\n Laung Laachi film series (2 films)\n Laung Laachi (2018)\n Laung Laachi 2 (2022)\n Qismat film series (3 films)\n Qismat (2018)\n Qismat 2 (2021)\n Qismat 3 (TBA)\n Raduaa film series (2 films)\n Raduaa (2018)\n Raduaa Returns (TBA)\n Chal Mera Putt Trilogy (3 films) \n Chal Mera Putt (2019)\n Chal Mera Putt 2 (2020)\n Chal Mera Putt 3 (2021)\n Blackia film series (2 films)\n Blackia (2019)\n Blackia 2 (2023)\n Teeja Punjab film series (2 films)", "Blackia (2019)\n Blackia 2 (2023)\n Teeja Punjab film series (2 films)\n Teeja Punjab (2021)\n Teeja Punjab 2 (2022)\n Warning film series (2 films)\n Warning (2021)\n Warning 2 (2022)", "Common diegetic world \n Yaraan Naal Baharaan film series (2 films)\n Yaraan Naal Baharaan (2005)\n Yaraan Naal Baharaan II (2012)\n Sardaar Ji film series (2 films)\n Sardaar Ji (2015)\n Sardaar Ji 2 (2016)\n\n Tamil / Kollywood \n\n Story-line / Character followup", "Iruvar Ullam film series (2 films)\n Iruvar Ullam (1963)\n Once More (1997)\n Kalyanaraman film series (2 films)\n Kalyanaraman (1979)\n Japanil Kalyanaraman (1985)\n Manal Kayiru film series (2 films)\n Manal Kayiru (1982)\n Manal Kayiru 2 (2016)\n Aan Pavam film series (2 films)\n Aan Paavam (1985)\n Kai Vandha Kalai (2006)\n Salem Vishnu film series (2 films)\n New Delhi (1987)\n Salem Vishnu (1990)\n Krodham film series (2 films)\n Krodham (1989)\n Krodham 2 (2000)\n Amaidhi Padai film series (2 films)", "Krodham (1989)\n Krodham 2 (2000)\n Amaidhi Padai film series (2 films)\n Amaidhi Padai (1994)\n Nagaraja Cholan MA, MLA (2013)\n Indian film series (2 films)\n Indian (1996)\n Indian 2 (2023)\n Saamy film series (2 films)\n Saamy (2003)\n Saamy Square (2018)\n Sandakozhi film series (2 films)\n Sandakozhi (2005)\n Sandakozhi 2 (2018)\n Chithiram Pesuthadi film series (2 films)\n Chithiram Pesuthadi (2006)\n Chithiram Pesuthadi 2 (2019)\n Thalai Nagaram film series (3 films)\n Thalai Nagaram (2006)", "Chithiram Pesuthadi 2 (2019)\n Thalai Nagaram film series (3 films)\n Thalai Nagaram (2006)\n Naai Sekar Returns (2022)\n Thalai Nagaram 2 (2023)\n Billa film series (2 films)\n Billa (2007)\n Billa II (2012)\n Chennai 600028 film series (2 films)\n Chennai 600028 (2007)\n Chennai 600028 II: Second Innings (2016)\n Sivi film series (2 films)\n Sivi (2007)\n Sivi 2 (2022)\nNaadodigal film series (2 films)\n Naadodigal (2009)\n Naadodigal 2 (2020)\nVennila Kabadi Kuzhu film series (2 films)\n Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu (2009)", "Naadodigal 2 (2020)\nVennila Kabadi Kuzhu film series (2 films)\n Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu (2009)\n Vennila Kabaddi Kuzhu 2 (2019)\n Singam film series (3 films)\n Singam (2010)\n Singam II (2013)\n Si3 (2017)\nEnthiran film series (2 films)\n Enthiran (2010)\n 2.0 (2018)\nThamizh Padam film series (2 films)Thamizh Padam (2010)Thamizh Padam 2 (2018)\n Kalavani film series (2 films)\n Kalavani (2010)\n Kalavani 2 (2019)\n Kazhugu film series (2 films)\n Kazhugu (2012)\n Kazhugu 2 (2019)\n Vishwaroopam film series (2 films)", "Kazhugu (2012)\n Kazhugu 2 (2019)\n Vishwaroopam film series (2 films)\n Vishwaroopam (2013)\n Vishwaroopam II (2018)\nChennaiyil Oru Naal film series (2 films)\n Chennaiyil Oru Naal (2013)\n Chennaiyil Oru Naal 2 (2017)\n Jigarthanda film series (2 films)\n Jigarthanda (2014)\n Jigarthanda DoubleX (TBA)\n Velaiilla Pattadhari film series (2 films)\n Velaiilla Pattadhari (2014)\n Velaiilla Pattadhari 2 (2017)\nBaahubali film Series (2 films)\n Baahubali: The Beginning (2015)\n Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (2017)", "Baahubali: The Beginning (2015)\n Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (2017)\n Demonte Colony film series (2 films)\n Demonte Colony (2015)\n Demonte Colony 2 (2023)\n Maari film series (2 films)\n Maari (2015)\n Maari 2 (2018)\nDevi film series (2 films)\n Devi (2016)\n Devi 2 (2019)\nPichaikkaran film series (2 films)\n Pichaikkaran (2016)\n Pichaikkaran 2 (2023)\nLokesh Cinematic Universe (3 films)\n Kaithi (2019)\n Vikram (2022)\n Leo (2023)\nJiivi film series (2 films)\n Jiivi (2019)\n Jiivi 2 (2022)\nMethagu film series", "Leo (2023)\nJiivi film series (2 films)\n Jiivi (2019)\n Jiivi 2 (2022)\nMethagu film series\n Methagu (2021)\n Methagu 2 (2022)\nPonniyin Selvan film series (2 films)\n Ponniyin Selvan: I (2022)\n Ponniyin Selvan: II (2023)\nViduthalai film series (2 films)\n Viduthalai Part 1 (2023)\n Viduthalai Part 2 (TBA)", "Common diegetic world", "Aval Appadithan film series (2 films)\n Aval Appadithan (1978)\n Aval Appadithan 2 (2023)\n Neeya film series (3 films)\n Neeya? (1979)\n Naane Varuven (1992)\n Neeya 2 (2019)\n Azhiyatha Kolangal film series (2 films)\n Azhiyatha Kolangal (1979)\n Azhiyatha Kolangal 2 (2019)\n Aan Paavam film series (2 films)\n Aan Paavam (1985)\n Kai Vandha Kalai (2006)\n Manithan film series (2 films)\n Nalaya Manithan (1989)\n Adhisaya Manithan (1990)\n Pulan Visaranai film series (2 films)\n Pulan Visaranai (1990)", "Adhisaya Manithan (1990)\n Pulan Visaranai film series (2 films)\n Pulan Visaranai (1990)\n Pulan Visaranai 2 (2015)\n Jai Hind film series (2 films)\n Jai Hind (1994)\n Jai Hind 2 (2014)\n Chandramukhi film series (2 films)\n Chandramukhi (2005)\n Chandramukhi 2 (2023)\n Jithan film series (2 films)\n Jithan (2005)\n Jithan 2 (2016)\n Thiruttu Payale film series (2 films)\n Thiruttu Payale (2006)\n Thiruttu Payale 2 (2017)\n Naan Avanillai film series (2 films)\n Naan Avanillai (2007)\n Naan Avanillai 2 (2009)", "Naan Avanillai film series (2 films)\n Naan Avanillai (2007)\n Naan Avanillai 2 (2009)\n Muni film series (4 films)\n Muni (2007)\n Muni 2: Kanchana (2011)\n Kanchana 2 (2015)\n Kanchana 3 (2019)\n Pasanga film series (2 films)\n Pasanga (2009)\n Pasanga 2: Haiku (2015)\n Ko film series (2 films)\n Ko (2011)\n Ko 2 (2016)\n Kalakalappu film series (2 films)\n Kalakalappu (2012)\n Kalakalappu 2 (2018)\nSaattai franchise (3 films)\n Saattai (2012)Appa (2016)\n Adutha Saattai (2019)\nPizza film series (3 films)\n Pizza (2012)", "Saattai (2012)Appa (2016)\n Adutha Saattai (2019)\nPizza film series (3 films)\n Pizza (2012)\n Pizza 2: The Villa (2013)\n Pizza 3: The Mummy (2023)\nAranmanai film series (3 films)\n Aranmanai (2014)\n Aranmanai 2 (2016)\n Aranmanai 3 (2021)\n Darling film series (2 films)\n Darling (2015)\n Darling 2 (2016)\nCharlie Chaplin film series (2 films)Charlie Chaplin (2002)Charlie Chaplin 2 (2019)\nGoli Soda film series (2 films)Goli Soda (2015)Goli Soda 2 (2018)", "Goli Soda film series (2 films)Goli Soda (2015)Goli Soda 2 (2018)\nDhilluku Dhuddu film series (3 films)Dhilluku Dhuddu (2016)Dhilluku Dhuddu 2 (2019)DD Returns (2023)\nUriyadi film series (2 films)Uriyadi (2016)Uriyadi 2 (2019)\nKuththu film series (2 films)Iruttu Araiyil Murattu Kuththu (2018)Irandam Kuththu (2020)", "Telugu / Tollywood \n\n Story-line / Character followup", "Money film series (3 films)\n Money (1993)\n Money Money (1995)\n Money Money, More Money (2011)\n Pelli Sandadi film series (2 films)\n Pelli Sandadi (1996)\n Pelli SandaD (2021)\n Manmadhudu film series (2 films)\n Manmadhudu (2002)\n Manmadhudu 2 (2019)\n Arya film series (2 films)\n Arya (2004)\n Arya 2 (2009)\n Shankar Dada film series (2 films)\n Shankar Dada M.B.B.S. (2004)\n Shankar Dada Zindabad (2007)\nChandramukhi film series (2 films)\n Chandramukhi (2005)\n Nagavalli (2010)\n Kick film series (2 films)", "Chandramukhi (2005)\n Nagavalli (2010)\n Kick film series (2 films)\n Kick (2009)\n Kick 2 (2015)\nRakta Charitra film series (2 films)\n Rakta Charitra I (2010)\n Rakta Charitra II (2010)\n Gabbar Singh film series (2 films)\n Gabbar Singh (2012)\n Sardaar Gabbar Singh (2016)\nAvunu film series (2 films)\n Avunu (2012)\n Avunu 2 (2015)\nDrushyam film series (2 films)\n Drushyam (2014)\n Drushyam 2 (2021)\nKarthikeya film series (2 films)\n Karthikeya (2014)\n Karthikeya 2 (2022)\nBaahubali film series (2 films)", "Karthikeya (2014)\n Karthikeya 2 (2022)\nBaahubali film series (2 films)\n Baahubali: The Beginning (2015)\n Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (2017)\n Bangarraju film series (2 films)\n Soggade Chinni Nayana (2016)\n Bangarraju (2022)\nAbhinetri film series (2 films)\n Abhinetri (2016)\n Abhinetri 2 (2019)\nGoodachari film series (2 films)\n Goodachari (2018)\n Goodachari 2 (2023)\nNTR film series (2 films)\n N.T.R: Kathanayakudu (2019)\n N.T.R: Mahanayakudu (2019)\nFun and Frustration Series (2 films)", "N.T.R: Kathanayakudu (2019)\n N.T.R: Mahanayakudu (2019)\nFun and Frustration Series (2 films)\n F2: Fun and Frustration (2019)\n F3: Fun and Frustration (2022) \niSmart film series (2 films)iSmart Shankar (2019)Double iSmart (2024)\nHIT Universe (2 films)HIT: The First Case (2020)HIT: The Second Case (2022)\n HIT: The Third Case (TBA)\nPushpa film Series (2 films)\n Pushpa: The Rise – Part 1 (2021)\n Pushpa: The Rule – Part 2 (2023)\nTillu film Series (2 films)DJ Tillu (2022)Tillu Square (2023)", "Pushpa: The Rule – Part 2 (2023)\nTillu film Series (2 films)DJ Tillu (2022)Tillu Square (2023)\nSalaar film series (2 films)\n Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefire (2023)\n Salaar: Part 2 (TBA)", "Common Diegetic World", "Khaidi film series (3 films)\n Khaidi (1983)\n Khaidi No. 786 (1988)\n Khaidi No. 150 (2017)\n Gaayam film series (2 films)\n Gaayam (1993)\n Gaayam 2 (2010)\n Satya film series (2 films)\n Satya (1998)\n Satya 2 (2013)\nAithe film series (2 films)\n Aithe (2003)\n Aithe 2.0 (2018)\n Aravind film series (2 films)\n A Film by Aravind (2005)\n Aravind 2 (2013)\n Vennela film series (2 films)\n Vennela (2005)\n Vennela 1 1/2 (2012)\n Mantra film series (2 films)\n Mantra (2007)\n Mantra 2 (2015)", "Vennela (2005)\n Vennela 1 1/2 (2012)\n Mantra film series (2 films)\n Mantra (2007)\n Mantra 2 (2015)\nOperation Duryodhana film series (2 films)\n Operation Duryodhana (2007)\n Operation Duryodhana 2 (2013)\nVinayakudu film series (2 films)\n Vinayakudu (2008)\n Villagelo Vinayakudu (2009)\nPrema Katha Chitram film series (2 films)Prema Katha Chitram (2013)Prema Katha Chitram 2 (2019)\n Ice Cream film series (2 films)\n Ice Cream (2014)\n Ice Cream 2 (2014)\nRaju Gari Gadhi series (3 films)\n Raju Gari Gadhi (2015)", "Ice Cream (2014)\n Ice Cream 2 (2014)\nRaju Gari Gadhi series (3 films)\n Raju Gari Gadhi (2015)\n Raju Gari Gadhi 2 (2017)\n Raju Gari Gadhi 3'' (2019)", "Notes\n\nReferences \n\nIndia\n\nseries" ]

[ "The history of the Jews in Hungary dates back to at least the Kingdom of Hungary, with some records even predating the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 895 CE by over 600 years. Written sources prove that Jewish communities lived in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary and it is even assumed that several sections of the heterogeneous Hungarian tribes practiced Judaism. Jewish officials served the king during the early 13th century reign of Andrew II", ". Jewish officials served the king during the early 13th century reign of Andrew II. From the second part of the 13th century, the general religious tolerance decreased and Hungary's policies became similar to the treatment of the Jewish population in Western Europe.", "The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the First World War. By the early 20th century, the community had grown to constitute 5% of Hungary's total population and 23% of the population of the capital, Budapest. Jews became prominent in science, the arts and business. By 1941, over 17% of Budapest's Jews had converted to the Catholic Church.", "Anti-Jewish policies grew more repressive in the interwar period as Hungary's leaders, who remained committed to regaining the territories lost at the peace agreement (Treaty of Trianon) of 1920, chose to align themselves with the governments of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy – the international actors most likely to stand behind Hungary's claims. Starting in 1938, Hungary under Miklós Horthy passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germany's Nürnberg Laws", ". Following the German occupation of Hungary on March 19, 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival.", "The 2011 Hungary census data had 10,965 people (0.11%) who self-identified as religious Jews, of whom 10,553 (96.2%) declared themselves as ethnic Hungarian. Estimates of Hungary's Jewish population in 2010 range from 54,000 to more than 130,000 mostly concentrated in Budapest. There are many active synagogues in Hungary, including the Dohány Street Synagogue, the largest synagogue in Europe and the second largest synagogue in the world after the Temple Emanu-El in New York City.\n\nEarly history", "Before 1095", "It is not definitely known when Jews first settled in Hungary. According to tradition, King Decebalus (ruled Dacia 87–106 CE) permitted the Jews who aided him in his war against Rome to settle in his territory. Dacia included part of modern-day Hungary as well as Romania and Moldova and smaller areas of Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Serbia. Prisoners of the Jewish-Roman Wars may have been brought back by the victorious Roman legions normally stationed in Provincia Pannonia (Western Hungary)", ". Marcus Aurelius ordered the transfer of some of his rebellious troops from Syria to Pannonia in 175 CE. These troops had been recruited partly in Antioch and Hemesa (now Homs), which still had a sizable Jewish population at that time. The Antiochian troops were transferred to Ulcisia Castra (today Szentendre), while the Hemesian troops settled in Intercisa (Dunaújváros).", "According to Raphael Patai, stone inscriptions referring to Jews were found in Brigetio (now Szőny), Solva (Esztergom), Aquincum (Budapest), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Dombovár, Siklós, Sopianae (Pécs) and Savaria (Szombathely). A Latin inscription, the epitaph of Septima Maria, discovered in Siklós (southern Hungary near Croatian border), clearly refers to her Jewishness (\"Judaea\")", ". The Intercisa tablet was inscribed on behalf of \"Cosmius, chief of the Spondilla customhouse, [head of the synagogue of the Jews]\" during the reign of Alexander Severus. In 2008, a team of archeologists discovered a 3rd-century AD amulet in the form of a gold scroll with the words of the Jewish prayer Shema' Yisrael inscribed on it in Féltorony (now Halbturn, Burgenland, in Austria). Hungarian tribes settled the territory 650 years later", ". Hungarian tribes settled the territory 650 years later. In the Hungarian language, the word for Jew is zsidó, which was adopted from one of the Slavic languages.", "The first historical document relating to the Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 CE to King Joseph of the Khazars by Hasdai ibn Shaprut, the Jewish statesman of Córdoba, in which he says that the Slavic ambassadors promised to deliver the message to the King of Slavonia, who would hand the same to Jews living in \"the country of Hungarin\", who, in turn, would transmit it farther. About the same time Ibrahim ibn Jacob says that Jews went from Hungary to Prague for business purposes", ". Nothing is known concerning the Jews during the period of the grand princes, except that they lived in the country and engaged in commerce there.", "In 1061, King Béla I ordered that markets should take place on Saturdays instead of the traditional Sundays (Hungarian language has preserved the previous custom, \"Sunday\" = , \"market day\"). In the reign of St. Ladislaus (1077–1095), the Synod of Szabolcs decreed (20 May 1092) that Jews should not be permitted to have Christian wives or to keep Christian slaves. This decree had been promulgated in the Christian countries of Europe since the 5th century, and St. Ladislaus merely introduced it into Hungary.", "The Jews of Hungary at first formed small settlements, and had no learned rabbis; but they were strictly observant of all the Jewish laws and customs. One tradition relates the story of Jews from Ratisbon (Regensburg) coming into Hungary with merchandise from Russia, on a Friday; the wheel of their wagon broke near Buda (Ofen) or Esztergom (Gran) and by the time they had repaired it and had entered the town, the Jews were just leaving the synagogue. The unintentional Sabbath-breakers were heavily fined", ". The unintentional Sabbath-breakers were heavily fined. The ritual of the Hungarian Jews faithfully reflected contemporary German customs.", "1095–1349", "Coloman (1095–1116), the successor of St. Ladislaus, renewed the Szabolcs decree of 1092, adding further prohibitions against the employment of Christian slaves and domestics. He also restricted the Jews to cities with episcopal sees – probably to have them under the continuous supervision of the Church. Soon after the promulgation of this decree, Crusaders came to Hungary; but the Hungarians did not sympathize with them, and Coloman even opposed them", ". The infuriated Crusaders attacked some cities, and if Gedaliah ibn Yaḥya is to be believed, the Jews suffered a fate similar to that of their coreligionists in France, Germany, and Bohemia.", "The cruelties inflicted upon the Jews of Bohemia induced many of them to seek refuge in Hungary. It was probably the immigration of the rich Bohemian Jews that induced Coloman soon afterward to regulate commercial and banking transactions between Jews and Christians. He decreed, among other regulations, that if a Christian borrowed from a Jew, or a Jew from a Christian, both Christian and Jewish witnesses must be present at the transaction.", "During the reign of King Andrew II (1205–1235) there were Jewish Chamberlains and mint-, salt-, and tax-officials. The nobles of the country, however, induced the king, in his Golden Bull (1222), to deprive the Jews of these high offices. When Andrew needed money in 1226, he farmed the royal revenues to Jews, which gave ground for much complaint", ". The pope (Pope Honorius III) thereupon excommunicated him, until, in 1233, he promised the papal ambassadors on oath that he would enforce the decrees of the Golden Bull directed against the Jews and the Saracens (by this time, the papacy had changed, and the Pope was now Pope Gregory IX; he would cause both peoples to be distinguished from Christians by means of badges; and would forbid both Jews and Saracens to buy or to keep Christian slaves.", "The year 1240 was the closing one of the fifth millennium of the Jewish era. At that time the Jews were expecting the advent of their Messiah. The Mongol invasion in 1241 seemed to conform to expectation, as Jewish imagination expected the happy Messianic period to be ushered in by the war of Gog and Magog", ". Béla IV (1235–1270) appointed a Jewish man named Henul to the office of court chamberlain (Teka had filled this office under Andrew II); and Wölfel and his sons Altmann and Nickel held the castle at Komárom with its domains in pawn. Béla also entrusted the Jews with the mint; and Hebrew coins of this period are still found in Hungary", ". In 1251 a privilegium was granted by Béla to his Jewish subjects which was essentially the same as that granted by Duke Frederick II the Quarrelsome to the Austrian Jews in 1244, but which Béla modified to suit the conditions of Hungary. This privilegium remained in force down to the Battle of Mohács (1526).", "At the Synod of Buda (1279), held in the reign of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290), it was decreed, in the presence of the papal ambassador Philip of Fermo, that every Jew appearing in public should wear on the left side of his upper garment a piece of red cloth; that any Christian transacting business with a Jew not so marked, or living in a house or on land together with any Jew", ", or living in a house or on land together with any Jew, should be refused admittance to the Church services; and that a Christian entrusting any office to a Jew should be excommunicated", ". Andrew III (1291–1301), the last king of the Árpád dynasty, declared, in the privilegium granted by him to the community of Posonium (Bratislava), that the Jews in that city should enjoy all the liberties of citizens.", "Expulsion, readmition and persecution (1349–1526)", "Under the rule of the foreign kings who occupied the throne of Hungary on the extinction of the house of Arpad, the Hungarian Jews were subjected to many persecutions. During the time of the Black Death (1349), they were expelled from the country. Even though the Jews were immediately readmitted, they were persecuted again, and in 1360, they were expelled by King Louis the Great of Anjou (1342–1382)", ". Although King Louis had initially shown tolerance to the Jews during the early years of his reign, following his conquest of Bosnia, during which he tried to force the local population to convert from the \"heretic\" Bogomil Christianity to Catholicism, King Louis attempted to impose conversion on Hungarian Jews as well. However, he failed in his attempt to convert them to Catholicism, and expelled them", ". However, he failed in his attempt to convert them to Catholicism, and expelled them. They were received by Alexander the Good of Moldavia and Dano I of Wallachia, the latter who afforded them special commercial privileges.", "Some years later, when Hungary was in financial distress, the Jews were readmitted. They learned that during their absence, the king had introduced the custom of Tödtbriefe, i.e., cancelling by a stroke of his pen, on the request of a subject or a city, the notes and mortgage-deeds of the Jews", ". An important office which was created by Louis was the office of the \"judge of all the Jews living in Hungary,\" who was chosen from among the dignitaries of the country, the palatines, and treasurers, and he was aided by a deputy. It was his duty to collect taxes from the Jews, protect their privileges, and listen to their complaints, which had become more frequent since the reign of Sigismund Luxembourg (1387–1437).", "The successors of Sigismund: Albert (1437–1439), Ladislaus Posthumus (1453–1457), and Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490) all likewise confirmed the privilegium of Béla IV. Matthias created the office of Jewish prefect in Hungary. The period following the death of Matthias was a sad one for the Hungarian Jews. He was hardly buried, when the people fell upon them, confiscated their property, refused to pay debts owing to them, and persecuted them generally", ". The pretender John Corvinus, Matthias' illegitimate son, expelled them from Tata, and King Ladislaus II (1490–1516), always in need of money, laid heavy taxes upon them. During his reign, Jews were for the first time burned at the stake, many being executed at Nagyszombat (Trnava) in 1494, on suspicion of ritual murder.", "For protection, the Hungarian Jews applied to the German Emperor Maximilian. On the occasion of the marriage of Louis II and the archduchess Maria (1512), the emperor, with the consent of Ladislaus, took the prefect, Jacob Mendel of Buda, together with his family and all the other Hungarian Jews, under his protection, according to them all the rights enjoyed by his other subjects. Under Ladislaus' successor, Louis II (1516–1526), persecution of the Jews was a common occurrence", ". Under Ladislaus' successor, Louis II (1516–1526), persecution of the Jews was a common occurrence. The bitter feeling against them was in part augmented by the fact that the baptized Emerich Szerencsés, the deputy treasurer, embezzled the public funds.", "War against the Ottomans (1526–1686)", "The Ottomans vanquished the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohács (29 August 1526), on which occasion Louis II lost his life on the battlefield. When the news of his death reached the capital, Buda, the court and the nobles fled together with some wealthy Jews, among them the prefect", ". When the grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, preceding Sultan Suleiman I, arrived with his army at Buda, the representatives of the Jews who had remained in the city appeared garbed in mourning before him, and, begging for grace, handed him the keys of the deserted and unprotected castle in token of submission", ". The sultan himself entered Buda on September 11; and on September 22 he decreed that all the Jews seized at Buda, Esztergom, and elsewhere, more than 2,000 in number, should be distributed among the cities of the Ottoman Empire. They were sent to Constantinople, Plevna (Pleven) and Sofia, where they maintained their separate community for several decades. In Sofia, there existed four Jewish communities in the second half of the 16th century: Romaniote, Ashkenazi, Sephardi and \"Ungarus\"", ". The overflow of Hungarian Jews from Sofia also settled in Kavala later.", "Although the Ottoman Army turned back after the battle, in 1541 it again invaded Hungary to help repel an Austrian attempt to take Buda. By the time the Ottoman Army arrived, the Austrians were defeated, but the Ottomans seized Buda by ruse.", "While some of the Jews of Hungary were deported to Anatolia, others, who had fled at the approach of the sultan, sought refuge beyond the frontier or in the free royal towns of western Hungary. The widow of Louis II, the queen regent Maria, favored the enemies of the Jews. The citizens of Sopron (Ödenburg) began hostilities by expelling the Jews of that city, confiscating their property, and pillaging the vacated houses and the synagogue", ". The city of Pressburg (Bratislava) also received permission from the queen (9 October 1526) to expel the Jews living within its territory, because they had expressed their intention of fleeing before the Turks. The Jews left Pressburg on November 9.", "On that same day the diet at Székesfehérvár was opened, at which János Szapolyai (1526–1540) was elected and crowned king in opposition to Ferdinand. During this session it was decreed that the Jews should immediately be expelled from every part of the country. Zápolya, however, did not ratify these laws; and the Diet held at Pressburg in December 1526, at which Ferdinand of Habsburg was chosen king (1526–1564), annulled all the decrees of that of Székesfehérvár, including Zápolya's election as king.", "As the lord of Bösing (Pezinok) was in debt to the Jews, a blood accusation was brought against these inconvenient creditors in 1529. Although Mendel, the prefect, and the Jews throughout Hungary protested, the accused were burned at the stake. For centuries afterward Jews were forbidden to live at Bösing. The Jews of Nagyszombat (Trnava) soon shared a similar fate, being first punished for alleged ritual murder and then expelled from the city (19 February 1539).", "The Jews living in the parts of Hungary occupied by the Ottoman Empire were treated far better than those living under the Habsburgs. During the periods of 1546–1590 and 1620–1680, the community of Ofen (Buda) flourished.\n\nThe following table shows the number of Jewish jizya-tax paying heads of household in Buda during Ottoman rule:\n\nAt the end of the Ottoman era, the approximately one thousand Jews living in Buda worshipped in three synagogues: an Ashkenazi, a Sephardi and a Syrian one.", "While the Ottomans held sway in Hungary, the Jews of Transylvania (at that time an independent principality) also fared well. At the instance of Abraham Sassa, a Jewish physician of Constantinople, Prince Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania granted a letter of privileges (18 June 1623) to the Spanish Jews from Anatolia. But the community of Judaizing Szekler Sabbatarians, which had existed in Transylvania since 1588, was persecuted and driven underground in 1638.", "On 26 November 1572, King Maximilian II (1563–1576) intended to expel the Jews of Pressburg (Bratislava), stating that his edict would be recalled only in case they accepted Christianity. The Jews, however, remained in the city, without abandoning their religion. They were in constant conflict with the citizens. On 1 June 1582 the municipal council decreed that no one should harbor Jews, or even transact business with them", ". The feeling against the Jews in that part of the country not under Turkish rule is shown by the decree of the Diet of 1578, to the effect that Jews were to be taxed double the amount which was imposed upon other citizens.", "By article XV of the law promulgated by the Diet of 1630, Jews were forbidden to take charge of the customs; and this decree was confirmed by the Diet of 1646 on the ground that the Jews were excluded from the privileges of the country, that they were unbelievers, and had no conscience (). The Jews had to pay a special war-tax when the imperial troops set out toward the end of the 16th century to recapture Buda from the Ottomans", ". The Buda community suffered much during this siege, as did also that of Székesfehérvár when the imperial troops took that city in September 1601; many of its members were either slain or taken prisoner and sold into slavery, their redemption being subsequently effected by the German, Italian, and Ottoman Jews", ". After the conclusion of peace, which the Jews helped to bring about, the communities were in part reconstructed; but further development in the territory of the Habsburgs was arrested when Leopold I (1657–1705) expelled the Jews (24 April 1671). He, however, revoked his decree a few months later (August 20). During the siege of Vienna, in 1683, the Jews that had returned to that city were again maltreated. The Ottomans plundered some communities in western Hungary, and deported the members as slaves.", "Habsburg rule", "Further persecution and expulsions (1686–1740)", "The imperial troops recaptured Buda on 2 September 1686, most Jewish residents were massacred, some captured and later released for ransom. In the following years the whole of Hungary now came under the rule of the House of Habsburg. As the devastated country had to be repopulated, Bishop Count Leopold Karl von Kollonitsch, subsequently Archbishop of Esztergom and Primate of Hungary, advised the king to give the preference to the German Catholics so that the country might in time become German and Catholic", ". He held that the Jews could not be exterminated at once, but they must be weeded out by degrees, as bad coin is gradually withdrawn from circulation. The decree passed by the Diet of Pressburg (1687–1688), imposing double taxation upon the Jews. Jews were not be permitted to engage in agriculture, nor to own any real estate, nor to keep Christian servants.", "This advice soon bore fruit and was in part acted upon. In August 1690, the government at Vienna ordered Sopron to expel its Jews, who had immigrated from the Austrian provinces. The government, desiring to enforce the edict of the last Diet, decreed soon afterward that Jews should be removed from the office of collector. The order proved ineffective, however; and the employment of Jewish customs officials was continued", ". Even the treasurer of the realm set the example in transgressing the law by appointing (1692) Simon Hirsch as customs farmer at Leopoldstadt (Leopoldov); and at Hirsch's death he transferred the office to Hirsch's son-in-law.", "The revolt of the Kuruc, under Francis II Rákóczi, caused much suffering to Hungary's Jews. The Kuruc imprisoned and slew the Jews, who had incurred their anger by siding with the king's party", ". The Jews of Eisenstadt, accompanied by those of the community of Mattersdorf, sought refuge at Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, and Forchtenstein; those of Holics (Holíč) and Sasvár (Šaštín) dispersed to Göding (Hodonín); while others, who could not leave their business in this time of distress, sent their families to safe places, and themselves braved the danger", ". While not many Jews lost their lives during this revolt, it made great havoc in their wealth, especially in Sopron County, where a number of rich Jews were living. The king granted letters of protection to those that had been ruined by the revolt, and demanded satisfaction for those that had been injured; but in return for these favors he commanded the Jews to furnish the sums necessary for suppressing the revolt.", "After the restoration of peace the Jews were expelled from many cities that feared their competition; thus Esztergom expelled them in 1712, on the ground that the city which had given birth to St. Stephen must not be desecrated by them. But the Jews living in the country, on the estates of their landlords, were generally left alone.", "The lot of the Jews was not improved under the reign of Leopold's son, Charles III (1711–1740). He informed the government (June 28, 1725) that he intended to decrease the number of Jews in his domains, and the government thereupon directed the counties to furnish statistics of the Hebrew inhabitants. In 1726 the king decreed that in the Austrian provinces, from the day of publication of the decree, only one male member in each Jewish family be allowed to marry", ". This decree, restricting the natural increase of the Jews, materially affected the Jewish communities of Hungary. All the Jews in the Austrian provinces who could not marry there went to Hungary to found families; thus the overflow of Austrian Jews peopled Hungary. These immigrants settled chiefly in the northwestern counties, in Nyitra (Nitra), Pressburg (Bratislava), and Trencsén (Trenčín).", "The Moravian Jews continued to live in Hungary as Moravian subjects; even those that went there for the purpose of marrying and settling promised on oath before leaving that they would pay the same taxes as those living in Moravia. In 1734 the Jews of Trencsén bound themselves by a secret oath that in all their communal affairs they would submit to the Jewish court at Ungarisch-Brod (Uherský Brod) only. In the course of time the immigrants refused to pay taxes to the Austrian provinces", ". In the course of time the immigrants refused to pay taxes to the Austrian provinces. The Moravian Jews, who had suffered by the heavy emigration, then brought complaint; and Maria Theresa ordered that all Jewish and Christian subjects that had emigrated after 1740 should be extradited, while those who had emigrated before that date were to be released from their Moravian allegiance.", "The government could not, however, check the large immigration; for although strict laws were drafted in 1727, they could not be enforced owing to the good-will of the magnates toward the Jews. The counties either did not answer at all, or sent reports bespeaking mercy rather than persecution.", "Meanwhile, the king endeavored to free the mining-towns from the Jews – a work which Leopold I had already begun in 1693. The Jews, however, continued to settle near these towns; they displayed their wares at the fairs; and, with the permission of the court, they even erected a foundry at Ság (Sasinkovo). When King Charles ordered them to leave (March 1727), the royal mandate was in some places ignored; in others the Jews obeyed so slowly that he had to repeat his edict three months later.", "Maria Theresa (1740–1780)", "In 1735, another census of the Jews of the country was taken with the view of reducing their numbers. There were at that time 11,621 Jews living in Hungary, of which 2,474 were male heads of families, and fifty-seven were female heads. Of these heads of families 35.31 per cent declared themselves to be Hungarians; the rest had immigrated. Of the immigrants 38.35 per cent came from Moravia, 11.05 per cent from Poland, and 3.07 per cent from Bohemia", ".35 per cent came from Moravia, 11.05 per cent from Poland, and 3.07 per cent from Bohemia. The largest Jewish community, numbering 770 persons, was that of Pressburg (Bratislava). Most of the Jews were engaged in commerce or industries, most being merchants, traders, or shopkeepers; only a few pursued agriculture.", "During the reign of Queen Maria Theresa (1740–1780), daughter of Charles III, the Jews were expelled from Buda (1746), and the \"toleration-tax\" was imposed upon the Hungarian Jews. On September 1, 1749, the delegates of the Hungarian Jews, except those from Szatmár County, assembled at Pressburg and met a royal commission, which informed them that they would be expelled from the country if they did not pay this tax", ". The frightened Jews at once agreed to do so; and the commission then demanded a yearly tax of ƒ50,000. This sum being excessive, the delegates protested; and although the queen had fixed ƒ30,000 as the minimum tax, they were finally able to compromise on the payment of ƒ20,000 a year for a period of eight years. The delegates were to apportion this amount among the districts; the districts, their respective sums among the communities; and the communities, theirs among the individual members.", "The queen confirmed this agreement of the commission, except the eight-year clause, changing the period to three years, which she subsequently made five. The agreement, thus ratified by the queen, was brought on November 26 before the courts, which were powerless to relieve the Jews from the payment of this Malkegeld (\"queen's money\" in Yiddish), as they called it.", "The Jews, thus burdened by new taxes, thought the time ripe for taking steps to remove their oppressive disabilities. While still at Presburg the delegates had brought their grievances before the mixed commission that was called . These complaints pictured the distress of the Jews of that time. They were not allowed to live in Croatia and Slavonia, in Baranya and Heves Counties, or in several free royal towns and localities; nor might they visit the markets there", ". At Stuhlweissenburg (Székesfehérvár) they had to pay a poll-tax of 1 florin, 30 kreutzer if they entered the city during the day, if only for an hour. In many places they might not even stay overnight. They therefore begged permission to settle, or at least to visit the fairs, in Croatia and Slavonia and in those places from which they had been driven in consequence of the jealousy of the Greeks and the merchants.", "The Jews also had to pay heavier bridge-and ferry-tolls than the Christians; at Nagyszombat (Trnava) they had to pay three times the ordinary sum, namely, for the driver, for the vehicle, and for the animal drawing the same; and in three villages belonging to the same district they had to pay toll, although there was no toll-gate. Jews living on the estates of the nobles had to give their wives and children as pledges for arrears of taxes", ". In Upper Hungary they asked for the revocation of the toleration-tax imposed by the chamber of Zips County (Szepes, Spiš), on the ground that otherwise the Jews living there would have to pay two such taxes; and they asked also to be relieved from a similar tax paid to the Diet. Finally, they requested that Jewish artisans might be allowed to follow their trades in their homes undisturbed.", "The commission laid these complaints before the Queen, indicating the manner in which they could be relieved; and their suggestions were subsequently willed by the queen and made into law. The queen relieved the Jews from the tax of toleration in Upper Hungary only. In regard to the other complaints she ordered that the Jews should specify them in detail, and that the government should remedy them insofar as they came under its jurisdiction.", "The toleration-tax had hardly been instituted when Michael Hirsch petitioned the government to be appointed primate of the Hungarian Jews to be able to settle difficulties that might arise among them, and to collect the tax. The government did not recommend Hirsch, but decided that in case the Jews should refuse to pay, it might be advisable to appoint a primate to adjust the matter.", "Before the end of the period of five years the delegates of the Jews again met the commission at Pressburg (Bratislava) and offered to increase the amount of their tax to 25,000 florins a year if the queen would promise that it should remain at that sum for the next ten years. The queen had other plans, however; not only did she dismiss the renewed gravamina of the Jews, but rather imposed stiffer regulations upon them", ". Their tax of ƒ20,000 was increased to ƒ30,000 in 1760; to ƒ50,000 in 1772; to ƒ80,000 in 1778; and to ƒ160,000 in 1813.", "Joseph II (1780–1790)", "Joseph II (1780–1790), son and successor of Maria Theresa, showed immediately on his accession that he intended to alleviate the condition of the Jews, communicating this intention to the Hungarian chancellor, Count Franz Esterházy as early as May 13, 1781. In consequence the Hungarian government issued (March 31, 1783) a decree known as the , which wiped out at one stroke the decrees that had oppressed the Jews for centuries", ". The royal free towns, except the mining-towns, were opened to the Jews, who were allowed to settle at leisure throughout the country. The decreed that the legal documents of the Jews should no longer be composed in Hebrew, or in Yiddish, but in Latin, German, and Hungarian, the languages used in the country at the time, and which the young Jews were required to learn within two years.", "Documents written in Hebrew or in Yiddish were not legal; Hebrew books were to be used at worship only; the Jews were to organize elementary schools; the commands of the emperor, issued in the interests of the Jews, were to be announced in the synagogues; and the rabbis were to explain to the people the salutary effects of these decrees", ". The subjects to be taught in the Jewish schools were to be the same as those taught in the national schools; the same text-books were to be used in all the elementary schools; and everything that might offend the religious sentiment of non-conformists was to be omitted.", "During the early years Christian teachers were to be employed in the Jewish schools, but they were to have nothing to do with the religious affairs of such institutions. After the lapse of ten years a Jew might establish a business, or engage in trade, only if he could prove that he had attended a school. The usual school-inspectors were to supervise the Jewish schools and to report to the government. The Jews were to create a fund for organizing and maintaining their schools", ". The Jews were to create a fund for organizing and maintaining their schools. Jewish youth might enter the academies, and might study any subject at the universities except theology. Jews might rent farms only if they could cultivate the same without the aid of Christians.", "Jews were allowed to peddle and to engage in various industrial occupations, and to be admitted into the guilds. They were also permitted to engrave seals, and to sell gunpowder and saltpeter; but their exclusion from the mining-towns remained in force. Christian masters were allowed to have Jewish apprentices. All distinctive marks hitherto worn by the Jews were to be abolished, and they might even carry swords", ". On the other hand, they were required to discard the distinctive marks prescribed by their religion and to shave their beards. Emperor Joseph regarded this decree so seriously that he allowed no one to violate it.", "The Jews, in a petition dated April 22, 1783, expressed their gratitude to the emperor for his favors, and, reminding him of his principle that religion should not be interfered with, asked permission to wear beards. The emperor granted the prayer of the petitioners, but reaffirmed the other parts of the decree (April 24, 1783). The Jews organized schools in various places, at Pressburg (Bratislava), Óbuda, Vágújhely (Nové Mesto nad Váhom), and Nagyvárad (Oradea)", ". A decree was issued by the emperor (July 23, 1787) to the effect that every Jew should choose a German surname; and a further edict (1789) ordered, to the consternation of the Jews, that they should henceforth perform military service.", "After the death of Joseph II the royal free cities showed a very hostile attitude toward the Jews. The citizens of Pest petitioned the municipal council that after May 1, 1790, the Jews should no longer be allowed to live in the city. The government interfered; and the Jews were merely forbidden to engage in peddling in the city. Seven days previously a decree of expulsion had been issued at Nagyszombat (Trnava), May 1 being fixed as the date of the Jews' departure", ". The Jews appealed to the government; and in the following December the city authorities of Nagyszombat were informed that the Diet had confirmed the former rights of the Jews, and that the latter could not be expelled.", "Toleration and oppression (1790–1847)", "The Jews of Hungary handed a petition, in which they boldly presented their claims to equality with other citizens, to King Leopold II (1790–1792) at Vienna on November 29, 1790. He sent it the following day to the chancelleries of Hungary and Moravia for their opinions. The question was brought before the estates of the country on December 2, and the Diet drafted a bill showing that it intended to protect the Jews. This decision created consternation among the enemies of the latter", ". This decision created consternation among the enemies of the latter. Nagyszombat (Trnava) addressed a further memorandum to the estates (December 4) in which it demanded that the Diet should protect the city's privileges. The Diet decided in favor of the Jews, and its decision was laid before the king.", "The Jews, confidently anticipating the king's decision in their favor, organized a splendid celebration on November 15, 1790, the day of his coronation; on January 10, 1791, the king approved the bill of the Diet; and the following law, drafted in conformity with the royal decision, was read by Judge Stephen Atzel in the session of February 5:", "\"In order that the condition of the Jews may be regulated pending such time as may elapse until their affairs and the privileges of various royal free towns relating to them shall have been determined by a commission to report to the next ensuing Diet, when his Majesty and the estates will decide on the condition of the Jews, the estates have determined, with the approval of his Majesty, that the Jews within the boundaries of Hungary and the countries belonging to it shall", ", that the Jews within the boundaries of Hungary and the countries belonging to it shall, in all the royal free cities and in other localities (except the royal mining-towns), remain under the same conditions in which they were on Jan", ". 1, 1790; and in case they have been expelled anywhere, they shall be recalled.\"", "Thus came into force the famous law entitled De Judaeis, which forms the thirty-eighth article of the laws of the Diet of 1790–1791. The De Judaeis law was gratefully received by the Jews; for it not only afforded them protection, but also gave them the assurance that their affairs would soon be regulated", ". Still, although the Diet appointed on February 7, 1791, a commission to study the question, the amelioration of the condition of the Hungarian Jews was not effected till half a century later, under Ferdinand V (r. 1835–1848), during the session of the Diet of 1839–1840. It is estimated that the Jewish population in Hungary grew by about 80% between 1815 and 1840, bolstered by immigration due to the perception of royal tolerance.", "In consequence of the petition of the Jews of Pest, the mover of which was Philip Jacobovics, superintendent of the Jewish hospital, the general assembly of the county of Pest drafted instructions for the delegates on June 10, 1839, to the effect that if the Jews would be willing to adopt the Magyar language they should be given equal rights with other Hungarian citizens", ". From now on much attention was paid to the teaching of Hungarian in the schools; Moritz Bloch (Ballagi) translated the Pentateuch into Hungarian, and Moritz Rosenthal the Psalms and the Pirkei Avoth. Various communities founded Hungarian reading-circles; and the Hungarian dress and language were more and more adopted. Many communities began to use Hungarian on their seals and in their documents, and some liberal rabbis even began to preach in that language.", "At the sessions of the Diet subsequent to that of 1839–1840, as well as in various cities, a decided antipathy—at times active and at times merely passive—toward the Jews became manifest. In sharp contrast to this attitude was that of Baron József Eötvös, who published in 1840 in the Budapesti Szemle, the most prominent Hungarian review, a strong appeal for the emancipation of the Jews", ". This cause also found a friend in Count Charles Zay, the chief ecclesiastical inspector of the Hungarian Lutherans, who warmly advocated Jewish interests in 1846.", "Although the session of the Diet convened on November 7, 1847, was unfavorable to the Jews, the latter not only continued to cultivate the Hungarian language, but were also willing to sacrifice their lives and property in the hour of danger. During the Revolution of 1848 they displayed their patriotism, even though attacked by the populace in several places at the beginning of the uprising", ". On March 19 the populace of Pressburg (Bratislava), encouraged by the antipathies of the citizens—who were aroused by the fact that the Jews, leaving their ghetto around Pressburg Castle (Bratislava Castle), were settling in the city itself—began hostilities that were continued after some days, and were renewed more fiercely in April.", "At this time the expulsion of the Jews from Sopron, Pécs, Székesfehérvár, and Szombathely was demanded; in the last two cities there were pogroms. At Szombathely, the mob advanced upon the synagogue, cut up the Torah scrolls, and threw them into a well. Nor did the Jews of Pest escape, while those at Vágújhely (Nové Mesto nad Váhom) especially suffered from the brutality of the mob. Bitter words against the Jews were also heard in the Diet", ". Bitter words against the Jews were also heard in the Diet. Some Jews advised emigration to America as a means of escape; and a society was founded at Pest, with a branch at Pressburg, for that purpose. A few left Hungary, seeking a new home across the sea, but the majority remained.", "Revolution and emancipation (1848–1849)", "Jews and the Hungarian Revolution", "Jews entered the national guard as early as March 1848; although they were excluded from certain cities, they reentered as soon as the danger to the country seemed greater than the hatred of the citizens. At Pest the Jewish national guard formed a separate division. When the national guards of Pápa were mobilized against the Croatians, Leopold Löw, rabbi of Pápa, joined the Hungarian ranks, inspiring his companions by his words of encouragement", ". Jews were also to be found in the volunteer corps, and among the honvéd and landsturm; and they constituted one-third of the volunteer division of Pest that marched along the Drava against the Croatians, being blessed by Rabbi Schwab on June 22, 1848.", "Many Jews throughout the country joined the army to fight for their fatherland; among them, Adolf Hübsch, subsequently rabbi at New York City; Solomon Marcus Schiller-Szinessy, afterward lecturer at the University of Cambridge; and Ignatz Einhorn, who, under the name of \"Eduard Horn,\" subsequently became state secretary of the Hungarian Ministry of Commerce", ". The rebellious Serbians slew the Jews at Zenta who sympathized with Hungary; among them, Rabbi Israel Ullmann and Jacob Münz, son of Moses Münz of Óbuda The conduct of the Jewish soldiers in the Hungarian army was highly commended by Generals Klapka and Görgey", ". Einhorn estimated the number of Jewish soldiers who took part in the Hungarian Revolution to be 20,000; but this is most likely exaggerated, as Béla Bernstein enumerates only 755 combatants by name in his work, Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadságharcz és a Zsidók (Budapest, 1898).", "The Hungarian Jews served their country not only with the sword, but also with funds. Communities and individuals, Chevra Kadisha, and other Jewish societies, freely contributed silver and gold, armor and provisions, clothed and fed the soldiers, and furnished lint and other medical supplies to the Hungarian camps. Meanwhile, they did not forget to take steps to obtain their rights as citizens", ". Meanwhile, they did not forget to take steps to obtain their rights as citizens. When the Diet of 1847–1848 (in which, according to ancient law, only the nobles and those having the rights of nobles might take part) was dissolved (April 11), and the new Parliament – at which under the new laws the delegates elected by the commons also appeared – was convened at Pest (July 2, 1848), the Jews hopefully looked forward to the deliberations of the new body.", "Brief emancipation and aftermath, 1849", "Many Jews thought to pave the way for emancipation by a radical reform of their religious life. They thought this might ease their way, as legislators in the Diets and articles printed in the press suggested that the Jews should not receive equal civic rights until they reformed their religious practices. This reform had been first demanded in the session of 1839–1840. From this session onward, the press and general assemblies pushed for religious reform", ". From this session onward, the press and general assemblies pushed for religious reform. Several counties instructed their representatives not to vote for the emancipation of the Jews until they desisted from practising the externals of their religion.", "For the purpose of urging Jewish emancipation, all the Jews of Hungary sent delegates to a conference at Pest on July 5, 1848. It chose a commission of ten members to lobby with the Diet for emancipation. The commission delegates were instructed not to make any concessions related to practicing the Jewish faith. The commission soon after addressed a petition to the Parliament for emancipation, but it proved ineffective.", "The national assembly at Szeged granted emancipation of Jews on Saturday, the eve of the Ninth of Av (July 28, 1849). The bill, which was quickly debated and immediately became a law, fulfilled the hopes of the Reform party. The Jews obtained full citizenship", ". The Jews obtained full citizenship. The Ministry of the Interior was ordered to call a convention of Jewish ministers and laymen for the purpose of drafting a confession of faith, and of inducing the Jews to organize their religious life in conformity with the demands of the time, for instance, business hours on Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath. The bill included the clause referring to marriages between Jews and Christians, which clause both Lajos Kossuth and the Reform party advocated.", "The Jews' civic liberty lasted for just two weeks. After the Hungarian army's surrender at Világos to Russian troops, which had come to aid the Austrians in suppressing the Hungarian struggle for liberty, the Jews were severely punished by new authorities for having taken part in the uprising", ". Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau, the new governor of Hungary, imposed heavy war-taxes upon them, especially upon the communities of Pest and Óbuda, which had already been heavily taxed by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, on his triumphant entry into the Hungarian capital at the beginning of 1849. Haynau punished the communities of Kecskemét, Nagykőrös, Cegléd, Albertirsa, Szeged, and Szabadka (now Subotica, Serbia) with equal severity", ". Numerous Jews were imprisoned and executed; others sought refuge in emigration.", "Several communities petitioned to be relieved of the war taxes. The ministry of war, however, increased the burden, requiring that the communities of Pest, Óbuda, Kecskemét, Czegléd, Nagykőrös, and Irsa should pay this tax not in kind, but in currency to the amount of ƒ2,300,000 . As the communities were unable to collect such monies, they petitioned the government to remit it", ". As the communities were unable to collect such monies, they petitioned the government to remit it. The Jewish communities of the entire country were ordered to share in raising the sum, on the grounds that most of the Jews of Hungary had supported the Revolution. Only the communities of Temesvár (now Timișoara, Romania) and Pressburg (now Bratislava, Slovakia) were exempted from this order, as they remained loyal to the existing Austrian government", ". The military commission added a clause to tax requirements, to the effect that individuals or communities might be exempted from the punishment, if they could prove by documents or witnesses, before a commission to be appointed, that they had not taken part in the Revolution, either by word or deed, morally or materially. The Jews refused this means of clearing themselves. They declared to be willing to redeem the tax by collecting a certain sum for a national school fund", ". Emperor Franz Joseph remitted the war-tax (September 20, 1850), but ordered that the Jews of Hungary without distinction should contribute toward a Jewish school fund of ƒ1,000,000; they raised this sum within a few years.", "Struggles for a second emancipation (1859–1867)", "While the House of Habsburg controlled Hungary, emancipation of Jews was postponed. When the Austrian troops were defeated in Italy in 1859, activists pressed for liberty. In that year the cabinet, with Emperor Franz Joseph in the chair, decreed that the status of the Jews should be regulated in agreement with the times, but with due regard for the conditions obtaining in the several localities and provinces", ". When the emperor convened the Diet on April 2, 1861, Jews pushed for emancipation but the early dissolution of that body prevented it from taking action in the matter.", "The decade of absolutism in Hungary (1849–1859) resulted in Jews establishing schools, most of which were in charge of trained teachers. Based on the Jewish school fund, the government organized model schools at Sátoraljaújhely, Temesvár (Timișoara), Pécs, and Pest. In Pest the Israelite State Teachers' Seminary was founded in 1859, the principals of which have included Abraham Lederer, Heinrich Deutsch, and József Bánóczi.", "When the Parliament dissolved in 1861, the emancipation of the Jews was deferred to the coronation of Franz Joseph. On December 22, 1867, the question came before the lower house, and on the favorable report of Kálmán Tisza and Zsigmond Bernáth, a bill in favor of emancipation was adopted; it was passed by the upper house on the following day. Although the Antisemitic Party was represented in the Parliament, it was not taken seriously by the political elite of the country", ". Its agitation against Jews was not successful (see Tiszaeszlár affair).", "On October 4, 1877, the Budapest University of Jewish Studies opened in Budapest. The university is still operating, celebrating its 130th anniversary on October 4, 2007. Since its opening, it has been the only Jewish institute in all of Central and Eastern Europe.\n\nIn the 1890 Hungarian census, 64.0% of the Jewish population were counted as ethnic Hungarian by mother tongue, 33.1% as German 1.9% as Slovak, 0.8% as Romanian, and 0.2% as Ruthenian.\n\nAustria-Hungary (1867–1918)", "Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)\n\nFamily names \nMost Jews did not have family names before 1783. Some family names were recorded for Jewish families:\n\n 1050: Jászkonti\n 1263: Farkas\n 1350: Hosszú\n 16th century: Cseh, Jakab, Gazdag, Fekete, Nagy, Kis\n 1780: Bárány, Csonka, Horpács, Jónap, Kohányi, Kossuth, Kosztolányi, Lengyel, Lőrincz, Lukács, Szarvas, Szabó, Varga.", "Emperor Joseph II believed that Germanization could facilitate the centralization of his empire. Beginning in 1783, he ordered Jews to either choose or be given German family names by local committees. The actions were dependent on local conditions.", "With the rise of Hungarian nationalism, the first wave of Magyarization of family names occurred between 1840 and 1849. After the Hungarian revolution, this process was stopped until 1867. After the Ausgleich, many Jews changed their family names from German to Hungarian.", "In 1942 during World War II, when Hungary became allied with Germany, the Hungarian Defense Ministry was tasked with \"race validation.\" Its officials complained that no Hungarian or German names were \"safe,\" as Jews might have any name. They deemed Slavic names to be \"safer\", but the decree listed 58 Slavic-sounding names regularly held by Jews.\n\nPopulation statistics\n\n1890 / 1900 / 1910 census summaries", "Population statistics\n\n1890 / 1900 / 1910 census summaries \n\nAlmost a quarter (22.35%) of the Jews of Hungary lived in Budapest in 1910. Some of the surviving large synagogues in Budapest include the following:", "1910 census", "According to the 1910 census, the number of Jews was 911,227, or 4.99% of the 18,264,533 people living in Hungary (In addition, there were 21,231 Jews in autonomous Croatia-Slavonia). This was a 28.7% increase in absolute terms since the 1890 census, and a 0.3% increase (from 4.7%) in the overall population of Hungary. At the time, the Jewish natural growth rate was higher than the Christian (although the difference had been narrowing), but so was the emigration rate, mainly to the United States", ". (The total emigration from Austria-Hungary to the U.S. in 1881–1912 was 3,688,000 people, including 324,000 Jews (8.78%). In the 1880–1913 period, a total of 2,019,000 people emigrated from Hungary to the US. Thus, an estimated 177,000 Jews emigrated from Hungary to the US during this total period.)", "The schism in Hungarian Jewry saw the development of three religious denominations. Budapest, the South and West had a Neolog majority (related to modern US Conservative and Reform Judaism – the kipah and organ were both used in religious worship in the synagogues). Traditionalists (\"Status quo ante\") were the smallest of the three, mainly in the North. The East and North of the country were overwhelmingly Orthodox (more orthodox than \"status quo ante\")", ". In broad terms, Jews whose ancestors had come from Moravia in the 18th century tended to become Neolog at the split in 1869; those whose ancestors were from Galicia identified as Orthodox.", "The net loss for Judaism due to conversions was relatively low before the end of the Great War: 240 people/year between 1896 and 1900, 404 between 1901 and 1910, and 435 people/year between 1911 and 1917. According to records, 10,530 people left Judaism, and 2,244 converted to Judaism between 1896 and 1917.", "The majority (75.7%) of the Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were counted as ethnically Hungarian in the census. The Yiddish speakers were counted as ethnically German. According to this classification, 6.94% of the ethnic Hungarians and 11.63% of the Germans of Hungary were Jewish. In total, Hungarian speakers made up a 54.45% majority in Hungary; German speakers (including those who spoke Yiddish), made up 10.42% of the population.", "Population of the capital, Budapest, was 23% Jewish (about the same ratio as in New York City). This community had established numerous religious and educational institutions. Pest was more Jewish than Buda. The prosperity, cultural, and financial prominence of Budapest's large Jewish community attested to its successful integration", ". Indeed, commentators opined in 1911 that Hungary had \"absorbed\" their Jews and \"it has come to pass that there is no anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew element is proportionately much larger (21% as compared to 9%) than it is in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter\" At that time Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna referred to the capital as Judapest, alluding to the high proportion of Jews. Budapest had the second largest Jewish population among the world's cities, after New York.", "Before the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Jews in Hungary were prevented from owning land, which resulted in many going into business. In 1910, 60.96% of merchants, 58.11% of the book printers, 41.75% of the innkeepers, 24.42% of the bakers, 24.07% of the butchers, 21.04% of the tailors, and 8.90% of the shoemakers of Hungary were Jewish. 48.5% of the physicians in the country (2701 out of 5565) were Jewish", ". 48.5% of the physicians in the country (2701 out of 5565) were Jewish. In the 1893–1913 period, Jews made up roughly 20% of the students of the gimnázium high school (where classical subjects were emphasized) students and 37% of reál high school (where practical subjects were emphasized).", "The strong class divisions of Hungary were represented in the Jewish population. About 3.1% of the Jews belonged to the \"large employer\" and \"agricultural landowner of more than 100 hold, i.e. 57 hectares\" class, 3.2% to the \"small (<100 hold) landholder\" class, 34.4% to the \"working\", i.e. wage-earning employee class, while 59.3% belonged to the self-employed or salary-earning middle class.", "Stephen Roth writes, \"Hungarian Jews were opposed to Zionism because they hoped that somehow they could achieve equality with other Hungarian citizens, not just in law but in fact, and that they could be integrated into the country as Hungarian Israelites. The word 'Israelite' () denoted only religious affiliation and was free from the ethnic or national connotations usually attached to the term 'Jew'. Hungarian Jews attained remarkable achievements in business, culture and less frequently even in politics", ". By 1910 about 900,000 religious Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest's citizenry. Jews accounted for 54% of commercial business owners, 85% of financial institution directors and owners in banking, and 62% of all employees in commerce, 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31.9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of the universities", ".9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of the universities. Religious Jews were accounted for 48.5% of all physicians, and 49.4% of all lawyers/jurists in Hungary. During the cabinet of pm. István Tisza three Jewish men were appointed as ministers. The first was Samu Hazai (Minister of War), János Harkányi (Minister of Trade) and János Teleszky (Minister of Finance). By 1910 22% of the Members of Parliament were Jews (45% in the governing National Party of Work).", "While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about five percent, Jews made up nearly eighteen percent of the reserve officer corps. Thanks to the modernity of the constitution and to the benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian Jews came to regard the era of Austria-Hungary as a golden era of their history.", "In absolute numbers, Budapest had by far the largest number of Jews (203,000), followed by Nagyvárad (Oradea) with 15,000, Újpest and Miskolc with about 10,000 each, Máramarossziget (Sighetu Marmaţiei), Munkács (Mukachevo), Pozsony (Bratislava), Debrecen with 8,000, Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca), Szatmárnémeti (Satu Mare), Temesvár (Timișoara), Kassa (Košice) with about 7,000 each.\n\nInterwar period (1918–1939)", "Population", "Using data from the 1910 census, 51.7% of the Hungarian Jews lived in territories that stayed inside the \"small\" Hungary after 1921, 25.5% (232,000) lived in territories that later became part of Czechoslovakia, 19.5% (178,000) became part of Romania, 2.6% (23,000) became part of Yugoslavia, 0.5% (5,000) became part of Austria and finally 0.2% (2,000) lived in Fiume, which became part of Italy after 1924", ".2% (2,000) lived in Fiume, which became part of Italy after 1924. According to the censuses of 1930–1931, 238,460/192,833/about 22,000 Jews lived in parts of Czechoslovakia/Romania/Yugoslavia formerly belonging to Hungary, which means that the overall number of people declaring themselves Jewish remained unchanged in the Carpathian basin between 1910 and 1930 [a decrease of 26,000 in the post-WWI Hungary, a 6,000 increase in Czechoslovakia and a 15,000 increase in Romania].", "According to the census of December 1920 in the \"small\" Hungary, the percentage of Jews increased in the preceding decade in Sátoraljaújhely (to 30.4%), Budapest (23.2%), Újpest (20.0%), Nyíregyháza (11.7%), Debrecen (9.9%), Pécs (9.0%), Sopron (7.5%), Makó (6.4%), Rákospalota (6.1%), Kispest (5.6%) and Békéscsaba (to 5.6%), while decreased in the other 27 towns with more than 20 thousand inhabitants. Overall, 31.1% of the Jewish population lived in villages and towns with less than 20 thousand inhabitants", ".1% of the Jewish population lived in villages and towns with less than 20 thousand inhabitants.", "In 1920, 46.3% of the medical doctors, 41.2% of the veterinarians, 21.4% of the pharmacists of Hungary were Jewish, as well as 34.3% of the journalists, 24.5% of performers of music, 22.7% of the theater actors, 16.8% of the painters and sculptors. Among the owners of land of more than 1000 hold, i.e. 570 hectares, 19.6% were Jewish. Among the 2739 factories in Hungary, 40.5% had a Jewish owner.", "The following table shows the number of people who declared to be Israelite (Jewish) at the censuses inside the post-WWI territory of Hungary. Between 1920 and 1945, it was illegal for Hungarians to fail to declare their religion A person's religion was written on their birth certificate, marriage license (except in 1919, during the short-lived Commune, see Hungarian Soviet Republic), and even on a child's school grade reports.", "The net loss for Judaism due to official conversions was 26,652 people between 1919 and 1938, while 4,288 people converted into the faith, 30,940 left it. The endpoints of this period, 1919–1920 (white terror) and 1938 (anti-Jewish law) contributed to more than half of this loss; between 1921 and 1930, the net loss rested around pre-war levels (260 people/year).:", "In 1926, the districts I, II, III of Buda were Jewish 8%,11%,10% respectively. The 19,000 Jews of Buda constituted about 9.3% of both the total population of Buda and the entire Jewish population of Budapest. On the left (Pest) side of the Danube, downtown Pest (Belváros, district IV then) was 18% Jewish. Districts V (31%), VI (28%), VII (36%), VIII (22%), IX (13%) had large Jewish populations, while district X had 6%", ". The four Neolog communities of Budapest (I-II, III, IV-IX, X) had a total of 66,300 members paying their dues, while the Orthodox community had about 7,000 members paying religious taxes.", "In the countryside of the post-WWI Hungary, the Orthodox had a slight edge (about 49%) over the Neolog (46%). Budapest and countryside combined, 65.72% of the 444,567 Jews belonged to Neolog communities, 5.03% to status quo ante, while 29.25% were Orthodox in 1930. The Jewish communities suffered a 5.6% decline in the 1910–1930 period, on the territory of the \"small\" Hungary, due to emigration and conversion.", "The Jews of Hungary were fairly well integrated into Hungarian society by the time of the First World War. Class distinction was very significant in Hungary in general, and among the Jewish population in particular. Rich bankers, factory owners, lower middle class artisans and poor factory workers did not mingle easily. In 1926, there were 50,761 Jewish families living in Budapest", ". In 1926, there were 50,761 Jewish families living in Budapest. Of that number, 65% lived in apartments that contained one or two rooms, 30% had three or four rooms, while 5% lived in apartments with more than 4 rooms.", "Education. The following chart illustrates the effect of the 1920 \"numerus clausus\" Law on the percentage of Jewish university students at two Budapest Universities.\n\nThose who could afford went to study to other European countries like Austria, Germany, Italy and Czechoslovakia. In 1930, of all males aged six and older,", "Seven of the thirteen Nobel prize winners born in Hungary are Jewish. In sports, 55.6% of the individual gold medal winners of Hungary at the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1912 were Jewish. This number dropped to 17.6% in the interwar period of 1924–1936.\n\nRevolution \n\nMore than 10,000 Jews died and thousands were wounded and disabled fighting for Hungary in World War I. But these sacrifices by patriotic Hungarian Jews may have been outweighed by the chaotic events following the war's end.", "With the defeat and dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Hungary would be forced by the Allies to adhere to the Treaty of Trianon, which ceded to neighboring nations fully two-thirds of Hungary's imperial territory and two-thirds of its population, including a third of its ethnically Magyar citizens and many Jews. These losses provoked deep anger and hostility in the remaining Hungarian population.", "The first post-war government was led by Mihály Károlyi, and was the first modern effort at liberal democratic government in Hungary. But it was cut short in a spasm of communist revolution, which would have serious implications for the manner in which Hungarian Jews were viewed by their fellow-countrymen.", "In March 1919, Communist and Social Democrat members of a coalition government ousted Karolyi; soon after (March 21), the Communists were to take power as their Social Democrat colleagues were willing neither to accept nor to refuse the Vix Note to cede a significant part of the Great Plains to Romania and the communists took control of Hungary's governing institutions", ". While popular at first among Budapest's progressive elite and proletariat, the so-called Hungarian Soviet Republic fared poorly in almost all of its aims, particularly its efforts to regain territories occupied by Slovakia (although achieving some transitional success here) and Romania", ". All the less palatable excesses of Communist uprisings were in evidence during these months, particularly the formation of squads of brutal young men practicing what they called \"revolutionary terror\" to intimidate and suppress dissident views. All but the one Sándor Garbai, the revolution's leaders, including Béla Kun, Tibor Szamuely, and Jenő Landler – were of Jewish ancestry", ". As in other countries where Communism was viewed as an immediate threat, the presence of ethnic Jews in positions of revolutionary leadership helped foster the notion of a Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy.", "Kun's regime was crushed after four and a half months when the Romanian army entered Budapest; it was quickly followed by the reactionary forces under the command of the former Austro-Hungarian admiral, Miklós Horthy. The sufferings endured during the brief revolution, and their exploitation by ultra-nationalist movements, helped generate stronger suspicions among non-Jewish Hungarians, and undergirded pre-existing anti-Semitic views.", "Beginning in July 1919, officers of Horthy's National Army engaged in a brutal string of counter-reprisals against Hungarian communists and their allies, real or imagined. This series of pogroms directed at Jews, progressives, peasants and others is known as the White Terror. Horthy's personal role in these reprisals is still subject of debate (in his memoirs he refused to disavow the violence, saying that \"only an iron broom\" could have swept the country clean)", ". Tallying the numbers of victims of the different terror campaigns in this period is still a matter of some political dispute but the White Terror is generally considered to have claimed more lives than the repressions of the Kun regime by an order of magnitude, thousands vs hundreds.", "Interwar years \n\nJews represented one-fourth of all university students and 43% percent at Budapest Technological University. In 1920, 60 percent of Hungarian doctors, 51 percent of lawyers, 39 percent of all privately employed engineers and chemists, 34 percent of editors and journalists, and 29 percent of musicians identified themselves as Jews by religion.", "Resentment of this Jewish trend of success was widespread: Admiral Horthy himself declared that he was \"an anti-Semite\", and remarked in a letter to one of his prime ministers, \"I have considered it intolerable that here in Hungary everything, every factory, bank, large fortune, business, theater, press, commerce, etc. should be in Jewish hands, and that the Jew should be the image reflected of Hungary, especially abroad.\"", "Unfortunately for Jews they had also become, by a quirk of history, the most visible minority remaining in Hungary (besides ethnic Germans and Gypsies); the other large \"non-Hungarian\" populations (including Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Romanians, among others) had been abruptly excised from the Hungarian population by the territorial losses at Trianon", ". That and the highly visible role of Jews in the economy, the media and the professions, as well as in the leadership of the 1919 Communist dictatorship left Hungary's Jews as an ethnically separate group which could serve as a scapegoat for the nation's ills.The scapegoating began quickly", ".The scapegoating began quickly. In 1920, Horthy's government passed a \"numerus clausus\" law that placed limits on the number of minority students in proportion of their size of the population, thus restricting the Jewish enrollment at universities to five percent or less.", "Anti-Jewish policies grew more repressive in the interwar period as Hungary's leaders, who remained committed to regaining territories lost in WWI, chose to align themselves (albeit warily) with the fascist governments of Germany and Italy – the international actors most likely to stand behind Hungary's claims. The inter-war years also saw the emergence of flourishing fascist groups, such as the Hungarian National Socialist Party and the Arrow Cross Party.\n\nAnti-Jewish measures", "Anti-Jewish measures\n\nAnti-Jewish Laws (1938–1941) \nStarting in 1938, Hungary under Miklós Horthy passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in emulation of Germany's Nuremberg Laws.", "The \"First Jewish Law\" (May 29, 1938) restricted the number of Jews in each commercial enterprise, in the press, among physicians, engineers and lawyers to twenty percent.\n The \"Second Jewish Law\" (May 5, 1939), for the first time, defined Jews racially: individuals with two, three or four Jewish-born grandparents were declared Jewish.\n The \"Third Jewish Law\" (August 8, 1941) prohibited intermarriage and penalized sexual intercourse between Jews and non-Jews.", "Their employment in government at any level was forbidden, they could not be editors at newspapers, their numbers were restricted to six per cent among theater and movie actors, physicians, lawyers and engineers. Private companies were forbidden to employ more than 12% Jews. 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their income. Most of them lost their right to vote as well: before the second Jewish law, about 31% of the Jewish population of Borsod county (Miskolc excluded), 2496 people had this right", ". At the next elections, less than a month after this new anti-Jewish legislation, only 38 privileged Jews could vote.", "In the elections of May 28–29, Nazi and Arrow Cross (Nyilas) parties received one quarter of the votes and 52 out of 262 seats. Their support was even larger, usually between 1/3 and 1/2 of the votes, where they were on the ballot at all, since", "they were not listed in large parts of the country For instance, the support for Nazi parties was above 43% in the election districts of Zala, Győr-Moson, Budapest surroundings, Central and Northern Pest-Pilis, and above 36% in Veszprém, Vas, Szabolcs-Ung, Sopron, Nógrád-Hont, Jász-Nagykun, Southern Pest town and Buda town. The Nazi parties were not on the ballot mainly in the Eastern third of the country and in Somogy, Baranya, Tolna, Fejér", ". Their smallest support was in Békés county (15%), Pécs town (19%), Szeged town (22%) and in Northern Pest town (27%)", "January 1941 census", "According to Magyarország történelmi kronológiája, the census of January 31, 1941, found that 6.2% of the population of 13,643,621, i.e. 846,000 people, were considered Jewish according to the racial laws of that time. In addition, in April 1941, Hungary annexed the Bácska (Bačka), the Muraköz (Međimurje County) and Muravidék (Prekmurje) regions from the occupied Yugoslavia, with 1,025,508 people including 15,000 Jews (data are from October 1941)", ". This means that inside the May 1941 borders of Hungary, there were 861,000 people (or 5.87%) who were at least half Jewish, and therefore were considered Jewish. From this number, 725,000 (or 4.94%) were Jewish in accordance with Jewish religious law (4.30% in pre-1938 Hungary, 7.15% in the territories annexed from Czechoslovakia and Romania in 1938–1940 and 1.38% in the territories annexed from Yugoslavia in 1941).", "The following is from another source, a statistical summary written in the beginning of 1944 and referring to the 1941 census data:", "The question about Jewish grandparents was added late to the questionnaires at the census of 1941, when some of the sheets had already been printed. In addition, a lot of Christians of Jewish ancestry did not answer this question truthfully. So while about 62,000 Christians admitted some Jewish ancestry (including 38,000 in Budapest), their actual number was estimated at least 100,000:", "First massacres", "It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They and anyone who could not prove legal residency since 1850, about 20,000 people, were deported to southern Poland and either abandoned there or were handed over to the Germans between July 15 and August 12, 1941. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations", ". In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority of those deported were massacred in Kameniec-Podolsk (Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre) at the end of August.", "In the massacres of Újvidék (Novi Sad) and villages nearby, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and \"Csendőrség\" (Gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, Ferenc Feketehalmy-Czeydner, Márton Zöldy, József Grassy, László Deák and others were later tried in Budapest during December 1943 and were sentenced, but some of them escaped to Germany.", "During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed \"labour service\" (munkaszolgálat) units which were used to repair bombed railroads, build airports or to clean up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed at the Soviet front in 1942–43, of which about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps. Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers", ". Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of Bor, Serbia. Nevertheless, Miklós Kállay, Prime Minister from March 9, 1942, and Regent Horthy resisted German pressure and refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to the German extermination camps in occupied Poland. This \"anomalous\" situation lasted until March 19, 1944, when German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.", "The Holocaust\n\nGermany invades Hungary", "On March 18, 1944, Adolf Hitler summoned Horthy to a conference in Austria, where he demanded greater acquiescence from the Hungarian state. Horthy resisted, but his efforts were fruitless – German tanks rolled into Budapest while he attended the conference. On March 23, the government of Döme Sztójay was installed. Among his other first moves, Sztójay legalized the Arrow Cross Party, which quickly began organizing", ". During the four days interregnum following the German occupation, the Ministry of the Interior was put in the hands of László Endre and László Baky, right-wing politicians well known for their hostility to Jews. Their boss, Andor Jaross, was another committed anti-Semite.", "A few days later, Ruthenia, Northern Transylvania, and the border region with Croatia and Serbia were placed under military command. On April 9, Prime Minister Döme Sztójay and the Germans obligated Hungary to place at the disposal of the Reich 300,000 Jewish laborers. Five days later, on April 14, Endre, Baky, and Adolf Eichmann, the SS officer in charge of organizing the deportation of Hungarian Jews to the German Reich, decided to deport all the Jews of Hungary.", "Although in 1943, the BBC Polish Service broadcast about the exterminations, the BBC Hungarian Service did not discuss the Jews. A 1942 memo for the BBC Hungarian Service, written by Carlile Macartney, a British Foreign Office adviser on Hungary, said: \"We shouldn't mention the Jews at all.\" Macartney believed that most Hungarians were antisemitic and that mentioning the Jews would alienate much of the population", ". Most of the Jews did not believe that the Holocaust might happen in Hungary: \"This might be happening in Galicia to Polish Jews, but this can't happen in our very cultivated Hungarian state.\" According to Yehuda Bauer, when the deportations to Auschwitz began in May 1944, the Zionist youth movements organized smuggling of Hungarian Jews into Romania. Around 4,000 Hungarian Jews were smuggled into Romania, including the smugglers and those who paid them on the border", ". The Romanians agreed to let those Jews in, despite heavy German pressure. However Romania allied itself with Nazi Germany from 1940 to 1944. Despite Romania was not under German occupation, during the dictatorship of Ion Antonescu, 380,000–400,000 Jews were murdered in the Holocaust in Romanian-controlled areas such as Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Transnistria.", "Deportation to Auschwitz", "SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann, whose duties included supervising the extermination of Jews, set up his staff in the Majestic Hotel and proceeded rapidly in rounding up Jews from the Hungarian provinces outside Budapest and its suburbs. The Yellow Star and Ghettoization laws, and deportation, were accomplished in less than 8 weeks, with the enthusiastic help of the Hungarian authorities, particularly the gendarmerie (csendőrség)", ". The plan was to use 45 cattle cars per train, 4 trains a day, to deport 12,000 Jews to Auschwitz every day from the countryside, starting in mid-May; this was to be followed by the deportation of Jews of Budapest from about July 15.", "Just before the deportations began, the Vrba-Wetzler Report reached the Allied officials. Details from the report were broadcast by the BBC on June 15, and printed in The New York Times on June 20. World leaders, including Pope Pius XII (June 25), President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 26, and King Gustaf V of Sweden on June 30, subsequently pleaded with Horthy to use his influence to stop the deportations. Roosevelt specifically threatened military retaliation if the transports were not ceased", ". Roosevelt specifically threatened military retaliation if the transports were not ceased. On July 7, Horthy, at last, ordered the transports halted. According to historian Péter Sipos, the Hungarian government had already known about the Jewish genocide since 1943. Horthy's son and daughter-in-law both received copies of the Vrba-Wetzler report in early May before mass deportations began", ". The Vrba-Wetzler Report is believed to have been passed to Hungarian Zionist leader Rudolf Kastner no later than April 28, 1944; however, Kastner did not make it public.", "The first transports to Auschwitz began in early May 1944, and continued, even as Soviet troops approached. The Hungarian government was solely in charge of the Jews' transportation up to the northern border. The Hungarian commander of the Kassa (Košice) railroad station meticulously recorded the trains heading to Auschwitz with their place of departure and the number of people inside them. The first train went through Kassa on May 14", ". The first train went through Kassa on May 14. On a typical day, there were three or four trains, with between 3,000 and 4,000 people on each train, for a total of approximately 12,000 Jews delivered to the extermination facilities each day. There were 109 trains during these 33 days through June 16. (There were days when there were as many as six trains.) Between June 25 and 29, there were 10 trains, then an additional 18 trains on July 5–9", ".) Between June 25 and 29, there were 10 trains, then an additional 18 trains on July 5–9. The 138th recorded train (with the 400,426th victim) heading to Auschwitz via Kassa was on July 20. Another 10 trains were sent to Auschwitz via other routes (24,000+ people) (the first two left Budapest and Topolya on April 29, and arrived at Auschwitz on May 2), while 7 trains with 20,787 people went to Strasshof between June 25 and 28 (2 each from Debrecen, Szeged, and Baja; 1 from Szolnok)", ". The unique Kastner train left for Bergen-Belsen with 1,685 people on June 30.", "By July 9, 1944, 437,402 Jews had been deported, according to Reich plenipotentiary in Hungary Edmund Veesenmayer's official German reports. One hundred and forty-seven trains were sent to Auschwitz, where most of the deportees were murdered on arrival. Because the crematoria could not cope with the corpses, special pits were dug near them, where bodies were burned. It has been estimated that one-third of the murdered victims at Auschwitz were Hungarian.", "For most of this period, 12,000 Jews were delivered to Auschwitz in a typical day, among them the future writer and Nobel Prize-winner Elie Wiesel, at age 15. Photographs taken at Auschwitz were found after the war showing the arrival of Jews from Hungary at the camp.", "The devotion to the cause of the \"final solution\" of the Hungarian gendarmes surprised even Eichmann himself, who supervised the operation with only twenty officers and a staff of 100, which included drivers, cooks, etc.\n\nEfforts to rescue Jews", "Efforts to rescue Jews \n\nVery few Catholic or Protestant clergy members raised their voices against sending the Jews to their death. (Notable was Bishop Áron Márton's sermon in Kolozsvár on May 18). The Catholic Primate of Hungary, Serédi decided not to issue a pastoral letter condemning the deportation of the Jews.", "On June 15, the Mayor of Budapest designated 2,000 (5%) \"starred\" houses where every Jew (20%+) had to move together. The authorities thought that the Allies would not bomb Budapest because the \"starred\" houses were scattered around the town. At the end of June, Pope Pius XII, Swedish King Gustav VI, and, in strong terms, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt urged for an immediate halt to the deportations. Horthy ordered the suspension of all deportations on July 6", ". Horthy ordered the suspension of all deportations on July 6. Nonetheless, another 45,000 Jews were deported from the Trans-Danubian region and the outskirts of Budapest to Auschwitz after this day. \"After the failed attempt on Hitler's life, the Germans backed off from pressing Horthy's regime to continue further, large-scale deportations, although some smaller groups continued to be deported by train. In late August, Horthy refused Eichmann's request to restart the deportations", ". In late August, Horthy refused Eichmann's request to restart the deportations. Himmler ordered Eichmann to leave Budapest.\"", "The Sztójay government rescheduled the date of deportation of the Jews of Budapest to Auschwitz to August 27. But the Romanians switched sides on August 23, 1944, causing huge problems for the German military. Himmler ordered the cancellation of further deportations from Hungary on August 25, in return for nothing more than ’s promise to see whether the Germans' demands would be met", ". Horthy finally dismissed Prime Minister Sztójay on August 29, the same day the Slovak National uprising against the Nazis started.", "Despite the change of government, Hungarian troops occupied parts of Southern Transylvania, Romania, and massacred hundreds of Jews in Kissármás (Sărmașu; Sărmașu massacre), Marosludas (Luduș; Luduș massacre) and other places starting September 4.", "Arrow Cross rule", "After the Nyilaskeresztes (Arrow Cross) coup d'état on October 15, tens of thousands of Jews of Budapest were sent on foot to the Austrian border in death marches, most forced laborers under Hungarian Army command so far were deported (for instance to Bergen-Belsen), and two ghettos were set up in Budapest. The small \"international ghetto\" consisted of several \"starred\" houses under the protection of neutral powers in the Újlipótváros district", ". Switzerland was allowed to issue 7,800 Schutzpasses, Sweden 4,500, and the Vatican, Portugal, and Spain 3,300 combined. The big Budapest ghetto was set up and walled in the Erzsébetváros part of Budapest on November 29. Nyilas raids and mass executions occurred in both ghettos regularly. In addition, in the two months between November 1944 and February 1945, the Nyilas shot 10,000–15,000 Jews on the banks of the Danube. Soviet troops liberated the big Budapest ghetto on January 18, 1945", ". Soviet troops liberated the big Budapest ghetto on January 18, 1945. On the Buda side of the town, the encircled Nyilas continued their murders until the Soviets took Buda on February 13.", "The names of some diplomats, Raoul Wallenberg, Carl Lutz, Ángel Sanz Briz, Giorgio Perlasca, Carlos Sampaio Garrido, and Carlos de Liz-Texeira Branquinho deserve mentioning, as well as some members of the army and police who saved people (Pál Szalai, Károly Szabó, and other officers who took Jews out from camps with fake papers), an Interior Ministry official (Béla Horváth) and some church institutions and personalities", ". Rudolf Kastner deserves special attention because of his enduring negotiations with Adolf Eichmann and Kurt Becher to prevent deportations to Auschwitz, succeeding only minimally by sending Jews to still horrific labor battalions in Austria and ultimately saving 1,680 Jews in Kastner's train.", "Number of survivors", "An estimated 119,000 Jewish people were liberated in Budapest (25,000 in the small \"international\" ghetto, 69,000 in the big ghetto, and 25,000 hiding with false papers) and 20,000 forced laborers in the countryside. Almost all the surviving deportees returned between May and December 1945, at least to check out the fate of their families. Their number was 116,000. It is estimated that from an original population of 861,000 people considered Jewish inside the borders of 1941–1944, about 255,000 survived", ". This gives a 29.6 percent survival rate. According to another calculation, Hungary's Jewish population at the time of the German invasion was 800,000, of which 365,000 survived.", "Communist rule", "At the end of World War II, only 140,000 Jews remained in Hungary, down from 750,000 in 1941. The difficult economic situation coupled with the lingering anti-Semitic attitude of the population prompted a wave of migration. Between 1945 and 1949, 40,000–50,000 Jews left Hungary for Israel (30,000–35,000) and Western countries (15,000–20,000). Between 1948 and 1951 14,301 Hungarian Jews immigrated to Israel, and after 1951 exit visas became increasingly expensive and restrictive", ". People of Jewish origin dominated the post-war Communist regime until 1952–53 when many were removed in a series of purges. During its first years, the regime's top membership and secret police were almost entirely Jewish, albeit naturally anti-religious. Leaders like Mátyás Rákosi, Ernő Gerő and Peter Gabor repudiated Judaism and were strict atheists per Communist doctrine. Indeed, under Communist rule from 1948 to 1988, Zionism was outlawed and Jewish observance was curtailed", ". Moreover, members of the upper class, Jews and Christians alike, were expelled from the cities to the provinces for 6–12 months in the early 1950s.", "Jews were on both sides of the 1956 uprising. Some armed rebel leaders like István Angyal, an Auschwitz survivor executed on December 1, 1958, were Jewish. Jewish writers and intellectuals such as Tibor Déry, imprisoned from 1957 to 1961, occupied the forefront of the reform movement. After the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, about 20,000 or so Jews fled the country. About 9,000 went to Israel while others settled in the United States, Canada, Australia, Western Europe, and Latin America", ". An estimated 20% of the Hungarian refugees entering Canada in 1957 were Jewish. The Hungarian Jewish population declined both because of emigration and because of high levels of assimilation and intermarriage and low birth rates. The Jews with the strongest Jewish identities were typically the ones who emigrated. By 1967, only about 80,000–90,000 Jews (including non-religious Jews) remained in the country, with the number dropping further before the country's Communist regime collapsed in 1989.", "Under the milder communist regime of János Kádár (ruled 1957–1988) leftist Jewish intelligentsia remained an important and vocal part of Hungarian art and sciences. Diplomatic relations with Israel were severed in 1967 following the Six-Day War, but it was not followed by antisemitic campaigns as in Poland or the Soviet Union.\n\nFrom the 1990s", "From the 1990s \n\nHungary's Jewish population (within its current borders) decreased from nearly half a million after World War I and kept declining between 1920 and 2010, significantly between 1939 and 1945 (World War II and the Holocaust), and further between 1951 and 1960 (the Hungarian Revolution of 1956). Despite the decline, in 2010 Hungary had the largest Jewish population in Eastern Europe outside the former Soviet Union.", "After the fall of communism, Hungary had two prime ministers of partial Jewish origin, József Antall (1990–1993) and Gyula Horn (1994–1998)\n\nIn April 1997, the Hungarian parliament passed a Jewish compensation act that returns property stolen from Jewish victims during the Nazi and Communist eras. Under this law, property and monetary payment were given back to the Jewish public heritage foundation and to Jewish victims of the Holocaust.", "Critics have asserted that the sums represent nothing more than a symbolic gesture. According to Randolph L. Braham: \"The overshadowing of the Holocaust by a politically guided preoccupation with the horrors of the Communist era has led, among other things, to giving priority to the compensation of the victims of Communism over those of Nazism", ". To add insult to injury, an indeterminate number of the Christian victims who were compensated for properties nationalized by the Communist regime had, in fact, 'legally' or fraudulently acquired them from Jews during the Nazi era", ". Compounding this virtual obscenity, the government of Viktor Orbán sought in late 1998 to ease the collective conscience of the nation by offering to compensate survivors by paying approximately $150 for each member of their particular immediate families, assuming that they can prove that their loved ones were in fact victims of the Holocaust.\"", "See also \nList of Hungarian Jews\nAntisemitism in contemporary Hungary\nArrow Cross Party\nBudapest Ghetto\nHistory of Hungary\nHistory of the Jews in Bekes (Hungary)\nHistory of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia\nHungary in World War II\n:Category:Israeli people of Hungarian-Jewish descent\nKiryat Mattersdorf\nMiskolc pogrom\nNeolog Judaism\nOberlander Jews\nReligion in Hungary\nFreedom of religion in Hungary\nShoes on the Danube Promenade\nSiebengemeinden\nBatei Ungarin\nUnsdorf\n\nNotes", "Notes\n\nReferences \nNote: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Büchler, Alexander (1904). \"Hungary\". In Singer, Isidore (ed.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Volume 6. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Co., pp. 494–503.", "Further reading \nBraham, Randolph L. (2001) The Holocaust in Hungary: a selected and annotated bibliography, 1984–2000. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press \nBraham, Randolph L. (2001) The Politics of Genocide: the Holocaust in Hungary. (Rev. and enl. ed.) 2 vols. Boulder: Social Science Monographs; Distributed by Columbia University Press [Hungarian translation available.] (1st ed.: New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.)", "Herczl, Moshe Y. Christianity and the Holocaust of Hungarian Jewry (1993) online\nHungary and the Holocaust, US Holocaust Memorial Museum\nMiron, Guy, \"Center or Frontier: Hungary and Its Jews, Between East and West\", Journal of Levantine Studies, vol. 1, Summer 2011, pp. 67–91\nPatai, Raphael, Apprentice in Budapest: Memories of a World That Is No More'' Lanham, Maryland, Lexington Books, 2000,", "External links \n\nJewish Virtual Library articles on Hungary\nDocuments on the Holocaust in Hungary\nMagyar Zsidó Lexikon\nWallenberg: More Twists to the Tale, Mária Ember, They Wanted to Blame Us\nHeroes of the Hungarian Holocaust\nInterview with István Domonkos, son of Miksa Domonkos, who died after the show trial preparations (Hungarian)\nChabad-Lubavitch Centers in Hungary\nHungarian Jewish Homepage \nJewish Budapest Map\nJewish Heritage Walking Tours in Budapest" ]

[ "The history of St. Mary's Church in Dedham, Massachusetts begins with the first mass said in Dedham, Massachusetts in 1843 and runs to the present day.", "From the first mass with only 8 Catholics present, St. Mary's grew into one of the largest parishes in the Archdiocese of Boston. The first church constructed by the congregation was quickly outgrown, and so a second church was built on High Street. Designed to be a \"cathedral in the wilderness,\" it is \"the largest and most imposing church in the town\" and \"one of the most conspicuous edifices\" in the town.", "Several parishes have grown out of St. Mary's, most recently St. Susanna's. Today it has a large Life Teen program, and over 40 other programs for parishioners.\n\nEarly history", "First Catholics\nThe history of Catholicism in Dedham begins in 1758, 120 years after the settlement of the Contentment Plantation and two decades before the American Revolution. During the French and Indian War, the British expelled over 11,000 Acadians from what is today Nova Scotia. Eleven of them resettled in Dedham, and though the town and the Massachusetts Bay colony were both officially Congregationalist, they were allowed to reside here as \"French neutrals\" until they returned to Canada in 1760.", "After the Acadians returned to Canada in 1760, Dedham would not see another Catholic resident for decades. The townsfolk would not always be so welcoming. When an Irishman and his wife came to visit friends in the village of Dedham, the Selectmen asked them to leave as soon as possible.", "The first Catholic who spent any length of time in Dedham was a Mr. Gill, who lived in what is today known as Riverdale, but was then called Dedham Island. The first few Catholics who lived in Dedham would have to travel 16 miles to St. Joseph's in Roxbury, the Cathedral of the Holy Cross on Franklin Street in Boston, or to St. Mary's in Waltham to attend Mass.", "Early Masses\nBy the early 1800s, a few Catholics had settled in Dedham. The first Mass in Dedham was celebrated in Sunday, May 15, 1843, in the home of Daniel Slattery, with eight Catholics present. An altar was set up by the window. At the time, Dedham and the surrounding area was part of the missionary territory of St. Mary's in Waltham. Though a large area, stretching as far west as Concord and as far south as Walpole, it is estimated there were fewer than 300 Catholics.", "It was difficult for many to travel to Waltham, and so Strain offered to travel halfway to meet the Catholics in the outlying areas. Slattery offered his home and to provide Strain with transportation. For the next three years Slattery's 17-year-old brother-in-law, John Doggett, would bring Father James Strain from Waltham and back to minister to the needs of the small congregation.", "By 1846, the Catholic community in Dedham was established enough that the town became part of the mission of St. Joseph's Church in Roxbury. The geographic boundaries of the town were much larger at the time, however, and only one Catholic boy lived in the central village in 1850. Fr. Patrick O'Beirne continued to say mass in the Slattery home.", "Slattery was well regarded among his fellow Dedhamites and, when his wife died in 1849, the hands of the clock were stopped at the hour of her death. The unusual occurrence of a Catholic funeral mass elicited much interest around the town.", "Slattery moved to Needham in 1854. This, plus the flood of Irish immigrants escaping the Great Famine necessitated holding Mass in the Temperance Hall, often by Father Patrick O'Beirne. Mass was also occasionally celebrated in the Crystal Palace on Washington Street. Worshipers came from Dedham, South Dedham, West Dedham, and West Roxbury. Ordained for less than a decade, the 33-year-old O'Beirne had charge of the Catholics in Dedham, Norwood, Randolph, Holliston, Walpole, and Needham, as well as Roxbury", ".", "First church\n\nThe number and devotion of the first parishioners permitted a church to be constructed within 10 years. In 1856 the cornerstone was laid, and in 1857, the first St. Mary's Church was completed on Washington Street between Spruce and Marion Streets. It could seat 700 people.", "On Easter Sunday, April 12, 1857, Father O'Beirne said Mass for the first time in a new church that could seat 600. Reading from the 20th chapter of John's Gospel, Father O'Beirne proclaimed the news of Jesus' empty tomb.", "Parish growth\nThe large growth in the number of Catholics in the area in the middle of the 19th century made the original St. Mary's too small. Irish immigrants fleeing the Great Famine in the 1840s, followed by Germans in the 1850s. Italians and Eastern Europeans came later in the century. Many took up residence in East Dedham to work in the mills along Mother Brook. By July 1878, the church was out of repair and it had a mortgage debt of $3,000.", "During this time, St. Mary's was responsible for the mission in South Dedham, which later separated and became the Town of Norwood. Like those closer to the center of town, South Dedhamites would travel to either Roxbury or to nearby Canton for Mass, but eventually Mass was offered several times a year in the home of Patrick Fahey. By 1860, a priest was available to say mass in South Dedham every other week.", "During the Civil War, the Dedham Transcript wrote that \"Almost to a man,\" the Catholic men of Dedham \"answered Lincoln's call,\" and sadly \"no church in Dedham lost so many men in proportion to their numbers as did St. Mary's.\" Their patriotism and deaths did much to counter the anti-Catholic bias that existed in town. The war put a great strain on O'Beirne's health, and in 1866 Fr. John P. Brennan, O'Beirne's nephew, became the parish's resident pastor.", "In 1880, the pastor of St. Mary's was also responsible for churches in South Dedham, East Dedham, and West Roxbury. During this decade, Father Johnson was publicly raising the issue of discrimination against Catholics in the public schools", ". In 1885, as a member of the School Committee, he claimed the principal of the Avery School ridiculed Catholic students, and several years later had a lengthy debate with a Protestant minister via letters in the Dedham Standard about the \"rank misrepresentation of the Catholic Church\" in a history book adopted by the School Committee.", "In 1890 there were an estimated 2,000 parishioners, including 957 Irish, 250 English-speaking Canadians, 58 French,19 Italians and 1 Portuguese. There were 400 students in the Sunday School classes in 1884.\n\nConstruction of the new church", "In 1867, a house was purchased on High Street by Father John Brennan and was converted into a rectory. Plans were then made for a new church to be constructed at this location. The larger part of the church lot was purchased after Johnson's arrival in 1878. In February 1880, it was announced that A.W. Nickerson, a Protestant who had business in Boston, had paid off the parish's $800 debt, allowing the congregation to commence work on a new building", ". This was welcome news, as the parish was bankrupt at the time.", "Cornerstone ceremony\n\nThe cornerstone of the present church was laid at 3:00 on October 17, 1880 by Archbishop John Williams. A crowd of between 4,000 and 5,000 people attended, and special trains were run from Boston and Norwood to accommodate all those who wished to attend. It was one of the largest gatherings in Dedham's history.", "The congregation marched from their present building on Washington Street to the site of the new church on the High Street for the ceremony. Included in the procession were the Holy Name Society, the Young Men's Lyceum, the Rosary Society, the Young Ladies Solidarity, the St. Aloysius Society of Boys, and the Children of Sacred and Holy Angels Solidarity.", "The crowd included many of the leading citizens of Dedham as well as 30 priests. The clergy included Johnson, St. Mary's pastor, Father Theodore Metcalf of the Cathedral of the Holy Cross who served as Master of Ceremonies, and Father Joseph Henning of Roxbury who gave a homily. The Cathedral choir sang and Higgins's band provided music, as did the united choirs of Dedham.", "Williams blessed the cornerstone and the place where the foundation was to be poured, as well as the white cross that marked the location of the future altar.\n\nConstruction\nThe current church was constructed next door to the rectory Father Brennan established on High Street. A week before the cornerstone ceremony, on October 10, 1880, a building used as a bath by male parishioners of St. Raphael's in East Dedham was torn down in order to be used as a staging ground for the construction of the new church.", "Shortly after construction began, a large about of solid rock was found below the surface which had to be removed. The interior walls were plastered by William B. Gould, an escaped slave who settled in Dedham. One of Gould's employees improperly mixed the plaster and, even though it was not visible by looking at it, Gould insisted that it be removed and reapplied correctly at his own great expense. Another contractor did not complete the work he was hired to do, delaying progress.", "The new church was designed by Patrick W. Ford, an architect with offices on School Street in Boston, and built by Welch and Delano. They were charged with hiring 18 Dedham men to complete the basement, as well as a master mechanic to serve as superintendent. Construction began on June 28, 1880, and in 1883 The Dedham Transcript wrote that \"The plastering of the new catholic church is nearly finished, the windows put in place, and everything betokens an early occupancy of the basement.\"", "While the upper church was still under construction, the lower church was used for Mass and the upper portion for various fairs and other gatherings. The first mass was said in the lower church at 10:30 a.m. on October 24, 1886. The crowd was overflowing, and included 20 Protestants, many of local importance, and a choir from St. Peter's in South Boston. The church, though \"in constant use,\" would not be completed for another 20 years after the cornerstone was laid.\n\nDedication", "After 20 years of working, praying, and fundraising from the meager immigrant wages of many of the parishioners, the Upper Church was finally completed. It took so long that another architect had to take over but was, Father Fleming said, \"almost too beautiful for ordinary use.\" One critic said that though some parishes in the area have more people than did the entire town of Dedham, \"few parishes in Boston can boast of a more impressive Church\" than St. Mary's", ". Mary's. Another said it was second to none in the archdiocese.", "The upper church was completed and dedicated by Archbishop Williams on September 9, 1900 at 10:00 a.m. In addition to Williams, Archbishop Sebastiano Martinelli, the papal delegate to the United States, attended, as did Bishop Denis Mary Bradley of New Hampshire. The crowd, numbered at 1,200, included the communion class and many prominent citizens of the Town, including Protestants. The dedication packed the church, requiring many to stand, and tickets were required to enter.", "The ceremony began with a procession of clergy from the rectory to the church, where a prayer was chanted on the porch at the top of the stairs. The clergy then walked around the building, blessing the walls with holy water. Back on the porch, the litany of the Saints was said before the interior walls were sprinkled with holy water. A final prayer was said in the sanctuary to complete the dedication.", "Martinelli then said the first mass in the upper church with a number of clergy from the surrounding areas present. Music was provided by a choir of 30, plus four soloists and part of the Germania Orchestra of Boston.\n\nIn his homily, which the Boston Globe published, Bradley said that", "In his homily, which the Boston Globe published, Bradley said that\n\nToday, my beloved brethren, like unto Solomon on the occasion of the dedication of the Great Temple of Jerusalem, your zealous Pastor proclaims that you have built a house in God's name ... To you has been reserved the privilege of offering to God a house as worthy of His Name as this beautiful structure in which we are assembled this morning.", "After Mass, at 4:00, about 200 children were confirmed, and solemn vespers were sung in the evening.\n\nFeatures", "Features\n\nThe footprint of the Gothic church, which Father Johnson said was to be a \"cathedral in the wilderness,\" measures 150' long by 65' wide, and the bell tower is 164' tall. The apex of the ceiling is 80' and it has the longest aisle in the Archdiocese of Boston. It was at the time, and remains today, \"the largest and most imposing church in the town\" and \"one of the most conspicuous edifices\" in the town.", "There are four large doorways facing High Street, and granite buttresses give the church \"an appearance of strength and solidarity.\" The doors, like the pews, were made of polished oak. The altar was carved from Caen stone, and the altar rail of green onyx. Today one of those doors is permanently shut as that portion of the vestibule has become a Reconciliation room, and the altar rail has been moved down to the space in front of the front pew", ". As built, it had a seating capacity of 1,200 in the vestry and 1,500 in the church proper. An organ sits high above the nave in a choir loft that can hold 50 singers.", "The broad front stairs originally pointed out away from the Church with a brass railing in the middle, but due to a widening of High Street in the 1920s they were turned to run parallel with the street. When built, the church was said to be fireproof with \"ventilation and heating system of the best, and the acoustic properties unexcelled", ".\" The windows are of \"rolled cathedral stained glass\" and were made by four German companies: Tyrolese Art Glass Company, Franz Mayer of Munich, Franz Xaver Zettler, and Royal Bavarian Stained Glass. Despite being made by different companies, the windows all have similar scales, color ranges, and placement of figures, creating the appearance of a cohesive whole.", "Lining the Church are fluted Grecian columns and seven arches. Crystal chandeliers hang along both sides of the nave, above the altar, and above the doors.\n\nThe semicircular apse had stained glass windows showing, from left to right, St. Patrick, St. Peter, the Assumption of Mary, St. Paul and St. Brigid. At either end of the altar are statues of Saints Peter and Paul. In between are three paintings framed by elaborate gothic ornamentation on the rerdos.", "Cost and fundraising", "After the cornerstone laying, a dinner was held at a local hall where $1,250 was donated. The largest donation of $100 came from Timothy Callahan, and he received a golden trowel for his gift. Fundraisers, including a \"grand coffee party\" in Memorial Hall, were held for years to come to pay for the edifice and drew people not only from Dedham, but from many surrounding communities", ". The mills of East Dedham, where many parishioners lived and worked, shut down frequently and for months at a time, putting many out of work and hindering fundraising efforts.", "Albert Nickerson, a member of Dedham's St. Paul's Episcopal Church, donated $10,000 towards the effort. The Dedham Granite for the outer walls was donated by another Protestant, John Bullard, who did not live to see the church completed. The granite came from Bullard's own lot. Other non-Catholics also contributed. In 1886, it was estimated the cost would be $100,000, by 1890 the cost was reported to be $125,000, and at the dedication in 1900 it stood at $250,000.", "When Johnson left St. Mary's in 1890, he submitted a financial report of the parish before he left. The last time he did so, the church \"was simply roofed in.\" At that time there was a mortgage of $15,000, a floating debt of $2,700, and a debt of $1,500 on St. Raphael's. By the time he left, the basement church was finished, it was plastered, the flooring and pews were installed, and the steps were built", ". All bills had been paid and all debts retired, except for the $15,000 mortgage and a $2,000 mortgage on the rectory. There was also a mortgage on the old church lot worth $3,000, and Johnson believed the lot was worth more than that. The church also owned \"the Storrs lot,\" which cost $2,250, but was worth more at the time of the report. Johnson himself gave \"the last cent that [he] could spare\" to the construction of the church.", "20th century\n\nEarly 20th century\n\nFather John H. Fleming arrived at St. Mary's in June 1890 and began a 33-year tenure as pastor. During his pastorate the parish the upper church would be completed, the parish cemetery in West Roxbury would be purchased, and the old wooden rectory next to the church would be torn down so a new rectory could be built of Dedham Granite in 1913. On Sundays, however, the quality of his preaching was such that other priests would come to St. Mary's to listen.", "The rectory was designed by Edward T. P. Graham and the stone came from the same quarry as the church, which had to be reopened for the purpose. It was donated by General Weld, a Protestant, whose daughter converted to Catholicism and became a nun. He honored her early death with the donation.", "In 1901, an unusual double marriage ceremony took place where two sisters, Frances and Mary Curtis, married two men during a single mass. Charles Logue, who built numerous churches in the Greater Boston area as well as Fenway Park, died in the arms of his son while inspecting the roof of St. Mary's in 1919.", "In the 1920s, with the building work completed, new pastor Father Henry A. Walsh was able to focus on the various groups and societies within the parish. The Catholic population in the area grew, as did the amount of social activity within the parish. By 1936, the parish was one of the largest in the Archdiocese of Boston with 6,000 parishioners, four priests, and six nuns. The Sunday School alone had over 1,300 pupils.", "Within months of arriving as pastor in 1929, Father George P. O'Connor began a parish school with three Sisters of St. Joseph. He also began a Catholic Youth Organization, and was generally regarded as having a focus on youth. He also added an additional floor to the rectory to accommodate the assistant priests coming to the parish.", "Father Mark C. Driscoll became pastor in 1943, and two years later became a monsignor. In 1953, Driscoll purchased land at 700 High Street to be used as an adult center. When he celebrated his golden jubilee of his priesthood, Cardinal Francis Spellman returned to Boston and celebrated the Mass. Cardinal Richard Cushing provided the homily.\n\nMid-20th century\nIn 1953, the newly established St. John Chrysostom Church in West Roxbury took some of St. Mary's territory.", "Following the reforms the Second Vatican Council, a new temporary altar was installed in the church in 1964, and a permanent oak altar was in place in 1965. Monsignor Edward C. Bailey, who became pastor in 1960, also introduced microphones and speakers into the cavernous church, and remodeled both sacristies. He also added additional exterior doors to the church.", "A new carillon was added in 1962, and the bells pealed the Angelus and the call to worship on Sundays. By the 1990s, however, the bells no longer chimed, but a tape recording played three times a day.", "In the 1960s, St. Mary's remained one of the largest parishes in the archdiocese. A new convent was needed for the nuns who worked at the school. A total of $300,000 was pledged for a larger convent, and it was paid off within three years. The construction began in the spring 1963, was finished the summer of the following year, and had stained glass windows in the chapel depicting Jesus and Mary. When it opened on Avery Street, 15 nuns moved in and there was space for 22", ". When it opened on Avery Street, 15 nuns moved in and there was space for 22. The old convent was torn down, and a parking lot was put in its place. At the confirmation mass in 1965, Bishop Thomas Joseph Riley blessed the new building.", "The church was still too small, and was too much work for one pastor and three assistant priests, however. A second parish was established for the Riverdale neighborhood, St. Susana's, in 1962. In 1968, Fr. Frank Daly came to St. Mary's. He later was married and left the priesthood. In 2016, two years after the death of his wife, he returned to his priestly faculties.", "Monsignor Charles F. Dewey became pastor in 1969. It was Dewey who hired the Andover Organ Company to renovate the Hook & Hastings organ in the choir loft, which was said to be one of the finest in the Archdiocese. In the 1970s the lower church was renovated, and a reconciliation room was added.", "Late 20th century", "In 1975, Father Edward Banks, S.J. arrived at St. Mary's. He had previously taught in Baghdad, Iraq, but \"our friend\" Saddam Hussein expelled him as an American spy. He had grown up in St. Catherine's in Norwood and also spent time in other Middle Eastern cities. With one brief intermission, he would remain at St. Mary's until his death in 2001. It was a sign of the mutual affection between Banks and the parish that his funeral was held at St", ". Mary's, and not at the Jesuits' Campion Center, as would be typical for a member of his religious order.", "In 1980, in preparation for the 100th anniversary of the church, small changes were made to the pews to improve traffic flow during Communion. A coronation tapestry also hung behind the statue of Mary in the lower church.", "The number of people attending mass each week began to drop off rather dramatically in the early 1990s. In 1989, the average weekly attendance was 2,843 people. By 1995, however, it dropped to just 1,030. The following year, 1996, Father (later bishop) John Anthony Dooher and Father Chris Hickey arrived at St. Mary's within weeks of each other. Mass attendance increased by 50% that year alone, and in 1997 it was over 2,500", ". Mass attendance increased by 50% that year alone, and in 1997 it was over 2,500. In September 1997, Hickey and youth minister Seán Flynn began a Life Teen program to minister to high school students.", "21st century", "In 2000, attendance at Sunday mass was 2,614, making it the 11th most active parish of the 357 parishes then in the archdiocese. It performed the 8th most sacraments in 2001–2002. , the parish had 2,700 families as parishioners. The nature of the parish switched during this time from being a place simply where sacraments were offered to offering more social services as well", ". The parish grounds are currently used for community groups such as three Alcoholics Anonymous groups, senior citizens, and a Moms and Tots group. There are between 600 and 700 people who come to the church each week.", "The parish itself has 40 active groups. These include outreach to the poor and senior citizens, a crocheting, knitting, and quilting group, a women's bowling league, book clubs, and youth groups. In addition, the St. Joseph's Chapel in the parish center is open from 6 a.m. to 9 p.m. each day.\n\n2015 painting", "After consulting with the Parish and Finance Councils and holding a parish-wide Town Hall Meeting in the spring of 2014, Pastor William Kelly proposed repainting the interior of the Upper Church for the first time in over 25 years. It was originally painted with vibrant colors and patterns, but in the 1970s was completely painted in white with gold trim", ". As reasons for undertaking the project Kelly cited the need to maintain the physical structure of the church, the upcoming 150th anniversary of the parish, long-term planning and the collaborative process by which St. Mary's and nearby St. Susana's would come under a single pastor, and beauty in itself being \"a fundamental element for our human, spiritual and intellectual happiness.\"", "The cost was projected to be $300,000 and pledges were requested. The donations and pledges made were insufficient, however, so the plans were scaled back, a loan was taken out to cover the remainder, and a second collection was instituted once a month. As conducted, the project included the four walls of the church and the sanctuary, the two side altars, Stations of the Cross, the ceilings in the side aisles, and the center columns as high as the capitals", ". The center arches, main ceiling and choir loft were not included. The painting included many colors, and white stars painted on a blue background above the altar. Children of the parish were invited to sponsor a star. The project began on January 5, 2015 by the Graham Company and finished by the end of March.", "Lower church\nIn 2010, the parish sold the parking lot across High Street to the Town of Dedham and a housing developer. The proceeds were used to demolish the old school building, and to re-purpose the lower church. Half of the lower portion of the church is a clubhouse for the LifeTeen program, and the other half is a multipurpose gathering space known as Mary Hall.", "The pews from the lower church were salvaged and reused. Some became wall paneling and table stock for fast food restaurants, and others were transformed into serving boards for high-end restaurants. The pew ends were sold as is.\n\nPastors\n\nPatrick O'Beirne\n\nO'Beirne was born in Mohill, County Leitrim, on December 31, 1808 and arrived in America in 1833.", "By 1846, the Catholic community in Dedham was well established enough that the town became part of the mission of St. Joseph's Church. The flood of Irish immigrants escaping the Great Famine necessitated holding Mass in the Temperance Hall, often O’Beirne often presiding. Mass was also occasionally celebrated in the Crystal Palace on Washington Street. Worshipers came from Dedham, South Dedham, West Dedham, and West Roxbury.", "While at St. Joseph's, he had charge of the mission in Dedham, Massachusetts and he established what is today St. Mary's Church there. In 1856 the cornerstone was laid and, in 1857, the first St. Mary's Church was completed on Washington Street between Spruce and Marion Streets. On Easter Sunday, April 12, 1857, Father O’Beirne said Mass for the first time in the new 600 person church. Reading from the 20th chapter of John's Gospel, O'Beirne proclaimed the news of Jesus' empty tomb", ". Reading from the 20th chapter of John's Gospel, O'Beirne proclaimed the news of Jesus' empty tomb. Though it was still part of the Roxbury Parish, O'Beirne or one of his assistants would travel to Dedham each Sunday to say mass.", "O'Beirne remained pastor of St. Mary's until 1866, when Fr. John P. Brennan took over.\n\nJohn P. Brennan\nBrennan was born in Indiana but spent most of his childhood in Taunton, Massachusetts. His first assignment was in Roxbury before becoming the resident pastor of St. Mary's Church. Brennan took over for his uncle, the founding pastor, Fr. Patrick O'Beirne. He served at St. Mary's from 1866 to 1877.", "In June 1867, a house was purchased on High Street by Brennan and was converted into a rectory. Plans were then made for a new church to be constructed at this location. The current church was constructed next door to the rectory Father Brennan established on High Street. During his pastorate in Dedham, the Sisters of Charity founded the St. Mary's School and Asylum at what was formerly the Norfolk House.", "The school held a number of fundraisers, but with the heavy debt of the parish the school closed on June 27, 1879. The closure was intended to be temporary, but it never reopened. The building was sold in 1905.", "It was a \"somewhat pleasant surprise\" when it was announced on January 14, 1877, that Brennan would be leaving St. Mary's and that the parish would be turned over to his curate, Dennis J. O'Donovan. Many in the congregation had been unhappy with Brennan and the week before he became the first priest to ever file for bankruptcy. The parish was also bankrupt at the time.\n\nDennis J. O'Donovan", "Fr Dennis J. O'Donovan announced on January 14, 1877 that Fr. John Brennan would be leaving St. Mary's Church in Dedham, Massachusetts and St. Catherine's in Norwood, which was part of the same parish. Many in the congregation had been unhappy with Brennan and the week before he became the first priest to ever file for bankruptcy. The parish was also bankrupt at the time. Donovan took over for Brennan as pastor, and served until August 1888. Donovan expanded and improved St", ". Donovan expanded and improved St. Catherine's during his time as pastor. When he resigned in 1878 due to failing health his parishioners presented him with a resolution expressing their thanks and $550.", "Robert J. Johnson\n\nJohnson was born in Ireland. Johnson served as past of St. Mary's Church from August 1878 to 1890.", "During this decade, Johnson was publicly raising the issue of discrimination against Catholics in the public schools. He served two terms on the Dedham School Committee, from 1884 to 1890", ". He served two terms on the Dedham School Committee, from 1884 to 1890. As a member of the School Committee in 1885, he claimed the principal of the Avery School ridiculed Catholic students, and several years later had a lengthy debate with a Protestant minister via letters in the Dedham Standard about the \"rank misrepresentation of the Catholic Church\" in a history book adopted by the School Committee.", "During Johnson's pastorate, the cornerstone of the present St. Mary's Church was dedicated on October 17, 1880 by Archbishop John Williams. A crowd of between 4,000 and 5,000 people attended, and special trains were run from Boston and Norwood to accommodate all those who wished to attend. It was one of the largest gatherings in Dedham's history.", "To serve the Catholics of East Dedham, he built St. Raphael's Church, but it was destroyed by fire a few years later. When he left St. Mary's, the Catholics and Protestants of the town were both sorry to see him go. He had become friends with all, including many of the leading men in town.\n\nJohn H. Fleming", "John H. Fleming\n\nPersonal life\nJohn H. Fleming was born in Boston in 1849 and attended Boston Latin School before the College of the Holy Cross. Fleming studied for two years at the Grand Séminaire de Montréal and then two years at Saint-Sulpice Seminary in Paris, where he was ordained in 1874. He then traveled through Europe for several months before returning to Boston. These experiences, it was said, gave him \"graces and accomplishments\" not held by others who had not traveled as widely.", "Fleming was described as \"a man of large experience, rare culture, and varied attainments.\" His other qualities included \"scholarship, eloquence, faith, [and] piety.\" He was said to have \"abilities of the highest order, and his zeal is correspondingly warm.\" He had a conservative disposition and was described as \"a gentleman of the old school.\" He was renowned as a scholar and often used his \"tongue, pen, [and] purse\" to support good causes.", "While in Dedham, he also played a role in the affairs of the town. Fleming was a supporter of the temperance movement and served as vice president of the Massachusetts Catholic Total Abstinence Union. He had two sisters, Louise Fleming and Hannah Carney.\n\nMinistry\nFleming was an eloquent speaker. He had an \"unusual gift\" of being able to put speak in a manner where words became \"gems of thought.\" On Sundays, the quality of his preaching was such that other priests would come to St. Mary's to listen.", "As a pastor, he was known to be an \"able and efficient\" manager.\"", "Early ministry\nHis first assignment was at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross before moving to St. James the Greater Church on Harrison Avenue in Boston. He served as curate in both churches. While at St. James, he was sued by the parents of Lizzie Gordon, a teenage girl who claimed to have visions of the Virgin Mary and her dead brother. The case, which garnered national news, was eventually decided in favor of the girl but the jury only awarded $0.01 in damages.", "After Fr. Henry J. Madden left St. Mary's Church in Ayer, Massachusetts in 1884, Fleming took over for him as pastor. He remained there for five years until being transferred to St. Mary's in Dedham in June 1890.", "Dedham\nFleming arrived at St. Mary's in Dedham on June 2, 1890 and began a 33-year tenure as pastor. He dedicated himself to finishing the church that his predecessor, Fr. Robert J. Johnson, had started, making it \"his life work.\" He contributed financially to the church construction as well, \"dollar for dollar,\" with his parishioners. He adopted a \"pay as you go\" policy to construction.", "After 20 years of working, praying, and fundraising from the meager immigrant wages of many of the parishioners, the upper church was finished during his pastorate. It took so long that another architect had to take over but was, according to Fleming, \"almost too beautiful for ordinary use.\" One critic said that though some parishes in the area have more people than did the entire town of Dedham, \"few parishes in Boston can boast of a more impressive Church\" than St. Mary's", ". Mary's. Another said it was second to none in the archdiocese. A local newspaper called it \"an ornament and a credit to the town.\"", "The parish cemetery in West Roxbury was also purchased during his tenure and the old wooden rectory next to the church was torn down so a new rectory could be built of Dedham Granite in 1913.\n\nDeath and legacy\nThe stress of World War I weighed heavily upon Fleming, taking a toll on his physical and mental health. Likewise, the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 took such a toll on him that he was unable to read all the names of all those from St. Mary's who had died, as was the custom.", "He died suddenly on April 24, 1923, at the Ambassador Hotel in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He had been sick for a few months and traveled south to try to regain his strength. His body was transported to Boston, and then to Dedham, where he lay in state, first at the rectory and then in the church.", "On April 28, 1923, the morning of his funeral, St. Mary's Church was packed with \"throngs\" of people, including scores of priests, and dignitaries from the church, state, county, and town, as well as representatives from fraternal societies. A low mass was said at 8 am for the children of the parish, and a solemn Requiem Mass was said at 10 am. He is buried with his mother in the Forest Hills Cemetery. It was said that \"St", ". He is buried with his mother in the Forest Hills Cemetery. It was said that \"St. Mary's Church, one of the finest edifices in New England, stands as a lasting memorial to Father Fleming's work.\"", "His estate totaled $85,000, of which he left $40,000 to the Carney Hospital to pay for four private rooms for St. Mary's parishioners who may become ill. His will stipulated that the parishioners using the rooms should be recommended by the pastor of the church and that preference should be given to people of humble but decent circumstances. His music machine, worth about $2,000, was left to St. John's Preparatory School.", "He also left $1,000 for the sexton of the church and a large sum to both his sister and the parish. There were also bequests of $5,000 to Boston College and Emmanuel College. The educational funds were for scholarships for students from the parish who were recommended by the pastor. Any books not taken by his family were also left to Boston College. Fleming had previously donated books to the Boston College library.", "Bequests were also made to a Little Sisters of the Poor Home for the Aged in Roxbury, Home for Destitute Catholic Children, St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum, St. Mary's Infant Asylum, and St. John's Industrial Home in Newton. He also left funds to supports the missions. The executors of his will were Fr. Charles A. Finn, Fr. Timothy C. Maney, and James. R. Flanagan.\n\nHenry A. Walsh", "Henry A. Walsh\n\nWalsh was born in Newton, Massachusetts but moved as a child to East Boston. When Walsh was transferred from Needham to St. Mary's Church, a public reception was held for him at the town hall. He arrived in Dedham on July 16, 1923. As the construction on the church had recently been finished, Walsh was able to focus on the various groups and societies within the parish. His pastorate ended with his death in 1929.\n\nParish school", "Parish school\n\nWhile Johnson was pastor, the parish purchased a large lot of land across from the Storrs' home to one day be used as a school. Several decades later, a parochial school was started in 1932 by Father George P. O'Connor and run by the Sisters of St. Joseph.", "For the first few years the school was limited by the lack of space, and classes were held in the convent. On June 16, 1935, the cornerstone for a new school was laid using the same golden trowel and ivory handle that was used in 1880 for the church. A crowd of 500 attended the ceremony. \n\nIn September 1936, the new building on High Street was open. The desks were bolted to the floor and had holes in them for inkwells.", "On Sunday, January 24, 1954, it was announced that an increase in the school population required more space. The new school was constructed on the Greenhood Estate on High Street, which had been purchased several years before. The cost of the 16-room school was estimated to be $450,000.", "A new addition was constructed in 1958, and the student population grew to 650. In 1966 it had over 800 students. It was in the 1960s that the 8th grade was added. The school had two classes per grade, with both nuns and laity as teachers. The school had a debt of $250,000, but it was paid off by 1966.", "In December 1973, the pastor, Monsignor Charles Dewey, announced the school would close in 1975. At the time, 9 nuns taught 16 classes comprising 525 students. The graduating class had 85 students and two teachers. \n\nThe school was largely vacant for many years, being used only for CCD classes. In the 1990s it was used by the British School of Boston, and the Rashi School, a Boston area Reform Jewish K-8 independent school. The building was razed in 2010.", "Daughter congregations\nThere have been a total of four congregations that have had territory partially split off from St. Mary's: St. Raphael's in East Dedham (1878), St. Catherine's in South Dedham (Norwood), (1890), West Roxbury's St. John Chrysostom (1952), and St. Susanna's in the Riverdale section of Dedham (1960).\n\nSt. Raphael's", "St. Raphael's\n\nDue to the growth of the Catholic population, about 200 parishioners in East Dedham were reassigned in January 1878 to Father Richard Barry's care in the Germantown Association's Chapel (St. Theresa's Church) in West Roxbury. This left St. Mary's parish small and with few resources.", "On October 28, 1878, St. Raphael's Chapel was established on Thomas Street in East Dedham with the territory that had been broken off from St. Mary's. Dedicated by Archbishop Williams, St. Raphael's sat about 400 people, and in 1880 they added a hall for the amusement of young men at a cost of $8,000.", "Many were not pleased with the change, and the first mass was attended by only six people. A petition was presented to Archbishop Williams asking him to reunite the parishes, and proposing to transform the chapel that had been erected into a school. The Catholics of Dedham were reunited in 1880.", "The new parish sponsored Court 26 of the Catholic Orders of Foresters. The Court survived the Church, staying active at least into the 1920s. After it burned to the ground on December 17, 1887, St. Raphael's was merged back into St. Mary's.", "St. Catherine's\nOnly six years after building the first church, another building was purchased from the Unitarians of South Dedham at the site of the present day St. Catherine's rectory. The purchase price was $3,000. Named for St. Catherine of Siena, it was dedicated on August 3, 1863. The Town of Norwood broke away from Dedham in 1872, and St. Catherine's was established as a separate parish in 1890 with 1,500 parishioners.\n\nSt. Susanna's", "By the 1930s, St. Mary's was one of the largest parishes in the Archdiocese with over 6,000 parishioners and 1,300 students in Sunday School. During the middle of that decade there were four priests and six nuns ministering to the congregation. In the 1950s, it became clear that a second parish was needed in Dedham, and so St. Susanna's was established in 1960 to serve the needs of the Riverdale neighborhood. When St. Susanna's opened it had 300 families, while 2,500 stayed at St. Mary's", ". When St. Susanna's opened it had 300 families, while 2,500 stayed at St. Mary's. The first pastor of St. Susana's, Father Michael Durant, lived at St. Mary's while his church was being constructed.", "Notes and citations\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nExternal links\nParish Website\nSt. Mary's LifeTeen \n\nAcadian diaspora\nFrench-Canadian culture in Massachusetts\nHistory of Dedham, Massachusetts\nRoman Catholic churches in Massachusetts\nRoman Catholic parishes of Archdiocese of Boston\nReligious organizations established in 1866\n1866 establishments in Massachusetts\nRoman Catholic churches completed in 1900\nChurches in Dedham, Massachusetts" ]

[ "Bryant Park is a public park located in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Privately managed, it is located between Fifth Avenue and Avenue of the Americas (Sixth Avenue) and between 40th and 42nd Streets in Midtown Manhattan. The eastern half of Bryant Park is occupied by the Main Branch of the New York Public Library. The western half, which contains a lawn, shaded walkways, and amenities such as a carousel, is located entirely over an underground structure that houses the library's stacks", ". The park hosts several events, including a seasonal \"Winter Village\" with an ice rink and shops during the winter.", "The first park at the site was opened in 1847 and was called Reservoir Square due to its proximity to the Croton Distributing Reservoir. Reservoir Square contained the New York Crystal Palace, which hosted the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations in 1853 and burned down in 1858. The square was renamed in 1884 for abolitionist and journalist William Cullen Bryant. The reservoir was demolished in 1900 and the New York Public Library's main branch was built on the site, opening in 1911", ". Bryant Park was rebuilt in 1933–1934 to a plan by Lusby Simpson. After a period of decline, it was restored in 1988–1992 by architecture firms Hanna/Olin Ltd. and Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer Associates, during which the park was rebuilt and the library's stacks were built underneath. Further improvements were made in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.", "Though it is owned by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, Bryant Park is managed by the private not-for-profit organization Bryant Park Corporation, which was founded in 1980 and led the restoration of Bryant Park. The park is cited as a model for the success of public-private partnerships. The park is both a National Register of Historic Places listing and a New York City designated landmark.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history", "In 1686, when the area was still a wilderness, New York's colonial governor, Thomas Dongan, designated the area now known as Bryant Park as a public space. George Washington's troops crossed the area while retreating from the Battle of Long Island in 1776. The road upon which Washington's troops retreated traversed the park site diagonally. The city acquired the land in 1822", ". The city acquired the land in 1822. Beginning in 1823, Bryant Park was designated a potter's field (a graveyard for the poor) and remained so until 1840, when thousands of bodies were moved to Wards Island.", "The first park at this site opened in 1847, though that park was never legally named. It was called \"Reservoir Square\" after the Croton Distributing Reservoir, which was erected on the eastern side of the park site due to its elevated location. In 1853, the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations with the New York Crystal Palace, featuring thousands of exhibitors, took place in the park. The Crystal Palace, also known as the Great Exhibition Hall, burned down in 1858", ". The Crystal Palace, also known as the Great Exhibition Hall, burned down in 1858. The Latting Observatory was also constructed in the park as part of the 1853 Exhibition, and was also burned down in 1856. The square was used for military drills during the American Civil War, and was the site of some of the New York City draft riots of July 1863, when the Colored Orphan Asylum at Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street was burned down.", "Reservoir Square was renovated in 1870–1871, during which the modern-day park had been laid out. Several additional structures were planned for Reservoir Square, but never built. These included an 1870 plan for new armory for the 7th New York Militia, an 1880 plan for an opera house, another plan in 1881 for a New York Historical Society building, an 1893 plan for relocating the New York City Hall building, and a 1903 plan for a general post office.\n\nLate 19th and early 20th centuries", "Late 19th and early 20th centuries\n\nRenaming and library construction", "In 1884, Reservoir Square was renamed Bryant Park, to honor the New York Evening Post editor and abolitionist William Cullen Bryant. Around the same time as the park's renaming, in 1883, plans emerged to build a library in Bryant Park, atop the site of the reservoir. The library would be funded by Samuel J. Tilden. This was opposed somewhat by property owners, who wanted to extend the park eastward onto the reservoir site. Nevertheless, by the 1890s, the reservoir was slated for demolition", ". Nevertheless, by the 1890s, the reservoir was slated for demolition. When the New York Public Library was founded in 1895, its founders wanted an imposing main branch building. The trustees of the libraries chose to build the branch at the eastern end of Bryant Park, along Fifth Avenue between 40th and 42nd Streets, because it was centrally located between the Astor and Lenox Libraries, the library's direct predecessors", ". The architects of the building, Carrère and Hastings, also planned to convert the western border along Sixth Avenue into a pedestrian arcade with a flower market, while the central portion of Bryant Park would have housed sculptures and statues. However, these plans were cancelled as a result of opposition.The reservoir was torn down by 1900, and construction started on the library", ".The reservoir was torn down by 1900, and construction started on the library. In conjunction with the library's construction, several improvements were made to the park, such as terrace gardens, public facilities, and kiosks, as well as a raised terrace adjoining the library on the eastern portion of the park", ". Since Bryant Park itself was located several feet above the surrounding streets, an iron fence, hedge, and embankment wall were built on the north, west, and south borders to separate the park from the bordering sidewalks. Benches were also installed along the retaining walls. Bryant Park's interior was split into three lawns, divided by a pair of west–east gravel paths that aligned roughly with the sidewalks of 41st Street on the west end of the park", ". Four stone stairways were built: one each from Sixth Avenue's intersections with 40th and 42nd Streets, and one each from 40th and 42nd Streets between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. In addition, 42nd Street was widened in 1910, necessitating the relocation of the fence on Bryant Park's northern border and the removal of plants there. The NYPL's Main Branch was opened on May 23, 1911.", "Infrastructure and further improvements", "Due to its central location in Midtown Manhattan, several transit lines and infrastructure projects were also built around Bryant Park. The first of these was the Sixth Avenue Elevated railway, which opened in 1878. The city's first subway line, now part of the 42nd Street Shuttle, was opened in 1904 by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) and ran directly under 42nd Street", ". In the 1910s, the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad (now PATH) also planned to extend their Uptown Hudson Tubes from Herald Square to Grand Central Terminal, with intermediate stations near Bryant Park's northeast and southwest corners, though this plan was never realized.", "The Catskill Aqueduct water tunnel was built under Bryant Park in the early 1910s. Once the work was complete, the affected sections of Bryant Park were restored. During World War I, Bryant Park was frequently used for patriotic rallies, and a \"war garden\" and a \"recreation building\" for Allied soldiers was erected in the park. After the end of the war in 1920, an experimental garden was placed in the park and the recreation building was destroyed", ". During construction of the IRT Flushing Line in the 1920s, the northern segment of Bryant Park was partly closed for four years while the subway line was constructed directly underneath. The subway tunnel ran below ground level with a station at the eastern edge of the park, at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street. During construction, workers took precautions to avoid interrupting the flow of traffic above ground and interfering with preexisting tunnels", ". The Fifth Avenue station opened in 1926, while the tunnel under Bryant Park to Times Square opened the following year. In January 1927, after the section of the Flushing Line under Bryant Park was complete, plans were announced for a restoration of the park's northern section.", "1930s restoration", "By the 1930s, Bryant Park was suffering from neglect and was considered disreputable, as the Sixth Avenue elevated literally overshadowed the park. Over a period of 10 years, about 100 separate plans for Bryant Park's renovation were proposed, but never enacted. In an attempt to revitalize the park, the George Washington Bicentennial Planning Committee and Sears filed plans for a replica of lower Manhattan's Federal Hall in early 1932. During the construction of the replica, part of the park was fenced off", ". During the construction of the replica, part of the park was fenced off. The Dr. Marion Sims and Washington Irving statues were removed; the statues were later found under the Williamsburg Bridge. The replica was opened to the public in May 1932, charging an admission fee for entry. That November, Manhattan parks commissioner Walter R. Herrick formally notified Sears that the replica had to be torn down, because he did not approve of its proposed conversion into a Great Depression relief center", ". By the next year, the Bicentennial Committee's funds had been exhausted. The replica was torn down in mid-1933.", "In an attempt to engage unemployed architects, the Architects' Emergency Committee held a competition for the redesign of Bryant Park in 1933. The winning design was submitted by Lusby Simpson, of Queens. However, due to a lack of funding, the winning design was not implemented immediately. In February 1934, under the leadership of newly appointed parks commissioner Robert Moses, work was started on Simpson's plan", ". The renovated park featured a great lawn, as well as hedges and later an iron fence that separated the park from the surrounding city streets. Two entrances each were added from 40th and 42nd Streets. As part of the project, 270 trees were placed around the park. Moses also placed the park's statues along 40th and 42nd Streets so as to block sight lines from these streets. To save money, the project hired workers from the Civil Works Administration, an unemployment relief program", ". The renovation was complete by late 1934, and after a short postponement, the park reopened that September 15.", "Parts of the park were closed in the late 1930s due to transit changes on Sixth Avenue; the elevated was torn down in 1938, and the construction of the underground Sixth Avenue subway line occurred around the same time. The Sixth Avenue subway opened in 1940. A New Yorker article remarked in 1936 that during the prior 14 years, \"Bryant Park has been closed to the public [...] for half that time.\"", "Mid-20th century", "Public events in Bryant Park were held through the mid-20th century. For instance, in 1944 during World War II, an aircraft demonstration was held in the park. Outdoor summer concerts in Bryant Park were started in 1948 by Philip Lieson Miller, a musicologist at the New York Public Library. These concerts took place from 12 to 2 p.m. on weekdays from July through September", ". These concerts took place from 12 to 2 p.m. on weekdays from July through September. On October 15, 1969, forty thousand people attended a rally in Bryant Park as part of the nationwide Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam. Another large event, the Big Apple Circus, was proposed to be held in Bryant Park in 1978, but parks commissioner Gordon Davis denied the circus permission to host a show there, since it would have closed off Bryant Park to the public.", "Plans to build parking garages under Bryant Park also surfaced in the mid-20th century, as a means of relieving parking shortages in Midtown Manhattan. The first such plan was made in 1946 when the city conducted a survey to determine the feasibility of such a garage. Parks commissioner Moses opposed the plan. A parking garage was proposed again in 1958, with plans for 1,200 spaces, though Moses also opposed this proposal. This proposal was backed by the Avenue of the Americas Association", ". This proposal was backed by the Avenue of the Americas Association. However, though Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. supported the proposal, the New York City Planning Commission voted against it in November 1961.", "By the 1960s, Bryant Park had entered a state of deterioration, due to a lack of maintenance and its location in a business district with few nighttime activities. In an attempt to deter crime, new lighting was installed in Bryant Park in 1962. Nevertheless, in 1966, parks commissioner Thomas Hoving called a meeting to restore the park, noting its degraded condition", ". By the 1970s, Bryant Park had been taken over by drug dealers and the homeless, and was considered a no-go area by ordinary citizens and visitors. The condition of the park was so bad that in 1973, parks commissioner Richard M. Clurman threatened to \"close Bryant Park and clear it of everybody—until we can get together and make it a place that New Yorkers want it to be.\" After a man was murdered at the park in 1976, the New York Times noted that gambling and drinking were commonplace at the park", ". In an opinion piece in the New York Daily News, Jerome Gartner, a coordinator for the Bryant Park Steering Committee, stated that the mugging of a Union Carbide executive in Bryant Park had been quoted as a reason for the company's moving out of New York City.", "An initial attempt at cleanup was commenced by the Bryant Park Community Fund in the mid-1970s. Free concerts were added in the hope that it would keep out criminals. The initiative was largely unsuccessful, though, and its funding was nearly depleted by 1977. Another initiative, the Bryant Park Steering Committee, was created in 1977 as a partnership between local businesses and the City University of New York", ". More New York City Police Department (NYPD) officers were added, and District Attorney Robert Morgenthau agreed to process arrests in Bryant Park more quickly. By 1978, public perception of Bryant Park's safety was slightly better than in previous years, though drug dealers still frequented the park after office workers had gone back to work following their lunch breaks. Furthermore, NYPD officers initially declined to arrest drug users who were nonviolent", ". Furthermore, NYPD officers initially declined to arrest drug users who were nonviolent. Starting in 1979, a coordinated program of amenities, including book and flower markets, landscape improvements, and entertainment activities, was initiated by a parks advocacy group called the Parks Council. Though the Parks Council's activities became popular, drug use and small crimes were still common within the park through the early 1980s", ". After a group of undercover NYPD officers were stationed in the park starting in 1980, they had made 400 drug-related arrests within six months.", "Late 20th century to present\n\nFormation of corporations", "The Bryant Park Restoration Corporation was founded in 1980 by Dan Biederman, along with Andrew Heiskell, chairman of Time Inc. and the New York Public Library. The BPRC immediately brought significant changes to remake the park into a place that people wanted to visit, and instituted a rigorous program to clean the park, remove graffiti, and repair physical damage. The BPRC also created a private security staff to confront unlawful behavior", ". The BPRC also created a private security staff to confront unlawful behavior. In addition, the BPRC started an outdoor concert series in the summers. By 1982, arrests had decreased significantly compared to two years prior.", "Another agency—the Bryant Park Management Corporation, composed of several nearby businesses—was tasked with maintaining the park, spending $525,000 per year to do so. NYC Parks spent an additional $250,000 a year on maintenance, the same amount as when the city had sole control over the park's management. In 1983, HBO's president, Frank Biondi, gave Heiskell a $100,000 check just before the company moved into new headquarters at 1100 Avenue of the Americas, adjacent to the park", ". At the time, that was the largest donation toward Bryant Park by a private corporation.", "Renovation", "In 1983, in an attempt to draw crowds to the park and raise money for continued maintenance, the BPRC proposed leasing Bryant Park from the city, renovating it, and building a café in the park. The $18 million renovation was to be executed by an alliance between the BPRC, NYPL, and NYC Parks. Restaurateur Warner LeRoy was to operate the eatery, and he planned to build an , glass café on the park's east side adjacent to the library", ". In addition, the park would include four smaller food kiosks, a reflecting pool and water fountain, and a dedicated security team.", "In 1984, the state passed legislation to allow the BPRC to lease space for such an eatery. The City Planning Commission also approved the structure the following year. However, the proposed café was met with opposition from the public, as it would obscure the library's rear facade. Several park advocates who opposed it argued that the proposed eatery would turn over part of a public park to a private entity", ". LeRoy withdrew from the project in 1986 due to this opposition, saying that he feared that the constant reviews of the plan would bring the proposed structure to \"mediocrity\".", "The renovation was approved by the City Art Commission in January 1987, though the restaurant plan had not yet been approved. Following LeRoy's withdrawal from the proposed Bryant Park café, the BPRC created a new plan with multiple smaller restaurant spaces. The spaces would be composed of two smaller pavilions, each tall with an area of , flanking the Bryant memorial next to the library", ". In September 1987, the plans went to another vote before the City Art Commission, with the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission taking an advisory role. The redesigned restaurant spaces were also approved by the City Art Commission that December, though the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission registered no official position on the matter. A concessionaire for one of the spaces was found in 1988, and the same year, the city turned over duties of Bryant Park's land to BPRC", ". Subsequently, the park redesign was drafted by Hanna/Olin Ltd. and Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer Associates; the design preserved many elements of Simpson's design in the 1930s.", "The park was closed for renovations on July 11, 1988. The four-year project to rebuild Bryant Park entailed new entrances, repairs to paths and lighting, and a redesign of the park's garden by Lynden Miller. Biederman worked with William H. Whyte, a sociologist whose influence led them to implement two decisions. One was the placement of 2,000 movable chairs in the park", ". One was the placement of 2,000 movable chairs in the park. The other was to lower the park itself, because Bryant Park had been elevated from the street and isolated by tall hedges prior to the 1988 redesign. The 1988 renovation lowered the park to nearly street level and tore out the hedges, though much of the park was still slightly elevated. The park's restrooms, which had been closed for 35 years, were renovated, as well", ". The park's restrooms, which had been closed for 35 years, were renovated, as well. The BPRC also found that several of the sculptures would need to be repaired, and called on William Cullen Bryant's descendants and other entities to provide funding for the restoration of these sculptures. Landscape architect Laurie Olin of Hanna/Olin recalls that the design process focused on \"the different abilities of people [who] use these spaces..", "...as well as making spaces that people are comfortable being with each other in.\" The restoration cost $8.9 million, which included $5.7 million of city funding and $3.2 million of private funding.", "The renovation took place at the same time as the NYPL's expansion of the main branch's stacks underneath Bryant Park. The project was originally estimated to cost $21.6 million and was to be the largest expansion project in the main branch's history; it entailed building of stacks, which could hold 3.2 million books. Construction on the stacks started after the park was closed. The park was excavated and the Great Lawn was rebuilt above it", ". The park was excavated and the Great Lawn was rebuilt above it. Once the underground facilities were completed, Bryant Park was completely rebuilt, with of earth between the park surface and the storage facility's ceiling.", "Reopening and critical acclaim \nBryant Park was initially supposed to reopen in late 1990 or early 1991. The reopening date was pushed back due to delays caused by the construction of the library's stacks. In June 1991, the city and BPRC reached an agreement to reopen the western section of Bryant Park on summer weekdays. The park was soft reopened on April 21, 1992, with the official reopening set for nearly a month later.", "The new design received widespread acclaim. Deemed \"a triumph for many\" by New York Times architectural critic Paul Goldberger, the renovation was lauded not only for its architectural excellence, but also for adhering to Whyte's vision", ". According to Goldberger, Biederman \"understood that the problem of Bryant Park was its perception as an enclosure cut off from the city; he knew that, paradoxically, people feel safer when not cut off from the city, and that they feel safer in the kind of public space they think they have some control over.\" The renovation was lauded as \"The Best Example of Urban Renewal\" by New York magazine, and was described by Time as a \"small miracle\"", ". Many awards followed, including a Design Merit Award from Landscape Architecture Magazine, and the 1996 Award for Excellence from the Urban Land Institute (ULI). The park has been extolled for its relative calmness and cleanness. Even through the 21st century, Bryant Park remains a model of civic renewal that mayors of other cities, such as Jorge Elorza of Providence, Rhode Island, sometimes hold up as a model to emulate.", "Bryant Park was described in the media as an example of New York City's 1990s revival. A New York Times article in 1995 referred to the park as the \"Town Square of Midtown\" and an \"office oasis\" frequented by midtown office workers. Further improvements included the installation of two newsstands in 1992, one each at Fifth and Sixth Avenues. Open-air concerts in the summers, which drew thousands of people, were commenced", ". Open-air concerts in the summers, which drew thousands of people, were commenced. To lessen infestations of pigeons eating the plants, the BPC started scattering corn kernels that contained the drug azacosterol, which resulted in many pigeons becoming infertile without any other side effects. Meanwhile, financing for a restaurant in Bryant Park next to the library was finally secured in 1993. The restaurant opened in 1995.", "Subsequent developments", "With security largely under the purview of the BPC, corporate control of the park has meant that Bryant Park received passive-recreation amenities, while excluding active sports that might cater to a broader urban public. The BPC added a custom-built carousel in 2002 and revived the tradition of an open-air library, the Reading Room, in 2003. In July 2002, the park launched a public wireless network, making the park the first in New York City to formally offer free Wi-Fi access to visitors", ". The Wi-Fi system was subsequently upgraded in 2008. Furthermore, the Pond, a free-admission ice skating rink, opened in the park in 2005. The park's public restrooms were renovated in 2006 and in 2017.", "The dramatic rise in real estate values in the area around Bryant Park, as well as new construction in adjacent areas, was a consequence of the park's improvements. By 1993, the surrounding region had become a highly desirable office area, and formerly vacant office space around the park was being filled quickly. By the first decade of the 21st century, nearby buildings and businesses were also using names that referred to the park", ". This was shown by the then-new Bank of America Tower skyscraper at the park's northeast corner using the address \"One Bryant Park\", as well as the growing trend of Bryant Park vanity addresses, including 3, 4, 5, and 7 Bryant Park. National Public Radio, located just south of the park, also named a now-defunct talk show the \"Bryant Park Project\" upon the show's 2007 launch. Such enthusiasm to use the Bryant Park name would have been nonexistent in the 1980s, when the area was described as \"the Wild West\".", "New real-estate developments were also built in the park's vicinity starting in the 21st century, which together added over 13,000 new workers to the area immediately surrounding Bryant Park. These included the Bank of America Tower; an expansion to 1095 Avenue of the Americas immediately to the south; Eleven Times Square a block west of Bryant Park; and 505 Fifth Avenue at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street", ". Several hotels were also built, including a conversion of 485 Fifth Avenue at 41st Street, a Residence Inn by Marriott at Sixth Avenue and 39th Street. By the early 2010s, investors were purchasing buildings around Bryant Park south of 42nd Street as part of a small real estate boom. Rents per square foot in buildings south of 42nd Street had historically been lower than rents in buildings north of 42nd Street", ". Conversely, 1095 Avenue of the Americas and 452 Fifth Avenue were able to attract comparatively high rental rates despite both being south of 42nd Street. Later in the decade, the area around Bryant Park started growing into a residential neighborhood, with the construction of new developments in the area. Within a two-block radius of the park, or roughly , units routinely sold for millions of dollars.", "Description", "Bryant Park is located between Fifth and Sixth Avenues and between 40th and 42nd Streets, and covers . Although technically the main branch of the New York Public Library is located within the park, in design it forms the eastern boundary of the park's green space, making Sixth Avenue the park's primary entrance. Bryant Park is used mostly as a passive recreation space, and lacks active sports facilities. Bryant Park is several steps above the surrounding streets, enclosed by a retaining wall", ". Bryant Park is several steps above the surrounding streets, enclosed by a retaining wall. Granite stairs at several locations provide access from the surrounding sidewalks", ". Granite stairs at several locations provide access from the surrounding sidewalks. The surrounding area contains numerous structures, including the Bank of America Tower and 1095 Avenue of the Americas to the northwest; the Bryant Park Studios, American Radiator Building, Engineers' Club Building, and 452 Fifth Avenue to the south; 461 Fifth Avenue and the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Library to the southeast; and 500 Fifth Avenue, the Aeolian Building, and the W.R. Grace Building to the north.", "One of the park's largest features is a large lawn located slightly below the level of the surrounding walkways. Besides serving as a \"lunchroom\" for office workers, the lawn serves as the seating area for some of the park's major events, such as Bryant Park Movie Nights, Broadway in Bryant Park, and Square Dance. The lawn's season runs from February until October, when it is closed to make way for Bank of America Winter Village.", "Numerous walkways surround the central lawn. The northern and southern sides are each flanked by two flagstone walkways. Each of these walkways is bordered by London plane trees (Platanus acerifolia), which contribute to the park's European feel. In addition, numerous statues are scattered throughout the park. A raised terrace on the eastern side of the lawn, which dates to the construction of the library's main branch, is paved with gray flagstones and red brick", ". Its centerpiece is the William Cullen Bryant Memorial, which is raised on a pedestal of its own.", "A restroom structure is located at the northern border of the park along 42nd Street. A carousel, installed in 2002, is located at the park's southern border. The park is served by the New York City Subway's at 42nd Street–Bryant Park/Fifth Avenue station, entrances to which are located on the northern and western borders of the park, as well as MTA Regional Bus Operations' routes.\n\nArt and monuments", "Sculptures\nNotable sculptures in the park include or have included:\n Statue of William E. Dodge (1885), a standing figure located on a pedestal at the park's northern border\n Statue of J. Marion Sims (1894), removed in the 1930s\n Washington Irving (1894), removed in the 1930s\n William Cullen Bryant Memorial (1911), a standing figure located on a canopied pedestal at the park's eastern border", "Josephine Shaw Lowell Memorial Fountain (1913), located at the park's western border; the fountain collects about $3,000 to $4,000 in coins each year, from dozens of countries\n Bust of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1932), a bust located at the park's southern border\n Statue of José Bonifácio de Andrada (1954, dedicated 1955), a standing figure located on a pedestal at the park's southwestern corner\n Statue of Gertrude Stein (1992), a sitting figure located at the park's southeastern corner", "Statue of Gertrude Stein (1992), a sitting figure located at the park's southeastern corner\n Statue of Benito Juárez (2002), a standing figure located on a pedestal at the park's northwestern corner", "Other memorials \nThe northwest corner of Bryant Park, at Sixth Avenue and 42nd Street, contains the Heiskell Plaza, a stairway and entrance plaza paved with flagstones. It was placed in 1993 in honor of Andrew Heiskell, a cofounder of the BPC.", "The southwest corner of Bryant Park, at Sixth Avenue and 40th Street, is known as Nikola Tesla Corner. Tesla, an inventor, lived in the nearby New Yorker Hotel in his later years, and would feed pigeons in the park. The placement of the sign was due to the efforts of the Croatian Club of New York in cooperation with New York City officials, and Ljubo Vujovic of the Tesla Memorial Society of New York.\n\nCarousel", "Bryant Park contains a carousel called Le Carrousel Magique, located in the southern section of the park. The carousel was designed by Marvin Sylvor, created by the Fabricon Carousel Company, and installed in 2002. The company was selected after a carousel installation in Bryant Park was approved in 1997. The carousel has a diameter of , weighs , and contains 14 animal casts, of which 12 are capable of moving vertically. In keeping with the French theme of the park, it plays French music", ". In keeping with the French theme of the park, it plays French music. It underwent a restoration in 2009. The carousel also has a ticket booth, measuring tall and wide, which was constructed in 1928 and was relocated from Paragon Park in Hull, Massachusetts.", "Restrooms", "Bryant Park contains a Beaux-Arts granite restroom structure on the northern border, along 42nd Street. There are two facilities, one for men and women, both of which are . These were built in 1911 along with the NYPL Main Branch, but due to the park's landmark status, they cannot be expanded. The exterior of each building contains a frieze with garland motifs. After being closed in the mid-1960s, they were restored by Kupiec & Koutsomitis and reopened in 1992", ". The restrooms have been described as being among the city's best. A subsequent renovation in 2006 solidified their status as, in the words of then-New York City Parks Commissioner Adrian Benepe, \"the gold standard for park comfort stations.\" The restrooms were renovated again in 2017. Following the 2017 renovation, the restrooms contained rotating artworks selected from a collection of 225 works, as well as fresh flowers, classical music, attendants, and automatic toilets and faucets.", "Reading room", "The original Reading Room was founded in August 1935 to entertain unemployed workers during the Great Depression. Started as an initiative by the New York Public Library, the Reading Room provided the jobless with a place to interact and share ideas without having to pay money or show identification. Despite this, the library was well-used, being used by 50,000 people by its first anniversary. Theft was low, with only 34 publications being lost in the library's first year", ". Theft was low, with only 34 publications being lost in the library's first year. By its third year, 400 books and 1,000 magazines were in circulation and were being perused by 70,000 people per year. Books from the NYPL, and donations of magazines and trade publications from publishers, contributed to the success of the open-air library. The tradition of Reading Rooms halted in 1944 due to a staff shortage during World War II.", "The Reading Room tradition was revived in 2003 with HSBC as its first sponsor. Oxford University Press, Scholastic Corporation, Mitchell's NY, Condé Nast Publications, Time Inc., Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S., and Rodale, Inc. were among the companies who donated books and publications. In addition to the complimentary reading materials, in 2004 programming was added to Reading Room's content", ". The Reading Room features readings and book sales by contemporary writers and poets, plus book-related special events such as book clubs, writers workshops and storytelling for kids.", "Bank of America Winter Village \n\nModeled on Europe's Christkindlmarkt, in 2002 Bryant Park introduced the Holiday Shops in an effort to liven up the park space during the winter. Initially slow to gain traction, the Holiday Shops became a fixture of the Manhattan holiday scene in 2005 by expanding into an all-encompassing seasonal destination with the addition of New York's only free-admission ice skating rink. The Shops also include a Norway Spruce tree, as well as a standalone dining and event space.", "Sponsored by Bank of America, Winter Village can be set up within two weeks. It has transformed the park into a year-round destination. In September 2016, Bryant Park Corporation announced market makers Urbanspace as the new operator for the Holiday Shops, which grew from 80 boutiques in 2002 to over 170 in 2018. In 2018, Urbanspace also took over management of the rinkside eatery, rebranding it as The Lodge.\n\nPrivate operation", "Private operation \n\nThe Bryant Park Corporation (BPC), formerly the Bryant Park Restoration Corporation (BPRC), manages the park. BPC also oversees the Bryant Park Management Corporation (BPMC), which was created to manage the Bryant Park business improvement district.", "Although Bryant Park is a public park, BPC accepts no public funds. It was initially supported by the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, but by the 21st century it received funding through tax assessments on surrounding property within the business improvement district, fees from concessionaires, and revenues generated by public events. To obtain accurate data about park usage, BPC counts the number of patrons in Bryant Park at 1 p.m. and 6 p.m. every day.", "The number of events at the park grew significantly after its reopening, causing some consternation by people who feared that the park would be dominated by private entities, thus would be inaccessible to the public. As a result, BPC makes most events free and open to the public. One exception was the New York Fashion Week shows that formerly took over the park for two weeks in the winter and late summer each year", ". BPC cofounder Dan Biederman often publicly expressed his frustration that the fashion shows were not under BPC's control. \"They pay us a million dollars. It's a million dollars I would happily do without,\" he told the Los Angeles Times. BPC was particularly frustrated that the fashion shows dominated the park during two crucial times: in late summer, when the weather is perfect for park visitors; and in early February, necessitating the early closure of the park's popular free-admission ice-skating rink.", "Programming\nNumerous events are hosted on the lawn at Bryant Park. Bryant Park Movie Nights, begun in the early 1990s, take place on Monday evenings during the summer. Various free musical performances are sponsored by corporations during months with warm weather, including Broadway in Bryant Park, sponsored by iHeartMedia and featuring performers from current Broadway musicals, integrated with content provided by event sponsors.", "The park has various activity areas open all day long, including board games, chess and backgammon, a putting green and Kubb area, an Art Cart, ping pong tables, and Petanque courts. The parks also offer free classes in juggling, yoga, tai chi, and knitting. In the 40th Street plaza of the park, there is a station called Bryant Park Games where visitors can borrow an array of games, including Chinese chess and quoits. In addition, chess and table tennis can also be played at Bryant Park.", "Food and drink are served at four park-operated concessionary kiosks. There are two additional kiosks on Fifth Avenue, bringing the total of concessionaires near Bryant Park to six.", "Former programming", "Formerly, Bryant Park hosted New York Fashion Week (NYFW) shows, which took over the park for two weeks in the winter and late summer each year. NYFW, which moved to Bryant Park in 1993, was forced to set fees for its shows after Manhattan Community Board 5 disapproved of a free fashion show on the grounds that three-fourths of profits would go to BPC and only one-fourth to NYC Parks", ". Dan Biederman of the BPC had called the profits from NYFW \"a million dollars I would happily do without,\" and lamented the fact that NYFW took over the park at two high-traffic periods: late summer and late winter. NYFW moved from Bryant Park in 2010 after disagreements with the BPC.", "Landmark designations\nBryant Park and the New York Public Library Main Branch were jointly listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1966. Its listing on the NRHP is distinct from the \"New York Public Library\" on the same day, which covered just the main branch building. In addition, in 1974, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the park as an official scenic landmark.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n (Bryant Park Corporation)\n Official NYC Parks website", "References\n\nExternal links\n\n (Bryant Park Corporation)\n Official NYC Parks website \n\n \n42nd Street (Manhattan)\nFifth Avenue\nMidtown Manhattan\nNational Register of Historic Places in Manhattan\nNew York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan\nNew York City scenic landmarks\nParks in Manhattan\nParks on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City\nSixth Avenue\nWorld's fair sites in New York (state)\nNew York State Register of Historic Places in New York County" ]

[ "Champions\n\nMajor League Baseball\n\n Regular Season Champions\n\n Postseason", "Other champions\n Minor League Baseball\n AAA\n Championship: Omaha Storm Chasers (Kansas City Royals)\n International League: Pawtucket Red Sox (Boston Red Sox)\n Pacific Coast League: Omaha Storm Chasers (Kansas City Royals)\n Mexican League: Diablos Rojos del México\n AA\n Eastern League: Binghamton Mets (New York Mets)\n Southern League: Jacksonville Suns (Miami Marlins)\n Texas League: Midland RockHounds (Oakland Athletics)\n A\n California League: Lancaster JetHawks (Houston Astros)", "A\n California League: Lancaster JetHawks (Houston Astros)\n Carolina League: Potomac Nationals (Washington Nationals)\n Florida State League: Fort Myers Miracle (Minnesota Twins)\n Midwest League: Kane County Cougars (Chicago Cubs)\n South Atlantic League: Asheville Tourists (Colorado Rockies)\n Short Season A\n New York–Penn League: State College Spikes (St. Louis Cardinals)\n Northwest League: Hillsboro Hops (Arizona Diamondbacks)\n Rookie\n Appalachian League: Johnson City Cardinals (St. Louis Cardinals)", "Rookie\n Appalachian League: Johnson City Cardinals (St. Louis Cardinals)\n Arizona League: AZL Indians (Cleveland Indians)\n Gulf Coast League: GCL Red Sox (Boston Red Sox)\n Pioneer League: Billings Mustangs (Cincinnati Reds)\n Dominican Summer League: DSL Rangers 1 (Texas Rangers)\n Venezuelan Summer League: VSL Tigers (Detroit Tigers)\n Arizona Fall League: Salt River Rafters\n Independent baseball leagues\n American Association: Wichita Wingnuts\n Atlantic League: Lancaster Barnstormers", "American Association: Wichita Wingnuts\n Atlantic League: Lancaster Barnstormers\n CanAm League: Rockland Boulders\n Frontier League: Schaumburg Boomers\n Pacific Association: San Rafael Pacifics\n Pecos League: Santa Fe Fuego\n United League Baseball: Rio Grande Valley WhiteWings\n Amateur\n College\n College World Series: Vanderbilt\n NCAA Division II: Southern Indiana\n NCAA Division III: Wisconsin-Whitewater\n NAIA: Cumberland\n Youth \n Big League World Series: Clearwater, Florida", "NAIA: Cumberland\n Youth \n Big League World Series: Clearwater, Florida\n Junior League World Series: Chung Shan LL (Taichung, Taiwan)\n Intermediate League World Series: Nogales National LL (Nogales, Arizona)\n Little League World Series: Seoul Little League (Seoul, South Korea) \n Senior League World Series: West University LL (Houston, Texas)\n International\n National teams\n European Baseball Championship: Netherlands\n European Under-21 Baseball Championship: Czech Republic\n 15U Baseball World Cup: Cuba", "European Under-21 Baseball Championship: Czech Republic\n 15U Baseball World Cup: Cuba\n Haarlem Baseball Week: USA\n Women's World Cup: Japan\n International club team competitions\n Caribbean Series : Naranjeros de Hermosillo (Mexico)\n European Champions Cup: San Marino (Italy)\n Domestic leagues\n Australian Baseball League: Perth Heat\n Chinese Baseball League: Beijing Tigers\n Cuban National Series: Pinar del Río\n Dominican League : Tigres del Licey\n Dutch Baseball League : DOOR Neptunus", "Dominican League : Tigres del Licey\n Dutch Baseball League : DOOR Neptunus\n France – Division Élite: Templiers de Sénart\n Italian Baseball League: UGF Fortitudo Bologna\n Japan Series: Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks\n Pacific League: Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks\n Central League: Hanshin Tigers\n Korea Series: Samsung Lions\n Mexican League : Naranjeros de Hermosillo\n Puerto Rican League : Indios de Mayagüez\n Taiwan Series: Lamigo Monkeys\n Venezuelan League : Navegantes del Magallanes", "Awards and honors\n\nMajor League Baseball\n Baseball Hall of Fame honors", "BBWAA election\n Greg Maddux\n Tom Glavine\n Frank Thomas\n Expansion Era Committee\n Bobby Cox\n Tony La Russa\n Joe Torre\n MVP Award\n American League: Mike Trout (LAA)\n National League: Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Cy Young Award\n American League: Corey Kluber (CLE)\n National League: Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Rookie of the Year\n American League: José Abreu (CWS)\n National League: Jacob deGrom (NYM)\n Manager of the Year Award\n American League – Buck Showalter (BAL)\n National League – Matt Williams (WAS)", "Major League Baseball awards\n World Series MVP: Madison Bumgarner (SFG)\n League Championship Series MVP: Lorenzo Cain (KCR); Madison Bumgarner (SFG)\n All-Star Game MVP: Mike Trout (LAA)\n \n Branch Rickey Award: Anthony Rizzo (CHC)", "Comeback Player of the Year: Chris Young (SEA); Casey McGehee (MIA)\n Reliever of the Year Award: Greg Holland (KCR); Craig Kimbrel (ATL)\n Edgar Martínez Award: Víctor Martínez (DET)\n Hank Aaron Award: Mike Trout (LAA); Giancarlo Stanton (MIA)\n Roberto Clemente Award: Paul Konerko (CWS); Jimmy Rollins (PHI)\nSporting News Awards\n Player of the Year: Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Starting pitcher of the Year: Félix Hernández (SEA); Clayton Kershaw (LAD)", "Starting pitcher of the Year: Félix Hernández (SEA); Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Relief pitcher of the Year: Dellin Betances (NYY); Craig Kimbrel (ATL)\n Rookie of the Year: José Abreu (CWS); Jacob deGrom (NYM)\n Comeback Player of the Year: Chris Young (SEA); Casey McGehee (MIA)\n Manager of the Year: Mike Scioscia (LAA); Matt Williams (WAS)\n Executive of the Year: Dan Duquette (BAL)", "Players Choice Awards\n Player of the Year: Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Marvin Miller Man of the Year: Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Outstanding Players: Mike Trout (LAA); Giancarlo Stanton (MIA)\n Outstanding Pitchers: Félix Hernández (SEA); Clayton Kershaw (LAD)\n Outstanding Rookies: José Abreu (CHW); Jacob deGrom (NYM)\n Comeback Players of the Year: Chris Young (SEA); Casey McGehee (MIA)\n\nOther Awards\n Luis Aparicio Award: José Altuve (HOU)\n\n \n\nSilver Slugger Awards\n\nGold Glove Awards", "Minor League Baseball\n International League MVP: Steven Souza (Syracuse Chiefs [WAS])\n Pacific Coast League MVP: Joc Pederson (Albuquerque Isotopes [LAD])\n Eastern League MVP: Steven Moya (Erie SeaWolves [DET])\n Southern League MVP: Jake Lamb (Mobile BayBears [ARI])\n Texas League Player of the Year: Alex Yarbrough (Arkansas Travelers [LAA])\n Baseball America MiLB Player of the Year: Kris Bryant (CHC)\n Dernell Stenson Sportsmanship Award: Patrick Kivlehan (SEA)\n Joe Black Award: Greg Bird (NYY)", "Dernell Stenson Sportsmanship Award: Patrick Kivlehan (SEA)\n Joe Black Award: Greg Bird (NYY)\n Larry Doby Award: Joey Gallo (TEX)\n USA Today MiLB Player of the Year: Kris Bryant (CHC)", "Events", "January\n January 8 – Pitchers Greg Maddux, Tom Glavine, and first baseman/designated hitter Frank Thomas are elected to the Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers' Association of America. Maddux sees his name appear on 97.2 percent of the ballots, falling short of the all-time mark still held by Tom Seaver, who was elected on 98.84 percent of the vote in 1992. Glavine receives 91.9 percent of the vote while Thomas is elected with 83.7 percent. All three men are elected in their first year of eligibility.", "February\n February 5 – Former stars Roger Clemens, Nomar Garciaparra and Pedro Martínez are selected to the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame along with long-time radio broadcaster Joe Castiglione.", "February 12 – Derek Jeter of the New York Yankees announces that he will retire at the end of this season. The American League Rookie of the Year winner (1996), and Most Valuable Player both in the All-Star Game (2000) and in the World Series (2000), Jeter ranks first in franchise history for the most games played, at-bats and hits.", "February 21 – Ben Wetzler of Oregon State University is suspended for 11 games, 20 percent of the college season, for violating the National Collegiate Athletic Association's rule against using a sports agent during financial negotiations with the Philadelphia Phillies, who selected him in the 2013 MLB draft.", "March", "March 22 – The Los Angeles Dodgers beat the Arizona Diamondbacks for Down Under sweep in Australia. After a 3–1 win behind ace Clayton Kershaw in the Major League Baseball season opener, the Dodgers remain perfect at Sydney Cricket Ground with a second consecutive victory over their National League West rival. Hyun-Jin Ryu combines with seven relievers for a 7–5 victory, beating Arizona starter Trevor Cahill, who enters the game with a 6–0 record and a 2", ".01 ERA in 10 previous starts against the Dodgers, but has to leave in the fifth inning trailing 3–0.", "March 27 – The Detroit Tigers announce the club has agreed to terms with first baseman Miguel Cabrera on an eight-year, $248 million contract extension through the 2023 season, with two vesting options for the 2024 and 2025 seasons. After the two years and $44 million that's left on Cabrera's current deal expires, he will be the highest-paid player in baseball in terms of average annual value. The $31 million AAV will beat the previous record of $30", ". The $31 million AAV will beat the previous record of $30.7 million set by pitcher Clayton Kershaw, which was reached when the Los Angeles Dodgers signs him to a seven-year, $215 million extension this offseason. At age 30, Cabrera captures his third consecutive American League batting crown becoming the first Tigers player to lead the league in hitting in three straight seasons since Ty Cobb did so from 1917 through 1919. Previously, Cabrera led the American League with a", ". Previously, Cabrera led the American League with a .330 batting average, 44 home runs and 139 runs batted in during the 2012 season, to become the first player to capture the Triple Crown since Boston Red Sox outfielder Carl Yastrzemski did so in 1967. It marks the 14th time since 1900 in which a big leaguer won the Triple Crown", ". It marks the 14th time since 1900 in which a big leaguer won the Triple Crown. In addition, Cabrera earns the American League Most Valuable Player Award for the second consecutive year in 2013, joining Hal Newhouser as the only two players in Detroit Tigers history to win the award in back-to-back seasons.", "March 28 – Mike Trout reaches an agreement with the Anaheim Angels on a six-year, $144.5 million contract extension. Trout is a unanimous choice for American League Rookie of the Year in 2012, and he finishes second in American League Most Valuable Player voting to Miguel Cabrera in 2012 and 2013. Through 2013, the 22-year outfielder hits .314 with 62 home runs and 196 runs batted in in just 336 career games, including 40 games in 2011", ".314 with 62 home runs and 196 runs batted in in just 336 career games, including 40 games in 2011. He also amasses 86 stolen bases while playing stellar defense and making two All-Star teams, starting for the AL in 2013. At this point, Trout is one of four players in Major League history to hit .320 with 50 home runs and 200 runs scored in his first two full seasons, joining Joe DiMaggio, Ted Williams and Albert Pujols.", "April\n April 4 – At Coors Field, Charlie Blackmon becomes the second player in Colorado Rockies history to collect six hits in a single game. He is perfect in six at-bats, while collecting two singles, three doubles and one home run in the Rockies' 12–2 victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks. Up until now, Andrés Galarraga had been the only other Rockie to collect six hits in one game, doing so against the Houston Astros on July 3, .", "April 22 – At Nationals Park, Albert Pujols of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim becomes the 26th player to hit 500 home runs in the Major Leagues. After hitting his 499th home run, a three-run shot off Taylor Jordan in the first inning of the Angels' 7–2 victory over the Washington Nationals, Pujols hits his milestone home run with one runner on base, in the fifth inning, also off Jordan", ". Pujols becomes the first player to hit his 499th and 500th home runs in the same game, as well as the third youngest player, at 34, to hit his 500th home run; Jimmie Foxx and Alex Rodriguez had both reached this milestone at 32 years of age.", "April 23 – Wrigley Field celebrates its 100th birthday with former Chicago Cubs players on hand for the pre-game festivities. The Arizona Diamondbacks spoil the party, however, rallying from a 5–2 deficit with five runs in the ninth inning to defeat the Cubs, 7–5.", "May\n May 14:", "Major League Baseball announces that the original scoring decision made on May 9 at Globe Life Park has been reversed, and that David Ortiz has been awarded a hit for the fly ball that fell between two Texas Rangers fielders. Ortiz comes to bat with two outs in the bottom of the seventh inning. At that point, Rangers pitcher Yu Darvish had retired 20 straight Boston Red Sox hitters", ". At that point, Rangers pitcher Yu Darvish had retired 20 straight Boston Red Sox hitters. Ortiz hits a high pop into right field, then second baseman Rougned Odor, who was playing in shallow right field in a defensive shift, gets under the ball as Alex Ríos starts coming toward him. Ríos backs off and Odor cannot catch the ball as it drops just beyond his glove", ". Ríos backs off and Odor cannot catch the ball as it drops just beyond his glove. The dropped ball is originally scored an error on right fielder Ríos by official scorer Steve Weller, while Darvish still takes a no-hitter into the ninth inning, but Ortiz breaks it up with a two-out single. Ortiz and the Red Sox appeal the controversial decision to Major League Baseball and it is overturned after a review.", "David Ortiz homers twice for the second consecutive night to lead the Boston Red Sox past the Minnesota Twins, 9–4, at Target Field. Ortiz's first homer is No. 383 in a Boston uniform, moving him past Jim Rice for sole possession of third place on the all-time club list. Only Ted Williams (521) and Carl Yastrzemski (452) have hit more home runs in a Red Sox uniform than Ortiz", ". Additionally, his second shot represents his career 442nd homer and moves him into a tie with Dave Kingman for 39th place on MLB all-time home run list.", "May 25 – At Citizens Bank Park, Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Josh Beckett no-hits the Philadelphia Phillies 6–0, the first no-hitter by a Dodger since Hideo Nomo in . Throwing 128 pitches and striking out six batters along the way, Beckett, who had turned 34 years old ten days earlier, becomes the oldest no-hit pitcher since 40-year-old Randy Johnson hurled a perfect game in . The no-hitter is also the first pitched against the Phillies since St", ". The no-hitter is also the first pitched against the Phillies since St. Louis Cardinals' Bob Forsch in , as well as the first in a Phillies home game by a visiting pitcher since Montreal Expos' Bill Stoneman in .", "May 29 – Edwin Encarnación of the Toronto Blue Jays hits two home runs in an 8–6 loss to the Kansas City Royals at Rogers Centre. His home run total for the month of May sits at 16, which ties the mark set in by Mickey Mantle for the all-time American League record in May and is just one shy of Barry Bonds for the Major League Baseball record. In addition, Encarnación matches a major league record with his fifth multihomer game in a single month", ". Albert Belle did it in September 1995 and Harmon Killebrew in May 1959.", "May 30 – In the eighth annual Civil Rights Game, the Houston Astros defeat the Baltimore Orioles, 2–1, at Minute Maid Park in Houston.", "June", "June 1 – Jon Lester pitches seven shutout innings with 12 strikeouts and Brock Holt hits four doubles with two RBI and one run, helping the Boston Red Sox complete a three-game sweep of the Tampa Bay Rays with a 4–0 win at Fenway Park, expanding their winning streak to seven games", ". Garin Cecchini and Alex Hassan both collect their first major league hits while making their big league debuts, becoming the first pair of Red Sox to make their debuts and get a hit on the same day since Steve Dillard and Andy Merchant in the 1975 season. Boston's streak follows a 10-game skid, its longest in 20 years. The streak matches a major league record for consecutive wins after a double-digit losing stretch, according to research by the Elias Sports Bureau", ". The 1989 Detroit Tigers did it after losing 12 in a row, while the 1942 Pittsburgh Pirates also did it after dropping 10 straight.", "June 9 – Lonnie Chisenhall of the Cleveland Indians continues one of baseball's most unlikely first-half surges, going five-for-five with three home runs and nine runs batted in a 17–7 rout of the Texas Rangers at Arlington ballpark. Only three other big leaguers, and none since Fred Lynn in 1975, have ever collected at least that many hits, home runs and RBI in a single game. Besides, Chisenhall is the only one ever to reach the milestone with a perfect 5-for-5 at the plate.", "June 13 – Gregory Polanco goes 5 for 7 in the Pittsburgh Pirates' 8–6, 13-inning victory over the Miami Marlins at Marlins Park. Polanco also delivers his first Major League home run, a two-run shot in the 13th that proved to be the game-winner, becoming the only player in the modern era to have five hits and a home run in one of his first four MLB games, as well as the second-fastest rookie to collect a five-hit game", ". On May 16, 1933, Cecil Travis of the Washington Senators accomplishes the feat in his big league debut, going 5 for 7 in an 11–10, 12-inning win over the Cleveland Indians at Griffith Stadium. It was the first time since Fred Clarke's debut in that anyone had collected five hits in his first game. No other player has since managed this feat.", "June 14 – Jimmy Rollins becomes the all-time hit leader in Philadelphia Phillies history, surpassing Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt with career hit No. 2,235 against Edwin Jackson in their 7–4 win over the Chicago Cubs at Citizens Bank Park. In a 15-year career with the Phillies, Rollins wins four Gold Gloves, makes three All-Star teams and claims the 2007 National League MVP Award", ". He is a member of the club's 2008 World Series championship team, and is also in the top 10 of nearly every offensive category for the 132-year-old franchise.", "June 18 – Clayton Kershaw strikes out a career-high 15 as he pitches his first career no-hitter against the Colorado Rockies, 8–0, at Dodger Stadium, allowing his only baserunner on a throwing error by shortstop Hanley Ramírez. Kershaw gives the Los Angeles Dodgers the second no-hitter in the majors this season. On May 25, Josh Beckett hurls one against the Philadelphia Phillies at Citizens Bank Park", ". On May 25, Josh Beckett hurls one against the Philadelphia Phillies at Citizens Bank Park. Kershaw pitches the 22nd no-hitter in Dodgers franchise history and the third thrown against the Rockies in their history. The only other season the franchise had two no-hitters thrown was , when Carl Erskine and Sal Maglie turn the feat for the Brooklyn Dodgers on May 12 and September 25, respectively.", "June 21 – Former third baseman Tim Wallach and announcer Dave Van Horne are inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame, along with former general manager Murray Cook and the late executive Jim Ridley, both native Canadians.", "June 22 – San Diego Padres reliever Alex Torres becomes the first Major League Baseball pitcher to wear the new protective cap introduced early in the year. MLB approves the product in January, nearly a year and a half after pitcher Brandon McCarthy was struck in the head by a line drive and suffered life-threatening brain injuries. Other pitchers with traumatic injuries include Juan Nicasio, Alex Cobb and Aroldis Chapman, which led MLB to ramp up efforts to better protect pitchers", ". Torres hurls the eighth inning and allows one earned run on one hit and two walks, while striking out two in the 4–2 defeat to the Los Angeles Dodgers at Petco Park.", "June 24 – Atlanta Braves outfielders B. J. Upton and Justin Upton match a Major League record when they both homer in the Braves' 3–2 win over the Houston Astros at Minute Maid Park. The Upton brothers have now homered as teammates in the same game four times. The only other brothers duo to match this total are Vladimir and Wilton Guerrero and Jason and Jeremy Giambi.", "June 25 – Tim Lincecum pitches his second no-hitter against the San Diego Padres in less than a year, allowing only one runner, while leading the San Francisco Giants to a 4–0 win at AT&T Park. Lincecum becomes the second Giants pitcher to pitch two no-hitters, barely missing a perfect game after walking Chase Headley in the second inning, after which he retires the final 23 batters he faced", ". Lincecum, who also no-hit the Padres on July 13, , joins Christy Mathewson as the only Giants pitchers to throw two no-hitters, and is also the second pitcher to no-hit the same team more than once. Addie Joss of the Cleveland Naps subdued the Chicago White Sox in the and seasons, with the former being a perfect game. Lincecum also joins Sandy Koufax, Randy Johnson and Roy Halladay as the only pitchers in Major League history to collect two Cy Young Awards and two no-hitters.", "June 29 – Clayton Kershaw of the Los Angeles Dodgers completes one of the most impressive calendar months for a pitcher in Major League history, striking out 13 batters in seven scoreless innings in a 6–0 win over the St. Louis Cardinals at Dodger Stadium. Kershaw goes 6–0 with an 0.82 ERA and 61 strikeouts in the month, including his first career no-hitter on June 18, while completing the first six-win month for a Dodgers pitcher since Hideo Nomo in", ". Kershaw becomes the only pitcher to be unbeaten with that many wins, that many strikeouts and an ERA that low in a single calendar month, extending also his personal streak to 28 consecutive scoreless innings, exceeded in Los Angeles history only seven times, led by Orel Hershiser's MLB-record 59. Previously, only three other pitchers have gone 6–0 with a sub-1.00 ERA and 50 or more strikeouts in a month: the aforementioned Nomo (June 1995), Randy Johnson (April 2000) and Justin Verlander (June 2011).", "July\n July 4:", "Clayton Kershaw nearly pitches a no-hitter against the Colorado Rockies again, allowing just two singles over eight innings as the Los Angeles Dodgers beat the Rockies, 9–0, at Coors Field. Kershaw strikes out eight and walks one, allowing singles to Nolan Arenado and DJ LeMahieu, extending his scoreless streak to 36 innings before being replaced by a pinch hitter in the ninth", ". Kershaw silences the top-hitting team in the majors in nearly matching the no-hitter he threw against the Rockies on June 18 at Dodger Stadium.", "The Oakland Athletics agree to acquire starting pitchers Jeff Samardzija and Jason Hammel from the Chicago Cubs in exchange for 2012 first-round pick shortstop Addison Russell, 2013 first-round pick outfielder Billy McKinney, pitcher Dan Straily, and a player to be named later. Samardzija and Hammel will join Scott Kazmir and Sonny Gray in the Oakland rotation, weakened by the loss of injured Jarrod Parker and A. J. Griffin before the start of the season", ". J. Griffin before the start of the season. The swap represents an aggressive move from an Oakland team that has paced the rest of the American League all year long and sports the best record in the major leagues at 53–33. Meanwhile, the Cubs, solidly in last place in the National League Central at 38–46, are able to get top prospect Russell and potential slugger McKinney, as well as the reliable mid-rotation starter Straily.", "July 10 – Clayton Kershaw of the Los Angeles Dodgers wins his eighth straight start, a 2–1 win over the San Diego Padres at Dodger Stadium, but his scoreless streak comes to end at 41 innings as he gives up a home run to Chase Headley in the sixth frame. Kershaw comes within 18 innings of the major league record set by Orel Hershiser, who ended the 1988 season with 59 straight scoreless innings", ". The two-time Cy Young Award winner Kershaw finishes with a complete-game three-hitter, while striking out 11 and walking only one. Since Hershiser, there have been two longer scoreless streaks than Kershaw, as Brandon Webb went 42 straight in and R. A. Dickey went 44 straight in . Now Kershaw ranks third on the Dodgers' all-time list behind Hershiser and Don Drysdale, whose 58-inning scoreless streak stood from until Hershiser took it down in 1988.", "July 11 – Aroldis Chapman of the Cincinnati Reds strikes out Jordy Mercer in the ninth inning of a 6–5 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates at Great American Ball Park to set a Major League record dating back to 1900. Chapman becomes the pitcher with the most consecutive relief appearances with a strikeout, fanning at least a batter in his 40th consecutive game during a streak that began on August 21, 2013. He achieves the feat while striking out 83 in 42.0 innings of work", ". He achieves the feat while striking out 83 in 42.0 innings of work. Chapman surpasses Bruce Sutter, who did so in 39 straight games from June 1 to October 2, 1977. On his ascent to the top of the list, he also surpasses Jeff Montgomery (32 straight games from June 18 to September 5, 1989) and Éric Gagné (35 games from July 18, 2003, to April 10, 2004).", "July 12:", "Andrew McCutchen leads off the ninth inning with a game-tying home run and belts a go-ahead homer with two outs in the 11th to give the Pittsburgh Pirates a 6–5 victory over the Cincinnati Reds at Great American Ball Park. The Pirates blow a four-run lead for the second straight night, but manage to come back behind McCutchen, who has hit 20 career homers against Cincinnati, the most by any player in the majors since 2009", ". His second blast also is his fourth career go-ahead home run in extra innings, and his first this season.", "Adam Wainwright pitches seven strong innings, giving up two runs and five hits, to lead the St. Louis Cardinals to a 10–2 win over the Milwaukee Brewers, as the Cardinals move into a first-place tie with the Brewers on the National League Central. St. Louis, which trailed Milwaukee by games on July 1, has won eight of its last 11. The Brewers continue to falter, losing their seventh game in a row and 11th of its last 12. They had held sole possession of first place since April 9.\n July 13:", "Madison Bumgarner and Buster Posey become the first pitcher-catcher battery in Major League history to each hit a grand slam in the same game, boosting the San Francisco Giants to an 8–4 victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks at AT&T Park. Bumgarner also becomes the first pitcher in 48 years to hit two grand slams in a single season. Previously, he hit a slam on April 11 against the Colorado Rockies", ". Previously, he hit a slam on April 11 against the Colorado Rockies. The last pitcher to launch two slams in a season was Tony Cloninger, who hit two grand slams in a single game for the Atlanta Braves on July 3, 1966, against the Giants at Candlestick Park.", "Texas Rangers No. 2 prospect Joey Gallo connects on a go-ahead two-run home run to lead the U.S. Team to a 3–2 win over the World Team in the All-Star Futures Game played at Target Field. It extends a five-game winning streak for the U.S., which improves to a 10–6 record in the annual All-Star Weekend showcase. The homer, measured at 419 feet, lands on the concourse in right-center field with one out in the sixth inning. Gallo's homer comes after Cubs No", ". Gallo's homer comes after Cubs No. 1 prospect Javier Báez from Puerto Rico put the World Team on the scoreboard with a two-run shot in the top of the inning. Individual pitching performances dominate the game, as the teams' 20 pitchers combine for 18 strikeouts while walking just two batters and surrendering 15 hits. Henry Owens (Red Sox) starts the game for the U.S. and Puerto Rican José Berríos (Twins) did it for the World", ".S. and Puerto Rican José Berríos (Twins) did it for the World. At game's end, Jake Thompson (Tigers) is the winning pitcher and Dominican Republic's Michael Feliz (Astros) is the loser, while Noah Syndergaard (Mets) is credited with the save. Gallo, who is named the game's Most Valuable Player, leads the Minor Leagues with 40 home runs in 2013 and is tied with Kris Bryant (Cubs) for the minors lead with 31 homers this season.", "July 14:\n Andrew Velazquez sets a Minor League Baseball record with his 72nd consecutive game safely reaching base. He breaks the record of 71 set by Kevin Millar in 1997 and tied by Kevin Youkilis in 2003. Velazquez's streak runs from April 22 through July 16, when it ends at 74 consecutive games.", "Grant Kay hits for the cycle in his first professional game, going 5 for 6 with five runs scored and three RBI, leading the Short Season Hudson Valley Renegades to a 16–4 victory over the Batavia Muckdogs", ". Kay, a Tampa Bay Rays 27th round pick in this year's draft, hits a three-run home run in his first professional at-bat, following with a double in his third at-bat and singles in his fourth and fifth, before drilling a triple in the eight inning to complete a five-hit, five-run game (and the cycle) in his first professional contest.", "July 15 – The American League defeats the National League, 5–3, during the 85th MLB All-Star Game played at Target Field. Mike Trout hits a first-inning RBI triple before scoring a run, and later drives in the winning run with a double in the fifth, to claim Most Valuable Player honors in what turns out to be Derek Jeter's final All-Star Game.", "July 18 – At Yankee Stadium, Derek Jeter becomes the all-time leader in games played at shortstop. With the score tied 2–2, he singles off Mike Leake to lead off the inning, then scores ahead of Jacoby Ellsbury's home run for the eventual winning run in the Yankees' 4–3 victory over the Cincinnati Reds. The game is Jeter's 2,610th at shortstop, breaking Omar Vizquel's all-time record.\n July 20:", "Odrisamer Despaigne comes within four outs of the first no-hitter in San Diego Padres' 46-year major league history, and the Padres beat the New York Mets, 2–1, at Petco Park. Despaigne, a 27-year-old Cuban defector who signed with the Padres in early May, was making his fifth career major league start. He is on his way to making history until Daniel Murphy lines a double with two outs in the top of the eighth inning", ". The Padres lose a one-run lead when Murphy comes around to score on a single by David Wright, who is the final batter Despaigne faces. Despaigne allows a run and two hits, while striking out five and walking three. Yasmani Grandal opens the scoring for the Padres with a home run in the fourth. They come back to win the game when Seth Smith hits a two-out infield single in the bottom of the ninth and Cameron Maybin scores the winning run", ". It is the longest no-hit bid by a single Padres pitcher since September 7, 2008, when Chris Young hurled perfect innings before allowing a home run to the Milwaukee Brewers' Gabe Kapler. Now the Padres have played 7,264 games, plus 34 more in the postseason, since coming into existence in 1969. Before 2012, the Mets had been the only other active franchise without a no-hitter until Johan Santana pitched one against the St. Louis Cardinals on June 1", ". Louis Cardinals on June 1. The Mets, founded in 1962, needed 8,020 games to score a no-hitter.", "Andrew McCutchen hits a tiebreaking single in the seventh inning, Neil Walker follows with a home run, and the Pittsburgh Pirates overcome a three-run deficit and cap a three-game sweep of the Colorado Rockies with a 5–3 victory at PNC Park. Walker goes 3 for 4 and scores two runs, while Jordy Mercer drives in a pair of runs for the Pirates. It is the second series sweep of the season for Pittsburgh, and its first ever of the Rockies at home after taking three at Coors Field in .", "July 21 – The Boston Red Sox rout the Toronto Blue Jays, 14–1, while collecting season highs in hits (18), home runs (4) and runs at Rogers Centre. David Ortiz hits his 21st and 22nd home runs of the season, giving him 453 for his career to pass Hall of Famer and Boston great Carl Yastrzemski into 36th place on the all-time home run list. It is worth noting that Ortiz is still third on the Red Sox list with 395 homers, behind Ted Williams (521) and Yastrzemski", ". He previously hit 58 home runs with the Minnesota Twins before joining Boston. It was also the 44th multi-homer game for Ortiz, which ranks him second for the most multi-homer games by an American League left-handed hitter behind Babe Ruth (71), while surpassing Lou Gehrig (43), Reggie Jackson (42) and Ken Griffey Jr. (40), according to Elias Sports Bureau.", "July 22 – At Yankee Stadium, Derek Jeter becomes the all-time leader in doubles in a New York Yankee uniform. The record double comes in the ninth inning off Neal Cotts of the Texas Rangers and gives Jeter 535 for his career, breaking a tie he had shared with Lou Gehrig for first place. The Yankees defeat the Rangers 2–1 in 14 innings as Chase Headley, making his debut with the team after being traded from the San Diego Padres earlier in the day, singles to score Brian Roberts with the winning run.", "July 23:", "41-year-old pitcher Bartolo Colón retires 22 consecutive batters as the New York Mets beat the Seattle Mariners, 3–2. at Safeco Field. Colȯn flirts with history and comes within seven outs of perfection, until second baseman Robinson Canó lines a fastball into shallow left for a single to break up Colón's attempt to pitch the first perfect game in New York Mets history. Colón is credited with the victory, after allowing two runs on three hits and one walk while striking out five in innings of work.", "David Ortiz hits a three-run home run for the Red Sox, his fourth in three games, but Boston loses its second straight to the Toronto Blue Jays, 6–4. The three runs batted in gave Ortiz 1,501 for his career, making him the 53rd player in Major League history with 1,500 or more RBI. Just ahead of Ortiz on the all-time list is Hall of Famer Mickey Mantle, with 1,509. The homer is Ortiz' 455th, tying him with Adam Dunn for 35th on the career list", ". The homer is Ortiz' 455th, tying him with Adam Dunn for 35th on the career list. Ortiz now has 37 career home runs in Toronto, passing Alex Rodriguez for the most all-time by a visiting player at Rogers Centre (née SkyDome).", "July 25 – At AT&T Park, Yasiel Puig hits three triples in the Los Angeles Dodgers' 8–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants. The triples are among five by the Dodgers, the other two coming from Dee Gordon and Matt Kemp during the Dodgers' five-run fifth inning. The five triples tie a franchise record for most in a game, set in", ". The five triples tie a franchise record for most in a game, set in . In addition to becoming the first player with three triples in one game since Minnesota's Denard Span in , Puig also ties the franchise record for triples in a game, set by Brooklyn's Jimmy Sheckard in .", "July 26 – The Baseball Hall of Fame changes a rule on eligibility by reducing the number of years a player can be on the ballot from 15 to 10. It is the first Hall of Fame ruling change since , when players on baseball's permanent ineligible list were barred from appearing on the ballot, a move that prevented all-time hits leader Pete Rose from being considered", ". Due to a grandfather clause, three players with more than 10 years on the ballot will remain on the ballot in 2015: Don Mattingly, Alan Trammell and Lee Smith, who will be on the ballot for their 15th, 14th and 13th years respectively.", "July 28 – At Globe Life Park in Arlington, Derek Jeter collects three hits in the New York Yankees' 4–2 loss to the Texas Rangers. With 3,420 career hits, he passes Carl Yastrzemski for seventh place on the all-time hits list.\n July 29:", "July 29:\n The Los Angeles Dodgers announce that legendary Hall of Fame broadcaster Vin Scully will return for his 66th season in 2015. Scully, 86, began broadcasting Brooklyn Dodgers games soon after turning 22 in 1950 and has not left the team since. He became the team's primary play-by-play man when Red Barber joined the New York Yankees in 1953, and accompanied the Dodgers to Los Angeles before the 1958 season. Scully was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1982.", "At Wrigley Field, the Chicago Cubs defeat the Colorado Rockies 4–3 in a 16-inning marathon that lasts 6 hours and 27 minutes. With both teams out of pitchers after 15 innings, the Cubs turn to backup catcher John Baker and the Rockies to starter Tyler Matzek to pitch the 16th. Baker pitches a scoreless top half of the inning, then after leading off the bottom half with a walk against Matzek, scores the winning run on Starlin Castro's sacrifice fly", ". Baker becomes only the fourth non-pitcher to be credited with a win since . In terms of game time, the game is the longest in the history of both teams, as well as in Wrigley Field history.", "July 31:", "The Oakland Athletics acquire starting pitcher Jon Lester and outfielder Jonny Gomes from the Boston Red Sox in exchange for outfielder Yoenis Céspedes. Oakland is also sending a competitive balance draft pick to the Red Sox in the trade, while Boston is sending cash to Oakland. The Athletics landed the second pick on pick in Compensatory Round B in last week's lottery", ". The Athletics landed the second pick on pick in Compensatory Round B in last week's lottery. Lester, who is scheduled to become a free agent after this season, will join a solid Athletics rotation that already includes Jeff Samardzija, Scott Kazmir, Sonny Gray and Jason Hammel", ". Cespedes will bring the Red Sox a much-needed productive bat, though he is only under team control through the 2015 season due to a clause in his contract that allows him to forgo arbitration and hit the free agent market after his initial four-year term. The transaction marks the second time in less than a month that the first-place Athletics have made a blockbuster trade to bolster their starting pitching.", "In their second blockbuster trade of the day, the Boston Red Sox deal starting pitcher John Lackey to the St. Louis Cardinals along with minor league pitcher Corey Littrell and cash considerations. In exchange for Lackey, Boston receives outfielder/first baseman Allen Craig and pitcher Joe Kelly. The Cardinals further bolster their rotation, having acquired Justin Masterson from the Cleveland Indians for minor league outfielder James Ramsey a day before the non-waiver trade deadline.", "The Boston Red Sox remained active before trade deadline. The Red Sox trade shortstop Stephen Drew to the New York Yankees in exchange for infielder Kelly Johnson. The two teams had not traded with each other since 1997, when Mike Stanley went to New York while Boston received Jim Mecir and a minor leaguer. Then, in a change of left-handed pitchers, the Red Sox send Andrew Miller to the Baltimore Orioles for Eduardo Rodríguez.", "The Detroit Tigers acquire pitcher David Price in a blockbuster three-team trade with the Tampa Bay Rays and Seattle Mariners. Detroit sends outfielder Austin Jackson to Seattle, while Tampa Bay receives pitcher Drew Smyly from Detroit and infielder Nick Franklin from the Mariners, as well as minor league infielder Willy Adames from the Tigers.", "August", "August 5 – Félix Hernández allows one run on four hits and one walk while striking out eight batters in eight innings, leading the Seattle Mariners to a 4–2 victory against the Atlanta Braves at Safeco Field. It is his 15th straight start this season, dating back to May 18, in which he works at least seven innings and allows two earned runs or fewer, the longest such streak in Major League history. Hernández has posted an 8–2 record with a 1.42 earned run average in 114", ". Hernández has posted an 8–2 record with a 1.42 earned run average in 114.0 innings and five no decisions in those outings. Gaylord Perry started 15 straight games of seven or more innings with two or fewer earned runs for the Cleveland Indians in 1974 and Hernández has now equaled that mark.", "August 6 – The San Diego Padres announce the hiring of A. J. Preller as their new general manager. The Padres organization was seeking a top talent evaluator and someone who could make an impact in the international market, while Preller, a longtime assistant GM of the Texas Rangers, is also a well respected person in the field of international scouting. His hiring concludes a six-week process that commenced on June 22 after San Diego dismissed Josh Byrnes following his two-and-a-half year tenure.", "August 8:", "Freddie Freeman and brothers Justin and B. J. Upton hit two-out, two-run home runs each, while Tommy La Stella hits his first career homer, as the Atlanta Braves power their way out of an eight-game losing streak with a 7–6 victory over the Washington Nationals at Turner Field. Stephen Strasburg, who has not allowed more than two home runs in any of his previous 99 major league starts, surrenders the two-run homers within the first two innings and the solo shot in the fifth", ". It was the fifth time the Upton brothers homered in the same game as teammates, setting a new MLB record for siblings, The Uptons previously shared the record of four games with Vladimir and Wilton Guerrero and Jason and Jeremy Giambi.", "Bartolo Colón notches his 200th Major League career victory as the New York Mets defeat the Philadelphia Phillies, 5–4, at Citizens Bank Park. Colón twirls eight innings of one-run ball, allowing six hits and striking out six without issuing a walk. The only run comes on a solo home run by Marlon Byrd in the seventh inning. The 41-year-old right-hander becomes one of 115 major leaguers to cross the 200-win plateau. Only two other active pitchers – Tim Hudson (213) and CC Sabathia (208) – are in the club", ". Only two other active pitchers – Tim Hudson (213) and CC Sabathia (208) – are in the club. Now the game has changed, the days of 300-game winners are plausibly over, making 200 the new 300. A Cy Young Award winner, Colón also trails only Juan Marichal (243) and Pedro Martínez (219) for the most wins by a Dominican-born pitcher.", "August 9:", "Derek Jeter hits a single off Cleveland Indians starter Corey Kluber, and in the process surpasses Honus Wagner for sole possession of 6th place on the Major League Baseball all-time hits list. It was the 3,431st Jeter hit during his 19 seasons with the New York Yankees. Even though the Yankees lose at home, 3–0, it is an historic achievement for the shortstop who has been the icon of the franchise. Jeter, who announced this would be his final season on February 12, entered the year with 3,316 hits", ". He had passed Paul Molitor and Carl Yastrzemski on the all-time list this season before moving past Wagner on this game. The only players in Major League history with more hits than Jeter are Pete Rose (4,256), Ty Cobb (4,191), Hank Aaron (3,771), Stan Musial (3,630) and Tris Speaker (3,514).", "Albert Pujols leads off the bottom of the 19th inning with a walk-off home run, and the Anaheim Angels outlast the Boston Red Sox 5–4 in the longest game played in the Major Leagues this season. Pujols' 514th career homer and 22nd of the season comes on a 3–2 pitch from Brandon Workman, ending a six-hour, 31-minute marathon in which both teams use nine pitchers, and 558 pitches are thrown.\n August 10:", "Less than 24 hours after the Anaheim Angels and Boston Red Sox played the longest game of the season, the Toronto Blue Jays and Detroit Tigers duplicate their feat by going 19 innings. José Bautista hits a bases-loaded single off Rick Porcello in the bottom of the 19th to drive in the winning run, as the Blue Jays overcome an early 5–0 deficit to beat Detroit 6–5. Each team uses nine pitchers, and 629 pitches are thrown", ". Each team uses nine pitchers, and 629 pitches are thrown. At six hours and thirty-seven minutes, it is the longest game this season, six minutes more than the Red Sox-Angels affair.", "Four Texas Rangers pitching prospects combine on the first extra-inning no-hitter in Northwest League history, as the Spokane Indians defeat the Everett AquaSox (Seattle Mariners), 3–0, in 11 innings at Everett Memorial Stadium. Pitchers Derek Thompson, Shane McCain, Adam Parks and Luis Pollorena combine on the no hitter, while registering 14 strikeouts, two walks and a hit by pitch", ". The game is scoreless through ten innings, until Spokane cleanup hitter Luke Tender blasts a three-run home run in the top of the 11th to give the Indians all the runs they needed in the 3–0 win.", "August 14 – By a unanimous 30–0 vote, Major League Baseball owners select Rob Manfred, MLB's chief operating officer and right-hand man to Bud Selig, as the game's new commissioner. Manfred will replace Selig, who will step down in January after serving as commissioner for 22 years, the first six as acting commissioner", ". Boston Red Sox chairman Tom Werner and MLB executive vice president of business Tim Brosnan were also candidates; the latter withdrew his name before the owners cast their votes, leaving the final decision between Manfred and Werner. Manfred, having already received the required 23 votes, was ultimately named commissioner by a unanimous vote.", "August 16:", "David Ortiz hits a two-run double in the eight inning that secures the Boston Red Sox' 10–7 victory over the Houston Astros at Fenway Park. Ortiz, who ties a career high with six RBI, also launches a pair of two-run home runs, the first of which was his 400th long ball in a Boston uniform, to join Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Carl Yastrzemski as the only players to hit 400 home runs while playing for the Red Sox. Williams hit 521 homers, and Yastrzemski had 452", ". Williams hit 521 homers, and Yastrzemski had 452. Both spent their entire careers with the Red Sox. Ortiz also becomes the 25th player in Major League history to record 400 homers for one team. He has 459 home runs in his career, which started with the Minnesota Twins, and is tied with Adam Dunn for 35th place on the MLB all-time home run list.", "David Price pitches eight innings of one-run ball and struck out seven batters, as the Detroit Tigers defeat Félix Hernández and the Seattle Mariners at Comerica Park by a score of 4–2. After five innings, Hernández is forced to leave the game due to visible left hip discomfort. He is hit on his hip by a comebacker hit by Ian Kinsler on the third out of the fourth inning, and is unable to protect himself from a ball hit by Miguel Cabrera in the fifth", ". Hernández allows two runs and seven hits, strikes out three and walks none. After his five-inning effort, he ends his Major League record streak of 16 consecutive starts with seven innings or more and two runs or less allowed.", "August 17:", "Michael Cuddyer completes the first cycle in the Majors this season, while leading the Colorado Rockies to a 10–5 victory over the Cincinnati Reds at Coors Field. Cuddyer, who is on his first day back after missing 60 games with a fractured left shoulder, becomes the third player in Major League history to accomplish cycles in both the National and American Leagues. Bob Watson did it with the Houston Astros () and the Boston Red Sox (), and John Olerud with the New York Mets () and the Seattle Mariners ()", ". Cuddyer completed his first career cycle while playing for the Minnesota Twins (). The most cycles hit by a single player in Major League Baseball is three, accomplished by Babe Herman, Bob Meusel and John Reilly, but no one has accomplished that feat since .", "José Altuve went 4 for 5 and blasts his first Major League career grand slam over the Green Monster, helping send the Houston Astros to an 8–1 win over the Boston Red Sox and a split of the four-game series at Fenway Park. Altuve becomes the first Astros hitter to collect four hits including a grand slam since Jeff Bagwell did it in April 2004. Altuve currently leads the Major Leagues in batting average (.339), hits (173) and stolen bases (46).", "Joey Gallo hits a two-run home run for Double-A Frisco RoughRiders in a 6–1 win over the Tulsa Drillers. The Texas Rangers top prospect becomes the first Minor Leaguer in more than three decades to record back-to-back 40-homer seasons. Ron Kittle last accomplished the feat in 1981–1982 for Double-A Glens Falls White Sox (40 HR) and Triple-A Edmonton Trappers (50 HR) in the Chicago White Sox organization", ". Gallo, who still leads the Carolina League with 21 home runs, trails Corpus Christi Hooks' Telvin Nash by one for the Texas League top spot.", "August 19 – Major League Baseball slightly alters history with a scoring change to the game played between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians on August 8. Represented by Joe Torre, MLB reverses the official scorer's call that gave Derek Jeter what was at the time his 3,430th career hit, which tied Honus Wagner for sixth place on the MLB all-time hits list. Originally, official scorer David Freeman ruled the first-inning play at Yankee Stadium a single", ". Originally, official scorer David Freeman ruled the first-inning play at Yankee Stadium a single. That play has now been ruled an error on Indians first baseman Carlos Santana, who could not cleanly handle a throw from shortstop José Ramírez. Initially, Jeter was credited with passing Wagner with an infield single against Cleveland pitcher Corey Kluber on August 9; now that is the hit that ties Wagner", ". His 3,431th hit, a double off Bud Norris of the Baltimore Orioles on August 11 at Camden Yards, is the official hit that gives Jeter sole possession of sixth place on the all-time list.", "August 20 – David Ortiz goes 4 for 4 and belts his 30th home run of the season in an 8–3 loss to the Anaheim Angels at Fenway Park. At the age of 38, the slugger produces his eighth season of 30 or more homers for the Boston Red Sox, tying him with legendary Ted Williams for the most in franchise history. The home run was also the 461st of Ortiz's career, which started with the Minnesota Twins, and his next home run will tie him with José Canseco for 34th place on the MLB all-time home run list", ". Hank Aaron has the most 30-home run seasons in a career with 15. There are just 26 players who have had nine or more 30-homer seasons.", "August 21 – At Tropicana Field, David Price of the Detroit Tigers pitches a complete-game one-hitter against his former team, the Tampa Bay Rays, but loses 1–0. The Rays' lone run and hit both come in the first inning: Ben Zobrist reaches base on Eugenio Suárez's throwing error, then scores on Brandon Guyer's triple one batter later, after which Price allows no other Ray to reach base. The Rays had traded Price, the 2012 American League Cy Young Award winner, to the Tigers on July 31.", "August 23 – Joc Pederson of the Triple-A Albuquerque Isotopes records his 30th stolen base of the season in a 12–10 loss at Colorado Springs. With his sixth inning steal of second base, the Los Angeles Dodgers' No. 3 prospect becomes the first player to record a 30-home-run/30-steal season in the Pacific Coast League since Frank Demaree in 1934. Lefty O'Doul (1927) and Hall of Famer Tony Lazzeri (1925) are the only other members of the 30–30 club in PCL history", ". Besides, Pederson is only the second 30–30 player in Dodgers' Minor League history, joining Chin-Feng Chen (1999).", "August 24 – Brett Wallace clubs a walk-off grand slam in the 12th inning to cap a three-home run, six-RBI game, as Triple-A Buffalo Bisons rallies for a 10–6 victory over visiting Pawtucket Red Sox. The 2008 first-round pick Wallace, who has appeared in 311 Major League games but none since 2013, joins Fernando Martínez (2012) and Marco Scutaro (1999) as the only Bisons to hit walk-off grand slams at Coca-Cola Field", ". It is also the sixth three-homer game in franchise history and the first since May 19, 2012, when Vinny Rottino achieved the feat against the Indianapolis Indians.", "August 25 – The Durham Bulls clinches their seventh International League South Division pennant title in eight years with a 4–2 victory over the host Gwinnett Braves. The Tampa Bay Rays' Triple-A affiliate have scored a division title in all but one of their eight seasons with Charlie Montoyo at the helm, claiming the Governors' Cup title in the 2009 and 2013 seasons. Earlier this season, Montoyo became Durham's all-time manager-wins leader, surpassing Bill Evers with his 614th victory", ". Overall, the Bulls have won eleven division pennants and four Governors' Cup titles in a span of 17 years, dating back to 1998.", "August 27 – At Comerica Park, Detroit Tigers pitcher David Price allows nine consecutive hits in the third inning of an 8–4 defeat to the New York Yankees. The Yankees, who were one hit short of tying an American League record and two shy of Major League Baseball's all-time mark, score eight runs in that decisive inning. Price also becomes the first pitcher to allow nine straight hits in a single game since Houston Astros' Bob Forsch did it against the Cincinnati Reds in 1989.", "August 28 – At AT&T Park, San Francisco Giants pitcher Yusmeiro Petit etches himself into Major League Baseball history by retiring his 46th consecutive batter in the third inning of a 2–1 victory over the Colorado Rockies. Petit, who was one strike shy of a perfect game last September, retires the first eight Rockies hitters, establishing the mark by striking out Charlie Culberson", ". The 29-year-old journeyman from Venezuela began amassing his record total at the end of a July 22 start at the Philadelphia Phillies. Then came six consecutive appearances out of the bullpen, mostly in his role as San Francisco's long reliever. The previous Major League record of 45 consecutive batters retired in a row was set by Chicago White Sox pitcher Mark Buehrle in the 2009 season. Only two other pitchers have retired over 40 consecutive batters in the Major Leagues", ". Only two other pitchers have retired over 40 consecutive batters in the Major Leagues. In 1972, Giants starter Jim Barr set both the Giants franchise and National league records by retiring 41 straight batters, which was matched in 2005 by White Sox reliever Bobby Jenks in the American League. Petit makes today's start in place of struggling Tim Lincecum, who was available out of the bullpen", ". Petit allows one run on four hits, strikes out nine and walks none in six innings, carving out his own slice of baseball lore after being close to pitching the 24th perfect game in Major League history last year. Arizona Diamondbacks pinch-hitter Eric Chavez turned spoiler when he looped a two-out single in the ninth inning off a full 3–2 count.", "August 29 – Mookie Betts becomes the youngest Boston Red Sox player to hit a grand slam in 49 years, when he belted a two-out, 94-mph-fastball bases-loaded home run against Chris Archer. The second-inning grand slam gives the Sox an early 8–0 lead over the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field. Eventually, they would win 8–4. At age 21, the rookie Betts is the youngest Sox player to smash a grand slam since 20-year-old Tony Conigliaro hit one off Washington Senators' Buster Narum on August 24, 1965", ". With his blast, Betts also helps rookie pitcher Anthony Ranaudo earn the victory. Coincidentally, Conigliaro hit his slam in support of rookie winning pitcher Jim Lonborg in the 9–4 victory at Fenway Park.", "August 30 – With Billy Gardner at the helm, the Syracuse Chiefs claims its first International League North Division pennant title in 25 years with a 6–2 victory over the Pawtucket Red Sox at McCoy Stadium. Washington Nationals' No. 5 prospect Steven Souza, named International League MVP early in the week, drives in three runs, including two on a fifth-inning double that gives the Chiefs a 5–2 lead", ". Additionally, pitcher Mitch Lively records a career-high 11 strikeouts over six innings, retiring 11 straight batters at one point and facing two over the minimum over his final five innings.", "August 31:", "The Los Angeles Angels seize control of the American League West Division race in one remarkable weekend, finishing off a four-game sweep of the Oakland Athletics with an 8–1 victory at Angel Stadium of Anaheim. The sweep pushes the Angels' lead over the Athletics to five games, as they shut out Oakland for 29 consecutive innings at one point. Oakland, which led the AL West for nearly four straight months this season, now faces its biggest division deficit since May 25, 2013", ". The Athletics have lost 14 of their last 20 games, while Los Angeles has won 15 of 19.", "Cuban defector Rusney Castillo makes his much-anticipated debut for the Boston Red Sox organization at JetBlue Park in Fort Myers, Florida. The 27-year-old, who recently signed a seven-year, $72.5 million contract with Boston, serves as the designated hitter for the GCL Red Sox in a playoff game and hits a leadoff single in the first inning, during his first at bat in a game of any kind since July 2013. Castillo rips a 2–0 fastball into left field off Luis Cedeño, a Venezuelan pitcher who enters with a 1", ".13 ERA and 35 strikeouts in 40 innings for the GCL Yankees. After that Castillo attempts to steal second base but is thrown out. In the third inning, with runners on first and second and one out, he takes a strike, fouls off a high fastball, then strikes out looking against Cedeño. With the Red Sox slated to play a decisive playoff against the Yankees in Tampa, Castillo will likely stay with the group before advancing to Single-A Salem Red Sox.", "Milwaukee Brewers prospect Nathan Orf redefines 'prospect' as he plays all nine positions for the Class-A Brevard County Manatees. An outfielder by trade, Orf begins the game at catcher and ends it after recording an out in his first-ever professional appearance as a pitcher. In between, he plays at first base, second base, third base, shortstop, left field, center field and right field, and also has a brief stint as the first base coach", ". Orf goes 0-for-2 with a walk and makes four defensive plays at three different positions. He leaves to a standing ovation from the crowd gathered at Space Coast Stadium in Viera, Florida. Playing in their season finale, the Manatees lost 7–3 to the Dunedin Blue Jays.", "September\n September 1 :", "The Houston Astros announce that they've relieved Bo Porter of his managerial duties. Tom Lawless will take over as interim manager through the remainder of the 2014 season. Additionally, the Astros also announce that bench coach Dave Trembley was dismissed as well. Adam Everett will join Houston's coaching staff, replacing Trembley as bench coach. The remaining coaches will continue in their current roles", ". The remaining coaches will continue in their current roles. Porter was hired to take over a rebuilding club that had one of the lowest payrolls in the Majors last year and finishes with 51 victories and a club-record 111 losses. Nevertheless, the Astros posted a 59–79 record in Porter's second full season as manager, having already surpassed their win total from each of their previous three seasons.", "At Turner Field, four Philadelphia Phillies pitchers combine to no-hit the Atlanta Braves, 7–0. Starter Cole Hamels pitches the first six innings, striking out seven and walking five while hitting a batter, but is pulled after tossing 108 pitches. Relievers Jake Diekman, Ken Giles and Jonathan Papelbon then each pitch a perfect inning to finish off the fourth no-hitter of the season. The no-hitter is the first by the Phillies since Roy Halladay threw one in the 2010 National League Division Series", ". It is also their first no-hitter in a regular season game since Halladay's perfect game on May 29 of that season. 2010 was also the last season the Braves had been no-hit, by Colorado Rockies' Ubaldo Jiménez on April 17.", "The Pawtucket Red Sox fall to the Rochester Red Wings, 3–1, in the regular-season finale for each team. Pawtucket (79–65) finishes the International League regular season with one fewer victory than it had in 2013 (80–63). Playing only 13 hours after the final out of their wild card-clinching victory on last night, the PawSox will take on North Division-champion Syracuse Chiefs in a best-of-five playoff series beginning with game one on September 3 at McCoy Stadium.", "September 3 – Chicago Cubs prospect Kris Bryant earns Joe Bauman Award honors after leading the Minor Leagues in home runs during the 2014 season. Bryant hits a minor-league best 43 home runs in 138 games between Double-A Tennessee Smokies and Triple-A Iowa Cubs to dethrone 2013 leader Joey Gallo, who finishes the season with 42 home runs. But Bryant was not just about the long ball, as he also posted a .325 average to go with 110 RBI and a 1.098 OPS", ".325 average to go with 110 RBI and a 1.098 OPS. For his home run accomplishments, Bryant also will receive a check for $8,600, which represents $200 for each of the home runs he hit during the season. The 22-year-old Bryant, who was taken by the Cubs with the second overall pick in the 2013 MLB draft, is ranked as the third-best prospect in all of baseball, following only Byron Buxton of the Minnesota Twins and Carlos Correa of the Houston Astros, according to the MLB. com Top 100 Prospects list.", "September 5:\n The Arizona Diamondbacks remove Kevin Towers from his General Manager position, ending his nearly four-year stint in the organization. The club says that Towers has been offered another position within the organization, and is considering the opportunity. Towers becomes the second National League West Division GM to be dismissed during the 2014 campaign, as San Diego Padres GM Josh Byrnes was let go in July.", "Ron Washington resigns as manager of the Texas Rangers to take care of a personal problem, he and the club say. Washington led the Rangers to five straight winning seasons from 2009 through 2013. Prior to that, the organization had never had a streak longer than three years. Washington is replaced by bench coach Tim Bogar, who will be the team's interim manager for the remainder of the season.", "Los Angeles Dodgers broadcaster Vin Scully is honored with the prestigious Commissioner's Historic Achievement Award, presented by MLB Commissioner Bud Selig at Dodger Stadium, with Selig recognizing Scully's \"lifetime of extraordinary service\"", ". Scully, a Hall of Famer in his 65th season with the Dodgers since the Brooklyn days, becomes the 14th recipient of the award and only the second non-player, joining Jackie Robinson's widow, Rachel, who in 2007 received the award for establishing the Jackie Robinson Foundation. The award was created in 1998 to recognize accomplishments and contributions of historical significance. The previous recipient was Mariano Rivera last year, being described by Selig as \"a great ambassador of the game\".", "September 7 – Nelson Cruz hits two home runs, one triple and drives in seven runs in the Baltimore Orioles' 7–5 win over the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field. Cruz hits a two-run homer in the top of the 11th inning to break a 5–5 tie, as he becomes the 19th big leaguer to have at least seven RBI and drive in all of his team's runs in a single game.", "September 9 – A total of 42,411,194 people fill the seats at Minor League Baseball games this season, marking the 10th consecutive year that the organization has drawn in excess of 41 million fans across its 176 teams and 15 leagues. The 2014 attendance figures rank third, only behind 2008's all-time record-setting attendance of 43.3 million and 42.8 million in 2007", ".3 million and 42.8 million in 2007. All of Minor League Baseball's top 10 regular season attendance years have been during the last decade, signaling in part the growth and stability of the organization.", "September 10:", "Los Angeles Angels outfielder Mike Trout scores his 100th run of the season in an 8–1 victory over the Texas Rangers at Globe Life Park in Arlington. Trout becomes the sixth player in Major League history to notch triple-digit runs three times before his 23-year-old season, joining Mel Ott (1931), Buddy Lewis (1938), Ted Williams (1942), Vada Pinson (1961) and Alex Rodriguez (1998)", ". Additionally, Trout now has 32 home runs and 102 RBI in the season, both of which are career highs for the talented young ballplayer.", "José Altuve hits an RBI double in the fifth inning and a single in the seventh to reach his 200th hit of the season, as the Houston Astros defeat the Seattle Mariners at Safeco Field, 5–2, damaging the Mariners' postseason chances. The diminutive Venezuelan second baseman is just the second Astros player to reach the milestone, joining Craig Biggio, who set the franchise record of 210 in 1998", ". Altuve also becomes the fourth Venezuelan player with at least 200 hits in a regular season, as he joins César Tovar (1971), Magglio Ordóñez (2007) and Miguel Cabrera (2012). Altuve currently leads the American League in batting average (.336), hits and stolen bases (52). If he finishes as the leader in all three categories, he would be the first to do that since Ichiro Suzuki in 2001.", "September 11 – The Diablos Rojos del México beat the Pericos de Puebla 9–8, in 10 innings, completing a four-game sweep and taking their 16th Mexican League championship to set a league record. Manny Acosta is the winning pitcher, while Juan Carlos Gamboa hits a walk-off homer in the bottom of the tenth to seal the victory.\n September 12:", "September 12:\n Chris Davis of the Baltimore Orioles is suspended for 25 games without pay for testing positive for the amphetamine Adderall. Davis, the 2013 American League home run champion, is batting .196 with 26 homers and 72 RBI at the time of the announcement. With 17 games left in the Orioles' regular season schedule, the suspension ends Davis' season and will continue into the postseason.", "Jayce Boyd delivers a walk-off single after teammate pitcher Steven Matz flirts with a no-hitter, as the Binghamton Mets finished their run to the Eastern League championship with a 2–1 victory over the Richmond Flying Squirrels at NYSEG Stadium. Binghamton sweeps the best-of-five series and captures the franchise's third title overall, its first since the 1994 season", ". Xorge Carrillo, who catches all the playoff games for the Mets, belts a home run in Game 2 of the series and drives in four runs overall, to earn Most Valuable Player honors.", "Viosergy Rosa slugs his fourth home run of the playoffs and drives in four runs while Justin Nicolino pitches six scoreless innings, as the Jacksonville Suns beat the Chattanooga Lookouts, 6–1, to clinch the Southern League title. The victory completes a three-game sweep, the first in the Southern League Finals since 2002, and gives the Suns its third title in six years and sixth overall. Besides his four homers, Rosa hits", ". Besides his four homers, Rosa hits .379 (11 for 29) with four doubles, 14 RBI and five runs scored in seven postseason games, to claim Southern League playoff Most Valuable Player honors.", "September 13:", "The Los Angeles Dodgers romp past the San Francisco Giants, 17–0, to build on their lead in the National League West. It is the Dodgers' largest margin of victory and most one-sided shutout against the Giants since the teams moved to California before the 1958 season, as well as the most runs scored by an opponent at AT&T Park. According to Elias Sports Bureau, the most one-sided shutout in Dodgers history was 19–0 over San Diego in 1969", ". Additionally, Los Angeles embarrassed the Minnesota Twins 15–0 in 2011, and the Brooklyn Dodgers routed the Philadelphia Phillies, 15–0, in 1952. Meanwhile, Giants manager Bruce Bochy makes history when he becomes the first father to hand his son the ball in a Major League game when he brings relief pitcher Brett Bochy in for the top of the sixth inning", ". The young Bochy records his first career strikeout with a fastball away to Yasiel Puig, though he also gives up his first career walk and first career home run to Scott Van Slyke, which gives the Dodgers a 17–0 lead. There have been seven father-son manager-player combinations in the majors, but the Bochys are the first combination to manage and pitch for the same club.", "The visiting Pawtucket Red Sox defeat the Durham Bulls, 4–1, to win the International League championship title, taking home their second Governors' Cup in three years. Pawtucket starter Keith Couch is solid in his Triple-A debut, pitching innings of one-hit, shutout baseball, walking two and striking out four to pick up the win. Miguel Celestino closes out the final innings, allowing a single and one run on a solo homer in the top half of the ninth, being credited with the save", ". Ryan Lavarnway, who replaces injured catcher Blake Swihart, claims Most Valuable Player honors after hitting 10 for 22 in the best-of-five series, including one home run, a double, three runs and three RBI.", "September 14:\n Aaron Brooks pitches a complete-game two-hitter and batterymate Brett Hayes plated two first-inning runs with a double, as the Omaha Storm Chasers beat the visiting Reno Aces, 4–0, to win their second consecutive Pacific Coast League title. Omaha will meet International League champion Pawtucket Red Sox on Tuesday 16 in the Triple-A Baseball National Championship Game Triple-A National Championship Game at BB&T Ballpark, home of the IL's Charlotte Knights.", "The Midland RockHounds cruise to a 5–0 victory over the visiting Tulsa Drillers in the decisive fifth game of the Championship Series to secure its Texas League first title since 2009 and third in 10 years. Nate Long scatters six hits while striking out five and walking one over innings and is credited with the win, while Dusty Coleman secures the victory with a two-run homer in the second inning.", "September 15 – Jacob deGrom ties a Major League record by striking out the first eight batters he faced. Houston Astros pitcher Jim Deshaies had held that mark by himself since 1986, when he struck out the first eight batters in a game against the Los Angeles Dodgers", ". This time, the 26-year-old New York Mets prospect completes his feat with a career-best 13 strikeouts in seven innings, allowing three earned runs on six hits and one walk, but did not have a decision in the Mets' 6–5 loss to the Miami Marlins at Citi Field. Dating back to August 23, deGrom had gone 28 innings without allowing an earned run", ". Dating back to August 23, deGrom had gone 28 innings without allowing an earned run. A viable candidate for the Rookie of the Year Award, he also hurled seven scoreless innings and recorded 11 strikeouts in giving the Mets their 4,000th franchise victory on July 8.", "September 16 – The Omaha Storm Chasers defeat the Pawtucket Red Sox 4–2 at BB&T Ballpark, home of the International League's Charlotte Knights, as Omaha wins its second straight Triple-A National Championship Game, and the third overall. The Storm Chasers lead 2–1 through four and a half innings on two RBI by Cheslor Cuthbert, but the game is halted for one hour and 45 minutes due to thunderstorms", ". Right out of the delay, the PawSox tie the game at 2–2 in the sixth, but Brett Hayes hits a two-run home run off Miguel Celestino in the top of the seventh to put the Chasers ahead for good. Kyle Zimmer is the winning pitcher while Tim Collins is credited with the save. Cuthbert adds a homer and scored one run, while Pedro Ciriaco goes 3 for 5 with a double and one run scored. Hayes, who also doubled and scored in the fourth, is named the game's Most Valuable Player", ". Hayes, who also doubled and scored in the fourth, is named the game's Most Valuable Player. The only runs for Pawtucket come from solo homers by Rusney Castillo leading off the first inning and Travis Shaw to tie the score in the sixth. Additionally, Omaha becomes the third team to win the Triple-A Championship in back-to-back years and the second Pacific Coast League team to do it, joining the Sacramento River Cats (2007–2008) and the Columbus Clippers (2010–2011)", ". The Pacific Coast League now has a stretch of seven straight Championship Games against the International League, and have won six of the nine games overall.", "September 16:", "José Altuve sets a Houston Astros single-season record, as his 211th hit broke the mark set by Craig Biggio in 1998. Altuve collects his record-tying 210th hit of the season in the bottom of the fifth inning, a double off Cleveland Indians pitcher Corey Kluber. Two innings later, he rips a two-out double off Kluber to complete the feat", ". Two innings later, he rips a two-out double off Kluber to complete the feat. Besides this record, Altuve becomes the first Astros player to record multiple hits in six consecutive games since Hunter Pence did it in 2011, going 2 for 5, while raising his batting average to .343 and moving closer to become the first player to win a batting title in the 52-year franchise history", ". The 5-foot-6 Venezuelan second baseman leads all Major League players in hits and batting average, while topping the American League in stolen bases. He has 64 multi-hit games, which is a franchise record, and is only one of seven players in Major League history to have at least 200 hits, 43 doubles and 50 steals in a season since 1900, joining Ty Cobb (1911; 1917), Tris Speaker (1912), Benny Kauff (1914), George Sisler (1922), Craig Biggio (1998), and Hanley Ramírez (2007).", "After defeating the Atlanta Braves, 3–0, the Washington Nationals become the first team to win a National League division, as well as the second team overall to clinch a spot in the 2014 MLB Postseason. On the same day, the Baltimore Orioles beat the Toronto Blue Jays, 8–2, to claim their first American League division title since 1997.", "September 17 – The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim defeat the Seattle Mariners, 6–1, to trim their magic number to win the American League Western division to one. Many fans stay after the game to watch the Oakland Athletics lose to the Texas Rangers – thus guaranteeing the Angels' first division championship since 2009 – on the Angel Stadium video board", ". The fans who stayed erupt when the Athletics-Rangers game is over, and the players pop champagne in the clubhouse and go back on the field to do a victory lap.", "September 21 – Brett Gardner connects for the 15,000th home run in New York Yankees franchise history, lining a solo shot to right field off Drew Hutchison in New York's 5–2 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays at Yankee Stadium. According to research performed by the Elias Sports Bureau, the Yankees become the first team to reach the milestone. The total starts in 1903, the first year the franchise started play as the Highlanders in New York.", "September 23 – The Atlanta Braves relieve their general manager Frank Wren of his duties, naming longtime baseball executive John Hart as their interim general manager. Additionally, the Braves form a three-person team committee to conduct the search for the club's new general manager. It will include the team's president John Schuerholz, Hart, and Hall of Fame and former Braves manager Bobby Cox. The outgoing Wren is in his 15th season with the Braves and his seventh as the club's general manager.", "September 24:\n The New York Yankees are officially eliminated from the playoff race with a 9–5 loss to the visiting Baltimore Orioles, leaving the Yankees out of the postseason in consecutive years for the first time since 1992–1993.", "Phil Hughes of the Minnesota Twins starts his final game of the year and finishes with a major league record. With 186 punchouts and just 16 bases on balls, his strikeout-to-walk ratio (11.63) is the best in the history of major league baseball. The previous best was set by Bret Saberhagen at an even 11.0 in 1994 (143 and 13), and third place now belongs to Cliff Lee, 10.28 in 2010.", "September 25 – Derek Jeter plays his final home game at Yankee Stadium, the current incarnation of the stadium being nicknamed \"The House that Jeter Built\". Jeter makes his final appearance remarkable, delivering a game-winning, RBI single in the bottom of the ninth inning, as the New York Yankees beat the Baltimore Orioles, 6–5, just minutes after they blowing a three-run lead", ". For the record, Jeter went 2 for 5 with a double, three runs batted in and a run scored, to add another signature moment to a long list of achievements over his 20-year career for the Yankees.", "September 26 – The Arizona Diamondbacks announce that manager Kirk Gibson and bench coach Alan Trammell are dismissed from their respective roles. The announcement is made 15 minutes before a news conference to introduce new Diamondbacks general manager Dave Stewart and De Jon Watson, who will serve as senior vice president of baseball operations. Both Stewart and Watson will report directly to chief baseball officer Tony La Russa", ". Both Stewart and Watson will report directly to chief baseball officer Tony La Russa. In a curious decision, the Diamondbacks also announce that Trammell will manage the final three games of the season. Gibson and Trammell were teammates on the 1984 Detroit Tigers club that won the franchise's most recent World Series.", "September 26 – The Kansas City Royals defeat the Chicago White Sox 3–1 to clinch their first postseason appearance since winning the World Series in 1985. The 29-year drought was the longest active streak in the Majors.\n September 28:", "José Altuve of the Houston Astros enters MLB records books by claiming the first batting crown in the club's 52-year history. Altuve is added to the Astros' lineup after the team reversed course on its original decision to bench him, even against his wishes, in an attempt to protect his lead in the American League batting race. Altuve responds with a double and a single in four at-bats in an 8–3 season-ending loss to the New York Mets at Citi Field, to lead all Major League hitters with a .341 average", ".341 average. Additionally, he tops the league with 225 hits, 168 singles and 56 stolen bases, while ending second in doubles (47) and tying for sixth in WAR (6.6). Previously, the smallest Venezuelan second baseman had no problem earning his second All-Star nod while establishing some impressive milestones before the break, when he became the fastest player in the Colt .45s–Astros franchise to collect 500 hits in a career on June 18 in his 426th game", ".45s–Astros franchise to collect 500 hits in a career on June 18 in his 426th game. Early this month, he broke Craig Biggio's franchise record of 210 hits in a season, while his 225 total hits give him the most by a second baseman since Charlie Gehringer of the Detroit Tigers collected 227 hits back in 1936. Besides this, only Detroit's Ty Cobb reached more hits, doubles and stolen bases in a single season than Altuve, 248/83/47 in 1911.", "At Nationals Park, Jordan Zimmermann of the Washington Nationals no-hits the Miami Marlins, 1–0, in his club's final game of the regular season. Zimmermann dominates the Marlins, striking out 10 batters and allowing only one walk. But the clear highlight of the game came on the very last play, when rookie left fielder Steven Souza makes a stunning, full-extension diving catch in the left-center field gap to rob Christian Yelich of an extra-base hit for the final out and preserve Zimmermann's no-hitter", ". Souza had entered the game in the ninth inning as a defensive replacement. It is the fifth no-hitter in franchise history and the first since the Montreal Expos moved to Washington before the 2005 season. The Zimmermann no-hitter is the fourth to be pitched on the final day of a regular season, as well as the first to be pitched in Washington, D.C. since Washington Senators pitcher Bobby Burke no-hit the Boston Red Sox in 1931", ".C. since Washington Senators pitcher Bobby Burke no-hit the Boston Red Sox in 1931. Henderson Álvarez, the losing pitcher against Zimmerman, pitched one last year against the Detroit Tigers, a no-hitter that was not official until the Marlins scored the game's only run in the bottom of the ninth inning.", "September 29 – The Minnesota Twins relieve their longtime manager Ron Gardenhire of his duties, the team announces. A shortstop for the New York Mets from 1981 through 1985, Gardenhire has been with the Twins organization since 1988, first as a minor league manager and then for 11 years as the team's third base coach, before replacing manager Tom Kelly prior to the 2002 season", ". Gardenhire enjoyed immediate success, leading the Twins to three straight American League Central Division pennants, while managing three more ALDS winners spanning 2006–2010, though in all six of his postseason appearances they only advanced to the American League Championship Series once. Following the 2010 season, Gardenhire received American League Manager of the Year honors after finishing as a runner-up in several prior years", ". The last four seasons have been a different story for both Gardenhire and the Twins, as the team struggled to a 265–383 record and finished in last place in three of those four years. He has one more year remaining on a two-year he deal signed before the current season. Overall, Gardenhire posts a 1068–1039 record over his 13-year career at Minnesota.", "September 30 – The Kansas City Royals win the American League Wild Card Game over the Oakland Athletics, 9–8, at Kauffman Stadium. The games lasts 12 innings, with nearly five hours of playing time, as Kansas City rallies from deficits of 7–3 and 8–7. The walk-off thrilling victory sent the Royals, playing in their first postseason game since 1985 when they won the World Series, to the American League Division Series against the Anaheim Angels.", "October", "October 1 – Brandon Crawford hits a fourth-inning grand slam to break a scoreless tie in the National League Wild Card Game at PNC Park, as the San Francisco Giants defeat the Pittsburgh Pirates, 8–0, and will face the Washington Nationals in the NL Division series. Further, Crawford becomes the first shortstop in Major League history to hit a grand slam in the postseason", ". San Francisco starter Madison Bumgarner pitches a complete-game, four-hit shutout, while his counterpart Edinson Vólquez is tagged with the loss.", "October 5:", "The Baltimore Orioles return to the ALCS for the first time since their 1997 season, as they advance to the American League Championship Series after sweeping the Detroit Tigers in the best-of-five series. Nelson Cruz hits a tiebreaking two-run homer off David Price in the sixth inning of today's 2–1 win at Comerica Park, while Bud Norris pitches scoreless innings of two-hit ball in his postseason debut", ". In the ALCS, the Orioles will wait for the winner of the series between the Los Angeles Angels and Kansas City Royals.", "At Kauffman Stadium, the Kansas City Royals finish off a three-game sweep of the Los Angeles Angels with an emphatic 8–3 victory in the American League Division Series. Alex Gordon laces a three-run double in the first inning, Eric Hosmer and Mike Moustakas hit a home run apiece, and starter James Shields combines with three relievers to pitch an eight-hitter", ". The power-hitting Angels, who topped the Major Leagues with a 98–64 record in the regular season, become the second club in the divisional era that began in 1969 to have the best record in the majors and get swept out of the playoffs. Previously, the Royals dealt the same humiliating fate to the New York Yankees in the 1980 ALCS. Now, the surprising Kansas City team will open the American League Championship Series against the Baltimore Orioles.", "October 7 :", "At Busch Stadium, the St. Louis Cardinals tag Clayton Kershaw in the seventh inning for the second straight time, backed by a three-run homer by first baseman Matt Adams and a solid pitching performance by starter Shelby Miller and five relievers. Following their 3–1 win in the best-of-five series, the Cardinals secure their fourth consecutive trip to the National League Championship Series. As a result, St", ". As a result, St. Louis will await the winner of the series between the San Francisco Giants and the Washington Nationals.", "The San Francisco Giants edge the highly favored Washington Nationals at AT&T Park, 3–2, to return to the National League Championship Series. The wild-card Giants wins their third game in the best-of-five series behind unconventional offense, scoring their three runs on a bases-loaded walk, a ground out, and a bases-loaded wild pitch. San Francisco will travel to St. Louis to face the Cardinals", ". San Francisco will travel to St. Louis to face the Cardinals. It is a rematch of the 2012 NLCS, when the Giants rallied from a 3–1 deficit to beat the Cardinals on the way to their second World Series championship in three years.", "October 10 – At Camden Yards, the Kansas City Royals win in extra innings for the fourth time in five postseason games, defeating the Baltimore Orioles, 8–6, in 10 innings, in Game 1 of the American League Championship Series. Alex Gordon hits a leadoff home run in the 10th inning to snap a 5–5 tie, and Mike Moustakas follows with a two-run homer to seal the victory", ". Gordon, who makes a great catch in left field, went 3 for 4 and is hit in the neck with a pitch; he also breaks things open in the third inning clearing the bases on a broken-bat double, giving him his second three-RBI double in the playoffs.", "October 11 :", "Alcides Escobar drives in the go-ahead run with a double in the ninth inning, Mike Moustakas hits his fourth home run in five games, and Kansas City remains perfect in the playoffs, beating the Baltimore Orioles at Camden Yards, 6–4, for a 2–0 lead in the AL Championship Series. In addition, Lorenzo Cain has four hits, scores twice and drives in a run for the wild-card Royals, who are 6–0 in the playoffs this year, including 4–0 as a visiting team", ". Cain becomes just the third player in Royals history to collect four hits in a postseason game, joining George Brett, who did it twice in the 1985 postseason. For the second time in two games, reliever Wade Davis earns the win and Greg Holland is credited for the save. Additionally, the Royals also extend their postseason winning streak to nine games, dating from the 1985 World Series, their last appearance in the playoffs", ". Regarding the Orioles: since the League Championship Series went to a seven-game format in 1985, 11 teams have lost the first two games at home before going on the road. None of the 11 came back to win the LCS.", "Madison Bumgarner outduels Adam Wainwright while pitching innings of shutout ball, and the San Francisco Giants combine just enough opportune hitting with a couple of defensive gaffes by the St. Louis Cardinals, to defeat St. Louis 3–0 in the National League Championship Series opener at Busch Stadium", ". Louis 3–0 in the National League Championship Series opener at Busch Stadium. Bumgarner sets a Major League postseason record with consecutive scoreless innings as a visiting pitcher, surpassing the mark of 23 straight postseason scoreless innings on the road set by Art Nehf of the New York Giants between 1921 and 1924", ". In leading the Giants' win, Bumgarner also collects his fourth postseason start of seven or more innings pitched with no runs allowed, tying him with Christy Mathewson for the most such starts in Giants franchise history, and ranking second among left-handed pitchers in the wild-card era, one start behind Tom Glavine.", "October 12 – At Busch Stadium, the St. Louis Cardinals find an unexpected way to defeat the San Francisco Giants, 5–4, in Game 2 of the NLCS, to tie the series at a win apiece. St. Louis, who hit the fewest home runs in the National League this season, hits four long balls in the game. Early on, Matt Carpenter connects his fourth homer of the postseason to put St. Louis ahead 1–0 in the third inning", ". Louis ahead 1–0 in the third inning. After wasting a 2–0 lead, the Cardinals fall behind in the game 3–2, but rally with a game-tying home run by Oscar Taveras in the seventh inning, a go-ahead homer in the eighth by Matt Adams, and then a walkoff blast by Kolten Wong leading off the bottom of the ninth, after the Giants have tied the game in the top of the inning", ". It is the second go-ahead homer in the playoffs for Wong, who blasted a two-run shot in the 3–1 victory over the Los Angeles Dodgers in Game 3 of the NL Division Series. Nevertheless, the win comes at a cost for St. Louis, with catcher Yadier Molina suffering a strained oblique muscle during the game, before the series moves to San Francisco.", "October 14:", "At AT&T Park, the San Francisco Giants seal a 5–4, 10-inning over the St. Louis Cardinals in Game 3 of the NLCS, giving San Francisco a 2-games-to-1 lead in the best-of-seven series. In the bottom of the 10th inning, Gregor Blanco executes a perfect bunt that Cardinals reliever Randy Choate pounces on, but he throws wide of first base and down the right field line, allowing Brandon Crawford to score the winning run from second base", ". San Francisco left fielder Travis Ishikawa delivers the first big hit of the day, a three-run first-inning double off John Lackey that turns a 1–0 game into a 4–0 one, though Giants starter Tim Hudson cannot preserve it after surrendering a game-tying home run to Randal Grichuk with an out in the seventh inning", ". Ishikawa also makes a fine running catch in the top of the seventh, in a position he took up for the first time in late September and had never before played in the Major Leagues, where he has played mostly at first base. With the Giants leading 2–1, the series will now play its next two games at San Francisco.", "At Kauffman Stadium, the Kansas City Royals move within one win of a World Series berth with a 2–1 triumph over the Baltimore Orioles in Game 3 of the ALCS. With his sixth-inning run batted in sacrifice fly, Billy Butler becomes the sixth different Royals player this postseason with a go-ahead RBI in the sixth inning or later", ". Jeremy Guthrie pitches five strong innings of three-hit, one-run ball, and Jason Frasor, Kelvin Herrera, Wade Davis and Greg Holland retire the final 12 Orioles to secure the victory. Frasor is credited with the win, while Holland picks up his third save of the series and fifth overall. The game also features four spectacular defensive plays by Kansas City 3B Mike Moustakas (two), CF Lorenzo Cain and 1B Eric Hosmer", ". The Royals, who scratched their way to the postseason as an 89-win wild-card team, become the first American League team to win seven straight games to start a single postseason. Only two National League teams, the 2007 Colorado Rockies and the 1976 Cincinnati Reds, have accomplished the feat. No team has ever won eight in a row to start a postseason run.", "October 15:", "The Kansas City Royals finish off the Baltimore Orioles in four straight games, sweeping the American League Championship Series with a 2–1 victory at Kauffman Stadium, as they will return to the World Series for the first time in 29 years. Winning pitcher Jason Vargas allows one run and two hits over innings with the tight-fisted bullpen finishing up with scoreless work", ". Kelvin Herrera gets five outs, Wade Davis adds a scoreless eighth, and Greg Holland notches his sixth save of the postseason and fourth of the series, something only Dennis Eckersley (1988 Athletics) and John Wetteland (1996 Yankees) have done in a best-of-seven series. Lorenzo Cain, who hits .533 (8-for-15) and makes several outstanding catches at outfield, earns ALCS Most Valuable Player honors", ". The Royals also become the first team in Major League history to win eight games in a row to start a postseason. The only other teams to win eight straight games at any point in the postseason were the 2004 Red Sox, who rallied from being down 0–3 to beat the Yankees in the ALCS and swept the Cardinals in the World Series, as well as the 2005 White Sox, who lost the first ALCS game to the Angels before winning four straight and then swept the Astros in the World Series", ". The Kansas City club will host the National League champions, either St. Louis or San Francisco, on October 21 at Kauffman Stadium.", "Buster Posey goes 2 for 3 with three RBI and scores a run, helping the San Francisco Giants to a 6–4 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals at AT&T Park in Game 4 of the NLCS. San Francisco erases an early three-run deficit, and takes advantage of back-to-back bad throws by first baseman Matt Adams in the sixth inning which started a Giants three-run rally. San Francisco starting pitcher Ryan Vogelsong lasts just three innings, as he gives up four earned runs on seven hits", ". Nevertheless, Giants manager Bruce Bochy makes good use of his bullpen by using six relievers. Yusmeiro Petit, the winning pitcher, hurls three innings of one-hit, no-run baseball, strikes out four and is credited with the win. Meanwhile, the rest of the bullpen allows only three hits and one walk while striking out three in three scoreless innings. Petit has now faced 32 hitters in this postseason, striking out 11 of them and allowing just two hits and zero runs in nine innings of work", ". Petit's effort recalls his excellence in Game 2 of the NLDS, when he blanked the Washington Nationals for six innings as the Giants won an 18-inning standoff. The 6–4 victory against St. Louis gave San Francisco a 3–1 lead in the best-of-seven series.", "October 16 – At AT&T Park, Travis Ishikawa drills a three-run home run to break a tie in the bottom of the ninth inning and lift the San Francisco Giants to a 6–3 triumph over the St. Louis Cardinals in Game 5 of the NLCS. The Giants reach the World Series for the third time in five years, a matchup against AL champion Kansas City Royals. In the game, Michael Morse authors one of the most dramatic moments in the postseason when he leads off the eighth inning with a pinch-hit homer to erase a 3–2 deficit", ". It is a deeply satisfying triumph for Morse, whose left oblique injury limited him to one game in September and pinch-hitting duty in the postseason. Further, Ishikawa becomes the first player in National League history to hit a walk-off home run in the postseason and the fourth overall player to do so. Three players have homered to end an American League Championship Series: Chris Chambliss (1976 Yankees), Aaron Boone (2003 Yankees) and Magglio Ordóñez (2006 Tigers)", ". Madison Bumgarner, who pitches eight strong innings to keep his team in the game, is named NLCS Most Valuable Player. Bumgarner holds the Cardinals to three runs in eight innings and retires 13 straight batters to end his night in Game 5 after throwing scoreless innings in Game 1. Bumgarner finishes the NLCS with a 1–0 record and a 1.72 ERA in his two starts. Between the wild-card game, the NLDS and NLCS, he has posted a 1", ".72 ERA in his two starts. Between the wild-card game, the NLDS and NLCS, he has posted a 1.42 ERA in four starts and innings this postseason, which includes a complete-game 8–0 shutout over the Pittsburgh Pirates in the wild-card game to get the Giants into the NLDS. The Royals will host the Giants for the first two games of the 2014 World Series, which is slated to begin on October 19.", "World Series", "October 21 – The San Francisco Giants win Game 1 of the World Series over the Kansas City Royals, 7–1, at Kauffman Stadium. A two-run home run by Hunter Pence off James Shields fuels a three-run first inning, while Madison Bumgarner gives up only one run on three hits in seven innings. The Giants win their seventh Series game in a row dating to 2010 and end a perfect postseason for the Royals, who had been 8–0", ". San Francisco also ends the Royals' 11-game postseason winning streak dating to their 1985 World Series title.", "October 22 – The Kansas City Royals even the World Series against the San Francisco Giants at 1–1 with a 7–2 victory over the San Francisco Giants in Game 2. The Royals break a 2–2 tie in the sixth inning by scoring five runs as the Giants use five pitchers in a vain attempt to stop the attack. Billy Butler puts the Royals ahead with a run-scoring single, but the big blows are a two-run double by Salvador Pérez followed by a two-run homer by Omar Infante, both against rookie pitcher Hunter Strickland.", "October 24 – The Kansas City Royals defeat the San Francisco Giants in Game 3 of the World Series at AT&T Park, 3–2, thanks to a notable bullpen performance, as Kelvin Herrera, Brandon Finnegan, Wade Davis and Greg Holland combine for four innings of hitless relief, the longest in a Series game in 22 years. Royals starter Jeremy Guthrie earns the win over Tim Hudson, while Holland is credited with the save.", "October 25 – The San Francisco Giants even the World Series against the Kansas City Royals at 2–2 with an 11–4 win. The Giants score nine runs between the fifth and seventh innings to run away with the game. Yusmeiro Petit is the winning pitcher after another performance in long relief with three scoreless innings, his third such win of the postseason.", "October 26 – The San Francisco Giants take a three-games-to-two lead over the Kansas City Royals in the World Series, with another outstanding pitching performance by Madison Bumgarner, who tosses a four-hit, 5–0, complete-game shutout", ". Bumgarner strikes out eight batters and does not issue a walk, while pitching the first complete-game shutout in any World Series since Josh Beckett of the Florida Marlins at Yankee Stadium in 2003 and the first by a Giants pitcher since Jack Sanford, who hurled one against the Yankees in 1962.", "October 28 – The Kansas City Royals force a seventh game in the World Series by routing the San Francisco Giants at Kauffman Stadium, 10–0, behind the pitching of rookie Yordano Ventura in Game 6. The Royals score seven runs in the second inning to chase starter Jake Peavy, as every starting position player collects at least a hit and either a run scored or a run batted in.", "October 29 – The San Francisco Giants win Game 7 of the World Series over the Kansas City Royals, 3–2, to clinch their third Championship in five years. Appearing for the third time in the Series, Madison Bumgarner pitches the last five innings without giving up a run to earn the save, completing an otherworldly pitching performance that earns him the World Series Most Valuable Player Award.", "October 31 – The Chicago Cubs announce the hiring of Joe Maddon as the team's 54th manager. Maddon replaces Rick Renteria, who had managed the Cubs to a 73–89 record in his only season for the team. Maddon has posted a .517 career winning percentage (781–729), which includes not only his nine seasons with the Tampa Bay Rays but also brief interim stints with the Angels in 1996 and 1999", ". With Maddon at the helm, the Rays won two American League Division titles, made the playoffs four times and claimed the American League pennant in 2008 en route to the 2008 World Series, which they lost to the Philadelphia Phillies. On October 24, Maddon exercised an option out clause in his contract with the Tampa Bay club, which he had managed from 2006 through 2014.", "November", "November 3 – The Minnesota Twins hire Paul Molitor as their new manager, agreeing to a three-year contract for the Hall of Famer. A Saint Paul, Minnesota, native and a University of Minnesota alum, Molitor played for the Twins from 1996 to 1998, his last three Major League seasons. Molitor was part of the Twins' coaching staff in 2014, and he was immediately considered the front runner to replace dismissed manager Ron Gardenhire", ". Previously, Molitor served as a roving Minor League instructor in the Twins' organization for close to a decade and was on former Twins' manager Tom Kelly's coaching staff during three seasons. In 2001, he was an initial candidate to replace the retired Kelly before Minnesota hired Gardenhire.", "November 4 – Terry Francona and the Cleveland Indians agree to a two-year extension through 2018 with club options for both the 2019 and 2020 seasons. Francona's previous four-year contract with the Indians ran through the 2016 season, but the Indians will now have as many as four additional years of control should they choose. Francona joined the Indians in 2013 after eight seasons and two World Series championships with the Boston Red Sox", ". He led Cleveland to a 92-–70 record and a Wild Card playoff berth in his debut campaign, winning the American League Manager of the Year award as well. In 2014, injury-plagued Cleveland was in the wild card hunt until late in the season, finishing third in the AL Central with a solid 85–77 mark. It is the first time since 2001–02 that the Indians have had consecutive winning seasons. In a 14-year managerial career, Francona has posted a 1,206-1,062 record", ". In a 14-year managerial career, Francona has posted a 1,206-1,062 record. He is also fourth in victories among active managers, trailing Bruce Bochy (1,618), Mike Scioscia (1,331) and Buck Showalter (1,259).", "November 6 – The Los Angeles Dodgers announce the hires of General Manager Farhan Zaidi and Senior Vice President/Baseball Operations Josh Byrnes. Zaidi joined the Oakland Athletics as a baseball operations analyst (2005) before holding the title of director of baseball operations (2009–13) with added duties of assistant general manager (2014)", ". Byrnes has been a general manager for parts of eight seasons with the Arizona Diamondbacks (2005–10) and San Diego Padres (2011–14), and also served as assistant general manager for the Colorado Rockies (1999–2002) and the Boston Red Sox (2003–2005). Zaidi and Byrnes will report to Andrew Friedman, the new Dodgers' president of baseball operations, who previously worked for the Tampa Bay Rays (2005–2014), taking the team to six consecutive winning seasons and four playoff appearances (2008–2013)", ". It is a markedly different structure from the previous Dodgers regime, in which general manager Ned Colletti led the department.", "November 10 – Buck Showalter of the Baltimore Orioles and Matt Williams of the Washington Nationals earn the American League Manager of the Year Award in the American League and National League, respectively.\n November 11 – José Abreu of the Chicago White Sox and Jacob deGrom of the New York Mets earn the Rookie of the Year Award in the American League and National League, respectively.", "November 12 – Corey Kluber of the Cleveland Indians and Clayton Kershaw of the Los Angeles Dodgers earn the Cy Young Award in the American League and National League, respectively.\n November 13 – Mike Trout of the Anaheim Angels earns the American League Most Valuable Player Award, while Clayton Kershaw of the Los Angeles Dodgers deservedly wins the National League honor, marking only the 11th time in Major League history that two players from the same market captured the hardware for the same season.", "At age 23, Trout becomes the youngest player to be selected unanimously as well as the fifth-youngest winner of the award. Trout earns all 30 first-place votes after leading the American League with 115 runs, 111 RBI and 338 total bases, while hitting a slash line (BA/OBP/SLG/OPS) of .287/.377/.561/.939 with a career-high 36 home runs", ".287/.377/.561/.939 with a career-high 36 home runs. Trout, who finished second in MVP voting to Miguel Cabrera in both of his first two seasons, joins Mickey Mantle as the only players who finished as MVP runner-up in consecutive seasons before winning in the following season. Mantle finished runner-up in 1960 and 1961 to Roger Maris and then won the award in 1962. Trout is also the first AL MVP to win by unanimous vote since Ken Griffey Jr. in 1997.", "Kershaw is named the Most Valuable Player in the National League, receiving 18 first-place votes, to become the first NL pitcher and the 11th overall to win both MVP and the Cy Young Awards in the same season. Kershaw tops the league in earned run average for the fourth consecutive season, but his 2014 campaign is arguably the best of his career", ". Though limited to just 27 starts by an early-season back injury that caused him to miss more than a month, Kershaw ties a career high with 21 wins while losing a mere three games and leads the majors with a 1.77 earned run average, six complete games and an 0.857 WHIP, helping lead the Dodgers to another NL West title", ".857 WHIP, helping lead the Dodgers to another NL West title. Besides, Kershaw strikes out 239 batters and gives only 31 walks in innings of work, in a brilliant campaign highlighted by his first career no-hitter, an otherwise perfect outing (with 15 strikeouts against the Colorado Rockies on June 18) if not for a throwing error by Hanley Ramírez in the seventh inning.", "November 15 – The Salt River Rafters outlast the Peoria Javelinas, 14–7, to win their fourth Arizona Fall League title and first since 2011. Rafters outfielder Eddie Rosario (Twins), who lost the batting title in his last at-bat of the regular season, goes 4 for 5 with a double, one home run, two runs and two RBI. The Javelinas' Justin O'Conner (Rays), who already had made a name for himself as the best defensive and strongest-armed catcher in the league, belts two homers", ". Other selected players include Scottsdale Scorpions first baseman Greg Bird (Yankees), who is named Joe Black Most Valuable Player, after sharing the league home run title with Surprise Saguaros outfielder Hunter Renfroe (Padres). They each hit six home runs and added a homer apiece in the AFL All-Star Game. Saguaros outfielder Jesse Winker (Reds) wins the batting crown with a .338 average and finishes second both in on-base percentage (.440) and slugging average (.559)", ".338 average and finishes second both in on-base percentage (.440) and slugging average (.559). The most productive overall performance comes from Saguaros first baseman Patrick Kivlehan (Mariners), who tops the league with 22 RBI and hit .280/.387/.473 with four homers to earn Dernell Stenson Award honors.", "November 19 – The Miami Marlins officially announce the signing of Giancarlo Stanton to a record-setting 13-year, $325 million contract that includes a full no-trade clause and an opt-out provision after the sixth season. Stanton agrees to a heavily backloaded contract structure in order to leave the front office with flexibility to add significant pieces in order to contend in the immediate future. Stanton will receive $6.5 million in 2015, $9 million in 2016 and $14", ". Stanton will receive $6.5 million in 2015, $9 million in 2016 and $14.5 million in 2017, a $30 million total over the first three years of the deal, far less than he could have earned through arbitration in 2015 and 2016 and then via free agency. From there, he will take home annual values of $25 million in 2018 and $26 million in 2019 and in 2020", ". Over the first six years of the deal, the 25-year-old slugger will make $107 million and, if he chooses, he could opt out of the contract after 2020, following his age 30 season. If Stanton remains with the Marlins, he would receive a $218 million total over the final seven years of the deal, collecting $29 million in each of the next two years, $32 million annually the following three years, $29 million in 2026, and $25 million in 2027", ". The deal also includes a $25 million club option for 2028, which comes with a $10 million buyout to make up the remainder of the guaranteed value in the deal. Additionally, Stanton will have a complete no-trade clause through the duration of the contract, a first for the Marlins under the ownership of Jeffrey Loria.", "November 20 – MLB Commissioner Bud Selig announce that baseball team owners unanimously approved a five-year term for Rob Manfred, who will succeed the longtime commissioner early next year. Manfred has worked for MLB since 1998, and was chosen to replace Selig in past August over Boston Red Sox chairman Tom Werner. Selig will chair his final owners meeting in January 2015 in Arizona, while Manfred will assume office on the 25th of that month.", "December", "December 8 – The Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum's Golden Era Committee fails to elect any of the 10 candidates from a group whose primary contributions were from 1947 through 1972. Tony Oliva and Dick Allen come the closest, each receiving 11 of 16 votes, one shy of the 75 percent needed for election. Jim Kaat garners 10 votes, followed by Maury Wills with nine and Minnie Miñoso with eight", ". Jim Kaat garners 10 votes, followed by Maury Wills with nine and Minnie Miñoso with eight. The remainder of the candidates, Gil Hodges, Ken Boyer, Billy Pierce and Luis Tiant, as well as the executive Bob Howsam, each receive three or fewer votes in the ballot box.", "Movies\nThe Battered Bastards of Baseball\n\nDeaths", "January\n January 3 – Larry Arndt, 50, backup infielder in two games for the 1989 Oakland Athletics.\n January 4 – Gabe Gabler, 83, pinch hitter in three games for the Chicago Cubs during the 1958 season.\n January 5 – Jerry Coleman, 89, infielder for the New Yankees from 1949 to 1957 and later a Ford C. Frick Award winner for broadcasting, who also had a highly decorated military career for his services in both World War II and the Korean War.", "January 9 – Bill Conlin, 79, sportswriter who worked for the Philadelphia Daily News for 46 years and was a winner of the J. G. Taylor Spink Award.\n January 9 – Luis García, 84, legendary Venezuelan professional baseball player and manager, as well as a member of four Hall of Fame organizations.\n January 11 – Jophery Brown, 68, pitcher for the 1968 Chicago Cubs, who later developed a successful acting career in television and films.", "January 14 – Esther Ann Reeser, 86, outfielder who played for the 1948 Springfield Sallies of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.\n January 20 – Vern Benson, 89, third baseman for the Philadelphia Athletics and St. Louis Cardinals in part of five seasons spanning 1943–1953; coach for 18 seasons spanning 1961 to 1980 for six MLB teams who managed the 1977 Atlanta Braves for one game.", "January 21 – Tim Hosley, 66, backup catcher for the Detroit Tigers, Oakland Athletics and Chicago Cubs in a span of nine seasons from 1970 to 1981.\n January 23 – Charlie Osgood, 87, a 17-year-old right-handed pitcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1944 season.\n January 25 – Bruce Barmes, 84, right fielder for the 1953 Washington Senators, and also a career .318 hitter in 1,439 Minor league games.", "January 26 – Doris Witiuk, 84, Canadian outfielder who played from 1950 to 1951 for the Racine Belles and Battle Creek Belles of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.\n January 28 – Kazuhiko Sakazaki, 76, Japanese outfielder who played from 1956 through 1967 for the Yomiuri Giants and Toei Flyers of the NPB Pacific League.", "February\n February 6 – Ralph Kiner, 91, Hall of Fame slugger and later a longtime popular broadcaster, who led the National League in home runs in seven consecutive seasons from 1946 to 1952, while compiling 369 homers and 1015 RBI during his 10-year career, most prominently for the Pittsburgh Pirates.", "February 6 – Tōru Mori, 78, Japanese outfielder for the Chunichi Dragons, Taiyo Whales and Tokyo Orions of the NPB Pacific League from 1958 through 1968, who later managed the Tokyo Dragons of the Global League in 1969.\n February 11 – Max McLeary, 66, long time umpire in minor and independent league baseball, who is regarded as the only known one-eyed umpire in professional baseball history.", "February 13 – Drew Denson, 48, first baseman for the Atlanta Braves and Chicago White Sox in part of two seasons spanning 1989–1993.\n February 14 – Jim Fregosi, 71, six-time All-Star shortstop for the Los Angeles/California Angels and Gold Glove Award winner, who also managed the Philadelphia Phillies to the 1993 National League pennant.\n February 18 – Al Greene, 59, backup outfielder and designated hitter for the 1979 Detroit Tigers.", "February 18 – Al Greene, 59, backup outfielder and designated hitter for the 1979 Detroit Tigers.\n February 21 – Eddie O'Brien, 83, who played alongside his twin brother Johnny for the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1950s, to become the first twins in Major League Baseball history to play on the same club in the same game.\n February 21 – Héctor Maestri, 78, Cuban pitcher who was one of few ballplayers to ever play for both Washington Senators franchises.", "March\n March 1 – Les Layton, 92, reserve outfielder and pinch-runner for the 1948 New York Giants, who hit a home run in his first MLB at bat, and also spent 11 eleven seasons in the minors as a player/manager.", "March 4 – Chuck Kress, 92, first baseman for the Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers and Brooklyn Dodgers in a career interrupted by World War II, who also was named Most Valuable Player on the Rochester Red Wings club that won the 1952 Governor Cup, and later managed the Erie Sailors to the 1957 New York–Penn League championship and the Des Moines Demons to the 1959 Three-I League pennant.\n March 6 – Frank Jobe, 88, sport medicine doctor who pioneered the eponymous Tommy John surgery.", "March 6 – Frank Jobe, 88, sport medicine doctor who pioneered the eponymous Tommy John surgery.\n March 8 – Bud Bulling, 61, backup catcher for the Minnesota Twins and Seattle Mariners in a span of four seasons from 1977 to 1983.\n March 12 – Art Kenney, 97, pitcher for the 1938 Boston Bees, who also served in the US Army Air Force during World War II.", "March 12 – Jenny Romatowski, 86, All-American Girls Professional Baseball League All-Star catcher/outfielder, as well as a member of several Hall of Fame organizations.\n March 25 – Sonny Ruberto, 68, backup catcher for the San Diego Padres and Cincinnati Reds over parts of two seasons from 1969 to 1972, as well as a Major League coach and Minor league manager in the St. Louis Cardinals organization.", "March 26 – George Lerchen, 91, backup outfielder who played from 1952 through for the Detroit Tigers and Cincinnati Redlegs.\n March 27 – Al Cihocki, 89, middle infielder for the Cleveland Indians in the 1945 season.", "April\n April 7 – Jack Satter, 92, meat-packing executive and purveyor of ballpark hot dogs (such as Yankee Franks and Fenway Franks) who was a limited partner in George Steinbrenner's New York Yankees ownership syndicate from 1978 to 2005.\n April 11 – Bill Henry, 86, All-Star pitcher who played for the Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, San Francisco Giants, Pittsburgh Pirates and Houston Astros in a span of 16 seasons between 1952 and 1969.", "April 11 – Zander Hollander, 91, prolific sportswriter, journalist, editor and archivist.\n April 12 – Hal Smith, 82, All-Star catcher (1957, 1959) for the St. Louis Cardinals (1956–1961) and Pittsburgh Pirates (1965); his playing career truncated by a heart condition, he coached for the Cardinals, Pirates, Cincinnati Reds and Milwaukee Brewers between 1961 and 1977 and then became a longtime scout. \n April 20 – Bill Blair, 92, pitcher who pitched in the Negro leagues from 1946 to 1951.", "April 20 – Bill Blair, 92, pitcher who pitched in the Negro leagues from 1946 to 1951.\n April 23 – Conrado Marrero, 102, All-Star Cuban pitcher for the Washington Senators from 1950 through 1954, who at the time of his death was the oldest living Major League Baseball player.\n April 26 – Bob Powell, 80, utility for the Chicago White Sox from 1955 to 1957, and one of few players who went directly to Major League Baseball.", "May\n May 1 – Mel Clark, 87, outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies in part of five seasons spanning 1951–1955, also a World War II Navy Veteran who served in the Pacific Theater.\n May 2 – George Digby, 96, longtime Boston Red Sox scout who was responsible for the signing of Wade Boggs, Mike Greenwell and Jody Reed, among many others.", "May 6 – Billy Harrell, 85, backup infielder for the Cleveland Indians and Boston Red Sox during four seasons between 1955 and 1961, and also the first Siena Saints basketball player to have his jersey number (#10) retired by the school.\n May 7 – Dick Welteroth, 86, pitcher who played from 1948 through 1950 for the Washington Senators.\n May 8 – Leo Marentette, 73, relief pitcher who played briefly with the Detroit Tigers in 1965 and the Montréal Expos in 1969.", "May 8 – Charlie Mead, 93, Canadian outfielder who played for the New York Giants in three seasons spanning 1943–1945, one of many players responsible for keeping baseball alive during World War II.\n May 11 – Thelma Eisen, 92, All-Star center fielder and manager who was one of the top players in the early years of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.", "May 11 – Guy Morton Jr., 83, pinch hitter for the Boston Red Sox during the 1954 season, who also had a long career as a catcher in the minor leagues.\n May 21 – Johnny Gray, 87, pitcher for four different teams in a span of four seasons from 1954 to 1958, and one of few players to be part of the Athletics in their final season in Philadelphia and their first season in Kansas City.", "May 23 – Andy Olsen, 83, National League umpire from 1968 to 1980 who worked 3 League Championship Series, the 1976 All-Star Game, and the 1974 World Series.\n May 26 – Mike Gordon, 60, backup catcher for the Chicago Cubs in the 1977 and 1978 seasons.\n May 27 – Roberto Vargas, 85, Puerto Rican pitcher who played briefly for the Milwaukee Braves in 1955, and a long time pitcher in the Negro leagues, Mexican baseball and Minor league circuits.", "May 31 – Jack Dittmer, 86, a nine-time letter winner in baseball, football and basketball and member of the first team All-Big Ten, who later played from 1952 through 1956 with the Boston Braves and the Milwaukee Braves and for the Detroit Tigers in 1957.", "June\n June 4 – Don Zimmer, 83, Major League Baseball legend who spent 66 years as a manager, player, coach and executive.\n June 8 – Jean Geissinger, 79, All-Star centerfielder and one of the most prolific sluggers in All-American Girls Professional Baseball League history.\n June 8 – Billy McCool, 69, All-Star relief pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds and St. Louis Cardinals, and also a member of the San Diego Padres in their inaugural season of 1969.", "June 9 – Bob Welch, 57, two-time All-Star pitcher for the Los Angeles Dodgers and Oakland Athletics during 17 seasons from 1978 to 1994, who won the AL Cy Young Award in 1990, while posting a career record of 211–146 with a 3.47 ERA and 1,969 strikeouts in 3,092 innings.\n June 12 – Willie Sheelor, 86, Negro league baseball player in the 1940s and 1950s.\n June 13 – Mark Ballinger, 65, relief pitcher for the 1971 Cleveland Indians, who also spent 12 seasons in the minors between 1967 and 1979.", "June 13 – Joe Pittman, 61, backup infielder for the Houston Astros, San Diego Padres and San Francisco Giants in part of three seasons spanning 1981–1984, who also coached in the minors and served as an scout for the Astros organization.\n June 16 – Tony Gwynn, 54, 15-time All-Star outfielder who posted a .338 batting average, banged out 3,141 hits, and won eight National League batting titles during a Hall of Fame career spanning 20 seasons from 1982 to 2001 for the San Diego Padres.", "June 19 – Bill Renna, 89, three-sport outstanding athlete at Santa Clara University before joining the New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox and the Philadelphia and Kansas City Athletics clubs during six seasons between 1953 and 1959, who led American League right fielders with five double plays in 1954, while tying for third overall among all outfielders behind Cleveland Indians' Larry Doby and Baltimore Orioles' Chuck Diering (six apiece).", "June 28 – Jim Brosnan, 84, pitcher who posted a 55–44 record with a 3.54 ERA and 67 saves for five teams in a span of nine seasons between 1954 and 1963, and member of the 1961 NL champion Cincinnati Reds; a talented writer, he authored two acclaimed, groundbreaking memoirs during his pitching career, The Long Season (1959) and Pennant Race (1961).", "June 30 – Frank Cashen, 88, general manager widely considered to be the architect of the World Champion 1986 New York Mets and also an executive for the Baltimore Orioles when they won the World Series titles in 1966 and 1970.", "June 30 – Bobby Castillo, 59, pitcher for three clubs in nine seasons from 1977 to 1985 and a member of the Los Angeles Dodgers' 1981 World Series championship team, who is regarded as the man who taught Fernando Valenzuela the screwball pitch, helping put into motion one of the most memorable periods in Los Angeles Dodgers' history.", "July\n July 4 – Earl Robinson, 77, backup outfielder and third baseman for the Los Angeles Dodgers and Baltimore Orioles in part of four seasons from 1958 to 1964, as well as a member of the Cal Athletic Hall of Fame who starred in both basketball and baseball for the California Golden Bears in the 1950s.", "July 8 – John Hoover, 51, pitcher for the 1990 Texas Rangers and previously a member of the U.S. Olympic team, arguably the best pitcher in Fresno State Bulldogs history in a career that spanned from 1981 through 1984, while setting three career records and three Bulldogs single-season records, highlighted by his NCAA record of 42 career complete games and 19 complete games in a season, including 44 wins and 494 innings pitched in a career, and single-season marks of 18 wins and 205 strikeouts.", "July 8 – Tom Veryzer, 61, shortstop for four teams over his 12 seasons in the majors from 1973 to 1984; the Detroit Tigers first-round draft pick in 1971, as well as the team's starting shortstop who replaced Ed Brinkman and preceded Alan Trammell, whose two-out double in the ninth inning spoiled a no-hit bid by Ken Holtzman of the Oakland Athletics in 1975.", "July 9 – Don Lenhardt, 91, left fielder and first baseman for the St. Louis Browns, Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers and Baltimore Orioles from 1950 to 1954, who later spent over four decades as a Red Sox scout and also was the team's first base coach from 1970 to 1973 under manager Eddie Kasko.", "July 10 – Gloria Schweigerdt, 80, pitcher for the Chicago Colleens, Grand Rapids Chicks, and Battle Creek Belles of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League from 1950 to 1952, who in 1950 became the first woman to pitch an exhibition game at the old Yankee Stadium.\n July 12 – Bill Koski, 82, a 19-year-old pitcher for the 1951 Pittsburgh Pirates, and one of the many promising young players whose career was interrupted by army service in Korean War.", "July 19 – John Winkin, 94, National College Baseball Hall of Fame coach who guided the University of Maine Black Bears baseball team to six College World Series berths in an 11-year span from 1976 to 1986.\n July 22 – Elma Steck, 91, outfielder who played from 1948 through 1949 for the Peoria Redwings, Rockford Peaches and Chicago Colleens of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, also a World War II veteran and PhD in physical education and sports sciences.", "July 25 – Art Schult, 86, outfielder and first baseman who played parts of five seasons with four different teams, and a member of the 1953 New York Yankees World Series Champions.\n July 27 – George Freese, 87, third baseman for the Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates and Chicago Cubs in a span of three seasons between 1953 and 1961, who later became a member of the Cubs coaching staff from 1964 to 1965 and a Minor League manager for Class A Bakersfield Dodgers in 1973 and 1974.", "July 30 – Dave Bakenhaster, 69, relief pitcher for the 1964 St. Louis Cardinals, who two years later was the starter for the St. Petersburg Cardinals of the Florida State League in a game against the Miami Marlins that turned out to be the longest uninterrupted game ever played in organized baseball history; a 29-inning, 4–3 victory for the Marlins, with the contest having lasted until the early hours the next day", ". The longest game in professional baseball history faced the Pawtucket Red Sox and Rochester Red Wings of the International League and lasted for 33 innings, but 32 innings were played on April 18/19, 1981, and the final 33rd inning was played on June 23, 1981, as the Red Sox claimed a 3–2 victory.", "August\n August 2 – Pete van Wieren, 69, who spent 33 years in the broadcast booth for the Atlanta Braves, many of them when the club was beamed out across the country on TBS.", "August 8 – Red Wilson, 85, University of Wisconsin legend football and baseball star, who later became a valuable second string catcher with the Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers and Cleveland in 10 seasons from 1951 to 1960, while serving as a backup for Sherman Lollar, Frank House, Lou Berberet and John Romano, and as the primary catcher for Tigers pitcher Frank Lary.\n August 9 – Yasuyuki Nakai, 60, Japanese outfielder who played from 1979 through 1984 for the NPL Yomiuri Giants.", "August 10 – Jim Command, 85, third baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies in parts of two seasons from 1954 to 1955, who after going hitless as a pinch hitter in his first three games, belted a grand slam off Brooklyn Dodgers pitcher Carl Erskine at Ebbets Field.\n August 10 – Bob Wiesler, 83, pitcher who played for the New York Yankees and Washington Senators in parts of five seasons spanning 1951–1958.", "August 12 – Gordon Mackenzie, 77, longtime manager in the Minor Leagues, as well as a coach and scout for several Major League organizations, who managed the Kinston Indians to the 1995 Carolina League title and had a short stint in the majors as a catcher with the Kansas City Athletics in 1961.\n August 15 – Jerry Lumpe, 81, second baseman who played from 1956 through 1967 for the New York Yankees, Kansas City Athletics and Detroit Tigers, and a member of the 1964 American League All-Star Team.", "August 17 – Dick Teed, 88, pinch-hitter for the 1953 Brooklyn Dodgers, who also spent 20 seasons in the Minor Leagues as a catcher, coach and manager.\n August 19 – Jackie Mayo, 89, played for the Philadelphia Phillies between 1948 and 1953.", "August 19 – Jackie Mayo, 89, played for the Philadelphia Phillies between 1948 and 1953.\n August 22 – Noella Leduc, 80, pitcher and backup outfielder for four different teams in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League from 1951 through 1954, who hurled and won a 14-inning complete game in her rookie season, and also was the winning pitcher in the AAGPBL's last ever All-Star game.", "August 22 – Amy Shuman, 89, infielder who played for the 1946 South Bend Blue Sox of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.", "September\n September 1 – Roger McKee, 87, who at the age of 17 years and a rookie pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates on October 3, 1943, at Forbes Field, to become the youngest 20th century pitcher to throw a nine-inning complete-game victory on the final day of the regular season, a Major League record that's still unbroken today.", "September 8 – George Zuverink, 90, relief pitcher for the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers and Baltimore Orioles in eight seasons spanning 1951–1959, who posted a 32–36 record with a 3.54 ERA and 40 saves in 265 pitching appearances, while leading the American League for the most saves in 1956, and in games finished in 1956 and 1957.", "September 10 – Grant Dunlap, 90, outfielder for the 1953 St. Louis Cardinals, and one of several players that saw their careers shortened or interrupted to serve in the military during and after World War II.\n September 10 – George Spencer, 88, relief pitcher who spent seven seasons with the New York Giants and Detroit Tigers between 1950 and 1960.", "September 13 – Helen Filarski, 90, All-American Girls Professional Baseball League infielder who played with four different teams from 1945 through 1950, whose career included a season best fielding average award at third base, four postseason appearances, and a championship title with the Rockford Peaches in 1945.", "September 13 – Frank Torre, 82, slugging first baseman that played during his seven-year Major League tenure on the Boston and Milwaukee Braves teams and the Philadelphia Phillies, who is known for playing a big role in the Braves bringing the 1957 World Series championship to Milwaukee, and mentoring his younger brother Joe Torre.", "September 27 – Earl Smith, 86, a two-sport star at Fresno State College, who shined most as a slugging outfielder for the Bulldogs and also had a brief stint with the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1955, while hitting a .299 average over eight Minor League seasons, including a stellar 1954 campaign with the Phoenix Stars, when he hit .387 with 32 home runs and a league-leading 195 RBI to help the team win the Arizona–Texas League pennant.", "September 29 – George Shuba, 89, outfielder and a member of the 1955 World Series champion Brooklyn Dodgers, who hit the first pinch-hit home run in World Series history, but is better known for offering a congratulatory handshake to Montreal Royals teammate Jackie Robinson after hitting his first career home run against the Jersey City Giants on Opening Day in 1946", ", which was captured in a famous photograph dubbed A Handshake for the Century for featuring the first interracial handshake in a professional baseball game", ".", "October\n October 1 – José Martínez, 72, Cuban-American former player, manager, coach and scout for nearly five decades, who had just completed his 20th season as a front office assistant in the Atlanta Braves organization.\n October 6 – Bill Campbell, 91, play-by-play broadcaster for the Philadelphia Phillies from 1963 to 1970.\n October 18 – Lou Lucier, 96, pitcher who played from 1943 through 1945 for the Boston Red Sox and the Philadelphia Phillies, as well as the oldest surviving former Red Sox player.", "October 19 – Frank Barnes, 88, pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals in three seasons spanning 1957–1960, who also pitched in the Negro leagues, Minor Leagues, Mexican League and Venezuelan Winter League during 21 seasons between 1947 and 1967.\n October 19 – Ed Keegan, 75, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Phillies and Kansas City Athletics in parts of three seasons spanning 1959–1962.\n October 20 – Jim Dunegan, 67, pitcher who pitched for the Chicago Cubs during the 1970 season.", "October 20 – Jim Dunegan, 67, pitcher who pitched for the Chicago Cubs during the 1970 season.\n October 23 – John Bramlett, 73, All-Star line backer who played from 1965 through 1971 in the American Football League and the National Football League, also a third baseman and outfielder in the St. Louis Cardinals Minor League system from 1963 to 1964.\n October 24 – Pat McGlothin, 94, pitcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers during the 1949 and 1950 seasons.", "October 24 – Pat McGlothin, 94, pitcher for the Brooklyn Dodgers during the 1949 and 1950 seasons.\n October 26 – Jeff Robinson, 52, pitcher who played from 1987 through 1992 for the Baltimore Orioles, Pittsburgh Pirates, Texas Rangers and Detroit Tigers.\n October 26 – Oscar Taveras, 22, outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals and one of the top prospects of the past several seasons, who died from injuries sustained in a car accident in his native Dominican Republic.", "October 31 – Brad Halsey, 33, pitcher who played from 2004 to 2006 for the New York Yankees, Arizona Diamondbacks and Oakland Athletics, who was the starter in the game that Derek Jeter made his signature catch against the Boston Red Sox at Yankee Stadium in 2004.", "November\n November 1 – Jean-Pierre Roy, 94, French-Canadian pitcher for the 1946 Brooklyn Dodgers, whose 16-year career included playing 12 Minor League seasons in United States, Canada and Mexico, along with eight winter ball tournaments in Cuba, Panama and the Dominican Republic.", "November 2 – Mary Froning, 80, outfielder who played from 1951 through 1954 for the Battle Creek Belles and the South Bend Blue Sox of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, winning championship titles with South Bend in 1951 and 1952.", "November 7 – Allen Ripley, 62, pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, San Francisco Giants and Chicago Cubs in five seasons from 1978 to 1992, whose best season came in 1977 with the Red Sox Triple A affiliate in Pawtucket, when he won 15 games and posted a 1.40 ERA, including eight consecutive wins and the highest winning percentage (.789), setting team single season records which still stand today.", "November 7 – Jack Paepke, 92, coach for the Los Angeles/California Angels from 1961, their maiden season, through 1966, then a scout; former minor league pitcher/catcher and manager; father of Dennis Paepke.\n November 9 – Kelvin Moore, 57, first baseman who played parts of three seasons for the Oakland Athletics from 1981 to 1983, and also a member of the A's 1981 American League West champion team.", "November 11 – Mary Lou Studnicka, 83, pitcher who played for the Grand Rapids Chicks of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League from 1951 to 1953, helping her team reach three playoffs and the 1953 league title.", "November 13 – Alvin Dark, 92, 1948 National League Rookie of the Year for the Boston Braves and three-time NL All-Star shortstop for the New York Giants, who hit .417 for the 1954 Giants' World Series champions; later managed the San Francisco Giants to the 1962 NL pennant and the Oakland Athletics to the 1974 World Series title; also managed the 1966–1967 Kansas City Athletics, 1968–1971 Cleveland Indians (serving concurrently as general manager from 1969), and 1977 San Diego Padres.", "November 16 – Whammy Douglas, 79, pitcher for the 1957 Pittsburgh Pirates, who was able to forge a professional baseball career despite being blind in one eye.\n November 17 – Ray Sadecki, 73, pitcher for five Major League clubs in an 18-year career, who posted a 20–11 record in 1964 for the St. Louis Cardinals en route to the National League pennant, and later defeated Whitey Ford and the New York Yankees in the 1964 World Series opener, as the Cardinals went on to a seventh-game triumph.", "November 22 – Don Grate, 91, pitcher who played from 1944 to 1945 for the Philadelphia Phillies.\n November 22 – Art Quirk, 76, pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles and Washington Senators in the 1962 and 1963 seasons.\n November 29 – Dick Bresciani, 76, longtime Boston Red Sox head of public relations and club historian.", "December\n December 5 – Rod Graber, 84, outfielder who played briefly for the Cleveland Indians during the 1958 season.\n December 8 – Buddy Hicks, 87, infielder who played briefly for the 1956 Detroit Tigers.\n December 8 – Russ Kemmerer, 83, whose career spanned a total of 10 years from 1954 to 1963, while pitching for the Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, Chicago White Sox, and Houston Colt .45s.", "December 10 – Alice Hoover, 86, infielder who played for the 1948 Fort Wayne Daisies of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League.\n December 12 – Herb Plews, 86, utility infielder for the Washington Senators and Boston Red Sox in a span of four seasons from 1956 to 1959, who was used almost exclusively as a pinch-hitter or late-inning defensive replacement.", "December 14 – Sy Berger, 91, promoter of the Topps Chewing Gum Company for over 50 years, who is credited as being the father of the modern-day baseball trading card.\n December 14 – Ryan Bolden, 23, a 2010 MLB Draft first-round pick outfielder, who played four seasons in the Los Angeles Angels' minor league system before being shot and killed in an incident that began with children fighting over candy.", "December 26 – Joe Macko, 86, 306-homerun hitter and manager in the Minor Leagues, who later developed a long career as a clubhouse manager for the Texas Rangers.\nDecember 27 – Hank Presswood, 93, Negro leagues infielder who played for the Cleveland Buckeyes and Kansas City Monarchs over five seasons spanning 1948–1953.\n December 29 – Bob Usher, 89, backup outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Cubs and Washington Senators in a span of six seasons between 1946 and 1957.", "References\n\nExternal links\n 2014 MLB Schedule\n Baseball Almanac – Major League Baseball Players Who Died in 2014" ]

[ "Toledot, Toldot, Toldos, or Toldoth (—Hebrew for \"generations\" or \"descendants,\" the second word and the first distinctive word in the parashah) is the sixth weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. The parashah tells of the conflict between Jacob and Esau, Isaac's passing off his wife Rebekah as his sister, and Isaac's blessing of his sons.", "It constitutes Genesis 25:19–28:9. The parashah is made up of 5,426 Hebrew letters, 1,432 Hebrew words, 106 verses, and 173 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah). Jews read it the sixth Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in November, or rarely in early December.", "Readings", "In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot. In the Masoretic Text of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Parashat Toledot has two \"open portion\" (, petuchah) divisions (roughly equivalent to paragraphs, often abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (peh)). Parashat Toledot has three \"closed portion\" (, setumah) divisions (abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (samekh)), that further divide the second open portion. The first open portion divides the first reading", ". The first open portion divides the first reading. The second open portion spans the balance of the parashah. Two closed portion divisions further divide the fifth reading, setting apart the discussion of Esau's marriage to the two Hittite women.", "First reading—Genesis 25:19–26:5", "In the first reading, Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah, and when the couple proved unable to conceive, Isaac pleaded with God on Rebekah's behalf, and God allowed Rebekah to conceive. As twins struggled in her womb, she inquired of God, who answered her that two separate nations were in her womb, one mightier than the other, and the older would serve the younger", ". When Rebekah gave birth, the first twin emerged red and hairy, so they named him Esau, and his brother emerged holding Esau's heel, so they named him Jacob. Isaac was 60 years old when they were born. Esau became a skillful hunter and outdoorsman, but Jacob remained a mild man and camp-bound. Isaac favored Esau for his game, but Rebekah favored Jacob. Once when Jacob was cooking, Esau returned to the camp famished and demanded some of Jacob's red stew", ". Jacob demanded that Esau first sell him his birthright, and Esau did so with an oath, spurning his birthright. The first open portion ends here with the end of chapter 25.", "As the reading continues in chapter 26, another famine struck the land, and Isaac went to the house of the Philistine King Abimelech in Gerar. God told Isaac not to go down to Egypt, but to stay in the land that God would show him, for God would remain with him, bless him, and assign the land to him and his numerous heirs, as God had sworn to Abraham, who had obeyed God and kept God's commandments. The first reading ends here.", "Second reading—Genesis 26:6–12", "In the second reading, Isaac settled in Gerar, and when the men of Gerar asked Isaac about his beautiful wife, he said that she was his sister out of fear that the men might kill him on account of her. But looking out of the window, Abimelech saw Isaac fondling Rebekah, and Abimelech summoned Isaac to complain that Isaac had called her his sister. Isaac explained that he had done so to save his life", ". Isaac explained that he had done so to save his life. Abimelech complained that one of the people might have lain with her, and Isaac would have brought guilt upon the Philistines, and Abimelech charged the people not to molest Isaac or Rebekah, on pain of death. God blessed Isaac, who reaped bountiful harvests. The second reading ends here.", "Third reading—Genesis 26:13–22", "In the third reading, Isaac grew very wealthy, to the envy of the Philistines. The Philistines stopped up all the wells that Abraham's servants had dug, and Abimelech sent Isaac away, for his household had become too big. So Isaac left to settle in the wadi of Gerar, where he dug anew the wells that Abraham's servants had dug and called them by the same names that his father had", ". But when Isaac's servants dug two new wells, the herdsmen of Gerar quarreled with Isaac's herdsmen and claimed them for their own, so Isaac named those wells Esek and Sitnah. Isaac moved on and dug a third well, and they did not quarrel over it, so he named it Rehoboth. The third reading ends here.", "Fourth reading—Genesis 26:23–29", "In the fourth reading, Isaac went to Beersheba, and that night God appeared to Isaac, telling Isaac not to fear, for God was with him, and would bless him and increase his offspring for Abraham's sake. So Isaac built an altar and invoked the Lord by name. And Isaac pitched his tent there and his servants began digging a well. Then Abimelech, Ahuzzath his councilor, and Phicol his general came to Isaac, and Isaac asked them why they had come, since they had driven Isaac away", ". They answered that they now recognized that God had been with Isaac, and sought a treaty that neither would harm the other. The fourth reading ends here.", "Fifth reading—Genesis 26:30–27:27\nIn the fifth reading, Isaac threw a feast for the Philistines, and the next morning, they exchanged oaths and the Philistines departed from him in peace. Later in the day, Isaac's servants told him that they had found water, and Isaac named the well Shibah, so that place became known as Beersheba. A closed portion ends here.", "In the continuation of the reading, when Esau was 40 years old, he married two Hittite women, Judith and Basemath, causing bitterness for Isaac and Rebekah. Another closed portion ends here with the end of chapter 26.", "As the reading continues in chapter 27,", "when Isaac was old and his sight had dimmed, he called Esau and asked him to hunt some game and prepare a dish, so that Isaac might give him his innermost blessing before he died. Rebekah had been listening, and when Esau departed, she instructed Jacob to fetch her two choice kids so that she might prepare a dish that Jacob could take to Isaac and receive his blessing. Jacob complained to Rebekah that since Esau was hairy, Isaac might touch him, discover him to be a trickster, and curse him", ". But Rebekah called the curse upon herself, insisting that Jacob do as she directed. So Jacob got the kids, and Rebekah prepared a dish, had Jacob put on Esau's best clothes, and covered Jacob's hands and neck with the kid's skins. When Jacob went to Isaac, he asked which of his sons had arrived, and Jacob said that he was Esau and asked for Isaac's blessing. Isaac asked him how he had succeeded so quickly, and he said that God had granted him good fortune", ". Isaac asked him how he had succeeded so quickly, and he said that God had granted him good fortune. Isaac asked Jacob to come closer that Isaac might feel him to determine whether he was really Esau. Isaac felt him and wondered that the voice was Jacob's, but the hands were Esau's. Isaac questioned if it was really Esau, and when Jacob assured him, Isaac asked for the game and Jacob served him the kids and wine", ". Isaac bade his son to come close and kiss him, and Isaac smelled his clothes, remarking that he smelled like the fields. The fifth reading ends here.", "Sixth reading—Genesis 27:28–28:4", "In the sixth reading, Isaac blessed Jacob, asking God to give him abundance, make peoples serve him, make him master over his brothers, curse those who cursed him, and bless those who blessed him. Just as Jacob left, Esau returned from the hunt, prepared a dish for Isaac, and asked Isaac for his blessing. Isaac asked who he was, and Esau said that it was he. Isaac trembled and asked who it was then who had served him, received his blessing, and now must remain blessed", ". Esau burst into sobbing, and asked Isaac to bless him too, but Isaac answered that Jacob had taken Esau's blessing with guile. Esau asked whether Jacob had been so named that he might supplant Esau twice, first taking his birthright and now his blessing. Esau asked Isaac whether he had not reserved a blessing for Esau, but Isaac answered that he had made Jacob master over him and sustained him with grain and wine, and asked what, then, he could still do for Esau", ". Esau wept and pressed Isaac to bless him, too, so Isaac blessed him to enjoy the fat of the earth and the dew of heaven, to live by his sword and to serve his brother, but also to break his yoke. Esau harbored a grudge against Jacob, and told himself that he would kill Jacob upon Isaac's death", ". Esau harbored a grudge against Jacob, and told himself that he would kill Jacob upon Isaac's death. When Esau's words reached Rebekah, she told Jacob to flee to Haran and her brother Laban and remain there until Esau's fury subsided and Rebekah fetched him from there, so that Rebekah would not lose both sons in one day", ". Rebekah told Isaac her disgust with the idea that Jacob might marry a Hittite woman, so Isaac sent for Jacob, blessed him, and instructed him not to take a Canaanite wife, but to go to Padan-aram and the house of Bethuel to take a wife from among Laban's daughters. And Isaac blessed Jacob with fertility and the blessing of Abraham, that he might possess the land that God had assigned to Abraham. The sixth reading ends here.", "Seventh reading—Genesis 28:5–9\nIn the seventh reading, when Esau saw that Isaac had blessed Jacob and charged him not to take a Canaanite wife, Esau realized that the Canaanite women displeased Isaac, and Esau married Ishmael's daughter Mahalath. The seventh reading, a closed portion, the closing maftir () reading of Genesis 28:7–9, and the parashah all end here.", "Readings according to the triennial cycle\nJews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:\n\nIn inner-biblical interpretation\nThe parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:", "Genesis chapter 25\nGenesis 25:26 reports that Rebekah \"went to inquire (, lidrosh) of the Lord.\" 1 Samuel 9:9 explains, \"Formerly in Israel, when a man went to inquire (, lidrosh) of God, he said: 'Come and let us go to the seer'; for he who is now called a prophet was formerly called a seer.\"\n\nHosea taught that God once punished Jacob for his conduct, requiting him for his deeds, including that (as reported in Genesis 25:26) in the womb he tried to supplant his brother.", "Genesis chapter 26", "In Genesis 26:4, God reminded Isaac that God had promised Abraham that God would make his heirs as numerous as the stars. In Genesis 15:5, God promised that Abraham's descendants would as numerous as the stars of heaven. Similarly, in Genesis 22:17, God promised that Abraham's descendants would as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on the seashore. In Genesis 32:13, Jacob reminded God that God had promised that Jacob's descendants would be as numerous as the sands", ". In Exodus 32:13, Moses reminded God that God had promised to make the Patriarch's descendants as numerous as the stars. In Deuteronomy 1:10, Moses reported that God had multiplied the Israelites until they were then as numerous as the stars. In Deuteronomy 10:22, Moses reported that God had made the Israelites as numerous as the stars. And Deuteronomy 28:62 foretold that the Israelites would be reduced in number after having been as numerous as the stars.", "God's reference to Abraham as \"my servant\" (, avdi) in Genesis 26:24 is echoed in God's application of the same term to Moses, Caleb, David, Isaiah, Eliakim the son of Hilkiah, Israel, Nebuchadnezzar, Zerubbabel, the Branch, and Job.", "Genesis chapter 27–28", "In Genesis 27–28, Jacob receives three blessings: (1) by Isaac when Jacob is disguised as Esau in Genesis 27:28–29, (2) by Isaac when Jacob is departing for Haran in Genesis 28:3–4, and (3) by God in Jacob's dream at Bethel in Genesis 28:13–15. Whereas the first blessing is one of material wellbeing and dominance, only the second and third blessings convey fertility and the Land of Israel", ". The first and the third blessings explicitly designate Jacob as the conveyor of blessing, although arguably the second blessing does that as well by giving Jacob \"the blessing of Abraham.\" (See Genesis 12:2–3.) Only the third blessing vouchsafes God's Presence with Jacob.", "In classical rabbinic interpretation\nThe parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:\n\nGenesis chapter 25\nRabbi Judah taught that Rebekah was barren for 20 years. After 20 years, Isaac took Rebekah to Mount Moriah, to the place where he had been bound, and he prayed on her behalf concerning conception, and God was entreated, as Genesis 25:21 says, \"And Isaac entreated the Lord.\"", "Rava argued that one may deduce from Isaac's example that a man may remain for 20 years with an infertile wife. For of Isaac, Genesis 25:20 says, \"And Isaac was 40 years old when he took Rebekah . . . to be his wife,\" and Genesis 25:26 says, \"And Isaac was 60 years old when she bore them\" (which shows that Isaac waited 20 years). Rav Nachman replied that Isaac was infertile (and he knew that the couple was childless because of him)", ". Rabbi Isaac deduced that Isaac was infertile from Genesis 25:21, which says, \"And Isaac entreated the Lord opposite his wife.\" Rabbi Isaac taught that Genesis 25:21 does not say \"for his wife\" but \"opposite his wife.\" Rabbi Isaac deduced from this that both were barren (as he had to pray for himself as well as her)", ". The Gemara countered that if this were so, then Genesis 25:21 should not read, \"And the Lord let Himself be entreated by him,\" but rather should read, \"And the Lord let Himself be entreated by them\" (as Isaac's prayer was on behalf of them both)", ". But the Gemara explained that Genesis 25:21 reads, \"And the Lord let Himself be entreated by him,\" because the prayer of a righteous person who is the child of a righteous person (Isaac son of Abraham) is even more effective than the prayer of a righteous person who is the child of a wicked person (Rebekah daughter of Bethuel). Rabbi Isaac taught that the Patriarchs and Matriarchs were infertile because God longs to hear the prayer of the righteous.", "Noting that the three-letter root used in Genesis 25:21 can mean either \"entreat\" or \"pitchfork,\" Rabbi Eleazar (or others say Rabbi Isaac or Resh Lakish) taught that the prayers of the righteous are like a pitchfork. Just as the pitchfork turns the grain from place to place in the barn, so the prayers of the righteous turn the mind of God from the attribute of harshness to that of mercy.", "Rabbi Joḥanan interpreted the words \"And Isaac entreated (, vaye'tar) the Lord\" in Genesis 25:21 to mean that Isaac poured out petitions in abundance (as in Aramaic, , 'tar, means \"wealth\"). The Midrash taught that the words \"for (, lenokhach) his wife\" taught that Isaac prostrated himself in one spot and Rebekah in another (opposite him), and he prayed to God that all the children whom God would grant him would come from this righteous woman, and Rebekah prayed likewise", ". Reading the words, \"Because she was barren,\" in Genesis 25:21, Rabbi Judan said in the name of Resh Lakish that Rebekah lacked an ovary, whereupon God fashioned one for her. And reading the words, \"And the Lord let Himself be entreated (, vayei'ater) of him,\" in Genesis 25:21, Rabbi Levi compared this to the son of a king who was digging through to his father to receive a pound of gold from him, and thus the king dug from inside while his son dug from outside.", "The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana taught that Rebekah was one of seven barren women about whom Psalm 113:9 says (speaking of God), \"He . . . makes the barren woman to dwell in her house as a joyful mother of children.\" The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana also listed Sarah, Rachel, Leah, Manoah's wife, Hannah, and Zion. The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana taught that the words of Psalm 113:9, \"He . .", ". The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana taught that the words of Psalm 113:9, \"He . . . makes the barren woman to dwell in her house,\" apply to Rebekah, for Genesis 25:21 reports that \"Isaac entreated the Lord for his wife, because she was barren.\" And the words of Psalm 113:9, \"a joyful mother of children,\" apply to Rebekah, as well, for Genesis 25:21 also reports that \"the Lord let Himself be entreated of him, and Rebekah his wife conceived.\"", "Rabbi Berekiah and Rabbi Levi in the name of Rabbi Ḥama ben Ḥaninah taught that God answered Isaac's prayer for children in Genesis 25:21, rather than the prayer of Rebekah's family in Genesis 24:60. Rabbi Berekiah in Rabbi Levi's name read Job 29:13 to say, \"The blessing of the destroyer (, oved) came upon me,\" and interpreted \"The blessing of the destroyer (, oved)\" to allude to Laban the Syrian", ". Rabbi Berekiah in Rabbi Levi's name thus read Deuteronomy 26:5 to say, \"An Aramean (Laban) sought to destroy (, oved) my father (Jacob).\" (Thus Laban sought to destroy Jacob by, perhaps among other things, cheating Jacob out of payment for his work, as Jacob recounted in Genesis 31:40–42. This interpretation thus reads , oved, as a transitive verb", ". This interpretation thus reads , oved, as a transitive verb.) Rabbi Berekiah and Rabbi Levi in the name of Rabbi Ḥama ben Ḥaninah thus explained that Rebekah was remembered with the blessing of children only after Isaac prayed for her, so that the heathens in Rebekah's family might not say that their prayer in Genesis 24:60 caused that result. Rather, God answered Isaac's prayer, as Genesis 25:21 reports, \"And Isaac entreated the Lord for his wife . . . and his wife Rebekah conceived.\"", "It was taught in Rabbi Nehemiah's name that Rebekah merited that the twelve tribes should spring directly from her.\n\nReading the words of Genesis 25:22, \"and the children struggled together with in her,\" a Midrash taught that they sought to run within her. When she stood near synagogues or schools, Jacob struggled to come out, while when she passed idolatrous temples, Esau struggled to come out.", "Reading the words, \"and she went to inquire of the Lord,\" in Genesis 25:22, a Midrash wondered how Rebekah asked God about her pregnancy, and whether there were synagogues and houses of study in those days. The Midrash concluded that Rebekah went to the school of Shem and Eber to inquire. The Midrash deduced that this teaches that to visit a Sage is like visiting the Divine Presence.", "Reading Genesis 25:23, \"the Lord said to her,\" Rabbi Iddi taught that God spoke to her through the medium of an angel. Rabbi Ba bar Kahana said that God’s word came to her through an intermediary. Rabbi Haggai said in Rabbi Isaac's name that Rebekah was a prophet, as were all of the matriarchs.", "The Rabbis of the Talmud read Edom to stand for Rome. Thus, Rav Nahman bar Isaac interpreted the words, \"and the one people shall be stronger than the other people,\" in Genesis 25:23 to teach that at any one time, one of Israel and Rome will be ascendant, and the other will be subjugated.", "Reading the words, \"And Esau was a cunning hunter,\" in Genesis 25:27, a Midrash taught that Esau ensnared people by their words. Reading the words, \"and Jacob was a quiet man, dwelling in tents,\" the Midrash taught that Jacob dwelt in two tents, the academy of Shem and the academy of Eber. And reading the words, \"And Rebekah loved Jacob,\" in Genesis 25:28, the Midrash taught that the more Rebekah heard Jacob's voice (engaged in study), the stronger her love grew for him.", "Rabbi Ḥaninah taught that Esau paid great attention to his parent (horo), his father, whom he supplied with meals, as Genesis 25:28 reports, \"Isaac loved Esau, because he ate of his venison.\" Rabbi Samuel the son of Rabbi Gedaliah concluded that God decided to reward Esau for this. When Jacob offered Esau gifts, Esau answered Jacob in Genesis 33:9, \"I have enough (, rav); do not trouble yourself", ".\" So God declared that with the same expression that Esau thus paid respect to Jacob, God would command Jacob's descendants not to trouble Esau's descendants, and thus God told the Israelites in Deuteronomy 2:3, \"You have circled this mountain (, har) long enough (, rav).\"", "Bar Kappara and Rabbi Jose bar Patros referred to Genesis 25:28 to explain why, in Genesis 46:1, just before heading down to Egypt, Jacob \"offered sacrifices to the God of his father Isaac,\" and not to the God of Abraham and Isaac. Bar Kappara discussed the question with Rabbi Jose bar Patros", ". Bar Kappara discussed the question with Rabbi Jose bar Patros. One of them said that Jacob declared that as Isaac had been eager for his food (for, as Genesis 25:28 reports, Isaac loved Esau because Esau brought Isaac venison), so Jacob was eager for his food (and thus was headed to Egypt to avoid the famine)", ". The other explained that as Isaac had distinguished between his sons (as Genesis 25:28 reports, loving Esau more than Jacob), so Jacob would distinguish among his sons (going to Egypt for Joseph's account alone). But then Jacob noted on reconsideration that Isaac was responsible for only one soul, whereas Jacob was responsible for 70 souls.", "A Tanna taught in a Baraita that the day recounted in Genesis 25:29–34 on which Esau spurned his birthright was also the day on which Abraham died, and Jacob was cooking lentils to comfort Isaac. In the Land of Israel, they taught in the name of Rabbah bar Mari that it was appropriate to cook lentils because just as the lentil has no mouth (no groove like other legumes), so the mourner has no mouth to talk but sits silently", ". Others explained that just as the lentil is round, so mourning comes round to all people.", "Rabbi Joḥanan taught that Esau committed five sins on the day recounted in Genesis 25:29–34. Rabbi Joḥanan deduced from the similar use of the words \"the field\" in Genesis 25:29 and in connection with the betrothed maiden in Deuteronomy 22:27 that Esau dishonored a betrothed maiden. Rabbi Joḥanan deduced from the similar use of the word \"faint\" in Genesis 25:29 and in connection with murderers in Jeremiah 4:31 that Esau committed a murder", ". Rabbi Joḥanan deduced from the similar use of the word \"this\" in Genesis 25:32 and in the words \"This is my God\" in Exodus 15:2 that Esau denied belief in God. Rabbi Joḥanan deduced from Esau's words, \"Behold, I am on the way to die,\" in Genesis 25:32 that Esau denied the resurrection of the dead. And for Esau's fifth sin, Rabbi Joḥanan cited the report of Genesis 25:34 that \"Esau despised his birthright.\"", "Genesis chapter 26\nA Midrash cited Genesis 26:1 to show that there is double rejoicing in the case of a righteous one who is the child of a righteous one. The Mishnah and Tosefta deduced from Genesis 26:5 that Abraham kept the entire Torah even before it was revealed.", "The Tosefta deduced from the contrast between the plenty indicated in Genesis 24:1 and the famine indicated in Genesis 26:1 that God gave the people food and drink and a glimpse of the world to come while the righteous Abraham was alive, so that the people might understand what they had lost when he was gone", ". The Tosefta reported that when Abraham was alive, the wells gushed forth water, but the Philistines filled the wells with earth (as reported in Genesis 26:15), for after Abraham died the wells no longer gushed forth water, and the Philistines filled them so that they would not provide cover for invaders. But when Isaac came along, the wells gushed water again (as indicated in Genesis 26:18–19) and there was plenty again (as indicated in Genesis 26:12)", "Interpreting God's command to Isaac in Genesis 26:2 not to go to Egypt, Rabbi Hoshaya taught that God told Isaac that he was (by virtue of his near sacrifice in Genesis 22) a burnt-offering without blemish, and as a burnt offering became unfit if it was taken outside of the Temple grounds, so would Isaac become unfit if he went outside of the Promised Land.", "Rabbi Eliezer taught that the five Hebrew letters of the Torah that alone among Hebrew letters have two separate shapes (depending whether they are in the middle or the end of a word)— (Kh, M, N, P, Z)—all relate to the mystery of the redemption, including to Isaac's redemption from the Philistines in Genesis 26:16. With the letter kaph (), God redeemed Abraham from Ur of the Chaldees, as in Genesis 12:1, God says, \"Get you (, lekh lekha) out of your country, and from your kindred . .", ". . . to the land that I will show you.\" With the letter mem (), Isaac was redeemed from the land of the Philistines, as in Genesis 26:16, the Philistine king Abimelech told Isaac, \"Go from us: for you are much mightier (, mimenu m'od) than we.\" With the letter nun (), Jacob was redeemed from the hand of Esau, as in Genesis 32:12, Jacob prayed, \"Deliver me, I pray (, hazileini na), from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau", ".\" With the letter pe (), God redeemed Israel from Egypt, as in Exodus 3:16–17, God told Moses, \"I have surely visited you, (, pakod pakadeti) and (seen) that which is done to you in Egypt, and I have said, I will bring you up out of the affliction of Egypt", ".\" With the letter tsade (), God will redeem Israel from the oppression of the kingdoms, and God will say to Israel, I have caused a branch to spring forth for you, as Zechariah 6:12 says, \"Behold, the man whose name is the Branch (, zemach); and he shall grow up (, yizmach) out of his place, and he shall build the temple of the Lord.\" These letters were delivered to Abraham", ".\" These letters were delivered to Abraham. Abraham delivered them to Isaac, Isaac delivered them to Jacob, Jacob delivered the mystery of the Redemption to Joseph, and Joseph delivered the secret of the Redemption to his brothers, as in Genesis 50:24, Joseph told his brothers, \"God will surely visit (, pakod yifkod) you.\" Jacob's son Asher delivered the mystery of the Redemption to his daughter Serah", ".\" Jacob's son Asher delivered the mystery of the Redemption to his daughter Serah. When Moses and Aaron came to the elders of Israel and performed signs in their sight, the elders told Serah. She told them that there is no reality in signs. The elders told her that Moses said, \"God will surely visit (, pakod yifkod) you\" (as in Genesis 50:24)", ". Serah told the elders that Moses was the one who would redeem Israel from Egypt, for she heard (in the words of Exodus 3:16), \"I have surely visited (, pakod pakadeti) you.\" The people immediately believed in God and Moses, as Exodus 4:31 says, \"And the people believed, and when they heard that the Lord had visited the children of Israel.\"", "Reading Genesis 26:12, “And Isaac sowed in that land, and found in that year a hundredfold (, she'arim),” a Midrash taught that the words, “a hundred , she'arim” indicate that they estimated it, but it produced a hundred times the estimate, for blessing does not rest upon that which is weighed, measured, or counted. They measured solely on account of the tithes.", "Rabbi Dosetai ben Yannai said in the name of Rabbi Meir that when God told Isaac that God would bless him for Abraham's sake (in Genesis 26:24), Isaac interpreted that one earns a blessing only through one's actions, and he arose and sowed, as reported in Genesis 26:12.", "A Midrash reread Genesis 26:26, \"Then Abimelech went to him from Gerar (, mi-gerar),\" to say that Abimelech came \"wounded\" (, megorar), teaching that ruffians entered Abimelech's house and assailed him all night. Alternatively, the Midrash taught that he came \"scraped\" (, megurad), teaching that eruptions broke out on Abimelech and he kept scraping himself.", "The Sifre cited Isaac's reproof of Abimelech, Ahuzzath, and Phicol in Genesis 26:27 as an example of a tradition of admonition near death. The Sifre read Deuteronomy 1:3–4 to indicate that Moses spoke to the Israelites in rebuke. The Sifre taught that Moses rebuked them only when he approached death, and the Sifre taught that Moses learned this lesson from Jacob, who admonished his sons in Genesis 49 only when he neared death", ". The Sifre cited four reasons why people do not admonish others until the admonisher nears death: (1) so that the admonisher does not have to repeat the admonition, (2) so that the one rebuked would not suffer undue shame from being seen again, (3) so that the one rebuked would not bear ill will to the admonisher, and (4) so that the one may depart from the other in peace, for admonition brings peace", ". The Sifre cited as further examples of admonition near death: (1) when Abraham reproved Abimelech in Genesis 21:25, (2) when Isaac reproved Abimelech, Ahuzzath, and Phicol in Genesis 26:27, (3) when Joshua admonished the Israelites in Joshua 24:15, (4) when Samuel admonished the Israelites in 1 Samuel 12:34–35, and (5) when David admonished Solomon in 1 Kings 2:1", ". In Isaac's case, the Sifre read the report of Genesis 26:31 to teach that Abimelech, Ahuzzath, and Phicol made peace with Isaac because Isaac had justly reproved them.", "Reading the verb \"to see\" repeated (, ra'o ra'iynu) in the passage \"We saw plainly\" in Genesis 26:28, a Midrash taught that Abimelech and his party had seen two things—Isaac's deeds and the deeds of his parents.", "A Midrash taught that Abimelech first sent Phicol, the captain of his host, but he was unable to pacify Isaac. Then Abimelech sent his friend Ahuzzath, but Isaac still remained unpacified. When Abimelech then went himself, Isaac allowed himself to be appeased. Hence, the Sages taught that one need not ask another's forgiveness more than three times. If the other does not forgive the third time, then the other becomes the wrongdoer.", "The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told how Isaac made a covenant with the Philistines, when he sojourned there. Isaac noticed that the Philistines turned their faces away from him. So Isaac left them in peace, and Abimelech and his magnates came after him. Paraphrasing Genesis 26:27, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that Isaac asked them why they came to him, after having turned aside their faces from him", ". Paraphrasing Genesis 26:28, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that the Philistines replied that they knew that God would give the Land of Israel to Isaac's descendants, and thus they asked him to make a covenant with them that his descendants would not take possession of the land of the Philistines. And so Isaac made a covenant with them. He cut off one cubit of the bridle of the donkey upon which he was riding, and he gave it to them so that they might thereby have a sign of the covenant.", "Reading the report of Esau's marriage to two Hittite women in Genesis 26:34, a Midrash found signs of the duplicity of Esau and his spiritual descendants, the Romans. Rabbi Phinehas (and other say Rabbi Helkiah) taught in Rabbi Simon's name that Moses and Asaph (author of Psalm 80) exposed the Romans' deception. Asaph said in Psalm 80:14: \"The boar of the wood ravages it.\" While Moses said in Deuteronomy 14:7–8: \"you shall not eat of . . . the swine, because he parts the hoof but does not chew the cud", ". . . the swine, because he parts the hoof but does not chew the cud.\" The Midrash explained that Scripture compares the Roman Empire to a swine, because when the swine lies down, it puts out its parted hoofs, as if to advertise that it is clean. And so the Midrash taught that the wicked Roman Empire robbed and oppressed, yet pretended to execute justice", ". So the Midrash taught that for 40 years, Esau would ensnare married women and violate them, yet when he reached the age of 40, he compared himself to his righteous father Isaac, telling himself that as his father Isaac was 40 years old when he married (as reported in Genesis 25:19), so he too would marry at the age of 40.", "Genesis chapter 27", "Rabbi Ḥama bar Ḥaninah taught that our ancestors were never without a scholars' council. Abraham was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 24:1 says, \"And Abraham was an elder (, zaken) well stricken in age", ".\" Eliezer, Abraham's servant, was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 24:2 says, \"And Abraham said to his servant, the elder of his house, who ruled over all he had,\" which Rabbi Eleazar explained to mean that he ruled over—and thus knew and had control of—the Torah of his master. Isaac was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 27:1 says: \"And it came to pass when Isaac was an elder (, zaken)", ".\" Jacob was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 48:10 says, \"Now the eyes of Israel were dim with age (, zoken).\" In Egypt they had the scholars' council, as Exodus 3:16 says, \"Go and gather the elders of Israel together.\" And in the Wilderness, they had the scholars' council, as in Numbers 11:16, God directed Moses to \"Gather . . . 70 men of the elders of Israel.\"", "Rabbi Eleazar taught that Isaac's blindness, reported in Genesis 27:1, was caused by his looking at the wicked Esau. But Rabbi Isaac taught that Abimelech's curse of Sarah caused her son Isaac's blindness. Rabbi Isaac read the words, \"it is for you a covering (kesut) of the eyes,\" in Genesis 20:16 not as kesut, \"covering,\" but as kesiyat, \"blinding.\" Rabbi Isaac concluded that one should not consider a small matter the curse of even an ordinary person", ". Alternatively, a Midrash interpreted the words \"his eyes were dim from seeing\" in Genesis 27:1 to teach that Isaac's eyesight dimmed as a result of his near sacrifice in Genesis 22, for when Abraham bound Isaac, the ministering angels wept, as Isaiah 33:7 says, \"Behold, their valiant ones cry without, the angels of peace weep bitterly,\" and tears dropped from the angels' eyes into Isaac's, leaving their mark and causing Isaac's eyes to dim when he became old.", "Rabbi Eleazar taught that deceptive speech is like idolatry. Rabbi Eleazar deduced the similarity from the common use of the word \"deceiver\" to describe Jacob's deception his father in Genesis 27:12, where Jacob says, \"I shall seem to him as a deceiver,\" and to describe idols in Jeremiah 10:15, where idols are described as \"the work of deceivers.\"", "But the Gemara cited Jacob as the exemplar of one who, in the words of Psalm 15:3, \"has no slander on his tongue,\" as Jacob's protest to Rebekah in Genesis 27:12, \"I shall seem to him as a deceiver,\" demonstrated that Jacob did not take readily to deception.", "Rabbi Joḥanan taught that when Jacob explained his rapid success in obtaining the meat by saying in Genesis 27:20 that it was \"because the Lord your God sent me good speed,\" he was like a raven bringing fire to his nest, courting disaster. For when Jacob said \"the Lord your God sent me good speed,\" Isaac thought to himself that he knew that Esau did not customarily mention the name of God, and if the person before him did so, he must not have been Esau but Jacob", ". Consequently, Isaac told him in Genesis 27:21, \"Come near, I pray, that I may feel you, my son.\"", "Reading Isaac's observation in Genesis 27:27, \"See, the smell of my son is as the smell of a field that the Lord has blessed,\" Rav Judah the son of Rav Samuel bar Shilat said in the name of Rav that Jacob smelled like an apple orchard.", "Rabbi Judah ben Pazi interpreted Isaac's blessing of Jacob with dew in Genesis 27:28 merely to pass along to his son what God had deeded to his father Abraham for all time. And Rabbi Ishmael deduced from Isaac's curse of those who cursed Jacob and blessing of those who blessed Jacob in Genesis 27:29 that Jews need not respond to those who curse or bless them, for the Torah has already decreed the response.", "Rabbi Judan said that Jacob declared that Isaac blessed him with five blessings, and God correspondingly appeared five times to Jacob and blessed him (Genesis 28:13–15, 31:3, 31:11–13, 35:1, and 35:9–12). And thus, in Genesis 46:1, Jacob \"offered sacrifices to the God of his father Isaac,\" and not to the God of Abraham and Isaac. Rabbi Judan also said that Jacob wanted to thank God for permitting Jacob to see the fulfillment of those blessings", ". And the blessing that was fulfilled was that of Genesis 27:29, \"Let people serve you, and nations bow down to you,\" which was fulfilled with regard to Joseph. (And thus Jacob mentioned Isaac then on going down to witness Joseph's greatness.)", "The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer saw in Isaac's two blessings of Jacob in Genesis 27:28–29 and 28:1–4 an application of the teaching of Ecclesiastes 7:8, \"Better is the end of a thing than the beginning.\" The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer noted that the first blessings with which Isaac blessed Jacob in Genesis 27:28–29 concerned dew and grain—material blessings", ". The final blessings in Genesis 28:1–4 concerned the foundation of the world, and were without interruption either in this world or in the world to come, for Genesis 28:3 says, \"And God Almighty bless you.\" And Isaac further added the blessing of Abraham, as Genesis 28:4 says, \"And may He give you the blessing of Abraham, to you and to your seed with you.\" Therefore, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer concluded that the end of the thing—Isaac's final blessing of Jacob—was better than the beginning thereof.", "Interpreting why in Genesis 27:33 \"Isaac trembled very exceedingly,\" Rabbi Joḥanan observed that it was surely unusual for a man who has two sons to tremble when one goes out and the other comes in. Rabbi Joḥanan taught that Isaac trembled because when Esau came in, Gehenna came in with him. Rabbi Aha said that the walls of the house began to seethe from the heat of Gehenna. Hence Genesis 27:33 asks, \"who then (, eifo)?\" for Isaac asked who would be roast (leafot) in Gehenna, him or Jacob?", "Rabbi Ḥama bar Ḥaninah interpreted the question \"who then?\" in Genesis 27:33 to ask who then intervened between Isaac and God that Jacob should receive the blessings. Rabbi Ḥama bar Ḥaninah taught that Isaac thereby hinted at Rebekah's intervention.", "The Gemara read Isaac's words in Genesis 27:33, \"And I have eaten from everything,\" to support the Sages' teaching that God gave three people in this world a taste of the World To Come—Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Of Abraham, Genesis 24:1 says, \"And the Lord blessed Abraham with everything.\" And of Jacob, Genesis 33:11 says, \"Because I have everything.\" Thus, already in their lifetimes, they merited everything, perfection", ".\" Thus, already in their lifetimes, they merited everything, perfection. The Gemara read these three verses also to teach that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were three people over whom the evil inclination had no sway, as Scripture says about them, respectively, \"with everything,\" \"from everything,\" and \"everything,\" and the completeness of their blessings meant that they did not have to contend with their evil inclinations", ". And the Gemara read these same three verses to teach that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were three of six people over whom the Angel of Death had no sway in their demise—Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam. As Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were blessed with everything, the Gemara reasoned, they were certainly spared the anguish of the Angel of Death.", "Rabbi Tarfon taught that Isaac's blessing of Esau in Genesis 27:40, \"By your sword shall you live,\" helped to define Edom's character. Rabbi Tarfon taught that God came from Mount Sinai (or others say Mount Seir) and was revealed to the children of Esau, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, \"The Lord came from Sinai, and rose from Seir to them,\" and \"Seir\" means the children of Esau, as Genesis 36:8 says, \"And Esau dwelt in Mount Seir", ".\" God asked them whether they would accept the Torah, and they asked what was written in it. God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17), \"You shall do no murder.\" The children of Esau replied that they were unable to abandon the blessing with which Isaac blessed Esau in Genesis 27:40, \"By your sword shall you live", ".\" From there, God turned and was revealed to the children of Ishmael, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, \"He shined forth from Mount Paran,\" and \"Paran\" means the children of Ishmael, as Genesis 21:21 says of Ishmael, \"And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran.\" God asked them whether they would accept the Torah, and they asked what was written in it. God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17), \"You shall not steal", ". God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17), \"You shall not steal.\" The children of Ishamel replied that they were unable to abandon their fathers’ custom, as Joseph said in Genesis 40:15 (referring to the Ishamelites’ transaction reported in Genesis 37:28), \"For indeed I was stolen away out of the land of the Hebrews.\" From there, God sent messengers to all the nations of the world asking them whether they would accept the Torah, and they asked what was written in it", ". God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:3) and Deuteronomy 5:7), \"You shall have no other gods before me.\" They replied that they had no delight in the Torah, therefore let God give it to God's people, as Psalm 29:11 says, \"The Lord will give strength [identified with the Torah] to His people; the Lord will bless His people with peace", ".\" From there, God returned and was revealed to the children of Israel, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, \"And he came from the ten thousands of holy ones,\" and the expression \"ten thousands\" means the children of Israel, as Numbers 10:36 says, \"And when it rested, he said, ‘Return, O Lord, to the ten thousands of the thousands of Israel.’\" With God were thousands of chariots and 20,000 angels, and God’s right hand held the Torah, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, \"At his right hand was a fiery law to them.\"", "The Midrash Tehillim told the circumstances in which Esau sought to carry out his desire that Genesis 27:41 reports, \"Let the days of mourning for my father be at hand; then will I slay my brother Jacob.\" The Midrash Tehillim interpreted Psalm 18:41, \"You have given me the necks of my enemies,\" to allude to Judah, because Rabbi Joshua ben Levi reported an oral tradition that Judah slew Esau after the death of Isaac", ". Esau, Jacob, and all Jacob's children went to bury Isaac, as Genesis 35:29 reports, \"Esau, Jacob, and his sons buried him,\" and they were all in the Cave of Machpelah sitting and weeping. At last Jacob's children stood up, paid their respects to Jacob, and left the cave so that Jacob would not be humbled by weeping exceedingly in their presence", ". But Esau reentered the cave, thinking that he would kill Jacob, as Genesis 27:41 reports, \"And Esau said in his heart: ‘Let the days of mourning for my father be at hand; then will I slay my brother Jacob.’\" But Judah saw Esau go back and perceived at once that Esau meant to kill Jacob in the cave. Quickly Judah slipped after him and found Esau about to slay Jacob. So Judah killed Esau from behind", ". So Judah killed Esau from behind. The neck of the enemy was given into Judah’s hands alone, as Jacob blessed Judah in Genesis 49:8 saying, \"Your hand shall be on the neck of your enemies.\" And thus David declared in Psalm 18:41, \"You have given me the necks of my enemies,\" as if to say that this was David's patrimony, since Genesis 49:8 said it of his ancestor Judah.", "Reading Genesis 27:41, Rabbi Eleazar contrasted Esau's jealousy with Reuben's magnanimity. As Genesis 25:33 reports, Esau voluntarily sold his birthright, but as Genesis 27:41 says, \"Esau hated Jacob,\" and as Genesis 27:36 says, \"And he said, ‘Is not he rightly named Jacob? for he has supplanted me these two times", ".'\" In Reuben's case, Joseph took Reuben's birthright from him against his will, as 1 Chronicles 5:1 reports, \"for as much as he defiled his father's couch, his birthright was given to the sons of Joseph.\" Nonetheless, Reuben was not jealous of Joseph, as Genesis 37:21 reports, \"And Reuben heard it, and delivered him out of their hand.\"", "In verse 27:46 where Rebecca expresses her displeasure, the is small.", "Genesis chapter 28", "A Tanna taught in a Baraita that the exalted position of a groom atones for his sins. The Gemara cited Genesis 28:9 as a proof text. The Gemara noted that Genesis 28:9 reports that \"Esau went to Ishmael, and took Machalat the daughter of Ishmael, as a wife,\" but Genesis 36:3 identifies Esau's wife as \"Basemat, Ishmael's daughter", ".\" The Gemara explained that the name Machalat is cognate with the Hebrew word for forgiveness, mechilah, and thus deduced that Genesis 28:9 teaches that Esau's sins were forgiven upon his marriage.", "The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer expanded on the circumstances under which Esau went to be with Ishmael, as reported in Genesis 28:9. Expanding on Genesis 35:27, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that Jacob took his sons, grandsons, and wives, and went to Kiryat Arba to be near Isaac. Jacob found Esau and his sons and wives there dwelling in Isaac's tents, so Jacob spread his tent apart from Esau's. Isaac rejoiced at seeing Jacob", ". Isaac rejoiced at seeing Jacob. Rabbi Levi said that in the hour when Isaac was dying, he left his cattle, possessions, and all that he had to his two sons, and therefore they both loved him, and thus Genesis 35:29 reports, \"And Esau and Jacob his sons buried him.\" The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that after that, Esau told Jacob to divide Isaac's holdings into two portions, and Esau would choose first between the two portions as a right of being the older", ". Perceiving that Esau had his eye set on riches, Jacob divided the land of Israel and the Cave of Machpelah in one part and all the rest of Isaac's holdings in the other part. Esau went to consult with Ishmael, as reported in Genesis 28:9. Ishmael told Esau that the Amorite and the Canaanite were in the land, so Esau should take the balance of Isaac's holdings, and Jacob would have nothing", ". So Esau took Isaac's wealth and gave Jacob the land of Israel and the Cave of Machpelah, and they wrote a perpetual deed between them. Jacob then told Esau to leave the land, and Esau took his wives, children, and all that he had, as Genesis 36:6 reports, \"And Esau took his wives . . . and all his possessions which he had gathered in the land of Canaan, and went into a land away from his brother Jacob", ".\" As a reward, God gave Esau a hundred provinces from Seir to Magdiel, as Genesis 36:43 reports, and Magdiel is Rome. Then Jacob dwelt safely and in peace in the land of Israel.", "Notwithstanding Esau's conflicts with Jacob in Genesis 25–33, a Baraita taught that the descendants of Esau's descendant Haman studied Torah in Benai Berak.\n\nIn medieval Jewish interpretation\n\nThe parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:", "Genesis chapter 25", "Maimonides read the words \"And she went to inquire of the Lord\" in Genesis 25:22 as an example of a phrase employed by the Torah where a person was not really addressed by the Lord, and did not receive any prophecy, but was informed of a certain thing through a prophet. Maimonides cited the explanation of the Sages that Rebekah went to the college of Eber, and Eber gave her the answer, and this is expressed by the words, \"And the Lord said to her\" in Genesis 25:23", ". Maimonides noted that others have explained these words by saying that God spoke to Rebekah through an angel. Maimonides taught that by \"angel\" Eber is meant, as a prophet is sometimes called an \"angel.\" Alternatively, Maimonides taught that Genesis 25:23 may refer to the angel that appeared to Eber in his vision.", "Genesis chapter 27", "In the Zohar, Rabbi Simeon saw a reference to Isaac's blessing of Jacob in Isaiah 58:14, \"Then shall you delight in the Lord, and I will make you to ride upon the high places of the earth, and I will feed you with the heritage of Jacob your father.\" Rabbi Simeon interpreted the words of Genesis 27:28, \"And God give you of the dew of heaven,\" to mean \"the heritage of Jacob\" in Isaiah 58:14", ". Rabbi Simeon taught that with these words, Isaac indicated that Jacob's children would rise again from the dead at the time to come, by means of heavenly dew that shall issue forth from God. Rabbi Abba responded to Rabbi Simeon that there was more significance to Isaac's blessing than he had thought.", "Nachmanides taught that from the moment that Isaac blessed Jacob, Isaac knew from Divine inspiration that his blessing rested on Jacob. This was then the reason for his violent trembling, for he knew that his beloved son Esau had lost the blessing forever. After he said (in Genesis 27:33) \"Who then is he who came,\" Isaac realized that Jacob had been the one who came before him to receive the blessing.", "Notwithstanding Esau's conflicts with Jacob in Genesis 25–33, the Baal HaTurim, reading the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26, noted that the numerical value (gematria) of the Hebrew word for \"peace\" (, shalom) equals the numerical value of the word \"Esau\" (, Eisav). The Baal HaTurim concluded that this hints at the Mishnaic dictum (in Avot 4:15) that one should always reach out to be the first to greet any person, even an adversary.", "In modern interpretation\nThe parashah is discussed in these modern sources:\n\nGenesis chapters 25–33\nHermann Gunkel wrote that the legend cycle of Jacob-Esau-Laban divided clearly into the legends (1) of Jacob and Esau (Genesis 25:19–34; 27:1–45; 27:46–28:9; 32:3–21; 33:1–17), (2) of Jacob and Laban (Genesis 29:1–30; 30:25–31:55), (3) of the origin of the twelve tribes (Genesis 29:31–30:24), and (4) of the origin of ritual observances (Genesis 28:10–22; 32:1–2, 22–32).", "Walter Brueggemann suggested a chiastic structure to the Jacob narrative (shown in the chart below), moving from conflict with Esau to reconciliation with Esau. Within that is conflict with Laban moving to covenant with Laban. And within that, at the center, is the narrative of births, in which the birth of Joseph (at Genesis 30:24) marks the turning point in the entire narrative, after which Jacob looks toward the Land of Israel and his brother Esau", ". In the midst of the conflicts are the two major encounters with God, which occur at crucial times in the sequence of conflicts.", "Acknowledging that some interpreters view Jacob's two encounters with God in Genesis 28:10–22 and 32–33:17 as parallel, Terence Fretheim argued that one may see more significant levels of correspondence between the two Bethel stories in Genesis 28:10–22 and 35:1–15, and one may view the oracle to Rebekah in Genesis 29:23 regarding \"struggling\" as parallel to Jacob's struggle at the Jabbok in Genesis 32–33:17. Fretheim concluded that these four instances of Divine speaking link to each other in complex ways", ". Fretheim concluded that these four instances of Divine speaking link to each other in complex ways.", "Genesis chapter 25", "James Kugel wrote that Gunkel's concept of the etiological tale led 20th century scholars to understand the stories of the rivalry of Jacob and Esau in Genesis 25:19–26, Genesis 25:29–34, and Genesis 27 to explain something about the national character (or national stereotype) of Israel and Edom at the time of the stories’ composition, a kind of projection of later reality back to the \"time of the founders", ".\" In this etiological reading, that Esau and Jacob were twins explained the close connection between Edom and Israel, their similar dialects, and cultural and kinship ties, while the competition between Esau and Jacob explained the off-and-on enmity between Edom and Israel in the Biblical period", ". Kugel reported that some biblical scholars saw an analogue in Israelite history: Esau's descendants, the Edomites, had been a sovereign nation while the future Israel was still in formation (see Genesis 36:31), making Edom the \"older brother\" of Israel", ". But then, in the 10th century BCE, David unified Israel and conquered Edom (see 2 Samuel 8:13–14; 1 Kings 11:15–16; and 1 Chronicles 18:12–13), and that is why the oracle Genesis 25:23 gave Rebekah during her pregnancy said that \"the older will end up serving the younger", ".\" Kugel reported that scholars thus view the stories of the young Jacob and Esau as created to reflect a political reality that came about in the time of David, indicating that these narratives were first composed in the early 10th century BCE, before the Edomites succeeded in throwing off their Israelite overlords, at that time when Israel might feel \"like a little kid who had ended up with a prize that was not legitimately his", ".\" When Edom regained its independence, the stolen blessing story underwent a change (or perhaps was created out of whole cloth to reflect Edom's resurgence). For while Israel still dominated Edom, the story ought to have ended with Isaac's blessing of Jacob in Genesis 27:28", ". But Isaac's blessing of Esau in Genesis 27:40, \"By your sword you will live, and you will indeed serve your brother; but then it will happen that you will break loose and throw his yoke from off your neck,\" reflects a reformulation (or perhaps new creation) of the story in the light of the new reality that developed half a century later.", "Gary Rendsburg read in Genesis 25:19–29—which personifies Edom, a Transjordanian state ruled by David and Solomon, as the brother of Jacob/Israel—to indicate that the author of Genesis sought to portray the ancestor of this country as related to the patriarchs in order to justify Israelite rule over Edom. Rendsburg noted that during the United Monarchy, Israel governed most firmly the nations geographically closest to Israel", ". 2 Samuel reports that while Israel permitted the native kings of Moab and Ammon to rule as tributary vassals, Israel deposed the king of Edom, and David and Solomon exercised direct rule over their southeastern neighbor. Rendsburg deduced that this explains why Edom, in the character of Esau, is seen as a twin brother of Israel, in the character of Jacob, while Moab and Ammon, as portrayed in Genesis 19:30–38 by Lot's two sons, were more distantly related", ". Rendsburg also noted that in Genesis 27:40, Isaac predicted that Esau would throw off the yoke of Jacob, reflecting the Edomite rebellion against Israel during Solomon's reign reported in 1 Kings 11:14–22", ". Rendsburg concluded that royal scribes living in Jerusalem during the reigns of David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE were responsible for Genesis; their ultimate goal was to justify the monarchy in general, and the kingship of David and Solomon in particular; and Genesis thus appears as a piece of political propaganda.", "Rendsburg noted that Genesis often repeats the motif of the younger son. God favored Abel over Cain in Genesis 4; Isaac superseded Ishmael in Genesis 16–21; Jacob superseded Esau in Genesis 25–27; Judah (fourth among Jacob's sons, last of the original set born to Leah) and Joseph (eleventh in line) superseded their older brothers in Genesis 37–50; Perez superseded Zerah in Genesis 38 and Ruth 4; and Ephraim superseded Manasseh in Genesis 48", ". Rendsburg explained Genesis's interest with this motif by recalling that David was the youngest of Jesse’s seven sons (see 1 Samuel 16), and Solomon was among the youngest, if not the youngest, of David’s sons (see 2 Samuel 5:13–16). The issue of who among David’s many sons would succeed him dominates the Succession Narrative in 2 Samuel 13 through 1 Kings 2. Amnon was the firstborn, but was killed by his brother Absalom (David’s third son) in 2 Samuel 13:29", ". After Absalom rebelled, David’s general Joab killed him in 2 Samuel 18:14–15. The two remaining candidates were Adonijah (David’s fourth son) and Solomon, and although Adonijah was older (and once claimed the throne when David was old and feeble in 1 Kings 1), Solomon won out. Rendsburg argued that even though firstborn royal succession was the norm in the ancient Near East, the authors of Genesis justified Solomonic rule by imbedding the notion of ultimogeniture into Genesis’s national epic", ". An Israelite could thus not criticize David’s selection of Solomon to succeed him as king over Israel, because Genesis reported that God had favored younger sons since Abel and blessed younger sons of Israel—Isaac, Jacob, Judah, Joseph, Perez, and Ephraim—since the inception of the covenant.", "Reading the words of Genesis 25:22, \"why do I live,\" Robert Alter wrote that Rebekah's \"cry of perplexity and anguish\" over her difficult pregnancy was \"terse to the point of being elliptical.\" Alter suggested that Rebekah's words might even be construed as a broken-off sentence—\"Then why am I . . . ?\"", "Fretheim observed an ambiguity in the language of Genesis 25:23: The brother who would be stronger was not necessarily the brother who would be served. Fretheim wrote that Genesis 25:23 predicted either that the older (Esau) would be the weaker of the two and would serve the younger (Jacob), or, more likely, that the older would be the stronger and would serve the younger.", "And Richard Elliott Friedman noted that readers usually take Genesis 25:23 to convey that God told Rebekah that her younger son, Jacob, would dominate her older son, Esau. Thus, some have argued that Rebekah did not manipulate the succession when she sent Jacob to pose as Esau, but simply fulfilled God's will. But Friedman called this reading of Genesis 25:23 a misunderstanding of the \"subtle, exquisitely ambiguous\" wording of the verse", ". Friedman wrote that in Biblical Hebrew, the subject may either precede or follow the verb, and the object may either precede or follow the verb. Thus, Friedman argued that it is sometimes impossible to tell which word is the subject and which is the object, especially in poetry. Friedman argued that this is the case in Genesis 25:23, which he argued can mean either, \"the elder will serve the younger,\" or, \"the elder, the younger will serve", ".\" Friedman concluded that \"like the Delphic oracles in Greece, this prediction contains two opposite meanings, and thus the person who receives it—Rebekah—can hear whatever she wants (consciously or subconsciously) to hear.\"", "Ephraim Speiser wrote that originally the name Jacob, rather than as explained in Genesis 25:26, was likely from Y‘qb-'l, and meant something like \"may God protect.\"", "Reading the characterization of Jacob as \"a simple man\" (, ish tam) in Genesis 25:27, Alter suggested that the Hebrew adjective \"simple\" (, tam) suggests integrity or even innocence. Alter pointed out that in Biblical idiom, as in Jeremiah 17:9, the heart can be \"crooked\" (, ‘akov), the same root as Jacob's name, and the idiomatic antonym is \"pureness\" or \"innocence\"—, tam—of heart, as in Genesis 20:5", ". Alter concluded that there may well be a complicating irony in the use of this epithet for Jacob in Genesis 25:27, as Jacob's behavior is far from simple or innocent as Jacob bargains for Esau's birthright in the very next scene.", "Reading Genesis 25:29, \"Jacob cooked food,\" Ohr ha-Chaim suggested that Jacob did so because he saw how effective Esau's providing Isaac with delicious meals had been in cementing Isaac's love for Esau, and thus Jacob tried to emulate Esau's success.", "Genesis chapter 26\nIn Genesis 26:4, God reminded Isaac that God had promised Abraham that God would make his heirs as numerous as the stars. In Genesis 15:5, God promised that Abraham's descendants would be as numerous as the stars of heaven. In Genesis 22:17, God promised that the Abraham's descendants would be as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on the seashore. Carl Sagan reported that there are more stars in the universe than sands on all the beaches on the Earth.", "Baruch Spinoza read the report of Genesis 26:5 that Abraham observed the worship, precepts, statutes, and laws of God to mean that Abraham observed the worship, statutes, precepts, and laws of king Melchizedek. Spinoza read Genesis 14:18–20 to relate that Melchizedek was king of Jerusalem and priest of the Most High God, that in the exercise of his priestly functions (like those Numbers 6:23 describes) he blessed Abraham, and that Abraham gave to this priest of God a tithe of all his spoils", ". Spinoza deduced from this that before God founded the Israelite nation, God constituted kings and priests in Jerusalem, and ordained for them rites and laws. Spinoza deduced that while Abraham sojourned in the city, he lived scrupulously according to these laws, for Abraham had received no special rites from God.", "Reading the three instances of the wife-sister motif in (a) Genesis 12:10–20; (b) Genesis 20:1–18; and (c) Genesis 26:6–11, Speiser argued that in a work by a single author, these three cases would present serious contradictions: Abraham would have learned nothing from his narrow escape in Egypt, and so tried the same ruse in Gerar; and Abimelech would have been so little sobered by his perilous experience with Abraham and Sarah that he fell into the identical trap with Isaac and Rebekah", ". Speiser concluded (on independent grounds) that the Jahwist was responsible for incidents (a) and (c), while the Elohist was responsible for incident (b). If the Elohist had been merely an annotator of the Jahwist, however, the Elohist would still have seen the contradictions for Abimelech, a man of whom the Elohist clearly approved. Speiser concluded that the Jahwist and the Elohist therefore must have worked independently.", "Genesis chapter 27\nSpeiser read the details of Jacob's behavior in Genesis 27:1–40 to show that, although the outcome favored Jacob, the Jahwist's personal sympathies lay with Isaac and Esau, the victims of the ruse. Speiser read the unintended blessing of Jacob by Isaac in Genesis 27 to teach that no one may grasp God's complete design, which remains reasonable and just no matter who the chosen agent may be at any given point.", "Gunther Plaut argued that Isaac was not really deceived. Reading the story with close attention to the personality of Isaac, Plaut concluded that throughout the episode, Isaac was subconsciously aware of Jacob's identity, but, as he was unable to admit this knowledge, he pretended to be deceived", ". Plaut thus saw a plot within a plot, as Rebekah and Jacob laid elaborate plans for deceiving Isaac, while unknown to them Isaac looked for a way to deceive himself, in order to carry out God's design to bless his less-loved son. Plaut argued that Isaac was old but not senile. In his heart, Isaac had long known that Esau could not carry on the burden of Abraham and that, instead, he had to choose his quiet and complicated younger son Jacob", ". In Plaut's reading, weak and indecisive man and father that Isaac was, he did not have the courage to face Esau with the truth. His own blindness and Rebekah's ruse came literally as a godsend. Plaut noted that Isaac did not reprimand Jacob. Plaut concluded that no one, not even Esau, was deceived, for even Esau knew that Jacob was the chosen one.", "Noting that the name Jacob can mean \"he will deceive\" and that in Genesis 27:35, Jacob's father Isaac accused Jacob of acting \"deceitfully\" (, bemirmah), a word that derives from the same root as the adjective \"crafty\" (, arum) applied to the serpent in Genesis 3:1, Karen Armstrong argued that Jacob's example makes clear that God does not choose one person over another because of the person's moral virtue.", "Commandments\nAccording to Maimonides and Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are no commandments in the parashah.\n\nIn the liturgy\nIn the Blessing after Meals (Birkat Hamazon), at the close of the fourth blessing (of thanks for God's goodness), Jews allude to God's blessing of the Patriarchs described in Genesis 24:1, 27:33, and 33:11.", "The Weekly Maqam\nIn the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For Parashat Toledot, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Mahour, the maqam that portrays emotional instability and anger. This maqam is similar to Maqam Rast in tone. It is appropriate, because in this parashah, Esau portrays these character traits as he loses out on the major blessings.", "Haftarah\nA haftarah is a text selected from the books of Nevi'im (\"The Prophets\") that is read publicly in the synagogue after the reading of the Torah on Sabbath and holiday mornings. The haftarah usually has a thematic link to the Torah reading that precedes it.\n\nThe specific text read following Parashat Toledot varies according to different traditions within Judaism. Examples are:\n\nfor Ashkenazi Jews and Sephardi Jews: Malachi 1:1–2:7\nfor Karaite Jews: Isaiah 65:23–66:18", "for Ashkenazi Jews and Sephardi Jews: Malachi 1:1–2:7\nfor Karaite Jews: Isaiah 65:23–66:18\n\nConnection to the parshah\nMalachi 1 opens with God noting \"I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau,\" before promising retribution on Esau's descendants, the people of Edom.\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\nThe parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:", "Notes\n\nFurther reading\nThe parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:\n\nBiblical\nGenesis 15:5 (numerous as stars); 22:17 (numerous as stars).\nDeuteronomy 1:10 (numerous as stars); 17:16 (not to go to Egypt).\nJoshua 24:4.\nJeremiah 42:13-22 (not to go to Egypt).\nMalachi 1:2–3.", "Early nonrabbinic\nJosephus. Antiquities of the Jews 1:18:1–2, 4–8, 19:1; 2:1:1. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.\nRomans 9:6–13.\nHebrews 11:20; 12:16–17.", "Classical rabbinic\nMishnah: Mishnah Kiddushin 4:14. Land of Israel, circa 200 C.E. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, page 499. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.\nTosefta: Berakhot 6:8; Sotah 10:5–6; Kiddushin 5:21. Land of Israel, circa 250 C.E. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 39, 876, 947. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.", "Sifre to Deuteronomy 2:3. Land of Israel, circa 250–350 C.E. In, e.g., Sifre to Deuteronomy: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, page 26. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.", "Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 55b, 85b; Bikkurim 23b; Sukkah 21a; Taanit 1b, 27b; Megillah 16a, 17b; Sotah 28b, 31b; Sanhedrin 62a; Avodah Zarah 3a. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 2, 12, 22, 25–26, 36–37, 45, 47. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2020. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B", ". Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.", "Genesis Rabbah 63:1–67:13. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939.", "Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 5b, 7b, 56b, 57b; Eruvin 104b; Pesachim 5a, 42b; Yoma 28b; Sukkah 5b, 14a; Taanit 8b, 29b; Megillah 6a, 28a; Moed Katan 2a; Yevamot 64a; Ketubot 112a; Nedarim 32a; Sotah 11a, 12b, 13a, 41b; Gittin 57b; Kiddushin 82a; Bava Kamma 92b–93a; Bava Batra 15a, 16b, 123a; Sanhedrin 12a, 37a, 69a, 92a, 96b, 105a; Makkot 10a, 24a; Avodah Zarah 2b, 11a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes", "., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.", "Medieval\nRashi. Commentary. Genesis 25–28. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 1, pages 271–307. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995.", "Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rabbi Samuel Ben Meir's Commentary on Genesis: An Annotated Translation. Translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 130–62. Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989.", "Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:80. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 128. New York: Schocken, 1964.\nAbraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 247–73. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1988.", "Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 187–214. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.\nNachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Genesis. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 1, pages 313–48. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1971.", "Midrash ha-Ne'lam (The Midrash of the Concealed). Spain, 13th century. In, e.g., Zohar, part 1, pages 134b–40a. Mantua, 1558–1560. In, e.g., The Zohar: Pritzker Edition. Translation and commentary by Nathan Wolski, volume 10, pages 402–24. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2016.\nZohar, part 1, pages 134a–46b. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.", "\"Collection for the Poll Tax.\" Egypt, 14th century. In Mark R. Cohen. The Voice of the Poor in the Middle Ages: An Anthology of Documents from the Cairo Geniza, page 174. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.", "Nissim of Gerona (The Ran). Derashos HaRan (Discourses of the Ran), discourse 2. Barcelona, Catalonia, 14th century. In, e.g., Yehuda Meir Keilson. Derashos HaRan: Discourses of the Ran, Rabbeinu Nissim ben Reuven of Gerona, Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Volume 1, pages 110–97. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2019.\nMattathias Yizhari. \"Sermon on Toledot.\" Spain, circa 1400. In Marc Saperstein. Jewish Preaching, 1200–1800: An Anthology, pages 156–66. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.", "Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 177–95. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.", "Modern\nIsaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 1: Bereishis/Genesis. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 147–84. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.\nObadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 130–47. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.", "Solomon ben Isaac Levi. \"Sermon on Toledot.\" Salonika, 1573. In Marc Saperstein. Jewish Preaching, 1200–1800: An Anthology, pages 240–52. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.\nMoshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 163–83. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.", "Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 70–77. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.", "Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:36. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, page 460. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.\nChaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 200–34. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.", "Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 241–71. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.\nYehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 37–41. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.", "John E. McFadyen. \"Expository Studies in the Old Testament: III. Isaac and Jacob.\" The Biblical World, volume 29 (number 3) (March 1907): pages 219–30.", "Abraham Isaac Kook. The Moral Principles. Early 20th Century. In Abraham Isaac Kook: the Lights of Penitence, the Moral Principles, Lights of Holiness, Essays, Letters, and Poems. Translated by Ben Zion Bokser, pages 142, 162. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press 1978.\nLewis Bayles Paton. \"Archaeology and the Book of Genesis.\" The Biblical World, volume 46 (number 1) (July 1915): pages 25–32.", "Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 17–19. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.\nIrving Fineman. Jacob, An Autobiographical Novel, pages 11–13, 16–18. New York: Random House, 1941.\nDavid Daube. \"How Esau Sold his Birthright.\" Cambridge Law Journal, volume 8 (1942): pages 70–75.", "Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 37, 91, 97–100, 103–08, 113–14, 116–17, 134, 150, 153–73, 192–94, 242, 257, 298–99, 335, 340–41, 404, 414, 417, 428–30, 449, 524, 538, 669–70, 693, 806, 809. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.\nJ. Mitchell Morse. \"Jacob and Esau in ‘Finnegans Wake.’\" Modern Philology, volume 52 (number 2) (November 1954): pages 123–30.", "David N. Freedman. \"The Original Name of Jacob.\" Israel Exploration Journal, volume 13 (1963): pages 125–26.\nWalter Orenstein and Hertz Frankel. Torah and Tradition: A Bible Textbook for Jewish Youth: Volume I: Bereishis, pages 61–71. New York: Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964.\nDelmore Schwartz. \"Jacob.\" In Selected Poems: Summer Knowledge, pages 233–35. New York: New Directions, 1967.", "Samuel Greengus. \"Sisterhood Adoption at Nuzi and the ‘Wife-Sister’ in Genesis.\" Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 46 (1975): pages 5–31.\nSeän M. Warner. “The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 1, number 2 (June 1976): pages 50–61.\nJ. Maxwell Miller. “The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources: a Response.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 1, number 2 (June 1976): pages 62–66.", "John R. Bartlett. “The Brotherhood of Edom.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 2, number 4 (February 1977): pages 2–27. (Genesis 25:19–24; 27:27–29, 39-40)\nMitchell Dahood. \"Poetry versus a Hapax in Genesis 27,3.\" Biblica, volume 58 (number 3) (1977): pages 422–23.\nPeter D. Miscall. “The Jacob and Joseph Stories as Analogies.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 3, number 6 (April 1978): pages 28–40.", "Donald J. Wiseman. \"They Lived in Tents.\" In Biblical and Near Eastern Studies: Essays in Honor of William Sanford La Sor. Edited by Gary A. Tuttle, pages 195–200. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.\nC.G. Allen. \"On Me Be the Curse, My Son.\" In Encounter with the Text: Form and History in the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Martin J. Buss, pages 159–72. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.", "Michael Fishbane. \"Genesis 25:19–35:22/The Jacob Cycle.\" In Text and Texture: Close Readings of Selected Biblical Texts, pages 40–62. New York: Schocken Books, 1979.\nJohn G. Gammie. \"Theological Interpretation by Way of Literary and Tradition Analysis: Genesis 25–36.\" In Encounter with the Text: Form and History in the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Martin J. Buss, pages 117–34. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.", "Reuben Ahroni. \"Why Did Esau Spurn the Birthright? A Study in Biblical Interpretation.\" Judaism, volume 29 (1980): pages 323–31.\nRoland de Vaux. \"The Separate Traditions of Abraham and Jacob.\" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 6 (number 4) (July/August 1980).\nKatherine Paterson. Jacob Have I Loved. New York: HarperCollins, 1980.\nAmy K. Blank. \"I Know Four\" and Other Things. 1981. (poem about Rebekah).", "Amy K. Blank. \"I Know Four\" and Other Things. 1981. (poem about Rebekah).\nNeḥama Leibowitz. Studies in Bereshit (Genesis), pages 257–97. Jerusalem: The World Zionist Organization, 1981. Reprinted as New Studies in the Weekly Parasha. Lambda Publishers, 2010.\nWalter Brueggemann. Genesis: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, pages 204–41. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982.", "Izak Cornelius. \"Genesis XXVI and Mari: The Dispute over Water and the Socio-Economic Way of Life of the Patriarchs.\" Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages, volume 12 (1984): pages 53–61.\nFrederick Buechner. The Magnificent Defeat, pages 10–18. Seabury Press, 1966. Reprinted San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985.\nCarl D. Evans. \"The Jacob Cycle in Genesis: The Patriarch Jacob—An ‘Innocent Man': Moral ambiguity in the biblical portrayal.\" Bible Review, volume 2 (number 1) (Spring 1986).", "Victor H. Matthews. \"The Wells of Gerar.\" The Biblical Archaeologist, volume 49 (number 2) (June 1986): pages 118–26.\nPinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 25–28. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.", "Louis H. Feldman. \"Josephus' Portrait of Jacob.\" The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, volume 79 (number 2/3) (October 1988–January 1989): pages 101–51. \nMarc Gellman. \"The Strong Man Who Cried.\" In Does God Have a Big Toe? Stories About Stories in the Bible, pages 57–59. New York: HarperCollins, 1989.\nNahum M. Sarna. The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 177–97, 396–403. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989.", "Mark E. Biddle. \"The ‘Endangered Ancestress’ and Blessing for the Nations.\" Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 109 (number 4) (Winter 1990): pages 599–611.\nMark S. Smith. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, pages 17, 23, 67. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990.\nKtziah Spanier. \"Rachel's Theft of the Teraphim: Her Struggle for Family Primacy.\" Vetus Testamentum, volume 42 (number 3) (July 1992): pages 404–12.", "Susan Ackerman. \"Child Sacrifice: Returning God's Gift: Barren women give birth to exceptional children.\" Bible Review, volume 9 (number 3) (June 1993).\nRobert Hayward. \"Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis 27:31.\" The Jewish Quarterly Review, volume 84 (number 2/3) (October 1993–January 1994): pages 177–88.\nAaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, pages 5–6, 8, 13, 15, 17–29. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1993.", "Judith S. Antonelli. \"Rivkah: Existential Struggle.\" In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 60–71. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.\nNaomi H. Rosenblatt and Joshua Horwitz. Wrestling With Angels: What Genesis Teaches Us About Our Spiritual Identity, Sexuality, and Personal Relationships, pages 228–58. Delacorte Press, 1995.\nSavina J. Teubal. \"Naming is Creating: Biblical women hold the power.\" Bible Review, volume 11 (number 4) (August 1995).", "Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis, pages 144–79. New York: Image Books/Doubelday, 1995.\nEllen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah, pages 39–48. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.\nMarc Gellman. \"Bless Me, Too!\" In God's Mailbox: More Stories About Stories in the Bible, pages 75–79. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996.\nW. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 54–63. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.", "Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 39–45. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.\nElie Wiesel. \"Supporting Roles: Esau.\" Bible Review, volume 14 (number 2) (April 1998).\nJack Miles. \"Supporting Roles: Jacob's Wrestling Match: Was it an angel or Esau?\" Bible Review, volume 14 (number 5) (October 1998).", "Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 69–84, 136–48. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Genesis 26:12; 27:19).\nJohn S. Kselman. \"Genesis.\" In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 97–100. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.", "Tamara Goshen-Gottstein. “The Souls that They Made: Physical Infertility and Spiritual Fecundity.” In Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 123–54. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000. (Genesis 25:21).", "Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman. \"Searching for the Patriarchs.\" In The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, pages 27–47. New York: The Free Press, 2001.\nTamar Hordes, Ami Hordes, and Joel B. Wolowelsky. \"Kibbud Av and Kibbud Avot.\" Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, volume 35 (number 2) (Summer 2001): pages 91–94.", "Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 602–09. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.\nMichael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 34–40. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.\nTikva Frymer-Kensky. \"The Hand that Rocks the Cradle: The Rivka Stories.\" In Reading the Women of the Bible, pages 5–23. New York: Schocken Books, 2002.\nPeter Addinall. \"Genesis XLVI 8–27.\" Vetus Testamentum, volume 54 (number 3) (July 2004): pages 289–300.", "Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 129–48. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.\nJon D. Levenson. \"Genesis.\" In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 53–58. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.\nDon Seeman. \"The Watcher at the Window: Cultural Poetics of a Biblical Motif.\" Prooftexts, volume 24 (number 1) (Winter 2004): pages 1–50.", "Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 54–55. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005\nFrank Anthony Spina. \"Esau: The Face of God.\" In The Faith of the Outsider: Exclusion and Inclusion in the Biblical Story, pages 14–34. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005.\nW. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 172–93. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.", "Suzanne A. Brody. \"Esau's Prediction.\" In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 67. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.\nJames L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 39, 101, 133–51, 166, 197, 524. New York: Free Press, 2007.\nSusan Niditch. \"My Brother Esau Is a Hairy Man\": Hair and Identity in Ancient Israel. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.", "Dennis Sylva. \"The Blessing of a Wounded Patriarch: Genesis 27.1–40.\" Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 32 (number 3) (March 2008): pages 267–86.\nJoachim J. Krause. \"Tradition, History, and Our Story: Some Observations on Jacob and Esau in the Books of Obadiah and Malachi.\" Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 32 (number 4) (June 2008): pages 475–86.", "The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 133–56. New York: URJ Press, 2008.\nJonathan Goldstein. \"Jacob and Esau.\" In Ladies and Gentlemen, the Bible! pages 79–114. New York: Riverhead Books, 2009.\nReuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 35–39. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.", "Sarra Lev. \"Esau’s Gender Crossing: Parashat Toldot (Genesis 25:19–28:9).\" In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 38–42. New York: New York University Press, 2009.\nTimothy Keller. \"The End of Counterfeit Gods.\" In Counterfeit Gods: The Empty Promises of Money, Sex, and Power, and the Only Hope that Matters. Dutton Adult, 2009. (Jacob and Esau).", "Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Genesis: The Book of Beginnings, pages 145–75. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2009.\nCarolyn J. Sharp. \"Pharaoh and Abimelech as Innocents Ensnared.\" In Irony and Meaning in the Hebrew Bible, pages 51–54. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2009.", "John H. Walton. \"Genesis.\" In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 104–06. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.\nRaymond Westbrook. \"Good as His Word: Jacob Manipulates Justice.\" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 35 (number 3) (May/June 2009): pages 50–55, 64.\nBradford A. Anderson. “The Inversion of the Birth Order and the Title of the Firstborn.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 4) (2010): pages 655–58.", "David J. Zucker. \"The Deceiver Deceived: Rereading Genesis 27.\" Jewish Bible Quarterly, volume 39 (number 1) (January–March 2011): pages 46–58.\nCalum Carmichael. The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis, pages 4, 19–20, 91, 100–01, 103–05, 110, 112, 114–15, 118, 120–21, 123–24, 126–27, 130, 132, 135–36, 147, 149, 156, 162–63. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.", "William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, page 173. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.\nChee-Chiew Lee. \"Once Again: The Niphal and the Hithpael of in the Abrahamic Blessing for the Nations.\" Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 36 (number 3) (March 2012): pages 279–96. (Genesis 26:4).", "Shmuel Herzfeld. \"A Crowning Achievement.\" In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 29–34. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.\nJosh Feigelson. \"Knowledge, power and abuse.\" The Jerusalem Report, volume 25 (number 17) (December 1, 2014): page 47.\nJonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 27–30. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.", "\"The Hittites: Between Tradition and History.\" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 42 (number 2) (March/April 2016): pages 28–40, 68.\nJean-Pierre Isbouts. Archaeology of the Bible: The Greatest Discoveries From Genesis to the Roman Era, pages 58–62. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2016.\nJonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 33–39. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.", "Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 1: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Genesis and Exodus, pages 49–59. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.", "Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 18–20. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.\nJeffrey K. Salkin. The JPS B'nai Mitzvah Torah Commentary, pages 25–30. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.\nPallant Ramsundar. \"Biblical Mistranslations to 'Euphrates' and the Impact on the Borders of Israel.\" American Journal of Biblical Theology (2019).\nLiana Finck. Let There Be Light: The Real Story of Her Creation, pages 237–48. New York: Random House, 2022.", "External links\n\nTexts\nMasoretic text and 1917 JPS translation\nHear the parashah chanted\nHear the parashah read in Hebrew\n\nCommentaries", "Academy for Jewish Religion, California\nAcademy for Jewish Religion, New York\nAish.com\nAmerican Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies\nBar-Ilan University\nChabad.org\nJewish Theological Seminary\nThe Israel Koschitzky Virtual Beit Midrash\nMechon Hadar\nMyJewishLearning.com\nOrthodox Union\nPardes from Jerusalem\nReconstructing Judaism\nSephardic Institute\nTanach Study Center\nTheTorah.com\nTorah.org\nUnion for Reform Judaism\nUnited Synagogue of Conservative Judaism\nYeshivat Chovevei Torah", "Torah.org\nUnion for Reform Judaism\nUnited Synagogue of Conservative Judaism\nYeshivat Chovevei Torah\nYeshiva University", "Weekly Torah readings in Cheshvan\nWeekly Torah readings from Genesis" ]

[ "Menopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time when menstrual periods permanently cease, marking the end of reproduction. It typically occurs between the ages of 45 and 55, although the exact timing can vary. Menopause is usually a natural change. It can occur earlier in those who smoke tobacco. Other causes include surgery that removes both ovaries or some types of chemotherapy", ". Other causes include surgery that removes both ovaries or some types of chemotherapy. At the physiological level, menopause happens because of a decrease in the ovaries' production of the hormones estrogen and progesterone. While typically not needed, a diagnosis of menopause can be confirmed by measuring hormone levels in the blood or urine. Menopause is the opposite of menarche, the time when a girl's periods start.", "In the years before menopause, a woman's periods typically become irregular, which means that periods may be longer or shorter in duration or be lighter or heavier in the amount of flow. During this time, women often experience hot flashes; these typically last from 30 seconds to ten minutes and may be associated with shivering, night sweats, and reddening of the skin. Hot flashes can recur for four to five years. Other symptoms may include vaginal dryness, trouble sleeping, and mood changes", ". Other symptoms may include vaginal dryness, trouble sleeping, and mood changes. The severity of symptoms varies between women.", "Menopause before the age of 45 years is considered to be \"early menopause\" and when ovarian failure/surgical removal of the ovaries occurs before the age of 40 years this is termed \"premature ovarian insufficiency\".", "In addition to symptoms (hot flushes/flashes, night sweats, mood changes, arthralgia and vaginal dryness), the physical consequences of menopause include bone loss, increased central abdominal fat, and adverse changes in a woman's cholesterol profile and vascular function. These changes predispose postmenopausal women to increased risks of osteoporosis and bone fracture, and of cardio-metabolic disease (diabetes and cardiovascular disease).", "Medical professionals often define menopause as having occurred when a woman has not had any menstrual bleeding for a year. It may also be defined by a decrease in hormone production by the ovaries. In those who have had surgery to remove their uterus but still have functioning ovaries, menopause is not considered to have yet occurred. Following the removal of the uterus, symptoms of menopause typically occur earlier", ". Following the removal of the uterus, symptoms of menopause typically occur earlier. Iatrogenic menopause occurs when both ovaries are surgically removed along with uterus for medical reasons.", "The primary indications for treatment of menopause are symptoms and prevention of bone loss. Mild symptoms may be improved with treatment. With respect to hot flashes, avoiding smoking, caffeine, and alcohol is often recommended; sleeping naked in a cool room and using a fan may help. The most effective treatment for menopausal symptoms is menopausal hormone therapy (MHT)", ". The most effective treatment for menopausal symptoms is menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). Non hormonal therapies for hot flashes include cognitive-behavioral therapy, clinical hypnosis, gabapentin, fezolinetant or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. These will not improve symptoms such as joint pain or vaginal dryness which affect over 55% of women. Exercise may help with sleeping problems", ". Exercise may help with sleeping problems. Many of the concerns about the use of MHT raised by older studies are no longer considered barriers to MHT in healthy women. High-quality evidence for the effectiveness of alternative medicine has not been found.", "Signs and symptoms \n\nDuring early menopause transition, the menstrual cycles remain regular but the interval between cycles begins to lengthen. Hormone levels begin to fluctuate. Ovulation may not occur with each cycle.", "The term menopause refers to a point in time that follows one year after the last menstruation. During the menopausal transition and after menopause, women can experience a wide range of symptoms. However, for women who enter the menopause transition without having regular menstrual cycles (due to prior surgery, other medical conditions or ongoing hormonal contraception) the menopause cannot be identified by bleeding patterns and is defined as the permanent loss of ovarian function.\n\nVagina and uterus", "During the transition to menopause, menstrual patterns can show shorter cycling (by 2–7 days); longer cycles remain possible. There may be irregular bleeding (lighter, heavier, spotting). Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is often experienced by women approaching menopause due to the hormonal changes that accompany the menopause transition. Spotting or bleeding may simply be related to vaginal atrophy, a benign sore (polyp or lesion), or may be a functional endometrial response", ". The European Menopause and Andropause Society has released guidelines for assessment of the endometrium, which is usually the main source of spotting or bleeding.", "In post-menopausal women, however, any unscheduled vaginal bleeding is of concern and requires an appropriate investigation to rule out the possibility of malignant diseases.\n\nUrogenital symptoms that may appear during menopause and continue through postmenopause include:", "Urogenital symptoms that may appear during menopause and continue through postmenopause include:\n\n painful intercourse\n vaginal dryness\n atrophic vaginitis – thinning of the membranes of the vulva, the vagina, the cervix, and the outer urinary tract, along with considerable shrinking and loss in elasticity of all of the outer and inner genital areas.\n Urinary urgency and burning\n\nOther physical effects", "The most common physical symptoms of menopause are heavy night sweats, and hot flashes (also known as vasomotor symptoms). Sleeping problems and insomnia are also common", ". Sleeping problems and insomnia are also common. Other physical symptoms may be reported that are not specific to menopause but may be exacerbated by it, such as lack of energy, joint soreness, stiffness, back pain, breast enlargement, breast pain, heart palpitations, headache, dizziness, dry, itchy skin, thinning, tingling skin, rosacea, weight gain, urinary incontinence, urinary urgency.", "Mood and memory effects \nPsychological symptoms are often reported but they are not specific to menopause and can be caused by other factors. They include anxiety, poor memory, inability to concentrate, depressive mood, irritability, mood swings, and less interest in sexual activity.", "Menopause-related cognitive impairment can be confused with the mild cognitive impairment that precedes dementia. There is evidence of small decreases in verbal memory, on average, which may be caused by the effects of declining estrogen levels on the brain, or perhaps by reduced blood flow to the brain during hot flashes. However, these tend to resolve for most women during the postmenopause", ". However, these tend to resolve for most women during the postmenopause. Subjective reports of memory and concentration problems are associated with several factors, such as lack of sleep, and stress.", "Long-term effects", "Cardiovascular health", "Exposure to endogenous estrogen during reproductive years provides women with protection against cardiovascular disease, which is lost around 10 years after the onset of menopause. The menopausal transition is associated with an increase in fat mass (predominantly in visceral fat), an increase in insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, and endothelial dysfunction", ". Women with vasomotor symptoms during menopause seem to have an especially unfavorable cardiometabolic profile, as well as women with premature onset of menopause (before 45 years of age). These risks can be reduced by managing risk factors, such as tobacco smoking, hypertension, increased blood lipids and body weight.", "Bone health \nThe annual rates of bone mineral density loss are highest starting one year before the final menstrual period and continuing through the two years after it. Thus, post menopausal women are at increased risk of osteopenia, osteoporosis and fractures.", "Causes \nMenopause can be induced or occur naturally. Induced menopause occurs as a result of medical treatment such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, oophorectomy, or complications of tubal ligation, hysterectomy, unilateral or bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy or leuprorelin usage.", "Age", "Menopause typically occurs at some point between 47 and 54 years of age. According to various data, more than 95% of women have their last period between the ages of 44–56 (median 49–50). 2% of women under the age of 40, 5% between the ages of 40–45 and the same number between the ages of 55–58 have their last bleeding. The average age of the last period in the United States is 51 years, in Russia is 50 years, in Greece is 49 years, in Turkey is 47 years, in Egypt is 47 years and in India is 46 years", ". The menopausal transition or perimenopause leading up to menopause usually lasts 3–4 years (sometimes as long as 5–14 years).", "In rare cases, a woman's ovaries stop working at a very early age, ranging anywhere from the age of puberty to age 40. This is known as premature ovarian failure and affects 1 to 2% of women by age 40.", "Undiagnosed and untreated coeliac disease is a risk factor for early menopause. Coeliac disease can present with several non-gastrointestinal symptoms, in the absence of gastrointestinal symptoms, and most cases escape timely recognition and go undiagnosed, leading to a risk of long-term complications. A strict gluten-free diet reduces the risk. Women with early diagnosis and treatment of coeliac disease present a normal duration of fertile life span.", "Women who have undergone hysterectomy with ovary conservation go through menopause on average 1.5 years earlier than the expected age.\n\nPremature ovarian insufficiency \nPremature ovarian insufficiency (POI) is when the ovaries stop functioning before the age of 40 years. It is diagnosed or confirmed by high blood levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) on at least three occasions at least four weeks apart.", "Premature ovarian insufficiency may be auto immune and therefore co occur with other autoimmune disorders such as thyroid disease, [adrenal insufficiency], and diabetes mellitus. Other causes include chemotherapy, being a carrier of the fragile X syndrome gene, and radiotherapy. However, in about 50–80% of cases of premature ovarian insufficiency, the cause is unknown, i.e., it is generally idiopathic.", "An early menopause can be related to cigarette smoking, higher body mass index, racial and ethnic factors, illnesses, and the removal of the uterus.\n\nRates of premature menopause have been found to be significantly higher in fraternal and identical twins; approximately 5% of twins reach menopause before the age of 40. The reasons for this are not completely understood. Transplants of ovarian tissue between identical twins have been successful in restoring fertility.", "Surgical menopause", "Menopause can be surgically induced by bilateral oophorectomy (removal of ovaries), which is often, but not always, done in conjunction with removal of the Fallopian tubes (salpingo-oophorectomy) and uterus (hysterectomy). Cessation of menses as a result of removal of the ovaries is called \"surgical menopause\". Surgical treatments, such as the removal of ovaries, might cause periods to stop altogether", ". Surgical treatments, such as the removal of ovaries, might cause periods to stop altogether. The sudden and complete drop in hormone levels may produce extreme withdrawal symptoms such as hot flashes, etc. The symptoms of early menopause may be more severe.", "Removal of the uterus without removal of the ovaries does not directly cause menopause, although pelvic surgery of this type can often precipitate a somewhat earlier menopause, perhaps because of a compromised blood supply to the ovaries. The time between surgery and possible early menopause is due to the fact that ovaries are still producing hormones.\n\nMechanism", "The menopausal transition, and postmenopause itself, is a natural change, not usually a disease state or a disorder. The main cause of this transition is the natural depletion and aging of the finite amount of oocytes (ovarian reserve). This process is sometimes accelerated by other conditions and is known to occur earlier after a wide range of gynecologic procedures such as hysterectomy (with and without ovariectomy), endometrial ablation and uterine artery embolisation", ". The depletion of the ovarian reserve causes an increase in circulating follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels because there are fewer oocytes and follicles responding to these hormones and producing estrogen.", "The transition has a variable degree of effects.\n\nThe stages of the menopause transition have been classified according to a woman's reported bleeding pattern, supported by changes in the pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels.", "In younger women, during a normal menstrual cycle the ovaries produce estradiol, testosterone and progesterone in a cyclical pattern under the control of FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are both produced by the pituitary gland. During perimenopause (approaching menopause), estradiol levels and patterns of production remain relatively unchanged or may increase compared to young women, but the cycles become frequently shorter or irregular", ". The often observed increase in estrogen is presumed to be in response to elevated FSH levels that, in turn, is hypothesized to be caused by decreased feedback by inhibin. Similarly, decreased inhibin feedback after hysterectomy is hypothesized to contribute to increased ovarian stimulation and earlier menopause.", "The menopausal transition is characterized by marked, and often dramatic, variations in FSH and estradiol levels. Because of this, measurements of these hormones are not considered to be reliable guides to a woman's exact menopausal status.", "Menopause occurs because of the sharp decrease of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries. After menopause, estrogen continues to be produced mostly by aromatase in fat tissues and is produced in small amounts in many other tissues such as ovaries, bone, blood vessels, and the brain where it acts locally. The substantial fall in circulating estradiol levels at menopause impacts many tissues, from brain to skin.", "In contrast to the sudden fall in estradiol during menopause, the levels of total and free testosterone, as well as dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and androstenedione appear to decline more or less steadily with age. An effect of natural menopause on circulating androgen levels has not been observed. Thus specific tissue effects of natural menopause cannot be attributed to loss of androgenic hormone production.", "Hot flashes and other vasomotor and body symptoms accompanying the menopausal transition are associated with estrogen insufficiency and changes that occur in the brain, primarily the hypothalamus and involve complex interplay between the neurotransmitters kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin, which are found in KNDy neurons in the infundibular nucleus.", "Long-term effects of menopause may include osteoporosis, vaginal atrophy as well as changed metabolic profile resulting in increased cardiac and metabolic disease (diabetes) risks.", "Ovarian aging", "Decreased inhibin feedback after hysterectomy is hypothesized to contribute to increased ovarian stimulation and earlier menopause. Hastened ovarian aging has been observed after endometrial ablation. While it is difficult to prove that these surgeries are causative, it has been hypothesized that the endometrium may be producing endocrine factors contributing to the endocrine feedback and regulation of the ovarian stimulation", ". Elimination of these factors contributes to faster depletion of the ovarian reserve. Reduced blood supply to the ovaries that may occur as a consequence of hysterectomy and uterine artery embolisation has been hypothesized to contribute to this effect.", "Impaired DNA repair mechanisms may contribute to earlier depletion of the ovarian reserve during aging. As women age, double-strand breaks accumulate in the DNA of their primordial follicles. Primordial follicles are immature primary oocytes surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells. An enzyme system is present in oocytes that ordinarily accurately repairs DNA double-strand breaks. This repair system is called \"homologous recombinational repair\", and it is especially effective during meiosis", ". Meiosis is the general process by which germ cells are formed in all sexual eukaryotes; it appears to be an adaptation for efficiently removing damages in germ line DNA.", "Human primary oocytes are present at an intermediate stage of meiosis, termed prophase I (see Oogenesis). Expression of four key DNA repair genes that are necessary for homologous recombinational repair during meiosis (BRCA1, MRE11, Rad51, and ATM) decline with age in oocytes. This age-related decline in ability to repair DNA double-strand damages can account for the accumulation of these damages, that then likely contributes to the depletion of the ovarian reserve.", "Diagnosis \nWays of assessing the impact on women of some of these menopause effects, include the Greene climacteric scale questionnaire, the Cervantes scale and the Menopause rating scale.", "Perimenopause \nThe term \"perimenopause\", which literally means \"around the menopause\", refers to the menopause transition years before the date of the final episode of flow. According to the North American Menopause Society, this transition can last for four to eight years. The Centre for Menstrual Cycle and Ovulation Research describes it as a six- to ten-year phase ending 12 months after the last menstrual period.", "During perimenopause, estrogen levels average about 20–30% higher than during premenopause, often with wide fluctuations. These fluctuations cause many of the physical changes during perimenopause as well as menopause, especially during the last 1–2 years of perimenopause (before menopause). Some of these changes are hot flashes, night sweats, difficulty sleeping, mood swings, vaginal dryness or atrophy, incontinence, osteoporosis, and heart disease", ". Perimenopause is also associated with a higher likelihood of depression (affecting from 45 percent to 68 percent of perimenopausal women), which is twice as likely to affect those with a history of depression.", "During this period, fertility diminishes but is not considered to reach zero until the official date of menopause. The official date is determined retroactively, once 12 months have passed after the last appearance of menstrual blood.", "The menopause transition typically begins between 40 and 50 years of age (average 47.5). The duration of perimenopause may be for up to eight years. Women will often, but not always, start these transitions (perimenopause and menopause) about the same time as their mother did.\n\nIn some women, menopause may bring about a sense of loss related to the end of fertility. In addition, this change often occurs when other stressors may be present in a woman's life:", "Caring for, and/or the death of, elderly parents\n Empty nest syndrome when children leave home\n The birth of grandchildren, which places people of \"middle age\" into a new category of \"older people\" (especially in cultures where being older is a state that is looked down on)", "Some research appears to show that melatonin supplementation in perimenopausal women can improve thyroid function and gonadotropin levels, as well as restoring fertility and menstruation and preventing depression associated with menopause.", "Postmenopause \nThe term \"postmenopausal\" describes women who have not experienced any menstrual flow for a minimum of 12 months, assuming that they have a uterus and are not pregnant or lactating. In women without a uterus, menopause or postmenopause can be identified by a blood test showing a very high FSH level. Thus postmenopause is the time in a woman's life that takes place after her last period or, more accurately, after the point when her ovaries become inactive.", "The reason for this delay in declaring postmenopause is that periods are usually erratic at this time of life. Therefore, a reasonably long stretch of time is necessary to be sure that the cycling has ceased. At this point a woman is considered infertile; however, the possibility of becoming pregnant has usually been very low (but not quite zero) for a number of years before this point is reached.", "A woman's reproductive hormone levels continue to drop and fluctuate for some time into post-menopause, so hormone withdrawal effects such as hot flashes may take several years to disappear.\n\nA period-like flow during postmenopause, even spotting, may be a sign of endometrial cancer.", "A period-like flow during postmenopause, even spotting, may be a sign of endometrial cancer.\n\nManagement \nPerimenopause is a natural stage of life. It is not a disease or a disorder. Therefore, it does not automatically require any kind of medical treatment. However, in those cases where the physical, mental, and emotional effects of perimenopause are strong enough that they significantly disrupt the life of the woman experiencing them, palliative medical therapy may sometimes be appropriate.", "Menopausal hormone therapy \n\nIn the context of the menopause, menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) is the use of estrogen in women without a uterus and estrogen plus progestogen in women who have an intact uterus.", "MHT may be reasonable for the treatment of menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes. It is the most effective treatment option, especially when delivered as a skin patch. Its use, however, appears to increase the risk of strokes and blood clots. When used for menopausal symptoms the global recommendation is MHT should be prescribed for a long as there are defined treatment effects and goals for the individual woman.", "MHT is also effective for preventing bone loss and osteoporotic fracture, but it is generally recommended only for women at significant risk for whom other therapies are unsuitable.", "MHT may be unsuitable for some women, including those at increased risk of cardiovascular disease, increased risk of thromboembolic disease (such as those with obesity or a history of venous thrombosis) or increased risk of some types of cancer. There is some concern that this treatment increases the risk of breast cancer. Women at increased risk of cardiometabolic disease and VTE may be able to use transdermal estradiol which does not appear to increase risks in low to moderate doses.", "Adding testosterone to hormone therapy has a positive effect on sexual function in postmenopausal women, although it may be accompanied by hair growth or acne if used in excess. Transdermal testosterone therapy in appropriate dosing is generally safe.", "Selective estrogen receptor modulators", "SERMs are a category of drugs, either synthetically produced or derived from a botanical source, that act selectively as agonists or antagonists on the estrogen receptors throughout the body. The most commonly prescribed SERMs are raloxifene and tamoxifen. Raloxifene exhibits oestrogen agonist activity on bone and lipids, and antagonist activity on breast and the endometrium. Tamoxifen is in widespread use for treatment of hormone sensitive breast cancer", ". Tamoxifen is in widespread use for treatment of hormone sensitive breast cancer. Raloxifene prevents vertebral fractures in postmenopausal, osteoporotic women and reduces the risk of invasive breast cancer.", "Other medications \nSome of the SSRIs and SNRIs appear to provide some relief from vasomotor symptoms. The most effective SSRIs and SNRIs are paroxetine, escitalopram, citalopram, venlafaxine, and desvenlafaxine. They may, however, be associated with appetite and sleeping problems, constipation and nausea.\n\nGabapentin or fezolinetant can also improve the frequency and severity of vasomotor symptoms. Side effects of using gabapentin include drowsiness and headaches.", "Therapy \nCognitive behavioural therapy and clinical hypnosis can decrease the amount women are affected by hot flashes. Mindfulness is not yet proven to be effective in easing vasomotor symptoms.", "Lifestyle and exercise \nExercise has been thought to reduce postmenopausal symptoms through the increase of endorphin levels, which decrease as estrogen production decreases. However there is insufficient evidence to suggest that exercise helps with the symptoms of menopause. Similarly, yoga has not been shown to be useful as a treatment for vasomotor symptoms.\n\nHowever a high BMI is a risk factor for vasomotor symptoms in particular. Weight loss may help with symptom management.", "There is no strong evidence that cooling techniques such as using specific clothing or environment control tools (for example fans) help with symptoms. Paced breathing and relaxation are not effective in easing symptoms.\n\nDietary supplements \nThere is no evidence of consistent benefit of taking any dietary supplements or herbal products for menopausal symptoms. These widely marketed but ineffective supplements include soy isoflavones, pollen extracts, black cohosh, omega-3 among many others.", "Alternative medicine \nThere is no evidence of consistent benefit of alternative therapies for menopausal symptoms despite their popularity.\n\nThere is no evidence to support the efficacy of acupuncture as a management for menopausal symptoms. Research by Cochrane found not enough evidence to show a difference between Chinese herbal medicine and placebo for the vasomotor symptoms.\n\nOther efforts", "Lack of lubrication is a common problem during and after perimenopause. Vaginal moisturizers can help women with overall dryness, and lubricants can help with lubrication difficulties that may be present during intercourse. It is worth pointing out that moisturizers and lubricants are different products for different issues: some women complain that their genitalia are uncomfortably dry all the time, and they may do better with moisturizers", ". Those who need only lubricants do well using them only during intercourse.", "Low-dose prescription vaginal estrogen products such as estrogen creams are generally a safe way to use estrogen topically, to help vaginal thinning and dryness problems (see vaginal atrophy) while only minimally increasing the levels of estrogen in the bloodstream.\n Individual counseling or support groups can sometimes be helpful to handle sad, depressed, anxious or confused feelings women may be having as they pass through what can be for some a very challenging transition time.", "Osteoporosis can be minimized by smoking cessation, adequate vitamin D intake and regular weight-bearing exercise. The bisphosphonate drug alendronate may decrease the risk of a fracture, in women that have both bone loss and a previous fracture and less so for those with just osteoporosis.", "A surgical procedure where a part of one of the ovaries is removed earlier in life and frozen and then over time thawed and returned to the body (ovarian tissue cryopreservation) has been tried. While at least 11 women have undergone the procedure and paid over £6,000, there is no evidence it is safe or effective.", "Society and culture", "Attitudes and experiences", "The menopause transition is a process, involving hormonal, menstrual, and typically vasomotor changes. However, the experience of the menopause as a whole is very much influenced by psychological and social factors, such as past experience, lifestyle, social and cultural meanings of menopause, and a woman's social and material circumstances", ". Menopause has been described as a biopsychosocial experience, with social and cultural factors playing a prominent role in the way menopause is experienced and perceived.", "The paradigm within which a woman considers menopause influences the way she views it: women who understand menopause as a medical condition rate it significantly more negatively than those who view it as a life transition or a symbol of aging", ". There is some evidence that negative attitudes and expectations, held before the menopause, predict symptom experience during the menopause, and, interestingly, beliefs and attitudes toward menopause tend to be more positive in postmenopausal than in premenopausal women. Women with more negative attitudes towards the menopause report more symptoms during this transition.", "Menopause is a stage of life experienced in different ways. It can be characterized by personal challenges, changes in personal roles within the family and society. Women's approaches to changes during menopause are influenced by their personal, family and sociocultural background. Women from different regions and countries also have different attitudes. Postmenopausal women had more positive attitudes toward menopause compared with peri- or premenopausal women", ". Other influencing factors of attitudes toward menopause include age, menopausal symptoms, psychological and socioeconomical status, and profession and ethnicity.", "Ethnicity and geography play roles in the experience of menopause. American women of different ethnicities report significantly different types of menopausal effects. One major study found Caucasian women most likely to report what are sometimes described as psychosomatic symptoms, while African-American women were more likely to report vasomotor symptoms.", "There may be variations in experiences of women from different ethnic backgrounds regarding menopause and care. Immigrant women reported more vasomotor symptoms and other physical symptoms and poorer mental health than non-immigrant women and were mostly dissatisfied with the care they had received. Self-management strategies for menopausal symptoms were also influenced by culture.", "Two multinational studies of Asian women, found that hot flushes were not the most commonly reported symptoms, instead body and joint aches, memory problems, sleeplessness, irritability and migraines were. In another study comparing experiences of menopause amongst White Australian women and women in Laos, Australian women reported higher rates of depression, as well as fears of aging, weight gain and cancer – fears not reported by Laotian women, who positioned menopause as a positive event.", "It seems that Japanese women experience menopause effects, or konenki, in a different way from American women. Japanese women report lower rates of hot flashes and night sweats; this can be attributed to a variety of factors, both biological and social. Historically, konenki was associated with wealthy middle-class housewives in Japan, i.e., it was a \"luxury disease\" that women from traditional, inter-generational rural households did not report", ". Menopause in Japan was viewed as a symptom of the inevitable process of aging, rather than a \"revolutionary transition\", or a \"deficiency disease\" in need of management.", "In Japanese culture, reporting of vasomotor symptoms has been on the increase, with research conducted in 2005 finding that of 140 Japanese participants, hot flashes were prevalent in 22.1%. This was almost double that of 20 years prior. Whilst the exact cause for this is unknown, possible contributing factors include significant dietary changes, increased medicalisation of middle-aged women and increased media attention on the subject", ". However, reporting of vasomotor symptoms is still significantly lower than North America.", "Additionally, while most women in the United States apparently have a negative view of menopause as a time of deterioration or decline, some studies seem to indicate that women from some Asian cultures have an understanding of menopause that focuses on a sense of liberation and celebrates the freedom from the risk of pregnancy. Diverging from these conclusions, one study appeared to show that many American women \"experience this time as one of liberation and self-actualization\".\n\nImpact on work", "Impact on work \n\nMidlife is typically a life stage when men and women may be dealing with demanding life events and responsibilities, such as work, health problems, and caring roles. For example in 2018 in the UK women aged 45-54 report more work-related stress than men or women of any other age group. Hot flushes are often reported to be particularly distressing at work and lead to embarrassment and worry about potential stigmatisation.", "Etymology", "Menopause literally means the \"end of monthly cycles\" (the end of monthly periods or menstruation), from the Greek word pausis (\"pause\") and mēn (\"month\"). This is a medical coinage; the Greek word for menses is actually different. In Ancient Greek, the menses were described in the plural, (\"the monthlies\"), and its modern descendant has been clipped to ta emmēna. The Modern Greek medical term is emmenopausis in Katharevousa or emmenopausi in Demotic Greek", ". The Modern Greek medical term is emmenopausis in Katharevousa or emmenopausi in Demotic Greek. The Ancient Greeks did not produce medical concepts about any symptoms associated with end of menstruation and did not use a specific word to refer to this time of a woman's life. The word menopause was invented by French doctors at the beginning of the nineteenth century", ". The word menopause was invented by French doctors at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Greek etymology was reconstructed at this time and it was the Parisian student doctor Charles-Pierre-Louis de Gardanne who invented the a variation of the word in 1812, which was edited to its final French form in 1821.", "Some of them noted that peasant women had no complaints about the end of menses, while urban middle-class women had many troubling symptoms. Doctors at this time considered the symptoms to be the result of urban lifestyles of sedentary behaviour, alcohol consumption, too much time indoors, and over-eating, with a lack of fresh fruit and vegetables.", "The word \"menopause\" was coined specifically for human females, where the end of fertility is traditionally indicated by the permanent stopping of monthly menstruations. However, menopause exists in some other animals, many of which do not have monthly menstruation; in this case, the term means a natural end to fertility that occurs before the end of the natural lifespan.", "Menopause in popular culture \nIn recent years celebrities have spoken out about their experiences of the menopause, which has led to it becoming less of a taboo as it has boosted awareness of the debilitating symptoms.", "This has led to TV shows running features on the menopause to help women experiencing symptoms. In the UK Lorraine Kelly has been an advocate for getting women to speak about their experiences including sharing her own. This has led to an increase in women seeking treatment such as HRT. Davina McCall also lead an awareness campaign based on a documentary on Channel 4.", "Other animals \nFew animals have a menopause: humans are joined by just four other species in which females live substantially longer than their ability to reproduce. The others are all cetaceans: beluga whales, narwhals, orcas and short-finned pilot whales. Life histories show a varying degree of senescence; rapid senescing organisms (e.g., Pacific salmon and annual plants) do not have a post-reproductive life-stage. Gradual senescence is exhibited by all placental mammalian life histories.", "Menopause also has been reported in a variety of other vertebrate species but these examples tend to be from captive individuals, and thus they are not necessarily representative of what happens in natural populations in the wild. Menopause in captivity has been observed in several species of nonhuman primates, including rhesus monkeys and chimpanzees. Some research suggests that wild chimpanzees do not experience menopause, as their fertility declines are associated with declines in overall health", ". Menopause also has been reported in a variety of other vertebrate species in captivity such as elephants and guppies. Dogs do not experience menopause; the canine estrus cycle simply becomes irregular and infrequent. Although older female dogs are not considered good candidates for breeding, offspring have been produced by older animals. Similar observations have been made in cats.", "Evolution of menopause", "There are various theories on the origin and process of the evolution of the menopause. These attempt to suggest evolutionary benefits to the human species stemming from the cessation of women's reproductive capability before the end of their natural lifespan", ". It is conjectured that in highly social groups natural selection favors females that stop reproducing and devote that post-reproductive life span to continuing to care for existing offspring, both their own and those of others to whom they are related, especially their granddaughters and grandsons.", "See also \n European Menopause and Andropause Society\n Menopause in the workplace\n Menopause in incarceration\n Pregnancy over age 50\n Biological clock\n Evolution of menopause\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Menopause: MedlinePlus\n What Is Menopause?, National Institute on Aging\n Menopause & Me, The North American Menopause Society", "Developmental stages\nEndocrinology\nGynaecological endocrinology\nMenstrual cycle\nMiddle age\nSenescence\nWikipedia medicine articles ready to translate\nHuman female endocrine system" ]

[ "Bionic is the sixth studio album by American singer Christina Aguilera. It was released on June 4, 2010, by RCA Records. Inspired by Aguilera's taste for electronic music, Bionic is characterized as an electropop, futurepop and R&B record. The first half consists of electronic songs incorporating synthesizers and electronic beats, while the second half displays a balladic production. The album's main themes include sex and feminism.", "Bionic received mixed reviews from music critics upon its debut. The record opened at a peak of number three on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 110,000 copies, selling 500,000 album-equivalents as of June 2018. Internationally, the album peaked inside the top ten in most countries, including a number-one debut on the UK Albums Chart. At the time of its release, Bionic was the lowest-selling UK Albums Chart number-one album of the last eight years.", "The album spawned a number of singles: \"Not Myself Tonight\" was released in April 2010, and \"You Lost Me\" was released in June; \"Woohoo\" was released in the United States and some European countries, while \"I Hate Boys\" was released exclusively in Oceania. Bionic was promoted in mid-2010 by television performances, such as Aguilera's appearances on The Oprah Winfrey Show, the ninth season of American Idol, Today and MTV Movie Awards", ". A concert tour, titled The Bionic Tour, was initially planned to support the album, but was ultimately canceled due to Aguilera's heavy promotional schedule for the album and then-upcoming film Burlesque (2010).", "Background and development", "After a successful 2006, during which Aguilera released her critically acclaimed and commercially successful fifth studio album Back to Basics, Aguilera received a nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007) and won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for its lead single \"Ain't No Other Man\"", ". While on the Asian leg of the Back to Basics Tour, during the summer of 2007, Aguilera said that her upcoming album would be \"short, sweet and completely different\" from its predecessor. After the birth of her son Max, Aguilera stated in an interview with Ryan Seacrest that her forthcoming album would include a completely new aspect of herself as an artist, because of the pregnancy with her son", ". In a February 2008 interview with People, Aguilera stated that she was going to start recording new material for her forthcoming album at her Beverly Hills, California residence. DJ Premier, who, at the time, was working on projects for his record label Year Round Records, shared plans to head back into the studio with Aguilera, and stated: \"She's doing an all pop album again, but she wants me to keep the tone like what we did before. She's ready to start next month", ". She's ready to start next month.\" Linda Perry, who had previously worked with Aguilera was to be included in the project too. In an interview with Billboard in October 2008, Aguilera said that the album would be mostly produced by Perry.", "During the initial recording sessions, Aguilera released her first greatest hits album Keeps Gettin' Better: A Decade of Hits (2008), which featured two new songs that were derived from electronic music, and she announced that the compilation was in the vein of where the upcoming album was going to go, which was a very futuristic approach to music. \"I get off on working with creative energy\", Aguilera said, and added: \"That's when I'm most at home and feel happiest", ". And all these people brought about new sides of me. It was a big collaboration-fest, and it felt so good and rewarding in the end, because I was just so happy with the work and the new territories that I ventured out to.\" Aguilera also remarked that her son inspired her to experiment in ways \"that maybe I've been afraid to do in the past, to allow myself to go to a place of 'less singing'\", adding: \"[It] is just about the future – my son in my life, motivating me to want to play and have fun.\"", "Recording and production", "Aguilera set about contacting collaborators on her own accord, at the behest of then-husband Jordan Bratman, without relying on the record label A&R. She stated: \"Going into [each of these partnerships], I said, 'I'm a really big fan of yours, and I'm interested in stepping into your world and what you do'\", adding: \"'I want to combine that with my sound, and let's see what happens.' I feel like I can do so much with my voice", ".' I feel like I can do so much with my voice. I would be so bored sitting on a stool singing ballad after ballad just because I can.\" Australian singer-songwriter Sia and her collaborator Samuel Dixon worked with Aguilera on a number of tracks for the album. Aguilera told Billboard that she was a big fan of Furler and stated that she was thrilled when Furler said that she wanted to work with her as well", ". They recorded together at a studio in January 2009, and, according to Furler's blog, wrote four songs together during the sessions. Members of British electronic band Ladytron, Daniel Hunt and Reuben Wu, went to Los Angeles to meet Aguilera in December 2008 after hearing that they were one of her favorite bands", ". During the meeting, Aguilera identified what kind of Ladytron songs she liked, with Hunt later saying: \"We were impressed because she had a real deep knowledge of our music – album tracks, not just the singles!\". The band stated: \"We went in with no expectations; the whole thing was a massive surprise. But it was incredible. She was so musically talented, a vocalist who really knows her voice", ". But it was incredible. She was so musically talented, a vocalist who really knows her voice. The first takes sounded really amazing, and while we'd made demos, it was only when her voice was on them that it all came to life.\" They finished working with Aguilera in March 2009 and produced four or five songs, but only three made the final cut. Two songs produced by the band – \"Birds of Prey\" and \"Little Dreamer\" – appeared on the deluxe edition of the album", ". Meanwhile, the third song \"Kimono Girl\" did not make the final cut, although it has been highly anticipated by fans. British duo Goldfrapp said in a January 2010 interview that they did not finish the studio sessions and did not know whether their songs would make the final cut.", "The Australian said that the production team The Neptunes were to work with Aguilera on the album. In an interview with HitQuarters, Dr. Dre protege Focus... said: \"We did a song and an interlude together.\" He produced the beats for \"Sex for Breakfast\", which were then worked on by Aguilera and producer Noel \"Detail\" Fisher. Focus... got involved with the project because he and Aguilera share a loyal and longtime engineer Oscar Ramirez; Ramirez suggested and arranged the pairing. Focus..", ". Focus... commented about the experience: \"[Aguilera] knows exactly what she is looking for and is not afraid to tell you. It was the first project I've ever worked on where someone sent me examples and showed me exact parts in the song they were looking for.\" Aguilera announced on her E! television special that she was going to be working with American dance-punk band Le Tigre. In August 2009, Aguilera said that she co-wrote tracks with British Tamil rapper and singer–songwriter M.I.A", ".I.A. and American singer Santigold, and according to American producer Tricky Stewart, Flo Rida would be featured on the album. Producer Polow da Don, who produced two of the four singles released from the project, was the only producer to be suggested by RCA Records and not contacted by Aguilera personally. Additionally, Stewart and Claude Kelly wrote the song \"Glam\", which was described as \"a hard club song that's about high fashion", ". It's really for the ladies about getting dressed and looking your best, working it in the club and getting glam and sexy before you go out. ... It will surprise people. I'm calling it a modern day \"Vogue.\" I wouldn't say it unless I believed it.\" Kelly also co-wrote three other tracks for the album, including the first two singles \"Not Myself Tonight\" and \"Woohoo\". He described the four tracks as being \"up-tempo and fun, they're party anthems but at the same time have underlying messages", ".\" Commenting on the experience of working with Aguilera, Kelly said: \"What people don't know about her is that she's actually a really good writer. She has good ideas, good melodies, good concepts ... She's really involved from the very beginning to the very end.\"", "Composition\n\nMusic and lyrics", "Bionic is musically inspired by Aguilera's taste of electronic subgenres, including electronica. The album was mostly described as futurepop, while Andy Gill of The Independent noted the hybrid of electro and R&B on the project, and The New York Timess Alex Hagwood characterized it as an electropop album. Bionic consists of eighteen tracks on the standard edition, and twenty-three on the deluxe edition", ". Bionic consists of eighteen tracks on the standard edition, and twenty-three on the deluxe edition. The standard edition consists mostly of electropop songs, heavily incorporating synthesizers and electronic beats. Mike Usinger from The Georgia Straight opined that the accompaniment of synthesizers on the project \"offers up a rise-of-the-fembots strain of robo-pop that sounds like LCD Soundsystem-era Williamsburg.\" A few tracks are done up with Auto-Tune", ".\" A few tracks are done up with Auto-Tune. Multiple music critics recognized sex as the main theme of Bionic. Eric Handerson of Slant elaborated that the album \"[is] all in service of routine pop sex, the sort of standard-issue sleaze that [...] stood in stark contrast against", "...] stood in stark contrast against.\" Echoing Handerson's point of view, The Georgia Straights Mike Usinger commented: \"Where past Xtina efforts have hinted that's she's horny to the core, Bionic makes a concrete case that she's the dirtiest girl working in mainstream pop.\" Bionic also displays feminism as a prominent theme; Kitty Empire from The Observer labelled Bionic a \"cranking post-feminist party album\"", ". According to Mike Wass of Idolator some of the explored subjects on the album are sex positivity and female empowerment. In June 2020, Aguilera stated that Bionic is \"all about being unabashedly yourself\".", "Songs", "The first seven songs are uptempo and club-inspired. The album's titled and opening track \"Bionic\" is an electronic track, featuring tribal house drums, Morse code riffs, and synthesizers. \"Not Myself Tonight\" takes influence from tribal house and incorporates synthesizers, pulsing basslines, and house drums in its instrumentation. On the song, Aguilera explicitly announces her new persona and style adopted on Bionic, declaring that \"The old me's gone I feel brand new / And if you don't like it, fuck you", ".\" The third track \"Woohoo\", featuring rapper Nicki Minaj, was detailed as an electro number, and speaks about oral sex, containing lyrics such as: \"All the boys think it's cake when they taste my woohoo / You don't even need a plate, just your face.\" The following track \"Elastic Love\" draws elements from 1980s new wave, and features \"808-esque backbeat\" in its foundation. On the song, Aguilera uses office supplies such as rubber bands as a metaphor for her relationship", ". On the song, Aguilera uses office supplies such as rubber bands as a metaphor for her relationship. \"Desnudate\", which means \"get naked\" in Spanish, is a bilingual Spanish and English song in which Aguilera calls herself the \"supplier of lust, love and fire.\" Musically, it achieves electro horns", ".\" Musically, it achieves electro horns. \"Love & Glamour (Intro)\", which is a fashion-themed spoken interlude, follows, and is succeeded by \"Glam\", a \"throbbing\" dance-pop and electro song about high fashion and making up before going out, which was characterized as a hip hop-influenced throwback to Madonna's song \"Vogue\" (1990). \"Prima Donna\" is a retro styled combination of classic pop, dance-pop and electronic music", ". \"Prima Donna\" is a retro styled combination of classic pop, dance-pop and electronic music. It talks about strong women, with background vocals from Lil Jon, who encourages them to \"work yo' body\" in the track.", "The second half of Bionic explores a more balladic production. It begins with \"Morning Dessert (Intro)\", a soft soul interlude, which describes sex as a daily routine of Aguilera and her husband. On \"Sex for Breakfast\", which is an R&B ballad, Aguilera characterized her lover's penis as a \"honey drip.\" The song is, according to musicOMH's Michael Cragg, similar to works by Janet Jackson", ".\" The song is, according to musicOMH's Michael Cragg, similar to works by Janet Jackson. Aguilera explores her personal issues, such as motherhood and insecurities on ballads, which The Guardians Alexis Petridis deemed \"patented self-help ballads.\" The next four ballads \"Lift Me Up\", \"All I Need\", \"I Am\", and \"You Lost Me\" are piano-driven tracks that, in the words of Bent Koepp for Beats per Minute, \"have Aguilera showcasing some of her best vocal performances to date", ".\" \"All I Need\" is dedicated to Aguilera's son, while \"I Am\" expresses Aguilera's self-consciousness, and \"You Lost Me\" is about an unfaithful man. \"I Am\" and \"You Lost Me\" also feature string instruments. Leah Greenblatt, writing for Entertainment Weekly, compared the ballads to Fiona Apple's songs", ". The standard edition of Bionic concludes with three uptempo tracks, the electropop song \"I Hate Boys\" which features Aguilera insulting men, the electro-disco song \"My Girls\" featuring Peaches, on which Aguilera sings about her company enjoying a party, including lyrics such as \"My girls, we're stronger than one\", and the disco song \"Vanity\", which was detailed as \"an ode to the greatness of Aguilera cloaked in a paean to female empowerment\" by Allison Stewart from The Washington Post", ", depicts Aguilera as a \"harmless, mirror-kissing vamp", ".\" At the track's end, she questions: \"Who owns the throne?\", which her son as a toddler replies to: \"You do, mommy\".", "The deluxe edition includes five bonus tracks – four new songs and an acoustic version of \"I Am\" entitled \"I Am (Stripped)\". \"Monday Morning\" is a new wave track, which is accompanied on a funk guitar and handclaps. \"Bobblehead\" is a hip hop-inspired song that features a \"clattering, chanting\" beat. It berates women who, encouraged by a sexist culture, want to be valued more for their appearance than for their intellect", ". \"Birds of Prey\" is an synthpop-influenced electro song backed by \"cool\" synthesizers, and Aguilera's vocals are delivered in a whispered manner. \"Stronger Than Ever\" is a \"mournful\" ballad. The iTunes Store deluxe edition of Bionic also includes the \"electro nursery rhyme\" \"Little Dreamer\". It's a mid-tempo electropop ballad, characterized by \"a skittering beat filled with beeps, glitches and trills,\" according to the Billboard magazine. Aguilera's vocals are a farewell to her titular dreamer.", "Title and artwork", "The album was originally titled Light & Darkness; however, in February 2010, Aguilera announced that it would be titled Bionic. Bionics cover artwork was designed by D*Face. The album's cover, which was unveiled on March 25, 2010, features half of Aguilera's face and half of a robot, with platinum curled hair locks, bright red lips, and long eyelashes. Ruth Doherty from InStyle called the cover \"super-cool\" and compared Aguilera's look to that of Arnold Schwarzenegger in the Terminator film series", ". MTV Newsroom's Kyle Anderson named it \"delightfully strange\" and opined that the cover artwork features references the cover artwork for Tokio Hotel's third studio album Humanoid (2009) and Madonna's music video for \"Bedtime Story\" (1994).", "Release and promotion", "Originally entitled Light & Darkness, the album was set to be released in September 2009. In an interview for the February 2010 issue of Marie Claire, Aguilera announced that the project was entitled Bionic and would be made available in March 2010. However, on March 25 of that year, Aguilera re-confirmed that the album would be released on June 8. In May of that year, the fan edition of the project was made available for pre-order via Sony Music Entertainment", ". The release included exclusive features, including a 12-inch × 12-inch box, a triple vinyl set, a deluxe edition CD of Bionic, and two exclusive photographs of Aguilera. On June 4, 2010, Bionic was released for CD and digital download in Australia, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. In the United States and Canada, the album was released on June 8.", "Aguilera made several appearances on television shows in mid-2010 to promote Bionic. She appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 7 and performed the lead single \"Not Myself Tonight\". On May 26, Aguilera performed \"You Lost Me\" at the season finale of the ninth season of American Idol", ". The following month, Aguilera opened the 2010 MTV Movie Awards on June 6 with a medley of \"Bionic\", \"Not Myself Tonight\" and \"Woohoo\", and appeared on Today on June 8, where she performed \"Bionic\", \"Not Myself Tonight\", \"You Lost Me\", and two previous singles \"Beautiful\" and \"Fighter\"", ". Later that month, she performed \"You Lost Me\" on the Late Show with David Letterman on June 9, and \"Not Myself Tonight\", \"You Lost Me\", \"Fighter\" and a medley of \"Genie in a Bottle\" and \"What a Girl Wants\" on The Early Show on June 11. A VH1 Storytellers episode featuring Aguilera's performances aired on June 13.", "Aguilera initially planned to further promote the album by embarking on The Bionic Tour. It was announced in early May 2010 that twenty shows had been scheduled in North America, which would run from July 15, 2010, to August 19, 2010. British singer Leona Lewis was said to be a supporting act and the tour would be in conjunction with North American leg of Lewis's tour The Labyrinth (2010). Later that month, Aguilera announced that she would postponed the tour until 2011, however, that never happened", ". In a message from tour promoter Live Nation, Aguilera stated that due to the excessive promotion of the album and her then upcoming film debut in Burlesque, she felt it was necessary to take more time to rehearse the show and with less than a month between the album release and the tour, it was impossible to create a show as her fans' expectation.", "Singles", "\"Not Myself Tonight\" was released as Bionics lead single on April 2, 2010. It debuted and peaked at number twenty-three on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Aguilera's third highest solo debut on the chart after \"Keeps Gettin' Better\" (2008) and \"Ain't No Other Man\" (2006). Internationally, the song was a moderate commercial success, peaking at number twelve in the United Kingdom, and within the top forty in Australia, Austria, New Zealand and Sweden", ". The song received generally positive reviews from music critics, who complimented its club nature and Aguilera's vocals on the track; some reviewers also referred to it as her best uptempo recording since her single \"Dirrty\" (2002). The accompanying music video, directed by Hype Williams, featured a S&M theme with Aguilera sporting different bondage-inspired looks", ". Paying homage to Madonna's music videos for \"Express Yourself\" (1989) and \"Human Nature\" (1995), the video received mixed reviews from critics, who complimented its aesthetic but called it unoriginal.", "\"Woohoo\", featuring rapper Nicki Minaj, was released as the second single from Bionic. It was made available exclusively to the iTunes Store on May 18, 2010 before being serviced to rhythmic contemporary radio on May 25, 2010. The song peaked at number one-hundred-and-forty-eight on the UK Singles Chart due to high digital sales, but was never released as a single there. It received generally favorable reviews, with critics praising Minaj's appearance in the song and commending Aguilera's powerful vocals.", "\"You Lost Me\" was released as the album's third single on June 27, 2010. The song was sent to contemporary hit radio on June 29, 2010, in the United States. Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly called \"You Lost Me\" a \"lovely\" ballad and Amber James said the song was a \"somber track\" that brings the \"honesty and emotion that have made Aguilera one of the premier balladeers of our time.\" The music video premiered on Aguilera's official Vevo account on July 22", ".\" The music video premiered on Aguilera's official Vevo account on July 22. The music video's director Anthony Mandler also wrote the concept for the video, which features a series of connected vignettes. The song topped the US Dance Club Songs, making it the second single from Bionic to do so, after \"Not Myself Tonight\".", "\"I Hate Boys\" was released as the fourth single from the album exclusively in Australia and New Zealand. It was sent to Australian radio stations on June 28, 2010, and released digitally on September 3, 2010 in a two-track single format. It was the eighth most-added song to radio stations in Australia from the week ending July 23, 2010. It peaked at number twenty-eight on the Australian Airplay Chart.\n\nCritical reception\n\nInitial response", "Bionic received generally mixed reviews from music critics at the time of its release. In a positive review, AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine opined that the \"robot-diva hybrids are often interesting even when they stumble\". Margaret Wappler of the Los Angeles Times said that Aguilera's \"hyper-sexed lover bot\" persona is the album's \"most successful vein\". Pete Paphides of The Times gave the album four out of five stars and found it sounding \"older and more confident\" than her previous work", ". Kitty Empire, writing in The Observer, found it to be \"very strong, but only in parts\", and said that its strength \"lies in its core limb-shaking sass, even as it confuses girl-on-girl action with sisterhood.\" Drew Hinshaw of The Village Voice called it \"precisely produced club-pop that moves bodies, if not spirits.\" Alexis Petridis, writing in The Guardian, commented that Bionic is an \"occasionally brilliant and brave, occasionally teeth-gritting and stupid album.\"", "It was criticized as an attempt to take advantage of electropop's popularity and imitate the sound and image of Lady Gaga. Slant Magazine's Eric Henderson said that it is as \"efficient a pop entertainment\" as was Britney Spears' Circus, but felt that its attempt at hedonistic themes \"feels synthetic and compulsory", ".\" Andy Gill of The Independent said that, apart from its basic R&B balladry, the album imitates Spears' and Janet Jackson's \"electro-R&B schtick\" to disguise Aguilera's \"lack of any original approach.\" Jon Pareles, writing in The New York Times, remarked that its musical direction \"makes her sound as peer-pressured as a pop singer can be", ".\" Omar Kholeif of PopMatters said that the album is not good because of \"Aguilera's overzealous penchant for excess\", while Entertainment Weeklys Leah Greenblatt blamed her \"penchant for stock step-class beats and an aggressive, exhausting hypersexuality.\" The A.V. Clubs Genevieve Koski wrote that the album sounds \"muddled\" because of its heavy reliance on a cadre of songwriters and producers", ". Dan Martin of NME said that the occasionally \"daring\" tracks are marred by ordinary house licks that inhibit Aguilera's singing.", "Billboard described the album as the \"best mainstream pop album of the year thus far\" upon its release. Conversely, Entertainment Weekly later named Bionic the fifth worst album of 2010 in a year-end list.", "Retrospective commentary", "At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of hundred to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 56, based on twenty-one reviews. Sam Lansky wrote for MTV Buzzworthy in July 2012 that the album was \"precociously brilliant\" and most of its songs were \"thrilling\", claiming that \"the songs on the deluxe edition are forward-thinking and even timeless, galactic pop with subversive, ambient production", ".\" Lansky added that \"In its own way, Bionic neatly illustrates the dangers artists face when aggressively trying to keep up with 'current' music. As a result, futuristic pop tracks can already sound dated by the time they're released. And even when they don't, those chart-chasing songs don't age particularly gracefully. But two years after the fact, Bionics moments of greatness remain about as good as it gets", ". But two years after the fact, Bionics moments of greatness remain about as good as it gets.\" In similar vein, Mike Wass of Idolator asserted four months later that \"the album holds up better than expected, and is actually an intriguing — if somewhat disjointed and often meandering — collection of songs.\"", "While reviewing Aguilera's eighth studio album Liberation in June 2018, Pitchfork writer Claire Lobenfield retrospectively hailed Bionic as a record with \"cutting-edge singles\" that was \"perhaps too forward-thinking, a risk that could have reaped the rewards of poptimism if the album had only been released a few years later", ".\" The following October, Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle echoed these statements regarding the progressive nature of the album, calling Bionic \"a forward-thinking assertion of independence like Madonna's Erotica and Janet Jackson's The Velvet Rope.\"", "10 years after the release of Bionic, Glen Rowley of Billboard wrote the record had become \"something of a cult favorite LP\" over time and noted that since its release there were regular calls for \"#JusticeForBionic\" — the online campaign — on social media. Daniel Megarry of the Gay Times shared the same sentiment, calling it a \"cult\" record among the LGBTQ+ community, and believed it \"will likely be re-discovered as a forgotten jewel by pop music fans for years to come\"", ". Wass opined that \"Few albums have as many layers. Xtina blessed us with pitch-perfect bangers, beautiful ballads, quirky experiments and sexy slow jams. There is literally a bop for every mood.\" He also declared Bionic to be Aguilera's \"misunderstood opus\" and \"a sex-positive, genre-bending triumph\".", "An album track, \"Birds of Prey\", was ranked by Billboard as one of the hundred best deep cuts by 21st century pop stars.\n\nAccolades", "Commercial performance", "Unlike Aguilera's previous studio albums, Bionic had trouble maintaining commercial success in the international markets. On the week ending June 26, 2010, the album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 110,000 copies. However, those first-week sales were comparatively less than those of Aguilera's previous studio album Back to Basics (2006), which peaked at number one with 346,000 copies sold. The following week the album fell to number nine with sales of 36,388 copies", ". The following week the album fell to number nine with sales of 36,388 copies. In its third week, Bionic dropped to number twenty-two. Bionic has sold over 1.15 million tracks in the United States. As of August 2019, the album has sold 332,000 copies in the United States.", "As of June 2018, the album has moved 500,000 album-equivalent units in the United States, being certified by RIAA as Gold.", "The album ranked as the year's seventy-sixth best-selling album in the United States. On the week ending June 26, 2010, Bionic debuted at its peak position, number three, on the Canadian Albums Chart. The following week, it charted at number nine. In the United Kingdom, Bionic debuted atop the UK Albums Chart, becoming Aguilera's second consecutive studio album to debut atop the chart with 24,000 copies sold", ". It became the lowest-selling UK Albums Chart number-one album in eight years but the record was later broken by Marina and the Diamonds and Newton Faulkner in 2012. However, in the album's second week on the chart, it made the UK Albums Chart history when, on June 20, it registered the largest drop in chart history for a number one album by falling twenty-eight places to number twenty-nine, selling 9,754 copies that week", ". This was beat by The Vamps in 2017, when their album Night & Day fell thirty-four places from number one to number thirty-five. Bionic has been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).", "Bionic fared somewhat better in mainland Europe. It debuted atop the European Top 100 Albums, becoming Aguilera's second consecutive studio album to top the chart, staying atop the chart for one week. During the twenty-third week of 2010, the album debuted atop the Greek Top 50 Albums, replacing Soulfly's Omen, and receiving a gold certification from IFPI Greece", ". Another successful charting territory for Bionic was Switzerland, where the album peaked at number two, staying within the chart's top twenty-five for five consecutive weeks. The album also managed to peak within the top ten in Austria, Belgian region of Flanders, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain and Sweden. On the week ending June 12, Bionic debuted at number twenty-three on the French Albums Chart", ". On the week ending June 12, Bionic debuted at number twenty-three on the French Albums Chart. As of December 2010, it has sold over 10,000 copies in the country.", "The album peaked within the top ten in both Australia and New Zealand. On the week commencing June 14, the album debuted and peaked at number three on the Australian Albums Chart. It remained in the top five in its second week, and descended to number sixteen in its third week. In New Zealand, the album peaked at number six. Bionic was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments exceeding 35,000 copies.\n\nTrack listing", "Track listing \n\nNotes\n signifies a vocal producer\n\"Woohoo\" contains a sample from \"Add Már, Uram Az Esőt!\" performed by Kati Kovács.\n\"I Hate Boys\" contains a sample from \"Jungle Juice\", written by Bill Wellings and J.J. Hunter, and performed by Elektrik Cokernut.\nIn China \"Woohoo\", \"Morning Dessert (Intro)\" and \"Sex for Breakfast\" are not included on the track listing.\n\nPersonnel \nCredits adapted from the liner notes of Bionic", "Christina Aguilera – vocals\n John Salvatore Scaglione - electric guitar\n Leo Abrahams – acoustic guitar, electric guitar\n Brett Banducci – viola\n Felix Bloxsom – percussion, drums\n Denise Briese – contrabass\n Alejandro Carballo – trombone\n Daphne Chen – violin, concert mistress\n Matt Cooker – cello\n Pablo Correa – percussion\n Ester Dean – background vocals\n Samuel Dixon – acoustic guitar, bass, piano, celeste\n Richard Dodd – cello\n Stefanie Fife – cello\n Sam Fischer – violin", "Richard Dodd – cello\n Stefanie Fife – cello\n Sam Fischer – violin\n Jimmy Hogarth – acoustic guitar, electric guitar\n Chauncey \"Hit-Boy\" Hollis – keyboards\n Paul Ill – bass\n Claude Kelly – background vocals\n James King – flute, alto sax, baritone sax, tenor sax, snake\n Anna Kostyuchek – violin\n Oliver Kraus – strings, string arrangements, string engineering\n John Krovoza – cello\n Marisa Kuney – violin\n Victoria Lanier – violin\n Juan Manuel-Leguizamón – percussion\n Ami Levy – violin\n Abe Liebhaber – cello", "Juan Manuel-Leguizamón – percussion\n Ami Levy – violin\n Abe Liebhaber – cello\n Nicki Minaj – vocals (track 3)\n Diego Miralles – cello\n Julio Miranda – guitar\n Karolina Naziemiec – viola\n Neli Nikolaeva – violin\n Cameron Patrick – violin\n Peaches – rap\n Linda Perry – bass, guitar, percussion, piano, keyboards\n Radu Pieptea – violin\n Melissa Reiner – violin\n David Sage – viola\n Kellii Scott – drums\n Arturo Solar – trumpet\n Audrey Solomon – violin\n Jenny Takamatsu – violin\n Tom Tally – viola", "Arturo Solar – trumpet\n Audrey Solomon – violin\n Jenny Takamatsu – violin\n Tom Tally – viola\n Jason Torreano – contrabass\n Jessica van Velzen – viola\n Amy Wickman – violin\n Rodney Wirtz – viola\n Richard Worn – contrabass\n Alwyn Wright – violin\n Deantoni Parks – drums (\"Monday Morning\")\n Thomas Aiezza – assistant engineer\n Brian \"Fluff\" Allison – assistant engineer\n Christopher Anderson-Bazzoli – conductor\n Matt Benefield – assistant engineer, assistant\n Richard Brown – assistant engineer", "Matt Benefield – assistant engineer, assistant\n Richard Brown – assistant engineer\n Dan Carey – mixing\n Andrew Chavez – Pro-Tools\n Cameron Craig – engineering\n Ester Dean – production\n Detail – vocal production\n Samuel Dixon – programming, production, engineering\n D Face – artwork\n Sia Furler – vocal production\n Brian Gardner – mastering\n Terry Glenny – violin\n Larry Goldings – piano\n Eric Gorfain – string arrangements\n Josh Gudwin – engineering\n Kuk Harrell – engineering", "Eric Gorfain – string arrangements\n Josh Gudwin – engineering\n Kuk Harrell – engineering\n John Hill – production, engineering, instrumentation\n Jimmy Hogarth – engineering\n Jaycen Joshua – mixing\n Josh Mosser – engineering\n Claude Kelly – vocal production\n Alex Leader – engineering, assistant engineer\n Giancarlo Lino – assistant\n Erik Madrid – assistant\n Alix Malka – photography\n Manny Marroquin – engineering, mixing\n Kyle Moorman – Pro-Tools\n Bryan Morton – engineering\n Luis Navarro – assistant", "Kyle Moorman – Pro-Tools\n Bryan Morton – engineering\n Luis Navarro – assistant\n Linda Perry – programming, production, engineering\n Christian Plata – assistant\n Polow da Don – production\n Oscar Ramirez – engineering, vocal engineering\n TheRealFocus... – production, instrumentation\n Andros Rodriguez - engineer\n Alexis Smith – assistant engineer\n Eric Spring – engineering\n Jay Stevenson – assistant engineer\n Jeremy Stevenson – engineering\n Christopher Stewart – production", "Jeremy Stevenson – engineering\n Christopher Stewart – production\n Subskrpt – engineering, assistant engineer\n Switch – production, engineering, mixing, instrumentation\n Brian \"B-Luv\" Thomas – engineering\n Pat Thrall – engineering\n Le Tigre – production\n Randy Urbanski – assistant\n Eli Walker – engineering\n Cory Williams – engineering\n Andrew Wuepper – engineering\n Reuben Wu – production", "Charts\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications and sales\n\nRelease history \n\n Urban Outfitters exclusive black and grey splattered clear vinyl.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Official website\n\n2010 albums\nAlbums produced by Focus...\nAlbums produced by Linda Perry\nAlbums produced by Polow da Don\nAlbums produced by Samuel Dixon\nAlbums produced by Tricky Stewart\nChristina Aguilera albums\nRCA Records albums\nElectropop albums\nFuturepop albums" ]

[ "In the United States, Social Security is the commonly used term for the federal Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program and is administered by the Social Security Administration (SSA). The original Social Security Act was enacted in 1935, and the current version of the Act, as amended, encompasses several social welfare and social insurance programs.", "The average monthly Social Security benefit for November 2022 was $1,551. The total cost of the Social Security program for the year 2021 was $1.145 trillion or about 5 percent of U.S. GDP.", "Social Security is funded primarily through payroll taxes called Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) or Self Employed Contributions Act (SECA). Wage and salary earnings in covered employment, up to an amount specifically determined by law (see tax rate table below), are subject to the Social Security payroll tax. Wage and salary earnings above this amount are not taxed. In 2022, the maximum amount of taxable earnings is $147,000.", "Social Security is nearly universal, with 94 percent of individuals in paid employment in the United States working in covered employment. However, about 6.6 million state and local government workers in the United States, or 28 percent of all state and local workers, are not covered by Social Security but rather pension plans operated at the state or local level.", "Social Security payroll taxes are collected by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and are formally entrusted to the Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) Trust Fund and the Federal Disability Insurance (DI) Trust Fund, the two Social Security Trust Funds. Social Security revenues exceeded expenditures between 1983 and 2009 which increased trust fund balances. The retirement of the large baby-boom generation, however, will lower balances", ". The retirement of the large baby-boom generation, however, will lower balances. Without legislative changes, trust fund reserves are projected to be depleted in 2033 for the OASI fund. Should depletion occur, incoming payroll tax and other revenue would only be sufficient to pay 77 percent of OASI benefits starting in 2034.", "With few exceptions, all legal residents working in the United States now have an individual Social Security Number.\n\nHistory", "Social Security timeline\n 1935 The 37-page Social Security Act signed August 14 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The legislation included Unemployment Insurance, Aid to Dependent Children, Old Age Insurance (OAI), and Old Age Assistance (OAA). The old age insurance program gradually developed into the Old Age Survivors and Disability Insurance program, which is what Americans typically associate \"Social Security\" with.", "1936 The new Social Security Board contracts the Post Office Department in late November to distribute and collect applications.\n1937 More than twenty million Social Security Cards issued. Ernest Ackerman receives first lump-sum payout (17 cents) in January.\n 1939 Two new categories of beneficiaries added: spouse and minor children of a retired worker\n 1940 First monthly benefit check issued to Ida May Fuller for $22.54", "1940 First monthly benefit check issued to Ida May Fuller for $22.54\n 1950 Benefits increased and cost of living adjustments (COLAs) made at irregular intervals77% COLA in 1950\n 1954 Disability program added to Social Security\n 1960 Flemming v. Nestor. Landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling that affirmed that Congress has the power to amend and revise the schedule of benefits. The Court also ruled that recipients have no contractual right to receive payments.", "1961 Early retirement age lowered to age 62 at reduced benefits\n 1965 Medicare health care benefits added to Social securitytwenty million joined in three years\n 1966 Medicare tax of 0.7% added to pay for increased Medicare expenses\n 1972 Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program federalized and assigned to Social Security Administration\n 1975 Automatic cost of living adjustments (COLAs) mandated\n 1977 COLA adjustments brought back to \"sustainable\" levels", "1977 COLA adjustments brought back to \"sustainable\" levels\n 1980 Amendments are made in disability program to help solve some problems of fraud\n 1983 Taxation of Social Security benefits introduced, new federal hires required to be under Social Security, retirement age increased for younger workers to 66 and 67 years\n 1984 Congress passed the Disability Benefits Reform Act modifying several aspects of the disability program", "1996 Drug addiction or alcoholism disability benefits could no longer be eligible for disability benefits. The Earnings limit doubled exemption amount for retired Social Security beneficiaries. Terminated SSI eligibility for most non-citizens\n 1997 The law requires the establishment of federal standards for state-issued birth certificates and requires SSA to develop a prototype counterfeit-resistant Social Security cardstill being worked on.", "1997 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, (TANF), replaces Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program placed under SSA\n 1997 State Children's Health Insurance Program for low income citizensSCHIP added to Social Security Administration\n 2003 Voluntary drug benefits with supplemental Medicare insurance payments from recipients added\n 2009 No Social Security Benefits for Prisoners Act of 2009 signed.", "A limited form of the Social Security program began, during President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first term, as a measure to implement \"social insurance\" during the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Act was an attempt to limit unforeseen and unprepared-for dangers in modern life, including old age, disability, poverty, unemployment, and the burdens of widow(er)s with and without children.", "Opponents, however, decried the proposal as socialism. In a Senate Finance Committee hearing, Senator Thomas Gore (D-OK) asked Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, \"Isn't this socialism?\" She said it was not, but he continued, \"Isn't this a teeny-weeny bit of socialism?\"", "The provisions of Social Security have been changing since the 1930s, shifting in response to economic worries as well as coverage for the poor, dependent children, spouses, survivors and the disabled. By 1950, debates moved away from which occupational groups should be included to get enough taxpayers to fund Social Security to how to provide more benefits", ". Changes in Social Security have reflected a balance between promoting \"equality\" and efforts to provide \"adequate\" and affordable protection for low wage workers.", "Major programs\nThe larger and better known programs under the Social Security Act are:\n Federal Old-Age (Retirement), Survivors, and Disability Insurance, OASDI\n Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, TANF\n Health Insurance for Aged and Disabled, Medicare\n Grants to States for Medical Assistance Programs for low income citizens, Medicaid\n State Children's Health Insurance Program for low income citizens, SCHIP\n Supplemental Security Income, SSI", "The Social Security Administration (SSA) administers two of these programs (OASDI and SSI).\n\nBenefits", "Benefit types", "The Social Security program in the United States pays benefits to three broad categories of individuals: retired individuals and some family members, disabled persons and some family members, and survivors. Within these broad categories, the program defines more specific types of beneficiaries. For example, spouses and divorced spouses are distinct categories, with somewhat different eligibility requirements", ". Survivor benefits include several categories including aged widow(er)s, aged surviving divorced spouses, disabled widow(er)s, disabled surviving divorced spouses, paternal and maternal orphans, and widow(er)s caring for minor or disabled children.", "As of 2020, there were about 65 million individuals receiving Social Security benefits. Individuals receiving Retirement Insurance Benefits constitute the largest group of beneficiaries, with 49.3 million retired workers or family members receiving monthly payments. Social Security Disability Insurance benefits were paid to 8.2 million disabled workers and 1.5 million dependents (children and spouses). About 5.9 million individuals, including 1", ".5 million dependents (children and spouses). About 5.9 million individuals, including 1.9 million children, received some type of survivor benefit from Social Security.", "Some individuals qualify for more than one type of benefit, but program rules on dual entitlement generally prevent the payment of two full benefits. For example, a person eligible for a retirement benefit and a higher spouse benefit will receive the full retirement benefit and a partial spouse benefit. The dual entitlement rules disproportionately affect women (6", ". The dual entitlement rules disproportionately affect women (6.9 million women in 2019) because historically they have earned less than current or former husbands and this leads to retirement benefits for women that are often lower than the full spouse benefit for which they qualify.", "In addition, Social Security beneficiaries with low income and limited resources may qualify for additional income through the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program. SSI is separate from the Social Security program, but it is administered by SSA. In 2020, 2.7 million Social Security beneficiaries received additional income through SSI.\n\nSystem financing", "System financing\n\nSocial Security payments to beneficiaries, which totaled $1.05 trillion in 2019, are generally financed by payroll taxes on workers in Social Security covered employment, trust fund reserves, and some income taxation of Social Security benefits. The payroll tax rate totals 12.4 percent of earnings up to the taxable maximum (the rate is 6.2 percent from workers and 6.2 percent from employers and 12.4 percent from the self-employed).", "The OASI Trust Fund and the DI Trust Fund are legally separate. For employees and employers combined, the OASI payroll taxes are 10.6 percent and the DI payroll taxes are 1.8 percent. In 2019, trust fund reserves for the OASI and DI programs were $2.8 trillion and $93 billion, respectively. Income taxation of some Social Security benefits brought in $34.9 billion for OASI and $1.6 billion for DI in 2019.", "Assessments of system financing often focus on the combined programs together (OASI and DI) and focus on key measures such as trust fund depletion date, actuarial balance over a 75 year period, and comparisons of program costs to U.S. GDP.", "Regarding trust fund depletion, the Social Security Trustees, based on technical work by the Social Security Administration's actuaries, project the combined OASDI trust fund will be depleted in 2035. The Penn Wharton Budget Model (University of Pennsylvania) projects depletion in 2032-2034, depending on the shape of the economic recovery in the U.S. following the COVID-19 pandemic.", "With regard to actuarial balance, the Social Security Trustees estimate a 75-year actuarial deficit of 3.21 percent of payroll. This is approximately the total payroll tax increase that would be necessary to keep the system solvent for 75 years. The figure is designed to illustrate the size of the deficit. Legislation could close the deficit in ways other than raising the payroll tax rate.", "Because taxable earnings are a fraction of GDP, sometimes the system's finances are put into context by using GDP. Social Security's cost are currently 5.0 percent of U.S. GDP. Program costs will rise to 5.9 percent of GDP by 2038 and will, approximately, remain at that level through 2094.", "In the past, legislation has been enacted to prevent trust fund depletion. Should the trust funds be depleted, Social Security would still have revenue coming into the system from payroll taxes. The Social Security trustees estimate that revenue would be sufficient to pay 79 percent of the program's benefits. There has been debate about a trust fund depletion scenario, however, regarding whether monthly benefits would be lowered or whether full amounts would be paid but not on a timely basis.", "The amount of the monthly Social Security benefit to which a worker is entitled currently depends upon the earnings record they have paid FICA or SECA taxes on and upon the age at which the retiree chooses to begin receiving benefits. That said, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Flemming v. Nestor (1960) that no one has a contractual right to Social Security benefits.", "Medicare is a separate program from Social Security, although disabled and aged (65 or older) Social Security beneficiaries qualify for Medicare. The financing for Medicare (United States) is also based on payroll taxes, trust fund reserves, and the taxation of some Social Security benefits.\n\nTotal benefits paid, by year\n\nPrimary Insurance Amount and Monthly Benefit Amount calculations", "Workers in Social Security covered employment pay FICA (Federal Insurance Contributions Act) or SECA (Self Employed Contributions Act) taxes and earn quarters of coverage if earnings are above minimum amounts specified in the law. Workers with 40 quarters of coverage (QC) are \"fully insured\" and eligible for retirement benefits. Retirement benefit amounts depend upon the average of the person's highest 35 years of \"adjusted\" or \"indexed\" earnings", ". A person's payroll-taxable earnings from earlier years are adjusted for economy-wide wage growth, using the national average wage index (AWI), and then averaged. If the worker has fewer than 35 years of covered earnings these non-contributory years are assigned zero earnings. The sum of the highest 35 years of adjusted or indexed earnings divided by 420 (35 years times 12 months per year) produces a person's Average Indexed Monthly Earnings or AIME.", "The AIME is then used to calculate the Primary Insurance Amount or PIA. For workers who turn 62 in 2021, the PIA computation formula is:\n\n(a) 90 percent of the first $996 of average indexed monthly earnings, plus\n\n(b) 32 percent of average indexed monthly earnings between $996 and $6,002, plus\n\n(c) 15 percent of average indexed monthly earnings over $6,002", "For workers who turn 62 in the future, the 90, 32, and 15 percent factors in the computation formula will remain the same but the dollar amounts in the formula (called bend points) will increase by wage growth in the national economy, as measured by the AWI. Because the AIME and the PIA calculation incorporate the AWI, Social Security benefits are said to be wage indexed", ". Because wages typically grow faster than prices, the PIAs for workers turning 62 in the future will tend to be higher in real terms but similar relative to average earnings in the economy at the time age 62 is attained.", "Monthly benefit amounts are based on the PIA. Once the PIA is computed, it is indexed for price inflation over time. Thus, Social Security monthly benefit amounts retain their purchasing power throughout a person's retirement years.", "A worker who first starts receiving a retirement benefit at the full retirement age receives a monthly benefit amount equal to 100 percent of the PIA. A worker who claims the retirement benefit before the full retirement age receives a reduced monthly benefit amount and a worker who claims at an age after the full retirement age (up to age 70) receives an increased monthly amount.", "The 90, 32, and 15 percent factors in the PIA computation lead to higher replacement rates for persons with lower career earnings. For example, a retired individual whose average earnings are below the first bend point can receive a monthly benefit at the full retirement age that equals 90 percent of the person's average monthly earnings before retirement. The table shows replacement rates for workers who turned 62 in 2013.", "The PIA computation formula for disabled workers parallels that for retired workers except the AIME is based on fewer years to reflect disablement before age 62. The monthly benefit amount of a disabled worker is 100 percent of PIA.", "Benefits for spouses, children, and widow(er)s depend on the PIAs of a spouse or a deceased spouse. Aged spouse and divorced spouse beneficiaries can receive up to 50 percent of the PIA. Survivor benefit rates are higher and aged widow(er)s and aged surviving divorced spouses can receive 100 percent of the PIA.", "Federal, state and local employees who have elected (when they could) NOT to pay FICA taxes are eligible for a reduced FICA benefits and full Medicare coverage if they have more than forty quarters of qualifying Social Security covered work. To minimize the Social Security payments to those who have not contributed to FICA for 35+ years and are eligible for federal, state and local benefits, which are usually more generous, Congress passed the Windfall Elimination Provision, WEP", ". The WEP provision will not eliminate all Social Security or Medicare eligibility if the worker has 40 quarters of qualifying income, but calculates the benefit payments by reducing the 90% multiplier in the first PIA bendpoint to 40–85% depending on the number of Years of Coverage. Foreign pensions are subject to WEP.", "A special minimum benefit, based on an alternative PIA calculation, is available for some workers with long careers but low earnings. However, it is rarely higher than the regularly-computed PIA and thus few workers qualify for the special minimum benefit. Only 32,000 individuals received the special minimum benefit in 2019.", "The benefits someone is eligible for are potentially so complicated that potential retirees should consult the Social Security Administration directly for advice. Many questions are addressed and at least partially answered on many online publications and online calculators.\n\nHow workers can get estimates of benefits", "The Social Security Administration (SSA) provides benefit estimates to workers through the Social Security Statement. The Statement can be accessed online by opening an online account with SSA called my Social Security. With that account, workers can also construct \"what if\" scenarios, helping them to understand the effect on monthly benefits if they work additional years or delay the start of retirement benefits", ". The my Social Security account also offers other services, allowing individuals to request a replacement Social Security card or check the status of an application.", "A printed copy of the Social Security Statement is mailed to workers age 60 or older.\n\nIn 2021, SSA began producing Retirement Ready fact sheets, available online and as part of the online Statement, that tailor retirement planning information to different age groups (young, middle age, and older workers).", "SSA also has a Benefits Calculators web page with several stand-alone online calculators that help individuals estimate their benefits and prepare for retirement. These include benefit calculators for spouses, calculators for persons affected by the Windfall Elimination Provision or the Government Pension Offset and calculators to determine a person's full retirement age or the effect of the earnings test on benefits.\n\nSSA also provides a life expectancy calculator to help with retirement planning.", "Full retirement age (FRA)\nIf a person first claims a retirement benefit at the full retirement age (FRA), the individual will receive a monthly benefit amount equal to 100 percent of the individual's primary insurance amount (PIA). If first claimed before the FRA, the monthly benefit amount is smaller than 100 percent of PIA and if claimed after the FRA the monthly amount is higher than 100 percent of PIA. Sometimes the full retirement age is referred to as the normal retirement age.", "Historically, the FRA was age 65. The 1983 Amendments to the Social Security Act gradually increased the FRA and, for individuals born in 1960 or later, the FRA is 67. The early retirement age (age 62) has not changed, but the monthly benefit amount paid at the early retirement age is lower if a person has a higher FRA. For example, when the FRA was age 65, the early retirement benefit was 80 percent of the worker's PIA. For a person with a FRA of 67, the early retirement benefit is 70 percent of PIA.", "Individuals who first claim retirement benefits after the FRA (and up to age 70) receive delayed retirement credits that increase the monthly benefit amount by 8 percent per year of delayed claiming. For example, if a person has a FRA of 67 and waits until age 70 to claim retirement benefits, the individual's monthly benefit amount will be 124 percent of PIA.", "When a retirement beneficiary dies, a widow(er) or surviving divorced spouse is generally eligible for a monthly benefit amount equal to that received by the retirement beneficiary. Thus, a worker who delays retirement increases both the monthly benefit amount of the retirement benefit and, ultimately, the benefit a survivor receives.", "Many press articles, guides, and studies have focused on whether it is optimal to claim benefits at the full retirement age or some other age. The Social Security Administration produces a publication called \"When to Start Receiving Retirement Benefits\" that is designed to help individuals understand the issues involved in deciding when to begin benefits. The Center for Retirement Research at Boston College produced a guide designed to help individuals make informed claiming decisions.", "Between 1985 and 2015, claiming of retirement benefits at the early retirement age became much less common and claiming at the full retirement age or later more common. In 2019, 1 in 4 individuals claimed at the early retirement age. From 2009 through 2019, the percentage of men claiming retirement benefits after the full retirement age increased from 4.1 percent to 16.2 percent. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and ensuing recession and recovery on benefit claiming, however, are not yet known.", "The full retirement age is relevant for some benefit types other than retirement benefits. For example, aged spouses and aged survivors who claim spouse or survivor benefits before the full retirement age receive reduced spouse or survivor benefits. The increase in the full retirement age from the 1983 Amendments to the Social Security Act was phased in at a slightly different pace for survivor benefits and the full retirement age is 67 for survivors born in 1962 or later.", "Many aged survivors, however, are well past the full retirement age when the worker dies and thus can receive full survivor benefits immediately upon the worker's death.", "For some types of Social Security benefits, benefits are not reduced or increased based on the age the benefits are first claimed. For example, a full monthly benefit amount (100 percent of PIA) is paid to disabled workers regardless of the age at which benefits start. At the full retirement age, the Social Security Administration reclassifies disabled workers as retired workers but the individual's monthly benefit amount is not affected.\n\nDelayed benefits", "If a worker delays receiving Social Security retirement benefits until after they reach full retirement age, the benefit will increase by two-thirds of one percent of the PIA per month. After age 70 there are no more increases as a result of delaying benefits. Social Security uses an \"average\" survival rate at your full retirement age to prorate the increase in the amount of benefit increase so that the total benefits are roughly the same whenever a person retires", ". Women may benefit more than men from this delayed benefit increase since the \"average\" survival rates are based on both men and women and women live approximately three years longer than men. The other consideration is that workers have only a limited number of years of \"good\" health left after they reach full retirement age and unless they enjoy their job they may be passing up an opportunity to do something else they may enjoy doing while they are still relatively healthy.", "Benefits while continuing work", "Due to changing needs or personal preferences, a person may go back to work after retiring. In this case, it is possible to get Social Security retirement or survivors benefits and work at the same time. A worker who is of full retirement age or older may (with spouse) keep all benefits, after taxes, regardless of earnings. But, if this worker or the worker's spouse are younger than full retirement age and receiving benefits and earn \"too much\", the benefits will be reduced", ". If working under full retirement age for the entire year and receiving benefits, Social Security deducts $1 from the worker's benefit payments for every $2 earned above the annual limit of $15,120 (2013). Deductions cease when the benefits have been reduced to zero and the worker will get one more year of income and age credit, slightly increasing future benefits at retirement", ". For example, if a person was receiving benefits of $1,230/month (the average benefit paid) or $14,760 a year and have an income of $29,520/year above the $15,120 limit ($44,640/year) that person would lose all ($14,760) of your benefits. If a person made $1,000 more than $15,200/year they would \"only lose\" $500 in benefits. People got no benefits for the months they worked until the $1 deduction for $2 income \"squeeze\" is satisfied", ". First social security checks are delayed for several monthsthe first check may be only a fraction of the \"full\" amount. The benefit deductions change in the year a person reaches full retirement age and are still workingSocial Security deducts only one dollar in benefits for every three a person earns above $40,080 in 2013 for that year and has no deduction thereafter. The income limits change (presumably for inflation) year by year.", "Spouse's benefit and government pension offsets", "The spouse or divorced spouse of a retirement beneficiary is eligible for a Social Security spouse benefit if the spouse or divorced spouse is 62 or older. The benefit amount is equal to 50 percent of the retirement beneficiary's Primary Insurance Amount if the spouse claims the benefit at the full retirement age or later", ". If a person is eligible for both a retirement benefit based the person's own work in Social Security covered employment and a spouse benefit based on a spouse's work in covered employment, SSA will pay a total amount approximately equal to the higher of the two benefits. For example, if at the full retirement age, a spouse claims a retirement benefit of $300 and a spouse benefit of $450, SSA will pay the person a $300 retirement benefit and a $150 dollar partial spouse benefit for a total benefit of $450.", "A spouse is eligible after a one-year duration of marriage requirement is met and a divorced spouse is eligible for spousal benefits if the marriage lasted for at least ten years and the person applying is not currently married. Payment of benefits to a divorced spouse does not reduce the Social Security benefits of the retired worker or family members of the retired worker, such as the worker's current spouse", ". A divorced person can claim spousal benefits once the former spouse is eligible for retirement benefits, regardless of whether the former spouse has claimed those retirement benefits.", "Spousal benefits are reduced if claimed before the full retirement age. The reduction is 25/36 of 1% per month for the first 36 months and 5/12 of 1% for each additional month earlier than the full retirement age. This typically works out to between 50% and 32.5% of the retirement beneficiary's Primary Insurance Amount. There is no increase for starting spousal benefits after the full retirement age.", "Although Social Security rules are gender-neutral, spousal benefits are disproportionately paid to women. Because of trends in marriage and workforce participation, retirement benefits are projected to become increasingly important for women, but spouse and survivor benefits will still be common.", "Because spouse benefits are only a 50 percent benefit and because divorced individuals do not share resources with a current husband or wife, divorced spouse beneficiaries have poverty rates that are \"quite high.\" About 29 percent of divorced spouse beneficiaries are in poverty compared to only about 5.4 percent of married spouse beneficiaries.", "There is a Social Security government pension offset that will reduce or eliminate any spousal (or ex-spouse) or widow(er)'s benefits if the spouse or widow(er) is also receiving a government (federal, state, or local) pension from work that did not require paying Social Security taxes. The basic rule is that Social Security benefits will be reduced by two-thirds of the spouse's or widow(er)'s government pension", ". If the spouse's or widow(er)'s government pension exceeds 150% of the \"normal\" spousal or widow(er)'s benefit the spousal benefit is eliminated. For example, a \"normal\" spousal or widow(er)'s benefit of $1,000/month would be reduced to $0.00 if the spouse or widow(er)'s if already drawing a non-FICA taxed government pension of $1,500/month or more per month. Pensions from work where Social Security taxes were paid do not reduce Social Security spousal or widow(er)'s benefits", ". Pensions received from foreign countries do not cause GPO; however, a foreign pension may be subject to the WEP.", "Widow(er) benefits", "If a worker covered by Social Security dies, a surviving spouse can receive survivors' benefits if a 9-month duration of marriage is met. If a widow(er) waits until Full Retirement Age, they are eligible for 100 percent of their deceased spouse's PIA. If the death of the worker was accidental the duration of marriage test may be waived", ". If the death of the worker was accidental the duration of marriage test may be waived. A divorced spouse may qualify if the duration of marriage was at least ten full years and the widow(er) is not currently married, or remarried after attainment of age 60 (50 if disabled and eligible for specific types of benefits prior to the date of marriage). A father or mother of any age with a child age 16 or under or a disabled adult child in his or her care may be eligible for benefits", ". The earliest age for a non-disabled widow(er)'s benefit is age 60. If the worker received retirement benefits prior to death, the benefit amount may not exceed the amount the worker was receiving at the time of death or 82.5% of the PIA of the deceased worker (whichever is more). If the surviving spouse starts benefits before full retirement age, there is an actuarial reduction", ". If the worker earned delayed retirement credits by waiting to start benefits after their full retirement age, the surviving spouse will have those credits applied to their benefit. If the worker died before the year of attainment of age 62, the earnings will be indexed to the year in which the surviving spouse attained age 60.", "Children's benefits\nChildren of a retired, disabled or deceased worker receive benefits as a \"dependent\" or \"survivor\" if they are under the age of 18, or as long as attending primary or secondary school up to age 19 years and 2months; or are over the age of 18 and were disabled before the age of 22.", "The benefit for a child on a living parent's record is 50% of the PIA, for a surviving child the benefit is 75% of the PIA. The benefit amount may be reduced if total benefits on the record exceed the family maximum.", "In Astrue v. Capato (2012), the Supreme Court unanimously held that children conceived after a parent's death (by in vitro fertilization procedure) are not entitled to Social Security survivors' benefits if the laws of the state in which the parent's will was signed do not provide for such benefits.\n\nDisability", "A worker who has worked long enough and recently enough (based on \"quarters of coverage\" within the recent past) to be covered can receive disability benefits. These benefits start after five full calendar months of disability, regardless of his or her age", ". These benefits start after five full calendar months of disability, regardless of his or her age. The eligibility formula requires a certain number of credits (based on earnings) to have been earned overall, and a certain number within the ten years immediately preceding the disability, but with more-lenient provisions for younger workers who become disabled before having had a chance to compile a long earnings history.", "The worker must be unable to continue in his or her previous job and unable to adjust to other work, with age, education, and work experience taken into account; furthermore, the disability must be long-term, lasting twelve months, expected to last twelve months, resulting in death, or expected to result in death. As with the retirement benefit, the amount of the disability benefit payable depends on the worker's age and record of covered earnings.", "Supplemental Security Income (SSI) uses the same disability criteria as the insured social security disability program, but SSI is not based upon insurance coverage. Instead, a system of means-testing is used to determine whether the claimants' income and net worth fall below certain income and asset thresholds.\n\nSeverely disabled children may qualify for SSI. Standards for child disability are different from those for adults.", "Disability determination at the Social Security Administration has created the largest system of administrative courts in the United States. Depending on the state of residence, a claimant whose initial application for benefits is denied can request reconsideration or a hearing before an Administrative Law Judge (ALJ). Such hearings sometimes involve participation of an independent vocational expert (VE) or medical expert (ME), as called upon by the ALJ.", "Reconsideration involves a re-examination of the evidence and, in some cases, the opportunity for a hearing before a (non-attorney) disability hearing officer. The hearing officer decides the case and provides justification for the finding in writing. If the claimant is denied at the reconsideration stage, (s)he may request a hearing before an Administrative Law Judge", ". In some states, SSA has implemented a pilot program that eliminates the reconsideration step and allows claimants to appeal an initial denial directly to an Administrative Law Judge.", "Because the number of applications for Social Security disability is very large (approximately 650,000 applications per year), the number of hearings requested by claimants often exceeds the capacity of Administrative Law Judges. The number of hearings requested and availability of Administrative Law Judges varies geographically across the United States. In some areas of the country, it is possible for a claimant to have a hearing with an Administrative Law Judge within 90 days of the request", ". In other areas, waiting times of 18 months are not uncommon.", "After the hearing, the Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) issues a decision in writing. The decision can be Fully Favorable (the ALJ finds the claimant disabled as of the date that (s) he alleges in the application through the present), Partially Favorable (the ALJ finds the claimant disabled at some point, but not as of the date alleged in the application; OR the ALJ finds that the claimant was disabled but has improved), or Unfavorable (the ALJ finds that the claimant was not disabled at all)", ". Claimants can appeal decisions to Social Security's Appeals Council, which is in Virginia. The Appeals Council does not hold hearings; it accepts written briefs. Response time from the Appeals Council can range from twelve weeks to more than three years.", "Claimant who disagrees with the Appeals Council's decision can appeal the case in the federal district court. As in most federal court cases, an unfavorable district court decision can be appealed to the appropriate United States Court of Appeals, and an unfavorable appellate court decision can be appealed to the United States Supreme Court.", "The Social Security Administration has maintained its goal for judges to resolve 500–700 cases per year but Administrative Law Judges struggle to meet this goal. While 81% of Administrative Law Judges met this productivity level in 2019, only 18% achieved this case disposition target in 2020. Office of Hearing Operations staffing and work procedure disruptions related to the COVID-19 pandemic have doubtlessly contributed to lower Administrative Law Judge productivity in 2020.", "The debate about the social security system in the United States has been ongoing for decades and there is much concern about its sustainability.\n\nCurrent operation", "Joining and quitting", "Obtaining a Social Security number for a child is voluntary. Further, there is no general legal requirement that individuals join the Social Security program unless they want or have to work. Under normal circumstances, FICA taxes or SECA taxes will be collected on all wages. About the only way to avoid paying either FICA or SECA taxes is to join a religion that does not believe in insurance, such as the Amish or a religion whose members have taken a vow of poverty (see IRS publication 517 and 4361)", ". Federal workers employed before 1987, various state and local workers including those in some school districts who had their own retirement and disability programs were given the one-time option of joining Social Security. Many employees and retirement and disability systems opted to keep out of the Social Security system because of the cost and the limited benefits", ". It was often much cheaper to obtain much higher retirement and disability benefits by staying in their original retirement and disability plans. Now only a few of these plans allow new hires to join their existing plans without also joining Social Security. In 2004, the Social Security Administration estimated that 96% of all U.S", ". In 2004, the Social Security Administration estimated that 96% of all U.S. workers were covered by the system with the remaining 4% mostly a minority of government employees enrolled in public employee pensions and not subject to Social Security taxes due to historical exemptions.", "It is possible for railroad employees to get a \"coordinated\" retirement and disability benefits. The U.S. Railroad Retirement Board (or \"RRB\") is an independent agency in the executive branch of the United States government created in 1935 to administer a social insurance program providing retirement benefits to the country's railroad workers", ". Railroad retirement TierI payroll taxes are coordinated with social security taxes so that employees and employers pay TierI taxes at the same rate as social security taxes and have the same benefits. In addition, both workers and employers pay TierII taxes (about 6.2% in 2005), which are used to finance railroad retirement and disability benefit payments that are over and above social security levels. TierII benefits are a supplemental retirement and disability benefit system that pays 0", ". TierII benefits are a supplemental retirement and disability benefit system that pays 0.875% times years of service times average highest five years of employment salary, in addition to Social Security benefits.", "The FICA taxes are imposed on nearly all workers and self-employed persons. Employers are required to report wages for covered employment to Social Security for processing Forms W-2 and W-3. Some specific wages are not part of the Social Security program (discussed below). Internal Revenue Code provisions section 3101 imposes payroll taxes on individuals and employer matching taxes. Section 3102 mandates that employers deduct these payroll taxes from workers' wages before they are paid", ". Generally, the payroll tax is imposed on everyone in employment earning \"wages\" as defined in 3121 of the Internal Revenue Code. and also taxes net earnings from self-employment.", "Trust fund", "Social Security taxes are paid into the Social Security Trust Fund maintained by the U.S. Treasury (technically, the \"Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund\", as established by ). Current year expenses are paid from current Social Security tax revenues. When revenues exceed expenditures, as they did between 1983 and 2009, the excess is invested in special series, non-marketable U.S. government bonds", ".S. government bonds. Thus, the Social Security Trust Fund indirectly finances the federal government's general purpose deficit spending. In 2007, the cumulative excess of Social Security taxes and interest received over benefits paid out stood at $2.2trillion. Some regard the Trust Fund as an accounting construct with no economic significance. Others argue that it has specific legal significance because the Treasury securities it holds are backed by the \"full faith and credit\" of the U.S", ".S. government, which has an obligation to repay its debt.", "The Social Security Administration's authority to make benefit payments as granted by Congress extends only to its current revenues and existing Trust Fund balance, i.e. redemption of its holdings of Treasury securities. Therefore, Social Security's ability to make full payments once annual benefits exceed revenues depends in part on the federal government's ability to make good on the bonds it has issued to the Social Security trust funds", ". As with any other federal obligation, the federal government's ability to repay Social Security is based on its power to tax and borrow and the commitment of Congress to meet its obligations.", "In 2009 the Office of the Chief Actuary of the Social Security Administration calculated an unfunded obligation of $15.1trillion for the Social Security program. The unfunded obligation is the difference between the future cost of Social Security (based on several demographic assumptions such as mortality, work force participation, immigration, and age expectancy) and total assets in the Trust Fund given the expected contribution rate through the current scheduled payroll tax", ". This unfunded obligation is expressed in present value dollars and is a part of the Fund's long-range actuarial estimates, not necessarily a certainty of what will occur in the long run. An Actuarial Note to the calculation says \"the term obligation is used in lieu of the term liability, because liability generally indicates a contractual obligation (as in the case of private pensions and insurance) that cannot be altered by the plan sponsor without the agreement of the plan participants.\"", "Office of Hearings Operations (OHO, formerly ODAR or OHA)", "On August 8, 2017, Acting Commissioner Nancy A. Berryhill informed employees that the Office of Disability Adjudication and Review (\"ODAR\") would be renamed to Office of Hearings Operations (\"OHO\"). The hearing offices had been known as \"ODAR\" since 2006, and the Office of Hearings and Appeals (\"OHA\") before that. OHO administers the ALJ hearings for the Social Security Administration. Administrative Law Judges (\"ALJs\") conduct hearings and issue decisions", ". Administrative Law Judges (\"ALJs\") conduct hearings and issue decisions. After an ALJ decision, the Appeals Council considers requests for review of ALJ decisions, and acts as the final level of administrative review for the Social Security Administration (the stage at which \"exhaustion\" could occur, a prerequisite for federal court review).", "Benefit payout comparisons", "Some federal, state, local and education government employees pay no Social Security but have their own retirement, disability systems that nearly always pay much better retirement and disability benefits than Social Security. These plans typically require vesting (working 5–10 years for the same employer before becoming eligible for retirement). But their retirement typically depends on only the average of the best 3–10 years salaries times some retirement factor (typically 0.875%–3", ".875%–3.0%) times years employed. This retirement benefit can be a \"reasonably good\" (75–85% of salary) retirement at close to the monthly salary they were last employed at. For example, if a person joined the University of California retirement system at age 25 and worked for 35 years they could receive 87.5% (2.5% × 35) of their average highest three year salary with full medical coverage at age 60. Police and firefighters who joined at 25 and worked for 30 years could receive 90% (3", ". Police and firefighters who joined at 25 and worked for 30 years could receive 90% (3.0% × 30) of their average salary and full medical coverage at age 55. These retirements have cost of living adjustments (COLA) applied each year but are limited to a maximum average income of $350,000/year or less. Spousal survivor benefits are available at 100–67% of the primary benefits rate for 8.7% to 6.7% reduction in retirement benefits, respectively", ".7% to 6.7% reduction in retirement benefits, respectively. UCRP retirement and disability plan benefits are funded by contributions from both members and the university (typically 5% of salary each) and by the compounded investment earnings of the accumulated totals. These contributions and earnings are held in a trust fund that is invested. The retirement benefits are much more generous than Social Security but are believed to be actuarially sound", ". The main difference between state and local government sponsored retirement systems and Social Security is that the state and local retirement systems use compounded investments that are usually heavily weighted in the stock market securities, which historically have returned more than 7.0%/year on average despite some years with losses. Short term federal government investments may be more secure but pay much lower average percentages", ". Nearly all other federal, state and local retirement systems work in a similar fashion with different benefit retirement ratios. Some plans are now combined with Social Security and are \"piggy backed\" on top of Social Security benefits. For example, the current Federal Employees Retirement System, which covers the vast majority of federal civil service employees hired after 1986, combines Social Security, a modest defined-benefit pension (1", ".1% per year of service) and the defined-contribution Thrift Savings Plan.", "The current Social Security formula used in calculating the benefit level (primary insurance amount or PIA) is progressive vis-à-vis lower average salaries. Anyone who worked in OASDI covered employment and other retirement would be entitled to both the alternative non-OASDI pension and an Old Age retirement benefit from Social Security", ". Because of their limited time working in OASDI covered employment the sum of their covered salaries times inflation factor divided by 420 months yields a low adjusted indexed monthly salary over 35 years, AIME. The progressive nature of the PIA formula would in effect allow these workers to also get a slightly higher Social Security Benefit percentage on this low average salary. Congress passed in 1983 the Windfall Elimination Provision to minimize Social Security benefits for these recipients", ". The basic provision is that the first salary bracket, $0–791/month (2013) has its normal benefit percentage of 90% reduced to 40–90%see Social Security for the exact percentage. The reduction is limited to roughly 50% of what a person would be eligible for if they had always worked under OASDI taxes. The 90% benefit percentage factor is not reduced if a person has 30 or more years of \"substantial\" earnings.", "The average Social Security payment of $1,230/month ($14,760/year) in 2013 is only slightly above the federal poverty level for one$11,420/yr and below the poverty guideline of $15,500/yr for two.", "For this reason, financial advisers often encourage those who have the option to do so to supplement their Social Security contributions with private retirement plans. One \"good\" supplemental retirement plan option is an employer-sponsored 401(K) (or 403(B)) plan when they are offered by an employer. 58% of American workers have access to such plans. Many of these employers will match a portion of an employee's savings dollar-for-dollar up to a certain percentage of the employee's salary", ". Even without employer matches, individual retirement accounts (IRAs) are portable, self-directed, tax-deferred retirement accounts that offer the potential to substantially increase retirement savings", ". Their limitations include: the financial literacy to tell a \"good\" investment account from a less advantageous one; the savings barrier faced by those who are in low-wage employment or burdened by debt; the requirement of self-discipline to allot from an early age the required percentage of salary into \"good\" investment account(s); and the self–discipline needed to leave it there to earn compound interest until needed after retirement", ". Financial advisers often suggest that long-term investment horizons should be used, as historically short-term investment losses \"self correct\", and most investments continue to deliver good average investment returns. The IRS has tax penalties for withdrawals from IRAs, 401(K)s, etc. before the age of , and requires mandatory withdrawals once the retiree reaches 70; other restrictions may also apply on the amount of tax-deferred income one can put in the account(s)", ". For people who have access to them, self-directed retirement savings plans have the potential to match or even exceed the benefits earned by federal, state and local government retirement plans.", "International agreements\nPeople sometimes relocate from one country to another, either permanently or on a limited-time basis. This presents challenges to businesses, governments, and individuals seeking to ensure future benefits or having to deal with taxation authorities in multiple countries. To that end, the Social Security Administration has signed treaties, often referred to as Totalization Agreements, with other social insurance programs in various foreign countries.", "Overall, these agreements serve two main purposes. First, they eliminate dual Social Security taxation, the situation that occurs when a worker from one country works in another country and is required to pay Social Security taxes to both countries on the same earnings. Second, the agreements help fill gaps in benefit protection for workers who have divided their careers between the United States and another country.", "The following countries have signed totalization agreements with the SSA (and the date the agreement became effective):", "Italy (November 1, 1978)\n Germany (December 1, 1979)\n Switzerland (November 1, 1980)\n Belgium (July 1, 1984)\n Norway (July 1, 1984)\n Canada (August 1, 1984)\n United Kingdom (January 1, 1985)\n Sweden (January 1, 1987)\n Spain (April 1, 1988)\n France (July 1, 1988)\n Portugal (August 1, 1989)\n Netherlands (November 1, 1990)\n Austria (November 1, 1991)\n Finland (November 1, 1992)\n Ireland (September 1, 1993)\n Luxembourg (November 1, 1993)\n Greece (September 1, 1994)\n South Korea (April 1, 2001)", "Luxembourg (November 1, 1993)\n Greece (September 1, 1994)\n South Korea (April 1, 2001)\n Chile (December 1, 2001)\n Australia (October 1, 2002)\n Japan (October 1, 2005)\n Denmark (October 1, 2008)\n Czech Republic (January 1, 2009)\n Poland (March 1, 2009)\n Slovak Republic (May 1, 2014)\n Mexico (Signed on June 29, 2004, but not yet in effect)", "Social Security number", "A side effect of the Social Security program in the United States has been the near-universal adoption of the program's identification number, the Social Security number, as the de facto U.S. national identification number. The social security number, or SSN, is issued pursuant to section 205(c)(2) of the Social Security Act, codified as . The government originally stated that the SSN would not be a means of identification, but currently a multitude of U.S", ".S. entities use the Social Security number as a personal identifier. These include government agencies such as the Internal Revenue Service as well as the military, in addition to private agencies such as banks, colleges and universities, health insurance companies, and employers.", "Although the Social Security Act itself does not require a person to have a Social Security Number (SSN) to live and work in the United States, the Internal Revenue Code does generally require the use of the social security number by individuals for federal tax purposes:", "The social security account number issued to an individual for purposes of section 205(c)(2)(A) of the Social Security Act shall, except as shall otherwise be specified under regulations of the Secretary [of the Treasury or his delegate], be used as the identifying number for such individual for purposes of this title.", "Importantly, most parents apply for Social Security numbers for their dependent children in order to include them on their income tax returns as a dependent. Everyone filing a tax return, as taxpayer or spouse, must have a Social Security Number or Taxpayer Identification Number (TIN) since the IRS is unable to process returns or post payments for anyone without an SSN or TIN.", "The Privacy Act of 1974 was in part intended to limit usage of the Social Security number as a means of identification. Paragraph (1) of subsection (a) of section7 of the Privacy Act, an uncodified provision, states in part:\n\n(1) It shall be unlawful for any Federal, State or local government agency to deny to any individual any right, benefit, or privilege provided by law because of such individual's refusal to disclose his social security account number.\n\nHowever, the Social Security Act provides:", "It is the policy of the United States that any State (or political subdivision thereof) may, in the administration of any tax, general public assistance, driver's license, or motor vehicle registration law within its jurisdiction, utilize the social security account numbers issued by the Commissioner of Social Security for the purpose of establishing the identification of individuals affected by such law", ", and may require any individual who is or appears to be so affected to furnish to such State (or political subdivision thereof) or any agency thereof having administrative responsibility for the law involved, the social security account number (or numbers, if he has more than one such number) issued to him by the Commissioner of Social Security", ".", "Further, paragraph (2) of subsection (a) of section7 of the Privacy Act provides in part:\n\n(2) the provisions of paragraph (1) of this subsection shall not apply with respect to –\n\n(A) any disclosure which is required by Federal statute, or", "(A) any disclosure which is required by Federal statute, or\n\n(B) the disclosure of a social security number to any Federal, State, or local agency maintaining a system of records in existence and operating before January 1, 1975, if such disclosure was required under statute or regulation adopted prior to such date to verify the identity of an individual.", "The exceptions under section7 of the Privacy Act include the Internal Revenue Code requirement that social security numbers be used as taxpayer identification numbers for individuals.\n\nDemographic and revenue projections", "In each year since 1982, OASDI tax receipts, interest payments and other income have exceeded benefit payments and other expenditures, for example by more than $150billion in 2004. As the \"baby boomers\" move out of the work force and into retirement, however, expenses will come to exceed tax receipts and then, after several more years, will exceed all OASDI trust income, including interest", ". At that point the system will begin drawing on its trust fund Treasury Notes, and will continue to pay benefits at the current levels until the Trust Fund is exhausted. In 2013, the OASDI retirement insurance fund collected $731.1billion and spent $645.5billion; the disability program (DI) collected $109.1billion and spent $140.3billion; Medicare (HI) collected $243.0billion and spent $266.8billion and Supplementary Medical Insurance, SMI, collected $293.9billion and spent $307.4billion", ".8billion and Supplementary Medical Insurance, SMI, collected $293.9billion and spent $307.4billion. In 2013 all Social Security programs except the retirement trust fund (OASDI) spent more than they brought in and relied on significant withdrawals from their respective trust funds to pay their bills. The retirement (OASDI) trust fund of $2.541trillion is expected to be emptied by 2033 by one estimate as new retirees become eligible to join. The disability (DI) trust fund's $153", ". The disability (DI) trust fund's $153.9billion will be exhausted by 2018; the Medicare (HI) trust fund of $244.2billion will be exhausted by 2023 and the Supplemental Medical Insurance (SMI) trust fund will be exhausted by 2020 if the present rate of withdrawals continueseven sooner if they increase. The total \"Social Security\" expenditures in 2013 were $1,360billion dollars, which was 8.4% of the $16,200billion GNP (2013) and 37.0% of the federal expenditures of $3,684billion (including a $971", ".0% of the federal expenditures of $3,684billion (including a $971.0billion deficit). All other parts of the Social Security program: medicare (HI), disability (DI) and Supplemental Medical (SMI) trust funds are already drawing down their trust funds and are projected to go into deficit in about 2020 if the present rate of withdrawals continue. As the trust funds are exhausted either benefits will have to be cut, fraud minimized or taxes increased.", "In 2005, this exhaustion of the OASDI Trust Fund was projected to occur in 2041 by the Social Security Administration or by 2052 by the Congressional Budget Office, CBO. Thereafter, however, the projection for the exhaustion date of this event was moved up slightly after the 2008–2009 recession worsened the U.S. economy's financial picture. The 2011 OASDI Trustees Report stated:", "Annual cost exceeded non-interest income in 2010 and is projected to continue to be larger throughout the remainder of the 75-year valuation period. Nevertheless, from 2010 through 2022, total trust fund income, including interest income, is more than is necessary to cover costs, so trust fund assets will continue to grow during that time. Beginning in 2023, trust fund assets will diminish until they become exhausted in 2036", ". Beginning in 2023, trust fund assets will diminish until they become exhausted in 2036. Non-interest income is projected to be sufficient to support expenditures at a level of 77 percent of scheduled benefits after trust fund exhaustion in 2036, and then to decline to 74 percent of scheduled benefits in 2085.", "In 2007, the Social Security Trustees suggested that either the payroll tax could increase to 16.41 percent in 2041 and steadily increased to 17.60 percent in 2081 or a cut in benefits by 25 percent in 2041 and steadily increased to an overall cut of 30 percent in 2081.", "The Social Security Administration projects that the demographic situation will stabilize. The cash flow deficit in the Social Security system will have leveled off as a share of the economy. This projection has come into question. Some demographers argue that life expectancy will improve more than projected by the Social Security Trustees, a development that would make solvency worse", ". Some economists believe future productivity growth will be higher than the current projections by the Social Security Trustees. In this case, the Social Security shortfall would be smaller than currently projected.", "Tables published by the government's National Center for Health Statistics show that life expectancy at birth was 47.3 years in 1900, rose to 68.2 by 1950 and reached 77.3 in 2002. The latest annual report of the Social Security Agency (SSA) trustees projects that life expectancy will increase just six years in the next seven decades, to 83 in 2075. A separate set of projections, by the Census Bureau, shows more rapid growth", ". A separate set of projections, by the Census Bureau, shows more rapid growth. The Census Bureau projection is that the longer life spans projected for 2075 by the Social Security Administration will be reached in 2050. Other experts, however, think the past gains in life expectancy cannot be repeated, and add that the adverse effect on the system's finances may be partly offset if health improvements or reduced retirement benefits induce people to stay in the workforce longer.", "Actuarial science, of the kind used to project the future solvency of social security, is subject to uncertainty. The SSA actually makes three predictions: optimistic, midline, and pessimistic (until the late 1980s it made four). The Social Security crisis that was developing prior to the 1983 reforms resulted from midline projections that turned out to be too optimistic", ". It has been argued that the overly pessimistic projections of the mid to late 1990s were partly the result of the low economic growth (according to actuary David Langer) assumptions that resulted in pushing back the projected exhaustion date (from 2028 to 2042) with each successive Trustee's report. During the heavy-boom years of the 1990s, the midline projections were too pessimistic", ". During the heavy-boom years of the 1990s, the midline projections were too pessimistic. Obviously, projecting out 75 years is a significant challenge and, as such, the actual situation might be much better or much worse than predicted. Unfortunately, SSA's projection technology remained the same over many decades, despite fast progress in the same period in the literature on statistical forecasting methods, leading to large systematic forecasting biases.", "The Social Security Advisory Board has on three occasions since 1999 appointed a Technical Advisory Panel to review the methods and assumptions used in the annual projections for the Social Security trust funds. The most recent report of the Technical Advisory Panel, released in June 2008 with a copyright date of October 2007, includes a number of recommendations for improving the Social Security projections.", ", under current law, the Congressional Budget Office reported that the \"Disability Insurance trust fund will be exhausted in fiscal year 2017 and the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance trust fund will be exhausted in 2033.\" Costs of Social Security have already started to exceed income since 2018. This means the trust funds have already begun to be empty and will be fully depleted in the near future", ". As of 2023, the projections made by the Social Security Administration estimates that Social Security program as a whole will deplete all reserves by 2034.", "Increased spending for Social Security will occur at the same time as increases in Medicare, as a result of the aging of the baby boomers. One projection illustrates the relationship between the two programs:\n\nFrom 2004 to 2030, the combined spending on Social Security and Medicare is expected to rise from 8% of national income (gross domestic product) to 13%. Two-thirds of the increase occurs in Medicare.", "In an annually issued report released in August 2021, the U.S. Treasury Department announced that the Old-Age and Survivors Trust Fund was projected to be able to pay scheduled benefits until 2033 while the Disability Insurance Trust Fund was projected to be able to pay its benefits through 2057 (and through 2034 when the funds were hypothetically combined), 1 year and 8 years earlier respectively than the previous report found", ". In June 2022, the Treasury Department issued an updated report for the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance Trust Funds with revised projections for their ability to pay scheduled benefits to 2034 and 2057 respectively and by 2035 when hypothetically combined due to accelerated recovery from the COVID-19 recession", ". In March 2023, the Treasury Department issued the annual trustees report for the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance Trust Funds with depletion date projections for the funds estimated at 2033 and 2097 respectively and by 2034 when combined", ". The 1990 board of trustees annual report estimated the depletion date of the combined funds would be in 2043, the 2000 and 2010 annual reports estimated the depletion date of the combined funds would be in 2037, and the 2020 annual report estimated the depletion date of the combined funds would be in 2035", ". In a survey of 210 members of the American Economics Association published in November 2006, 85 percent agreed with the statement: \"The gap between Social Security funds and expenditures will become unsustainably large within the next fifty years if current policies remain unchanged.\"", "Ways to eliminate the projected shortfall\n\nSocial Security is predicted to run out of money to pay all prospective retirees at today's level of benefits in 2034.", "Lift the payroll ceiling. The payroll ceiling is now adjusted for inflation. Robert Reich, former United States Secretary of Labor, suggests lifting the ceiling on income subject to Social Security taxes, which is $142,800 as of 2021.\n Increase Social Security taxes. If workers and employers each paid 8.0% (up from today's 6.2%), it would provide solvency through 2090. Self-employed persons would pay 16.00% on earnings (up from today’s 12.4%) under this proposal.", "Raise the retirement age(s). Raising the normal retirement age by two months per year until it reaches 69 in 2034 would reduce payouts and improve solvency.\n Means-test benefits. A phase out of Social Security benefits for those who already have income over $48,000/year ($4,000/month) would eliminate over 20% of the funding gap. This is not very popular, with only 31% of surveyed households favoring it.", "Change the cost-of-living adjustment, COLA. Several proposals have been discussed. Effects of COLA reductions would be cumulative over time and would affect some groups more than others. Poverty rates would increase.\n Reduce benefits for new retirees. If Social Security benefits were reduced by 3% to 5% for new retirees, about 18% to 30% percent of the funding gap would be eliminated.", "Average in more working years. Social Security benefits are now based on an average of a worker's 35 highest paid salaries with zeros averaged in if there are fewer than 35 years of covered wages. The averaging period could be increased to 38 or 40 years, which could potentially reduce the deficit by 10 to 20%, respectively.", "Require all newly hired people to join Social Security. Over 90% of all workers already pay FICA and SECA taxes, so there is not much to gain by this. There would be an early increase in Social Security income that would be partially offset later by the benefits they might collect when they retire.", "Taxation\n\nTax on wages and self-employment income\nBenefits are funded by taxes imposed on wages of employees and self-employed persons. As explained below, in the case of employment, the employer and employee are each responsible for one half of the Social Security tax, with the employee's half being withheld from the employee's pay check. In the case of self-employed persons (i.e., independent contractors), the self-employed person is responsible for the entire amount of Social Security tax.", "The portion of taxes collected from the employee for Social Security are referred to as \"trust fund taxes\" and the employer is required to remit them to the government. These taxes take priority over everything, and represent the only debts of a corporation or LLC that can impose personal liability upon its officers or managers", ". A sole proprietor and officers of a corporation and managers of an LLC can be held personally liable for non-payment of the income tax and social security taxes whether or not actually collected from the employee.", "The Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) (codified in the Internal Revenue Code) imposes a Social Security withholding tax equal to 6.20% of the gross wage amount, up to but not exceeding the Social Security Wage Base ($97,500 for 2007; $102,000 for 2008; and $106,800 for 2009, 2010, and 2011). The same 6.20% tax is imposed on employers. For 2011 and 2012, the employee's contribution was reduced to 4.2%, while the employer's portion remained at 6.2%. In 2012, the wage base increased to $110,100", ".2%, while the employer's portion remained at 6.2%. In 2012, the wage base increased to $110,100. In 2013, the wage base increased to $113,700. For each calendar year for which the worker is assessed the FICA contribution, the SSA credits those wages as that year's covered wages. The income cutoff is adjusted yearly for inflation and other factors.", "A separate payroll tax of 1.45% of an employee's income is paid directly by the employer, and an additional 1.45% deducted from the employee's paycheck, yielding a total tax rate of 2.90%. There is no maximum limit on this portion of the tax. This portion of the tax is used to fund the Medicare program, which is primarily responsible for providing health benefits to retirees.\n\nThe Social Security tax rates from 1937–2010 can be accessed on the Social Security Administration's website.", "The combined tax rate of these two federal programs is 15.30% (7.65% paid by the employee and 7.65% paid by the employer). In 2011–2012 it temporarily dropped to 13.30% (5.65% paid by the employee and 7.65% paid by the employer).", "For self-employed workers (who technically are not employees and are deemed not to be earning \"wages\" for federal tax purposes), the self-employment tax, imposed by the Self-Employment Contributions Act of 1954, codified as Chapter2 of Subtitle A of the Internal Revenue Code, , is 15.3% of \"net earnings from self-employment", ".3% of \"net earnings from self-employment.\" In essence, a self-employed individual pays both the employee and employer share of the tax, although half of the self-employment tax (the \"employer share\") is deductible when calculating the individual's federal income tax.", "If an employee has overpaid payroll taxes by having more than one job or switching jobs during the year, the excess taxes will be refunded when the employee files his federal income tax return. Any excess taxes paid by employers, however, are not refundable to the employers.", "By Congressional Budget Office (CBO) calculations the lowest income quintile (0–20%) and second quintile (21–40%) of households in the U.S. pay an average income tax of −9.3% and −2.6% and Social Security taxes of 8.3% and 7.9% respectively. By CBO calculations the household incomes in the first quintile and second quintile have an average Total Federal Tax rate of 1.0% and 3.8% respectively.", "Wages not subject to tax\nWorkers are not required to pay Social Security taxes on wages from certain types of work:\n A student working part-time for a university, enrolled at least half-time at the same university, and their relationship with the university is primarily an educational one.\n A student who is a household employee for a college club, fraternity, or sorority, and is enrolled and regularly attending classes at a university.", "A child under age 18 (or under age 21 for domestic service) who is employed by their parent. \n A person who receives payments from a state or a local government for services performed to be relieved from unemployment. \n An incarcerated person who works for the state or local government that operates the prison in which the person is incarcerated. \n A person at an institution who works for the state of local government that operates the institution.", "An employee of a state or local government who was hired on a temporary basis in response to a specific unforeseen fire, storm, snow, earthquake, flood, or a similar emergency, and the employee is not intended to become a permanent employee. \n A newspaper carrier under age 18.", "A real estate agent or salespeople's compensation if substantially all the compensation is directly related to sales or other output, rather than to the number of hours worked, and there is a written contract stating that the individual will not be treated as an employee for federal tax purposes. The compensation is exempt if * Employees of state or local government entities in Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Ohio, and Texas.", "Earnings as a council member of a federally recognized Indian tribe. \n A fishing worker who is a member of a federally recognized Indian tribe that has recognized fishing rights.\n A nonresident alien who is an employee of a foreign government on wages paid in their official capacities as foreign government employees.\n A nonresident alien who is employed by a foreign employer as a crew member working on a foreign ship or foreign aircraft.", "A nonresident alien who is a student, scholar, professor, teacher, trainee, researcher, physician, au pair, or summer camp worker and is temporarily in the United States in F-1, J-1, M-1, Q-1, or Q-2 nonimmigrant status for wages paid to them for services that are allowed by their visa status and are performed to carry out the purposes the visa status.\n A nonresident alien who is an employee of an international organization on wages paid by the international organization.", "A nonresident alien who is on an H-2A visa.\n A nonresident alien who works in Guam, is a resident of the Philippines, and is on an H-2A, H-2B, or H-2R visa.\n A member of certain religious groups, such as the Mennonites and the Amish, who consider insurance to be a lack of trust in God, and see it as their religious duty to provide for members who are sick, disabled, or elderly.", "A person who is temporarily working outside their country of origin and is covered under a tax treaty between their country and the United States. \n Net annual earnings from self-employment of less than $400.\n Wages received for service as an election worker, if less than $1,400 a year (in 2008).\n Wages received for working as a household employee, if less than $1,700 per year (in 2009–2010).", "Federal income taxation of benefits", "Originally the benefits received by retirees were not taxed as income", ". Beginning in tax year 1984, with the Reagan-era reforms to repair the system's projected insolvency, retirees with incomes over $25,000 (in the case of married persons filing separately who did not live with the spouse at any time during the year, and for persons filing as \"single\"), or with combined incomes over $32,000 (if married filing jointly) or, in certain cases", ", or with combined incomes over $32,000 (if married filing jointly) or, in certain cases, any income amount (if married filing separately from the spouse in a year in which the taxpayer lived with the spouse at any time) generally saw part of the retiree benefits subject to federal income tax", ". In 1984, the portion of the benefits potentially subject to tax was 50%. The Deficit Reduction Act of 1993 set the portion to 85%. Moreover, since the taxable income threshold is not indexed to inflation, the portion of beneficiaries' social security payments subject to income tax has risen significantly in real terms since the threshold was set in 1984.", "Criticisms\n\nClaim of discrimination against the poor and the middle class", "Workers must pay 12.4 percent, including a 6.2 percent employer contribution, on their wages below the Social Security Wage Base ($142,800 in 2021), but no tax on income in excess of this amount. Therefore, high earners pay a lower percentage of their total income because of the income caps; because of this, and the fact there is no tax on unearned income, social security taxes are often viewed as being regressive", ". However, benefits are adjusted to be significantly more progressive, even when accounting for differences in life expectancy. According to the non-partisan Congressional Budget Office, for people in the bottom fifth of the earnings distribution, the ratio of benefits to taxes is almost three times as high as it is for those in the top fifth.", "Despite its regressive tax rate, Social Security benefits are calculated using a progressive benefit formula that replaces a much higher percentage of low-income workers' pre-retirement income than that of higher-income workers (although these low-income workers pay a higher percentage of their pre-retirement income)", ". Supporters of the current system also point to numerous studies that show that, relative to high-income workers, Social Security disability and survivor benefits paid on behalf of low-income workers more than offset any retirement benefits that may be lost because of shorter life expectancy (this offset would apply only at a population level)", ". Other research asserts that survivor benefits, allegedly an offset, actually exacerbate the problem because survivor benefits are denied to single individuals, including widow(er)s married fewer than nine months (except in certain situations), divorced widow(er)s married fewer than ten years, and co-habiting or same-sex couples, unless they are legally married in their state of residence. Unmarried individuals and minorities tend to be less wealthy.", "Social Security's benefit formula provides 90% of average indexed monthly earnings (AIME) below the first \"bend point\" of $791/month, 32% of AIME between the first and second bend points $791 to $4781/month, and 15% of AIME in excess of the second bend point up to the Ceiling cap of $113,700 in 2013. The low income bias of the benefit calculation means that a lower paid worker receives a much higher percentage of his or her salary in benefit payments than higher paid workers", ". In fact, a married low salaried worker can receive over 100% of their salary in benefits after retiring at the full retirement age. High-salaried workers receive 43% or less of their salary in benefits despite having paid into the \"system\" at the same rate (see benefit calculations above)", ". To minimize the impact of Social Security taxes on low salaried workers the Earned Income Tax Credit and the Child Care Tax Credit were passed, which largely refund the FICA and or SECA payments of low-salaried workers through the income tax system. By Congressional Budget Office (CBO) calculations the lowest income quintile (0–20%) and second quintile (21–40%) of households in the U.S. pay an average federal income tax of −9.3% and −2.6% of income and Social Security taxes of 8.3% and 7", ".3% and −2.6% of income and Social Security taxes of 8.3% and 7.9% of income respectively. By CBO calculations the household incomes in the first and second quintiles have an average total federal tax rate of 1.0% and 3.8% respectively. However, these groups also have by far the smallest percentage of American household incomesthe first quintile earns just 3.2% of all income, while the second quintile earns only 8.4% of all income", ".2% of all income, while the second quintile earns only 8.4% of all income. Higher-income retirees will have to pay income taxes on 85% of their Social Security benefits and 100% on all other retirement benefits they may have.", "Marital status", "The Social Security Act defines the rules for determining marital relationships for SSI recipients. The act requires that if a couple is cohabitating they should be considered married for purposes of the SSI program. Consequently, if the claimant is found disabled and found to be \"holding out\"; this claimant will be entitled to reduced or no SSI benefits", ". However, the Social Security Act does not accept that a claimant \"holding out as husband or wife\" should be entitled of Survivor, Retirement or Widows benefits, when the claimant's \"husband or wife\" dies. SSA rules and regulations about marital status either prohibit (SRDI program) or reduce (SSI program) benefits to indigent claimants.", "Claim that politicians exempted themselves from the tax", "Critics of Social Security have said that the politicians who created Social Security exempted themselves from having to pay the Social Security tax. When the federal government created Social Security, all federal employees, including the president and members of Congress, were exempt from having to pay the Social Security tax, and they received no Social Security benefits", ". This law was changed by the Social Security Amendments of 1983, which brought within the Social Security system all members of Congress, the president and the vice president, federal judges, and certain executive-level political appointees, as well as all federal employees hired in any capacity on or after January 1, 1984. Many state and local government workers, however, are exempt from Social Security taxes because they contribute instead to alternative retirement systems set up by their employers.", "Comparison to a Ponzi scheme", "Critics have drawn parallels between Social Security and Ponzi schemes, arguing that the sustenance of Social Security is due to continuous contributions over time. One difference between a traditional Ponzi scheme and Social Security, is that while both may have similar structures—in particular, a sustainability problem when the number of new people paying in is declining—they have differing degrees of transparency", ". In the case of a traditional Ponzi scheme, the fact that there is no return-generating mechanism other than contributions from new entrants is obscured whereas the Social Security scheme is designed to have payouts openly underwritten by incoming tax revenue and the interest on the Treasury bonds held by or for the Social Security scheme", ". Private sector Ponzi schemes are also vulnerable to collapse because they cannot force new entrants to contribute, whereas participation in the Social Security program is mandatory upon beginning one's first job in the United States. In connection with these and other issues, Robert E. Wright calls Social Security a pyramid scheme—rather than a true Ponzi scheme—in his book, Fubarnomics.", "Estimated net benefits under differing circumstances", "In 2004, Urban Institute economists C. Eugene Steuerle and Adam Carasso created a Web-based Social Security benefits calculator. Using this calculator it is possible to estimate net Social Security benefits (i.e., estimated lifetime benefits minus estimated lifetime FICA taxes paid) for different types of recipients", ". In the book Democrats and RepublicansRhetoric and Reality Joseph Fried used the calculator to create graphical depictions of the estimated net benefits of men and women who were at different wage levels, single and married (with stay-at-home spouses), and retiring in different years", ". These graphs vividly show that generalizations about Social Security benefits may be of little predictive value for any given worker, due to the wide disparity of net benefits for people at different income levels and in different demographic groups. For example, the graph below (Figure 168) shows the impact of wage level and retirement date on a male worker. As income goes up, net benefits get smallereven negative.", "However, the impact is much greater for the future retiree (in 2045) than for the current retiree (2005). The male earning $95,000 per year and retiring in 2045 is estimated to lose over $200,000 by participating in the Social Security system.", "In the next graph (Figure 165) the depicted net benefits are averaged for people turning age 65 anytime during the years 2005 through 2045. (In other words, the disparities shown are not related to retirement.) However, we do see the impact of gender and wage level. Because women tend to live longer, they generally collect Social Security benefits for a longer time. As a result, they get a higher net benefit, on average, no matter what the wage level.", "The next image (Figure 166) shows estimated net benefits for married men and women at different wage levels. In this particular scenario it is assumed that the spouse has little or no earnings and, thus, will be entitled to collect a spousal retirement benefit. According to Fried:", "Two significant factors are evident: First, every column in Figure 166 depicts a net benefit that is higher than any column in Figure 165. In other words, the average married person (with a stay-at-home spouse) gets a greater benefit per FICA tax dollar paid than does the average single person, no matter what the gender or wage level. Second, there is only limited progressivity among married workers with stay-at-home spouses", ". Second, there is only limited progressivity among married workers with stay-at-home spouses. Review Figure 166 carefully: The net benefits drop as the wage levels increase from $50,000 to $95,000; however, they increase as the wage levels grow from $5,000 to $50,000. In fact, net benefits are lowest for those earning just $5,000 per year.", "The last graph shown (Figure 167) is a combination of Figures 165 and 166. In this graph it is very clear why generalizations about the value of Social Security benefits are meaningless. At the $95,000 wage level a married person could be a big winner, getting net benefits of about $165,000. On the other hand, he could lose an estimated $152,000 in net benefits if he remains single", ". On the other hand, he could lose an estimated $152,000 in net benefits if he remains single. Altogether, there is a \"swing\" of over $300,000 based upon the marriage decision (and the division of earnings between the spouses). In addition there is a large disparity between the high net benefits of the married person earning $95,000 ($165,152) versus the relatively low net benefits of the man or woman earning just $5,000 ($30,025 or $41,890, depending on gender)", ". In other words, the high earner, in this scenario, gets a far greater return on his FICA tax investment than does the low earner.", "In the book How Social Security Picks Your Pocket other factors affecting Social Security net benefits are identified: Generally, people who work for more than 35 years get a lower net benefit, all other factors being equal. People who do not live long after retirement age get a much lower net benefit. Finally, people who derive a high percentage of income from non-wage sources get high Social Security net benefits because they appear to be poor, when they are not", ". The progressive benefit formula for Social Security is blind to the income a worker may have from non-wage sources, such as spousal support, dividends and interest, or rental income.", "Current controversies\n\nProposals to reform of the Social Security system have led to heated debate, centering on funding of the program. In particular, proposals to privatize funding have caused great controversy.", "Contrast with private pensions", "Although Social Security is sometimes compared to private pensions, the two systems are different in a number of respects. It has been argued that Social Security is an insurance plan as opposed to a retirement plan. Unlike a pension, for example, Social Security pays disability benefits. A private pension fund accumulates the money paid into it, eventually using those reserves to pay pensions to the workers who contributed to the fund; and a private system is not universal", ". Social Security cannot \"prefund\" by investing in marketable assets such as equities, because federal law prohibits it from investing in assets other than those backed by the U.S. government. As a result, its investments to date have been limited to special non-negotiable securities issued by the U.S. Treasury, although some argue that debt issued by the Federal National Mortgage Association and other quasi-governmental organizations could meet legal standards", ". Social Security cannot by law invest in private equities, although some other countries (such as Canada) and some states permit their pension funds to invest in private equities. As a universal system, Social Security generally operates as a pipeline, through which current tax receipts from workers are used to pay current benefits to retirees, survivors, and the disabled", ". When there is an excess of taxes withheld over benefits paid, by law this excess is invested in Treasury securities (not in private equities) as described above.", "Two broad categories of private pension plans are \"defined benefit pension plans\" and \"defined contribution pension plans.\" Of these two, Social Security is more similar to a defined benefit pension plan. In a defined benefit pension plan, the benefits ultimately received are based on some sort of pre-determined formula (such as one based on years worked and highest salary earned). Defined benefit pension plans generally do not include separate accounts for each participant", ". Defined benefit pension plans generally do not include separate accounts for each participant. By contrast, in a defined contribution pension plan each participant has a specific account with funds put into that account (by the employer or the participant, or both), and the ultimate benefit is based on the amount in that account at the time of retirement", ". Some have proposed that the Social Security system be modified to provide for the option of individual accounts (in effect, to make the system, at least in part, more like a defined contribution pension plan). Specifically, on February 2, 2005, President George W. Bush made Social Security a prominent theme of his State of the Union Address. He described the Social Security system as \"headed for bankruptcy\", and outlined, in general terms, a proposal based on partial privatization", ". Critics responded that privatization would require huge new government borrowing to fund benefit payments during the transition years. See Social Security debate (United States).", "Both \"defined benefit\" and \"defined contribution\" private pension plans are governed by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA), which requires employers to provide minimum levels of funding to support \"defined benefits\" pensions. The purpose is to protect the workers from corporate mismanagement and outright bankruptcy, although in practice many private pension funds have fallen short in recent years", ". In terms of financial structure, the current Social Security system is analogous to an underfunded \"defined benefit\" pension (\"underfunded\" meaning not that it is in trouble, but that its savings are not enough to pay future benefits without collecting future tax revenues).", "Contrast with insurance", "Besides the argument over whether the returns on Social Security contributions should or can be compared to returns on private investment instruments, there is the question of whether the contributions are nonetheless analogous to pooled insurance premiums charged by for-profit commercial insurance companies to maintain and generate a return on a \"risk pool of funds\"", ". Like any insurance program, Social Security \"spreads risk\" as the program protects workers and covered family members against loss of income from the wage earner's retirement, disability, or death. For example, a worker who becomes disabled at a young age could receive a large return relative to the amount they contributed in FICA before becoming disabled, since disability benefits can continue for life", ". As in private insurance plans, everyone in the particular insurance pool is insured against the same risks, but not everyone will benefit to the same extent.", "The analogy to insurance, however, is limited by the fact that paying FICA taxes creates no legal right to benefits and by the extent to which Social Security is, in fact, funded by FICA taxes. During 2011 and 2012, for example, FICA tax revenue was insufficient to maintain Social Security's solvency without transfers from general revenues. These transfers added to the general budget deficit like general program spending.", "Private retirement savings crisis", "While inflation-adjusted stock market values generally rose from 1978 to 1997, from 1998 through 2007 they were higher than in March 2013. This has caused workers' supplemental retirement plans such as 401(k)s to perform substantially more poorly than expected when current retirees were investing the bulk of their savings in them", ". In 2010, the median household retirement account balance for workers aged 55 to 64 was $120,000, which will provide only a trivial supplement to Social Security benefits, but about a third of households had no retirement savings at all. 75% of Americans nearing retirement age had less than $30,000 in their retirement accounts, which Forbes called \"the greatest retirement crisis in American history.\"", "Court interpretation of the Act to provide benefits", "The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit has indicated that the Social Security Act has a moral purpose and should be liberally interpreted in favor of claimants when deciding what counted as covered wages for purposes of meeting the quarters of coverage requirement to make a worker eligible for benefits. That court has also stated: \"..", ". That court has also stated: \"...[T]he regulations should be liberally applied in favor of beneficiaries\" when deciding a case in favor of a felon who had his disability payments retroactively terminated upon incarceration. According to the court, that the Social Security Act \"should be liberally construed in favor of those seeking its benefits can not be doubted", ".\" \"The hope behind this statute is to save men and women from the rigors of the poor house as well as from the haunting fear that such a lot awaits them when journey's end is near.\"", "Constitutionality", "The constitutionality of Social Security is intricately linked to the evolving nature of Supreme Court jurisprudence on federal power (the 20th century saw a dramatic increase in allowed congressional action). When Social Security was first passed, there were significant questions over its constitutionality as the Court had found another pension scheme, the original Railroad Retirement Act, to violate the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment", ". Some, such as University of Chicago law professor Richard Epstein and Harvard University professor Robert Nozick, have argued that Social Security should be unconstitutional.", "In the 1937 U.S. Supreme Court case of Helvering v. Davis, the Court examined the constitutionality of Social Security when George Davis of the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Boston sued in connection with the Social Security tax. The U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts first upheld the tax. The District Court judgment was reversed by the Circuit Court of Appeals", ". The District Court judgment was reversed by the Circuit Court of Appeals. Commissioner Guy Helvering of the Bureau of Internal Revenue (now the Internal Revenue Service) took the case to the Supreme Court, and the Court upheld the validity of the tax.", "During the 1930s President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was in the midst of promoting the passage of a large number of social welfare programs under the New Deal and the Supreme Court struck down many of those programs (such as the Railroad Retirement Act and the National Recovery Act) as unconstitutional. Modified versions of the affected programs were afterwards approved by the Court, including Social Security.", "When Helvering v. Davis was argued before the Court, the larger issue of constitutionality of the old-age insurance portion of Social Security was not decided. The case was limited to whether the payroll tax was a suitable use of Congress's taxing power. Despite this, no serious challenges regarding the system's constitutionality are now being litigated, and Congress's spending power may be more coextensive, as shown in cases like South Dakota v. Dole during the Reagan Administration.\n\nFraud and abuse", "Fraud and abuse\n\nSocial Security Number theft\nBecause Social Security Numbers have become useful in identity theft and other forms of crime, various schemes have been perpetrated to acquire valid Social Security Numbers and related identity information.", "In February 2006, the Social Security Administration received several reports of an email message being circulated addressed to \"Dear Social Security Number And Card owner\" and purporting to be from the Social Security Administration. The message informs the reader \"that someone illegally is using your Social Security number and assuming your identity\" and directs the reader to a website designed to look like Social Security's Internet website.", "\"I am outraged that someone would target an unsuspecting public in this manner,\" said Commissioner Jo Anne B. Barnhart. \"I have asked the Inspector General to use all the resources at his command to find and prosecute whoever is perpetrating this fraud.\"", "Once directed to the phony website, the individual is reportedly asked to confirm his or her identity with \"Social Security and bank information\". Specific information about the individual's credit card number, expiration date and PIN is then requested. \"Whether on our online website or by phone, Social Security will never ask you for your credit card information or your PIN,\" Commissioner Jo Anne B. Barnhart reported.", "Social Security Administration Inspector General O'Carroll recommended people always take precautions when giving out personal information. \"You should never provide your Social Security number or other personal information over the Internet or by telephone unless you are extremely confident of the source to whom you are providing the information,\" O'Carroll said.", "Fraud in the acquisition and use of benefits", "Given the vast size of the program, fraud sometimes occurs. The Social Security Administration has its own investigatory unit to combat and prevent fraud, the Cooperative Disability Investigations Unit (CDIU). The Cooperative Disability Investigations (CDI) Program continues to be one of the most successful initiatives, contributing to the integrity of SSA's disability programs", ". In addition when investigating fraud in other SSA programs, the Social Security Administration may request investigatory assistance from other law enforcement agencies including the Office of the Inspector General as well as state and local authorities.", "Restrictions on potentially deceptive communications", "Because of the importance of Social Security to millions of Americans, many direct-mail marketers packaged their mailings to resemble official communications from the Social Security Administration, hoping recipients would be more likely to open them. In response, Congress amended the Social Security Act in 1988 to prohibit the private use of the phrase \"Social Security\" and several related terms in any way that would convey a false impression of approval from the Social Security Administration", ". The constitutionality of this law () was upheld in United Seniors Association, Inc. v. Social Security Administration, 423 F.3d 397 (4th Cir. 2005), cert den 547 U.S. 1162; 126 S.Ct. 2346 (2006) (text at Findlaw).", "Public economics\n\nCurrent recipients", "The 2011 annual report by the program's Board of Trustees noted the following: in 2010, 54 million people were receiving Social Security benefits, while 157 million people were paying into the fund; of those receiving benefits, 44 million were receiving retirement benefits and 10 million disability benefits. In 2011, there will be 56 million beneficiaries and 158 million workers paying in. In 2010, total income was $781.1billion and expenditures were $712", ". In 2010, total income was $781.1billion and expenditures were $712.5billion, which meant a total net increase in assets of $68.6billion. Assets in 2010 were $2.6trillion, an amount that is expected to be adequate to cover the next ten years. In 2023, total income and interest earned on assets are projected to no longer cover expenditures for Social Security, as demographic shifts burden the system", ". By 2035, the ratio of potential retirees to working age persons will be 37 percentthere will be less than three potential income earners for every retiree in the population. At this rate the Social Security Trust Fund would be exhausted by 2036.", "Saving behavior", "Social Security affects the saving behavior of the people in three different ways. The wealth substitution effect occurs when a person saving for retirement recognizes that the Social Security system will take care of him and decreases his expectations about how much he needs to personally save. The retirement effect occurs when a taxpayer saves more each year in an effort to reduce the total number of years he must work to accumulate enough savings before retirement", ". The bequest effect occurs when a taxpayer recognizes a decrease in resources stemming from the Social Security tax and compensates by increasing personal savings to cover future expected costs of having children.", "Reducing cost of living adjustment (COLA)\nAt present, a retiree's benefit is annually adjusted for inflation to reflect changes in the consumer price index. Some economists argue that the consumer price index overestimates price increases in the economy and therefore is not a suitable metric for adjusting benefits, while others argue that the CPI underestimates the effect of inflation on what retired people actually need to buy to live.", "The current cost of living adjustment is based on the consumer price index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI-W). The Bureau of Labor Statistics routinely checks the prices of 211 different categories of consumption items in 38 geographical areas to compute 8,018 item-area indices. Many other indices are computed as weighted averages of these base indices. CPI-W is based on a market basket of goods and services consumed by urban wage earners and clerical workers", ". The weights for that index are updated in January of every even-numbered year. People who say the CPI-W overestimates inflation recommend updating the weights each month; this produces the Chained Consumer Price Index for all urban consumers (C-CPI-U)", ". People who say the C-CPI-U [or the unchained CPI for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U)] disadvantages the elderly point out that seniors consume more medical care than younger people, and that the costs of medical care have been rising faster than inflation in other parts of the economy. According to this view, the costs of the things the elderly buy have been rising faster than the market basket averaged to obtain CPI-W, CPI-U or C-CPI-U. Some have recommended fixing this by using a CPI for the Elderly (CPI-E)", ". Some have recommended fixing this by using a CPI for the Elderly (CPI-E).", "In 2003 economics researchers Hobijn and Lagakos estimated that the social security trust fund would run out of money in 40 years using CPI-W and in 35 years using CPI-E.\n\nConsumption\nAccording to a 2016 study in the American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, the Social Security benefit increases from 1952 to 1991 have a \"large, immediate, and significant positive response of consumption\".", "Health outcomes\nAccording to a 2021 study, the expansion of old-age assistance under the 1935 Social Security Act reduced mortality among the elderly by 30–39%.\n\nSee also", "List of Social Security lawsuits\n List of Social Security legislation (United States)\n 401(k)\n Federal Emergency Relief Administration\n Financing and benefit structure\n Goldberg v. Kelly\n Government operations\n Social Security Administration\n Carolyn W. Colvin, Acting Commissioner (2013–2017)\n Michael J. Astrue, Commissioner (2007–2013)\n Health savings account\n Individual retirement account\n National Organization of Social Security Claimants' Representatives (NOSSCR)\n Ownership society", "National Organization of Social Security Claimants' Representatives (NOSSCR)\n Ownership society\n Richardson v. Perales\n Social Security debate (United States)\n Steward Machine Company v. Davis\n Supplemental Security Income\n SSA impersonation scam\n Charitable contribution deductions in the United States\n Invalidity, Old-Age and Survivors' Benefits Convention, 1967", "References\n\nSources\n\n Achenbaum, Andrew (1986). Social Security Visions and Revisions.\n Feldstein, Martin; Jeffrey Liebman (editors) (2002). The Distributional Aspects of Social Security and Social Security Reform. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\n Kessler-Harris, Alice (2001). In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th Century America. New York City: Oxford University Press.", "Social Security Administration Beneficiaries and costs information\n Wright, Robert E. (2010). Fubarnomics: A Lighthearted, Serious Look at America's Economic Ills. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books.\n\nFurther reading", "Altman, Nancy; Kingson, Eric; Johnston, David Cay (2015). Social Security Works!: Why Social Security Isn't Going Broke and How Expanding It Will Help Us All. The New Press. \n Achenbaum, W. Andrew. (1986) Social Security: Visions and Revisions (1986), a scholarly history of Social Security and retirement in the USA. online\n Achenbaum, W. Andrew. (1978) Old age in the new land: The American experience since 1790 (JHU Press, 1978). online", "Davis, Owen. (2021) \"Employment and Retirement Among Older Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic.\" (Schwartz Center for Economic Policy Analysis and Department of Economics, The New School for Social Research, Working Paper Series 6, 2021). online\n Goda, Gopi Shah, et al. (2022) \"The impact of Covid-19 on older workers’ employment and Social Security spillovers.\" Journal of Population Economics (2022): 1-34. online", "Jenkins, Shirley; et al., eds. Social Security in International Perspective Essays in Honor of Eveline M. Burns. Columbia University Press, 1969\n Kim, Jin H. (2019) \"Assessing The Adequacy Of Social Security Retirement Benefits Across Race-Ethnicity, Gender, And Age Of Retirement.\" Innovation in Aging 3.Suppl 1 (2019): S890.\n Martin, Patricia P.; Weaver, David A. (2005) \"Social Security: A Program and Policy History\", Social Security Bulletin, Vol. 66 No. 1, 2005", "Myers, Robert J. Social Security. University of Pennsylvania Press. 1993.\n Oreskes, Naomi, \"Social Security and Science: Attacks on the program rest on false 'facts' similar to ones used against climate change action\", Scientific American, vol. 328, no. 5 (May 2023), p.86.\n \n Schieber, Sylvester J., and John B. Shoven. The Real Deal. Yale University Press 1999.\n Casamatta, G., Cremer, H., & Pestieau P. (2000). \"The political economy of Social Security\". Scandinavian Journal of Economics 102(3), 503–522.", "Cogan, J. F. & Mitchell, O. S. (2003). \"Perspectives from the President's Commission on Social Security reform\". Journal of Economic Perspectives 17(2), 149–172.\n Galasso, V. (1999). \"The U.S. Social Security system: what does sustainability imply?\" Review of Economic Dynamics 2(3), 698–730.\n Galasso, V. & Profeta, P. (2004). \"Lessons for an aging society: the political sustainability of social security systems\". Economic Policy 19(38), 63–115.", "Goss, S. C. (2010). \"The future financial status of the Social Security program\". Social Security Bulletin 70(3), 111–125.\n Pecchenino, R. A. & Utendorf, K. R. (1999). \"Social Security, social welfare and the aging population\". Journal of Population Economics 12(4), 607–623.\n Ci, Zhaoxue. (2022) \"Does raising retirement age lead to a healthier transition to retirement? Evidence from the US Social Security Amendments of 1983.\" Health Economics (2022).", "External links", "Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (\"OASDI')\n Social Security Administration\n Social Security Advisory Board\n Social Security Retirement Questions FAQ\n Social Security Internet Myths part 1, Social Security Internet Myths part 2\n Congressional Budget Office: Social Security Primer (2001)\n US Government Accountability Office, Social Security Reform: Answers to Key Questions\n Social Security Act of 1935\n Social Security Amendments of 1983\n Calculators\n Social Security benefit calculators", "Social Security Amendments of 1983\n Calculators\n Social Security benefit calculators\n More information\n Commission to Strengthen Social Security\n Social Security Advisory Board\n President's Commission to Strengthen Social Security\n Social Security Death Index Information\n Articles\n \n Social Security: Major Decisions in the House and Senate Since 1935 Congressional Research Service (2016)", "Social Security's Financial Outlook and Reforms: An Independent Evaluation, Jagadeesh Gokhale, member of the Social Security Advisory Board advising Congress and the President\n Time Archives A Collection regarding Social Security's progression and perception over time", "Liberalism in the United States\n \nTaxation in the United States" ]

[ "Hejazi Arabic or Hijazi Arabic (HA) (, ), also known as West Arabian Arabic, is a variety of Arabic spoken in the Hejaz region in Saudi Arabia. Strictly speaking, there are two main groups of dialects spoken in the Hejaz region, one by the urban population, originally spoken mainly in the cities of Jeddah, Mecca, Medina and partially in Ta'if and another dialect by the urbanized rural and bedouin populations. However, the term most often applies to the urban variety which is discussed in this article.", "In antiquity, the Hejaz was home to the Old Hejazi dialect of Arabic recorded in the consonantal text of the Qur'an. Old Hejazi is distinct from modern Hejazi Arabic, and represents an older linguistic layer wiped out by centuries of migration, but which happens to share the imperative prefix vowel /a-/ with the modern dialect.", "Classification", "Also referred to as the sedentary Hejazi dialect, this is the form most commonly associated with the term \"Hejazi Arabic\", and is spoken in the urban centers of the region, such as Jeddah, Mecca, and Medina. With respect to the axis of bedouin versus sedentary dialects of the Arabic language, this dialect group exhibits features of both", ". Like other sedentary dialects, the urban Hejazi dialect is less conservative than the bedouin varieties in some aspects and has therefore shed some Classical forms and features that are still present in bedouin dialects, these include gender-number disagreement, and the feminine marker -n (see Varieties of Arabic). But in contrast to bedouin dialects, the constant use of full vowels and the absence of vowel reduction plus the distinction between the emphatic letters and is generally retained.", "Innovative features", "The present progressive tense is marked by the prefix or or as in or or (\"he is studying\").\n The future tense is marked by the prefix or as in or (\"he will study\").\n the internal passive form, which in Hejazi, is replaced by the pattern ( , ) or ( , ).\n Loss of the final sound in the 3rd person masculine singular pronoun . For example, (\"his house\"), (\"I know him\"), (\"they said it\"), (\"on him\") and (\"we saw him\") vs. (\"we saw\") .", "loss of gender-specificity in numbers except for the number \"one\" which is m. and f. .\nThe pronunciation of the interdental letters ,, and . (See Hejazi Arabic Phonology)\nloss of gender-specificity in plural verb forms, e.g. instead of masculine and feminine .\nloss of gender-specificity in plural adjectives, e.g. \"bored\" can be used to describe both feminine and masculine plural nouns.", "The verb forms V, VI and IIQ have an additional initial , e.g. \"it shattered\" (V), \"she worked\" (VI) and \"they babbled\" (IIQ).", "Conservative features \n Hejazi Arabic does not employ double negation, nor does it append the negation particles -sh to negate verbs: Hejazi (\"I don't know\"), as opposed to Egyptian and Palestinian .\nThe habitual present tense is not marked by any prefixes as in (\"he studies\") and (\"I love you\"), as opposed to Egyptian and .\n The prohibitive mood of Classical Arabic is preserved in the imperative: (\"don't go\").", "The prohibitive mood of Classical Arabic is preserved in the imperative: (\"don't go\").\n The possessive suffixes are generally preserved in their Classical forms. For example, \"your (pl) house\".\n The plural first person pronoun is or , as opposed to the bedouin or .\n When indicating a location, the preposition (also written as a prefix ) is preferred to as in or (\"in Medina\").\nThe pronunciation of the is as in Modern Standard Arabic as in (\"Riyadh\").", "The pronunciation of the is as in Modern Standard Arabic as in (\"Riyadh\").\n The hamzated verbs like and keep their classical form as opposed to and .\n The use of in form 1 verbs is retained as in or as opposed to and in Najdi and Gulf Arabic.\n The glottal stop can be added to final syllables ending in a vowel as a way of emphasising.\nthe definite article is always pronounced as opposed to Egyptian or Kuwaiti and the final is always pronounced .", "Compared to neighboring dialects, urban Hejazi retains most of the short vowels of Classical Arabic with no vowel reduction (ghawa syndrome), for example:\n (\"fish\"), as opposed to bedouin , and (\"pronunciation\"), as opposed to bedouin \n (\"our pocket\"), as opposed to bedouin and Egyptian .\n (\"she hit him\"), as opposed to bedouin .\n (\"his son\"), as opposed to bedouin .\n (\"in your possession\" pl.), as opposed to bedouin , Egyptian , and Levantine .\n (\"on me\"), as opposed to bedouin .", "History", "The Arabic of today is derived principally from the old dialects of Central and North Arabia which were divided by the classical Arab grammarians into three groups: Hejaz, Najd, and the language of the tribes in adjoining areas. Though the modern Hejazi dialects has developed markedly since the development of Classical Arabic, and Modern Standard Arabic is quite distinct from the modern dialect of Hejaz", ". Standard Arabic now differs considerably from modern Hejazi Arabic in terms of its phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon, such diglossia in Arabic began to emerge at the latest in the sixth century CE when oral poets recited their poetry in a proto-Classical Arabic based on archaic dialects which differed greatly from their own.", "Urban Hejazi Arabic belongs to the western Peninsular Arabic branch of the Arabic language, which itself is a Semitic language", ". It includes features of both urban and bedouin dialects given its development in the historical cities of Jeddah, Medina and Mecca in proximity to the bedouin tribes that lived on the outskirts of these cities, in addition to a minimal influence in vocabulary from other urban Arabic dialects and Modern Standard Arabic, and more recently the influence of the other dialects of Saudi Arabia", ", and more recently the influence of the other dialects of Saudi Arabia, all of which made Urban Hejazi a dialect that is distinctly unique but close to peninsular dialects on one hand and urban Arabic dialects on the other", ".", "Historically, it is not well-known in which stage of Arabic the shift from the Proto-Semitic pair qāf and gīm came to be Hejazi gāf and jīm , although it has been attested as early as the eighth century CE, and it can be explained by a chain shift * → → that occurred in one of two ways:", "Drag Chain: Proto-Semitic gīm palatalized to Hejazi jīm first, opening up a space at the position of , which qāf * then moved to fill the empty space resulting in Hejazi gāf , restoring structural symmetrical relationships present in the pre-Arabic system.", "Push Chain: Proto-Semitic qāf * changed to Hejazi gāf first, which resulted in pushing the original gīm forward in articulation to become Hejazi jīm , but since most modern qāf dialects as well as standard Arabic also have jīm, then the push-chain of qāf to gāf first can be discredited, although there are good grounds for believing that old Arabic qāf had both voiced and voiceless as allophones; and later on the gīm was fronted to jīm , possibly as a result of pressure from the allophones.", "* The original value of Proto-Semitic qāf was probably an emphatic not .", "The development of to have also been observed in languages like Azeri in which the Old Turkic is pronounced as a velar ; e.g. قال / qal 'stay' is pronounced , rather than as in Turkish or in Bashkir, Uyghur, Kazakh, etc.", "Phonology \nIn general, Hejazi native phonemic inventory consists of 26 (with no interdental ) to 28 consonant phonemes depending on the speaker's background and formality, in addition to the marginal phoneme . Furthermore, it has an eight-vowel system, consisting of three short and five long vowels . Consonant length and Vowel length are both distinctive and being a Semitic language the four emphatic consonants are treated as separate phonemes from their plain counterparts.", "The main phonological feature that differentiates urban Hejazi from other peninsular dialects in regards to consonants; is the pronunciation of the letters ,, and (see Hejazi Phonology) and the pronunciation of as in Standard Arabic. Another differential feature is the lack of palatalization for the letters , and , unlike in other peninsular dialects where they can be palatalized in certain positions e.g. Hejazi 'new' vs. Gulf Arabic and Hejazi 'with you' vs. traditional Najdi .", "The marginal /ɫ/ is only used in the word 'God' /aɫːaːh/ (except when it follows an as in بسمِ الله ) and in words derived from it, It contrasts with /l/ in والله 'I swear' /waɫːa/ vs. ولَّا 'or' /walːa/. Unlike other neighboring dialects; is not velarized in certain positions, as in 'brain' pronounced with a light Lām in Hejazi and velarized one in other peninsular Arabic dialects", ". Two additional foreign phonemes ⟨پ⟩ and ⟨ڤ⟩ are used by a number of speakers while many substitute them with ⟨ب⟩ and ⟨ف⟩ respectively, in general is more integrated and used by most speakers than .", "A conservative feature that Hejazi holds is the constant use of full vowels and the absence of vowel reduction, for example 'we told them', is pronounced in Hejazi with full vowels but pronounced with the reduced vowel as in Najdi and Gulf Arabic, in addition to that, the absence of initial consonant cluster (known as the ghawa syndrome) as in 'cow', 'coffee', 'we know' and 'she heard' which are pronounced , , and respectively in Hejazi but , , and in other peninsular dialects.\n\nConsonants", "Phonetic notes:\nthe affricate and the trill are realised as a and a tap respectively by a number of speakers or in a number of words.\nthe phonemes and can be realised as uvular fricatives and in few instances.\nthe reintroduced phoneme is partially used as an alternative phoneme, while most speakers merge it with or depending on the word.\nthe reintroduced phoneme is partially used as an alternative phoneme, while most speakers merge it with or depending on the word.", "is an optional allophone for ⟨ظ⟩. In general, urban Hejazi speakers merge it with or pronounce it distinctly as depending on the word.\n has the velar allophone , which occurs before stop velars as in ('it spilled') and ('brazier') and is an allophone before as in ('clove') which is pronounced .", "due to the influence of Modern Standard Arabic in the 20th century, has been introduced as an allophone of in some words and phrases especially in the scientific and religious fields as in ('economy') which is phonemically but can be pronounced as or depending on the speaker, although older speakers prefer in all positions.", "Word-Initial and other clusters like occur only in loanwords and they are not considered to be a single phoneme but a cluster of two, e.g. ⟨ت⟩ and ⟨ش⟩ as in ('Chile'). This cluster has merged with in earlier loanwords that are more integrated e.g. شَيَّك ('he checked’) from English check. The cluster also occurs phonetically in native words affected by syncope when connected, e.g. ('don't lift') pronounced or .", "Vowels", "Phonetic notes:\n and are pronounced either as an open front vowel or an open central vowel depending on the speaker, even when adjacent to emphatic consonants, except in some words such as ('Germany'), ('Japan') and ('dad') where they are pronounced with the back vowel .\n and are pronounced as true mid vowels and respectively.", "and are pronounced as true mid vowels and respectively.\nshort (also analyzed as ) is pronounced allophonically as or less likely in word initial or medial syllables e.g. ('Ukraine') and ('comb') and strictly as at the end of words e.g. ('they saw') or before as in ('he') or when isolate.", "short (also analyzed as ) is pronounced allophonically as or less likely in word initial or medial syllables e.g. ('Islam') and ('section') and strictly as at the end of words e.g. ('I have') or before as in ('he') or when isolate.\nthe close vowels can be distinguished by tenseness with and being more tense in articulation than their short counterparts and , except at the end of words where they are all tense even in loanwords, e.g. ('Chicago') which is less likely to be pronounced .", "The diphthongs: , , e.g. ('he stops') and e.g. ('he's saying') (also pronounced for emphasis) are not considered as separate phonemes.", "Monophthongization \nMost of the occurrences of the two diphthongs and in the Classical Arabic period underwent monophthongization in Hejazi, and are realized as the long vowels and respectively, but they are still preserved as diphthongs in a number of words which created a contrast with the long vowels , , and .", "Not all instances of mid vowels are a result of monophthongization, some are from grammatical processes 'they said' → 'they said to her' (opposed to Classical Arabic ), and some occur in modern Portmanteau words e.g. 'why?' (from Classical Arabic 'for what' and 'thing').", "Vocabulary", "Hejazi vocabulary derives primarily from Arabic Semitic roots. The urban Hejazi vocabulary differs in some respect from that of other dialects in the Arabian Peninsula. For example, there are fewer specialized terms related to desert life, and more terms related to seafaring and fishing", ". Loanwords are uncommon and they are mainly of French, Italian, Persian, Turkish and most recently of English origins, and due to the diverse origins of the inhabitants of Hejazi cities, some loanwords are used by only some families. Some old loanwords are fading or became obsolete due to the influence of Modern Standard Arabic and their association with lower social class and education, e.g. \"air conditioner\" (from English Condition) was replaced by Standard Arabic .", "Most of the loanwords tend to be nouns e.g. \"Bicycle\", \"lipstick\" and \"shrimp\", and sometimes with a change of meaning as in: \"overpass\" from Turkish originally meaning \"bridge\" and \"water tanker truck\" from English and \"shoe\" from Turkish originally meaning \"boot\", loaned verbs which are less common include \"to hack\" from English \"\" and \"to agitate\" from French \"\" or English \"\".", "Words that are distinctly of Hejazi origin include or \"now\", \"yes\", \"what?\", \"I want\", \"breast\" (used with the more formal ), \"hiccup\", and or \"already\", Other general vocabulary includes \"to leave\" with its synonyms and , \"to call over\" with its synonym and \"good luck\". (see vocabulary list)", "Portmanteau \nA common feature in Hejazi vocabulary is portmanteau words (also called a blend in linguistics); in which parts of multiple words or their phones (sounds) are combined into a new word, it is especially innovative in making Interrogative words, examples include:\n (, \"yes\"): from (, \"yes\") and (, \"and\") and (, \"god\").\n (, is it ok?/sorry): from (, nothing) and (, on him) and (, thing).\n (, \"what?\"): from (, \"which\") and (, \"thing\").\n (, \"why?\"): from (, for what) and (, \"thing\").", "(, \"why?\"): from (, for what) and (, \"thing\").\n (, where?): from (, in) and (, where).\n (, \"until\"): from (, \"to\") and (, \"that\").\n ( or , \"now\"): from (, \"this\") and (, part of time).\n (, later): from (baʕd, after) and (ʔayn, part of time).\n or ( or , \"in order to\"): from (, \"on\") and (, \"matter\").\n (, \"also\"): from (, \"like\") and (, \"that\").\n (, come on): from (, \"o!\") and (, \"god\").\n or (, not yet, still): from (, \"to the hour\") also used as in (\"he is still young\")", "Numerals \nThe Cardinal number system in Hejazi is much more simplified than the Classical Arabic\n\nA system similar to the German numbers system is used for other numbers between 20 and above: 21 is which literally mean ('one and twenty') and 485 is which literally mean ('four hundred and five and eighty').", "Unlike Classical Arabic, the only number that is gender specific in Hejazi is \"one\" which has two forms m. and f. as in ('one book') or ('one car'), with being a masculine noun and a feminine noun.", "for 2 as in 'two cars' 'two years' 'two houses' etc. the dual form is used instead of the number with the suffix ēn or tēn (if the noun ends with a feminine ) as in ('two books') or ('two cars'), for emphasis they can be said as or .\n for numbers 3 to 10 the noun following the number is in plural form as in ('4 books') or ('10 cars').\n for numbers 11 and above the noun following the number is in singular form as in:-", "for numbers 11 and above the noun following the number is in singular form as in:-\n from 11 to 19 an [ar] is added to the end of the numbers as in ('14 books') or ('11 cars').\n for 100s a [t] is added to the end of the numbers before the counted nouns as in ('300 cars').\n other numbers are simply added to the singular form of the noun ('21 books').", "Grammar\n\nSubject pronouns \nIn Hejazi Arabic, personal pronouns have eight forms. In singular, the 2nd and 3rd persons differentiate gender, while the 1st person and plural do not. The negative articles include as in ('do not write!'), as in ('he is not talking') and as in ('not like this')", "{| class=\"wikitable\"\n|+ Negative subject pronouns\n! colspan=\"2\" | Person\n! Singular\n! Plural\n|-\n! colspan=\"2\" | 1st\n| ماني/مني| colspan=2 style=\"text-align: center;\"| محنا |-\n! rowspan=\"2\" | 2nd\n! masculine\n| َمنت | rowspan=\"2\" | منتو |-\n! feminine\n| منتي\n|-\n! rowspan=\"2\" | 3rd\n! masculine\n| مهو \n| rowspan=\"2\" | ماهم/مهم|-\n! feminine\n| مهي |}", "Verbs \nHejazi Arabic verbs, as with the verbs in other Semitic languages, and the entire vocabulary in those languages, are based on a set of three, four, or even five consonants (but mainly three consonants) called a root (triliteral or quadriliteral according to the number of consonants). The root communicates the basic meaning of the verb, e.g. 'to write', 'to eat'. Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as :", "Two tenses (past, present; present progressive is indicated by the prefix (bi-), future is indicated by the prefix (ħa-))\n Two voices (active, passive)\n Two genders (masculine, feminine)\n Three persons (first, second, third)\n Two numbers (singular, plural)", "Hejazi has two grammatical number in verbs (Singular and Plural) instead of the Classical (Singular, Dual and Plural), in addition to a present progressive tense which was not part of the Classical Arabic grammar. In contrast to other urban dialects the prefix (b-) is used only for present continuous as in \"he is writing\" while the habitual tense is without a prefix as in \"I love you\" f", ". unlike in Egyptian and Levantine dialects and the future tense is indicated by the prefix (ħa-) as in \"we will run\".", "Regular verbs \nThe most common verbs in Hejazi have a given vowel pattern for past (a and i) to present (a or u or i). Combinations of each exist:\n\nAccording to Arab grammarians, verbs are divided into three categories; Past ماضي, Present and Imperative . An example from the root the verb katabt/ʼaktub 'i wrote/i write' (which is a regular sound verb):\n\nWhile present progressive and future are indicated by adding the prefix (b-) and (ħa-) respectively to the present (indicative) :", "The verbs highlighted in silver sometimes come in irregular forms e.g. حبيت (ħabbē)-t \"i loved\", حبينا (ħabbē)-na \"we loved\" but ّحب (ħabb) \"he loved\" and حبُّوا (ħabb)-u \"they loved\".\n additional final ا to ـوا in all plural verbs is silent.\nThe Active Participles , and can be used instead of the prefix [b-] as in ('i'm writing') instead of بأكتب or بكتب ('i'm writing') without any change in the meaning. The active participles , and are used in the same way.", "The past tenses of the verbs ('he sat/remained') or ('he sat') can be used before present verbs to express a past continuous tense which is similar to the English usage of \"kept\" as in ('he kept writing about him').\nA way of emphasizing the past tense is by adding the verbs ('he stood') or ('went') and its derivatives before the past verbs which is similar to the English usage of \"went\", as in ('he went and ran to him') and ('he went and wrote about him').", "the 3rd person past plural suffix -/u/ turns into -/oː/ (long o) instead of before pronouns, as in ('they went') → ('they went to him'), or it can be originally an -/oː/ as in ('they came') and in its homophone ('they came to him') since the word-final 3rd person masculine singular pronoun is silent.", "word-final hollow verbs have a unique conjugation of either or , if a verb ends in ـي in its past simple form as in nisi 'he forgot' (present yinsa 'he forgets') it becomes nisīt 'I forgot' and nisyat 'she forgot' and nisyu 'they forgot'. While if the verb ends in ـى or ـا in its past simple form as in šawa 'he grilled' (present yišwi 'he grills') it becomes šawēt 'I grilled' and šawat 'she grilled and šawu 'they grilled'", ". Most of these verbs correspond to their Classical Arabic forms like , , , , and but some exceptions include biki 'he cried', jiri 'he ran', miši 'he walked' and diri 'he knew' as opposed to the Classical baka, جرى jara, maša, dara.", "Example: katabt/aktub \"write\": non-finite forms", "Active participles act as adjectives, and so they must agree with their subject. An active participle can be used in several ways:\n to describe a state of being (understanding; knowing).\n to describe what someone is doing right now (going, leaving) as in some verbs like (\"i went\") the active participle (\"i'm going\") is used instead of present continuous form to give the same meaning of an ongoing action.", "to indicate that someone/something is in a state of having done something (having put something somewhere, having lived somewhere for a period of time).", "Passive Voice \nThe passive voice is expressed through two patterns; ( , ) or ( , ), while most verbs can take either pattern as in or \"it was written\" and or \"it is being written\", other verbs can only have one of the two patterns as in \"he was stopped\" and \"he is being stopped\".", "Adjectives", "In Hejazi, adjectives, demonstratives and verbs fully agree in gender and number, e.g. \"big boy\" and \"big girl\". But there are two exceptions; First, there is no agreement in dual number; e.g. \"two girls\" takes the plural adjective as in \"two big girls\". Second, and more importantly, gender agreement is syncretic in the plural, in which inanimate plural nouns take a feminine singular adjective e.g", ".g. \"big cars\" instead of the plural adjective, while animate plural nouns take the plural adjective as in \"big girls\". The plural feminine adjective can be used as well but it is rather archaic.", "Pronouns \n\n Enclitic pronouns \nEnclitic forms of personal pronouns are suffixes that are affixed to various parts of speech, with varying meanings:\n\n To the construct state of nouns, where they have the meaning of possessive demonstratives, e.g. \"my, your, his\".\n To verbs, where they have the meaning of direct object pronouns, e.g. \"me, you, him\".\n To verbs, where they have the meaning of indirect object pronouns, e.g. \"(to/for) me,(to/for) you, (to/for) him\".\n To prepositions.", "Unlike Egyptian Arabic, in Hejazi no more than one pronoun can be suffixed to a word.", "if a noun ends with a vowel (other than the of the feminine nouns) that is or then the suffix (-ya) is used as in ('father') becomes ('my father') but if it ends with an then the suffix (-yya) is added as in ('my chair') from ('chair').", "the colon between the parentheses -[ː] indicates that the final vowel of a word is lengthened as in ('chair') → ('his chair'), since the word-final [h] is silent in this position. although in general it is uncommon for Hejazi nouns to end in a vowel other than the of the feminine nouns.", "The indirect object pronouns are written separately from the verbs as per Classical Arabic convention, but they are pronounced as if they are fused with the verbs. They are still written separately by many writers as in ('i wrote to him') but they can be written intact since Hejazi does not have a written standard.", "General Modifications:-", "When a noun ends in a feminine vowel as in ('school') : a is added before the suffixes as in → ('my school'), ('his school'), ('her school') and so on.\n After a word ends in a vowel (other than the of the feminine nouns), the vowel is lengthened, and the pronouns in (vowel+) are used instead of their original counterparts :-\n as in the noun ('chair') → ('his chair'), ('our chair'), ('your chair' f.) and the verb ('we followed') → ('we followed him'), ('we followed you' feminine).", "the indirect object pronouns ('we went') → ('we went to him').\n After a word that ends in two consonants, or which has a long vowel in the last syllable, is inserted before the 5 suffixes which begin with a consonant , , , , .\n as in the noun ('book') → ('her book'), ('their book'), ('your book' plural), ('our book') or the verb ('you knew') → ('you knew me'), ('you knew us'), ('you knew her'), ('you knew them').", "When a verb ends in two consonants as in ('i went' or 'you went') : an is added before the Indirect object pronoun suffixes → ('i went to him') or in ('I wrote' or 'you wrote') becomes ('i wrote to him'), ('i wrote to them').\nthe 3rd person past plural suffix -/u/ turns into -/oː/ (long o) before pronouns, as in ('they knew') → ('they knew me'), ('they went') → ('they went to him') or ('they wrote') → ('they wrote to me')", "Hollow Verbs vowel shortening \nMedial vowel shortening occurs in Hollow verbs (verbs with medial vowels ā, ū, ō, ē, ī) when added to Indirect object pronouns:", "when a verb has a long vowel in the last syllable (shown in silver in the main example) as in ('I go'), (he goes) or (''we go'); the vowel is shortened before the suffixes as in (I go to him), (he goes to him) and (we go to him) with the verbs resembling the Jussive (مجزوم majzūm) mood conjugation in Classical Arabic (shown in gold in the example), original forms as in or can be used depending on the writer but the vowels are still shortened in pronunciation.", "This does effect past verbs as well but the form of the word does not change, as in rāḥ ('he went') which is pronounced ('he went to him!') after adding a pronoun.\nOther hollow verbs include ('I repeat') or ('say!') which become / ('I repeat for you') and / ('tell her!')", "Writing system", "Hejazi does not have a standardized form of writing and mostly follows Classical Arabic rules of writing. The main difference between classical Arabic and Hejazi are the alternations of the Hamza, some verb forms and the final long vowels, this alternation happened since most word-final short vowels from the classical period have been omitted and most word-final unstressed long vowel have been shortened in Hejazi", ". Another alternation is writing the words according to the phoneme used while pronouncing them, rather than their etymology which mainly has an effect on the three letters and , for example writing \"thick, fat\" instead of or \"tail\" instead of although this alternation in writing is not considered acceptable by many or most Hejazi speakers", ". The alphabet still uses the same set of letters as Classical Arabic in addition to two letters ⟨پ⟩ and ⟨ڤ⟩ which are only used in writing loanwords and they can be substituted by and respectively depending on the writer, in addition to that the vowels and which were not part of the CA phonemic inventory are represented by the letters and respectively.", "Differences Between Classical and Hejazi writing", "Hamza : \n Initial hamza holds no phonemic value in Hejazi but it can be used as per Classical Arabic convention, e.g. \"readiness\" or \"he took\" can be written as or but long initial is more important to indicate, e.g. \"sorry\" to differentiate it from / \"regret\".", "Medial hamza is merged with the semi-vowels and as in \"going\" from and \"pearl\" from , or it can be completely elided as in \"she came\" from or \"they came\" from , but other words keep the medial hamza as in \"responsible\" and \"issues\".\n Final hamza is deleted in most Hejazi words as in \"lunch\" from , \"green\" from , but some words keep the final hamza as in \"beginner\" and \"slowness\".\n Added medial long vowels :", "Added medial long vowels :\n some words have elongated medial vowels in Hejazi as in \"with you\" from , \"to you, for you\" which could be from the classical or , and \"who\" from .\n 2nd person masculine singular imperative in hollow verbs keep their long vowels as روح \"go!\" as opposed to classical and \"see!\" as opposed to classical .\n Final added appears in:", "Final added appears in:\n Masculine singular imperative in final-weak verbs, as in \"go!, walk!\" as opposed to classical . The classical pair (feminine) and (masculine) merged into used as a masculine and feminine singular imperative verb in Hejazi.\n 2nd person feminine singular past verbs, as in \"you forgot\" as opposed to classical . The classical pair (feminine) and (masculine) became (feminine) and (masculine).", "Feminine possessive and object pronoun which occurs after a long vowel, as in \"he gives you\" as opposed to classical . The classical pair (feminine) and (masculine) became (feminine) and (masculine).\n Feminine pronouns, as in \"you\", as opposed to classical . The classical pair (feminine) and (masculine) became (feminine) and (masculine), but the classical form can still be used in Hejazi.\n Innovative forms:", "Innovative forms:\n Some verb forms are innovative and differ from their classical equivalents as in the common plural verb \"you saw\" pl. as opposed to classical (masculine) and (feminine), or the final-weak verbs as in \"they ran\" as opposed to classical and the doubled verbs \"I loved\" opposed to classical .", "The verb forms V, VI and IIQ have an additional initial before , so that Hejazi forms , and correspond to classical forms , and , e.g. \"he spoke\" (form V), \"she worked\" (form VI) and \"they babbled\" (form IIQ).\nPortmanteau words have the most alternatives in their spelling since they did not occur in Classical Arabic, so the word for \"still\" can be written or depending on the writer, all of these forms stemming from the classical (, \"to the hour\").", "Loanwords can have multiple spellings as well, which is the case for the word \"also\" which can be written as or .", "Mistakes in Hejazi spelling\n Final silent :\n Writing instead of final pronoun as in \"his book\" which is mistakenly written .\n Mixing final and as in \"opening\" ( in construct state) and \"he opened it\".\n Missing the final masculine pronoun which often indicates a final long vowel as \"you hurt\" vs. \"you hurt him\", this can cause an ambiguity for the reader as in the homophones \"he came\" and \"he came to him\" if both were written mistakenly as .\n Final :", "Final :\n Mixing final and as in the word \"by the way\" which is mistakenly written .\n Mixing final and as in the word \"time, once\" which is mistakenly written .\n Adding a final to final 1st person singular possessive pronoun as in \"on me\" written mistakenly written as even though Classical Arabic have the same form and pronunciation as in عَلَيَّ , other examples include \"with me\", \"to me\", \"my father\" and \"in me\".", "Missing final silent in plural verbs as in \"you threw\" or \"they hanged\" even though this practice is no longer needed but it follows the Classical Arabic form.", "The table below shows the Arabic alphabet letters and their corresponding phonemes in Hejazi:\n\nNotes:", "words with word-medial long vowels that are pronounced short include words before the indirect object pronouns e.g. لي ,له ,لها as in عاد \"he repeated\" becomes عاد لهم \"he repeated to them\" and \"going to him\" becomes with a shortened or rarely , outside of this rule only few words have vowel-shortening, e.g. جاي \"I'm coming\" pronounced /d͡ʒaj/ or less likely /d͡ʒaːj/ which stems from classical .", "is only used at the end of words and mainly to mark feminine gender for nouns and adjectives with few exceptions (e.g. ; a male noun). phonemically it is silent indicating final /-a/, except when in construct state it is a /t/, which leads to the word-final /-at/. e.g. 'message' → 'Ahmad's message'.", "is silent in word-final in 3rd person masculine singular pronouns and some words, as in \"we saw him\" and \"he has\" or the heteronym pronounced 'why?' or 'for him, but it is still maintained in most other nouns as in \"fruits\", \"hate\" and \"idiot\" where it is differentiated from أبلة \"f. teacher\". In writing the silent helps in distinguishing minimal pairs with word-final vowel length contrast 'you want f. vs. 'you want him f..", "and are sometimes used to transcribe in foreign words. is especially used in city/state names as in \"Belgrade\" pronounced or , this ambiguity arose due to Standard Arabic not having a letter that transcribes distinctively, which created doublets like كتلوق vs. كتلوج \"catalog\" and قالون vs. جالون \"gallon\". newer terms are more likely to be transcribed using the native as in إنستقرام \"Instagram\" and قروب \"group chat\".", "is pronounced only in few words from the two trilateral roots and , as in (\"it worked\") pronounced and not .\n The interdental consonants: \n represents as in ثوب & ثواب or as in ثابت , but the classical phoneme is still used as well depending on the speaker especially in words of English origin.\n represents as in ذيل & ذكر or as in ذكي , but the classical phoneme is still used as well depending on the speaker especially in words of English origin.", "represents as in ظفر & ظل or as in ظرف , but the classical is still used as an allophone depending on the speaker.", "Rural dialects", "The varieties of Arabic spoken in the smaller towns and by the bedouin tribes in the Hejaz region are relatively under-studied. However, the speech of some tribes shows much closer affinity to other bedouin dialects, particularly those of neighboring Najd, than to those of the urban Hejazi cities. The dialects of northern Hejazi tribes merge into those of Jordan and Sinai, while the dialects in the south merge with those of 'Asir and Najd", ". Also, not all speakers of these bedouin dialects are figuratively nomadic bedouins; some are simply sedentary sections that live in rural areas, and thus speak dialects similar to those of their bedouin neighbors.", "Al-'Ula", "The dialect of Al-'Ula governorate in the northern part of the Madinah region. Although understudied, it is considered to be unique among the Hejazi dialects, it is known for its pronunciation of Classical Arabic as a (e.g. becomes ), the dialect also shows a tendency to pronounce long as (e.g. Classical becomes [meːʔ]), in some instances the Classical becomes a as in becomes , also the second person singular feminine pronoun tends to be pronounced as /iʃ/ (e.g. ('your foot') becomes .", "Badr \nThe dialect of Badr governorate in the western part of the Madinah region is mainly noted for its lengthening of word-final syllables and its alternative pronunciation of some phonemes as in which is pronounced as , it also shares some features with the general urban dialect in which modern standard Arabic is pronounced , another unique feature of the dialect is its similarity to the Arabic dialects of Bahrain.\n\nSee also\n\n Varieties of Arabic\n Peninsular Arabic\n\n References", "See also\n\n Varieties of Arabic\n Peninsular Arabic\n\n References \n\n Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language'', NITLE Arab World Project, by the permission of Edinburgh University Press,\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links \nHijazi Arabic course with audio files\n\n \nArabic languages\nLanguages of Saudi Arabia\nLanguages of Eritrea\nHejaz\nMashriqi Arabic\nPeninsular Arabic\nEritrea–Saudi Arabia relations" ]

[ "is a 2015 action role-playing game developed by FromSoftware and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 4. Bloodborne follows the player's character, a Hunter, through the decrepit Gothic, Victorian-era–inspired city of Yharnam, whose inhabitants are afflicted with a blood-borne disease which transforms the residents, called Yharnamites, into horrific beasts", ". Attempting to find the source of the plague, the player's character unravels the city's mysteries while fighting beasts and cosmic beings.", "The game is played from a third-person perspective. Players control a customizable protagonist, and the gameplay is focused on strategic weapons-based combat and exploration. Players battle varied enemies while using items such as trick weapons and firearms, exploring different locations, interacting with non-player characters, and unraveling the city's mysteries. Bloodborne began development in 2012 under the working title of Project Beast", ". Bloodborne began development in 2012 under the working title of Project Beast. Bearing many similarities to FromSoftware's Dark Souls series, Bloodborne was inspired by the literary works of authors H. P. Lovecraft and Bram Stoker and the architectural design of real-world locations in countries such as Romania and Czechia.", "Bloodborne was released in March 2015 and received critical acclaim, with praise directed at its gameplay, particularly its high difficulty level, atmosphere, sound design, Lovecraftian themes, and interconnected world design. Some criticism was directed at its technical performance at launch, which was improved with post-release updates. An expansion adding additional content, The Old Hunters, was released in November 2015. By the end of 2015, the game had sold over two million copies worldwide", ". By the end of 2015, the game had sold over two million copies worldwide. Bloodborne won several awards and has been cited as a masterpiece, and is considered to be one of the greatest video games ever made. Some related media and adaptations have also been released, including a card game, board game and comic book series.", "Gameplay \n\nBloodborne is an action role-playing game played from a third-person perspective and features elements similar to those found in the Dark Souls series, also made by FromSoftware. The player makes their way through different locations within the decrepit Gothic world of Yharnam while battling varied enemies, including bosses, collecting different types of items that have many uses, interacting with non-player characters, opening up shortcuts, and continuing through the main story.", "At the beginning of the game, the player creates their character, the Hunter. The player determines the basic details of the Hunter; gender, hairstyle, name, skin color, body shape, voice, and eye color are some of the options the player can customize. The player also chooses a starting class, known as an \"Origin\", which provides a basic backstory for the Hunter and sets the player's starting attributes", ". The origins, while describing the player character's past, do not have any effect on gameplay beyond altering starting stats. Another way the player defines their Hunter is by choosing what brotherhood they are a member of. These religious societies, known as \"Covenants\", each have their views on the world of Yharnam.", "The player can return to the safe zone, known as the \"Hunter's Dream\", by interacting with lanterns spread throughout the world of Yharnam. Doing so replenishes health, but respawns all enemies in the game world, with the exception of bosses and mini-bosses. Lanterns also serve as the game's checkpoints; the player will return to the last activated lantern when they die. Positioned separately from Yharnam, the Hunter's Dream delivers some of the game's basic features to the player", ". Players may purchase helpful items, such as weapons, clothing and consumables, from the Messengers using Blood Echoes or Insight, level up their character by talking to the Doll, or upgrade their weapons in the workshop, among other things. Unlike Yharnam and all other locations in the game, the Hunter's Dream is considered completely safe as it is the only location in the game not to feature enemies", ". However, the last two boss battles of the game take place in the Hunter's Dream, although both are optional to the player.", "Bloodborne world of Yharnam is an extensive map full of interconnected areas. Some areas of Yharnam are not connected to the main locations and require the player to teleport there via the gravestones in the Hunter's Dream. The player may be presented with multiple options when progressing through locations, but usually, there is the main path that the player uses to progress through the story", ". When traversing the main path, the player will encounter diverging paths that lead to entirely different locations that are optional. Each path eventually leads back to the central area the player started in; this provides the player with shortcuts, useful for when they die or need to backtrack.", "Combat", "Combat is fast-paced and requires an offensive approach in order for the player to combat dense hordes of enemies. The player character is agile and can dodge attacks by strafing around enemies while locked on. The new risk-and-reward style of gameplay is emphasized through Bloodborne Rally system, which allows the player to recover portions of lost health by striking an enemy within a small window of time after taking damage", ". Director Hidetaka Miyazaki explained that this represents the player's increased will to continue after successfully striking an enemy. A New Game Plus mode is also present; after the player has finished the game, a new game will immediately be started. New Game Plus is optional. The player retains all their equipment (barring a few items such as keys) and the game is more challenging than the previous playthrough.", "The player may only wield two melee weapons in the right hand and two secondary weapons in the left hand at one time. Most melee weapons, called Trick Weapons, can transform into an alternate state; each state encourages a different approach to combat. With most Trick Weapons, one state is usually a slower, larger weapon that deals heavier damage per hit, while the other state is smaller, faster, and deals its damage in hit streaks", ". Certain weapons are wielded in both hands after transforming, meaning the left hand secondary weapon cannot be used. For example, the Hunter Axe in its initial state is wielded with one hand and can be used to dispatch enemies in cramped areas quickly; when transformed into its secondary state, it becomes an extended two-handed weapon more suited for crowd control", ". The player's main secondary weapon is a firearm; the firearm, usually a pistol, can be used in a traditional sense, as well as a way to stun enemies. When an enemy is stunned, the player can perform a Visceral attack; Visceral attacks cause a large amount of damage in one hit and can also be performed after the player strikes an enemy from behind with a charged attack", ". Other secondary weapons include torches, cannons, and shields, while other main melee weapons include hammers, swords, two-handed gun spears or swords, which serve as melee and ranged weapons, a whip, a scythe, and a wheel. The player can carry other offensive weapons, such as Molotov cocktails, throwing knives, and pebbles.", "Similarly to the Dark Souls games, slaying enemies grants the player \"Blood Echoes,\" which double as the player's experience points and currency. Should the player die, their Blood Echoes will be lost at the location of their death. If they can reach that point again, they can regain them. However, should the player die before retrieving their lost Blood Echoes, they will be lost forever", ". Sometimes, the player's Blood Echoes may be captured by an enemy, typically identified by glowing blue eyes; defeating this enemy will return the lost Blood Echoes. If an enemy does not hold the Blood Echoes, they will be on the ground near the location of the player's death. Insight is a secondary form of currency; it can be spent to purchase items, and depending on the player's Insight level, the world will change in many different ways", ". When the player reaches a specific Insight level, some NPCs or enemies might no longer be present, the sky and moon may change colour, the player may start hearing different sounds (such as a crying baby and mysterious whispering), or enemies' attack patterns may change. The world also changes as the player progresses through the main story", ". The world also changes as the player progresses through the main story. Insight can be gained by finding and defeating bosses, using items that grant Insight, helping another player via co-op defeat a boss, and successfully defeating another player in competitive multiplayer.", "When enemies are defeated, they drop useful items for the player, such as Blood Vials, which heal the player, or Quicksilver Bullets, the main ammunition for ranged weaponry. The player can also sacrifice health to create Blood Bullets for their ranged weaponry. The blood bullets have no functional difference from the consumable quicksilver bullets, other than the fact that they function as extra ammo, and the Rally system still applies to the lost health", ". The player may find useful items hidden in the environment as well as being dropped by enemies. The items hidden in the environment usually require the player to go on a different path than they were initially travelling. Other items the player may find include various forms of Coldblood, which grant the player Blood Echoes when consumed, Antidotes, used to cure poisoning, and Hunter Badges, which allow the player to purchase more items in the Hunter's Dream", ". The player's weapons can also be upgraded or modified by equipping certain items such as Blood Gems.", "Multiplayer", "Multiplayer mode is present in Bloodborne, though it functions differently from its counterparts in the Dark Souls series. By activating a non-consumable item at the cost of one Insight point, players can summon other players into their world to help with enemies and bosses and progress through areas of the game cooperatively", ". This leaves players vulnerable to invasions; another player may invade the victim's game world and attempt to kill them unless the player can find and defeat a specific enemy known as a Chime Maiden before an enemy player invades. Multiplayer summoning is limited by proximity; players can only be summoned within a specific distance of each other to prevent players from being summoned too far away to be of any assistance", ". Players can only summon players around the same level as them to prevent the game from being too difficult or too easy for one of the players. Using a password, however, gets around many of the restrictions of summoning a friend. Depending on what covenant the player and summoned player are a part of, they will have the opportunity to be hostile toward one another. Players can summon an NPC to help them in addition to getting help from other players", ". Players can summon an NPC to help them in addition to getting help from other players. The NPC serves as an AI companion to the player that helps defeat enemies. Players can only summon specific NPCs that they have met throughout their journey. Another way players may interact with each other is by leaving notes. A player may leave a tip for defeating a boss, tell the reader where to go, fool the reader by purposely providing incorrect information, or leave a meaningless message to others", ". Players may rate a message as 'Fine' or 'Foul', indicating whether the note is helpful or malicious to future readers. When a player rates a message as 'Fine', the player who wrote the note will have their health restored.", "Chalice Dungeons", "Chalice Dungeons are specialized dungeons that become available to the player through the use of special items and materials. Each dungeon can be generated as a fixed version with preset layouts, items, and enemies as well as a \"root\" version that randomly generates novel configurations of the dungeon through procedural generation. The dungeons vary in depth and difficulty and are formed by performing a ritual with a Chalice and other materials in the Hunter's Dream", ". Chalice Dungeons are optional and provide additional content to the player. Gameplay is much the same as the main story in that it contains various areas and enemies that the player must overcome to complete the Dungeon. Each Chalice Dungeon contains multiple bosses that the player must defeat to progress through the Dungeon's levels, some of which are fought in the main world, others which are unique to the Chalice Dungeons", ". Special types of lootable chests not found in the main story are hidden throughout the Dungeons, providing the player with the materials to generate more Dungeons. One major difference between the main story and the Chalice Dungeons is the world's design. In the main world of Yharnam, the design is open-ended, more spacious, and a mixture of indoor and outdoor environments. Chalice Dungeons are only indoors, cramped, and contain many traits of a typical dungeon", ". Chalice Dungeons are only indoors, cramped, and contain many traits of a typical dungeon. The branching paths featured in the main story are still present in the Chalice Dungeons. Another important difference is the objectives. In the main story, players journey through many different locations with many different objectives", ". In the main story, players journey through many different locations with many different objectives. In the Chalice Dungeons, the player's primary objective is to locate a door, then find the lever to open the door, which is located elsewhere, and then battle the boss behind the door. After the boss is defeated, the player enters the next area, which will be completely different, and completes the same goal. The cycle repeats at least three times before the entire Chalice Dungeon is cleared", ". The cycle repeats at least three times before the entire Chalice Dungeon is cleared. Chalice Dungeons, like the main story, can be played alone or cooperatively with other players.", "Synopsis\n\nSetting", "Bloodborne takes place in Yharnam, a decrepit Gothic city known for its medical advances around the practice of blood ministration. Over the years, many travellers journey to the city seeking the remedy to cure their afflictions; the player's character journeys to Yharnam seeking the cure, something known as Paleblood, for an unspecified illness", ". However, upon arriving in the city, it is discovered that Yharnam is plagued with an endemic illness that has transformed most of its citizens into bestial creatures. The player must navigate the streets of Yharnam during the night of The Hunt and overcome its violently deranged inhabitants and horrifying monsters to stop the source of the plague and escape the Nightmare", ". Long ago, the residents of Yharnam began worshipping ancient, eldritch cosmic beings known as the Great Ones after scholars from the College of Byrgenwerth discovered something referred to as a \"medium\" in the ruins of an ancient, highly advanced civilization, on top of which Yharnam was built. The Great Ones provided the healing blood Yharnam was famous for, which is also the source of the plague.", "Plot", "The player character, a Hunter, is being operated on by an old man, who explains that he is performing a blood transfusion to allow them to sign a \"contract\", mentioning a mysterious condition referred to as Paleblood. After the character creation (referred to as a \"contract\"), he warns the Hunter that they will go on a strange journey that may seem like a bad dream. The Hunter blacks out and awakens. A large, flesh-torn beast rises from the floor and menaces them", ". The Hunter blacks out and awakens. A large, flesh-torn beast rises from the floor and menaces them. A sudden fire forces the beast's retreat, and then little creatures (\"Messengers\") crawl over the Hunter as they black out again. The Hunter then awakens on an operating table in a different clinic in a place called Yharnam.", "The Hunter finds their first lantern, which when lit transports them to a spectral realm called the Hunter's Dream, where they encounter Gehrman, an elderly wheelchair-using man who provides advice, and the Doll, a living doll who assists the player in leveling up. Gehrman explains that to obtain the blood they seek and escape the dream, they must hunt down the beasts raging through Yharnam and halt the source of the plague.", "While traveling Central Yharnam, the Hunter is told to seek out the Healing Church because of its connection to blood ministration, which is linked to the plague. The Hunter encounters Father Gascoigne, who seeks to kill them to prevent them from transforming into a beast but becomes a monster himself. The Hunter moves through to the Cathedral Ward and enters the Grand Cathedral, where they encounter Vicar Amelia, now a massive beast", ". The Hunter comes into contact with an artifact, the skull of a beast, that bids them to visit Byrgenwerth, only accessible through the Forbidden Woods. Arriving at Byrgenwerth after defeating the Shadows of Yharnam, the Hunter slays Rom, a cosmic kin.", "With Rom's death, the Hunter gains access to a higher degree of perception and sees Queen Yharnam, an ancient being from the dead civilization who supposedly bore Mergo, the source of the Nightmare. With their new perception, the Hunter can venture to the previously hidden village of Yahar'gul, where the now-visible Great Ones reside to be researched and worshipped by the School of Mensis. The scholars sought to build a vessel for a Great One, known as The One Reborn", ". The scholars sought to build a vessel for a Great One, known as The One Reborn. After defeating it, the player accesses the spectral realm called the Nightmare of Mensis, where they discover the insane head of the scholar, Micolash. After killing him, the player encounters Mergo and their guardian.", "After slaying Mergo's Wet Nurse and letting Mergo die, the game's final phase is initiated. When the Hunter returns to the Hunter's Dream, Gehrman offers to return them to the waking world in the morning. At this point, three different endings are possible, depending on the player's actions. Choosing to accept Gehrman's offer results in the Yharnam Sunrise ending: Gehrman uses his scythe to behead the Hunter, who awakens in Yharnam as the sun rises", ". In Hunter's Dream, the Doll bids the Hunter farewell and prays that they live happily, having escaped the Nightmare. Declining Gehrman's offer unlocks one of two endings. The second ending, Honoring Wishes, is the default ending for this case. To prevent the Hunter from being trapped in the dream, Gehrman battles them. After Gehrman is defeated, a Great One known as the Moon Presence arrives and embraces the Hunter, binding them to the Hunter's Dream", ". The Doll is seen pushing the Hunter, now sitting in Gehrman's wheelchair, remarking that a new Hunt will begin, signifying that the Hunter has taken Gehrman's place as the caretaker of the Dream. Throughout the game, the player can find umbilical cords formed as the result of Great Ones trying to reproduce with humans as a surrogate. If the player consumes three Third Umbilical Cords before refusing Gehrman's offer, the Childhood's Beginning ending is unlocked", ". After Gehrman is defeated and the Moon Presence appears, the Hunter resists and fights it. Upon defeating the Moon Presence, the Hunter is transformed into an infant Great One and is taken by the Doll.", "The Old Hunters", "After discovering an item called \"Eye of a Blood-Drunk Hunter\", the player learns of the Hunter's Nightmare, where Hunters are cursed to wander, drunk with blood. While travelling through Yharnam, the player is pulled into the Hunter's Nightmare, populated by both beasts and long-crazed Hunters, by a lesser Amygdala. The player can meet Simon the Harrowed Hunter, who tells them that the Nightmare serves as a prison for hunters who have succumbed to madness and the scourge", ". Simon can assist the player throughout their travels. The player first visits the Nightmare Church, where they encounter and kill the first Church Hunter, Ludwig the Holy Blade, now a horse-like beast known as Ludwig the Accursed. After the battle, the player can either tell the dying Ludwig what has become of the Church and Yharnam or let him die believing that Yharnam has defeated the curse", ". The player can also kill the founder of the Healing Church, Laurence the First Vicar, after finding him on an altar in the Nightmare version of the grand cathedral, now transformed into a burning Cleric Beast.", "The player continues to the Research Hall, where Simon reveals that to find the secret of the Nightmare, the player must reach the Astral Clocktower and kill Lady Maria, another of the first hunters and one of Gehrman's students. After fighting their way through the Research Hall, the hunter encounters and kills the Living Failures who reside in the Lumenwood garden in front of Maria's clock tower", ". Upon defeating Maria, the player reveals the secret she was protecting: the ruins of a fishing hamlet that had been pulled into the Nightmare, and its inhabitants transformed into grotesque fishlike monsters. While exploring the village, the player can come across a mortally wounded Simon, who then gives the player a key and his weapon, and pleads for the player to end the Nightmare", ". The player discovers that hamlet is the origin of the Nightmare—the result of a curse placed on the Byrgenwerth scholars and their Hunter subordinates, who tortured and massacred the Hamlet's inhabitants in their quest for knowledge.", "As the player continues through the hamlet, they eventually discover the beached corpse of Kos, a Great One from the sea. An infant Great One and source of the Nightmare, the Orphan of Kos, emerges from the corpse's womb and attacks the player out of blind terror, using its hardened umbilical cord as a maul. After its defeat, the creature's phantom retreats to its dead mother's side and, upon being laid to rest, the Hunter's Nightmare ends.\n\nDevelopment", "Japan Studio, a subsidiary of Sony Interactive Entertainment, approached FromSoftware concerning cooperative development on a title, and director Hidetaka Miyazaki asked about the possibility of developing a game for eighth-generation consoles. The concept of Bloodborne developed from there. There were no connections to FromSoftware's previous titles, even though Miyazaki conceded that it \"carries the DNA of Demon's Souls and its very specific level design\"", ". Development ran parallel to that of Dark Souls II.", "The game's Victorian Gothic setting was partly inspired by the novel Dracula, and the architecture of locations in Romania and the Czech Republic. Miyazaki also enjoyed H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos series of surreal horror stories, and applied similar themes into the game. Miyazaki had wanted to create a game set in such an era as those novels, but he wanted everything to be as detailed as possible, and felt that such a game was only possible on eighth generation hardware", ". This need for high-end hardware, and the fact that the PlayStation 4 was presented to the company first, was the reason the game was a PS4 exclusive, rather than a cross-generation release. The developers' target frame rate for the title was 30 frames per second, due to their design choices made for the title.", "Story details were more plentiful than in the Dark Souls games, though the team created a larger mystery at the heart of the story to compensate for this. The method through which the story is shown and developed to the player is also done in a similar style to Miyazaki's other games, especially the Souls series, in that the plot is revealed with item descriptions, interactions with various NPCs, visual storytelling, and from the player's own inferences and interpretation of the plot", ". The team did not want to raise the difficulty level higher than their previous games as they felt it would make the game \"pretty much unplayable for anyone\". To balance this out, the team created a more aggressive combat system focusing on both action and strategy. They also wanted to alter the penalties for death used in the Souls games as they did not want the game to be classified as being for hardcore gamers. One of the more difficult decisions the team faced was the introduction of guns as weapons", ". One of the more difficult decisions the team faced was the introduction of guns as weapons. Because it would fit well into the game's setting, and that it would consequently be less accurate than modern models, guns were eventually included, taking the place of shields from the previous Souls titles.", "Bloodbornes soundtrack was composed by a mix of Japanese and Western composers. The soundtrack contains over 80 minutes of original music by Tsukasa Saitoh, Yuka Kitamura, Nobuyoshi Suzuki, Ryan Amon, Cris Velasco and Michael Wandmacher and features performances by a 65-piece orchestra and a 32-member choir. The development of the soundtrack lasted for around two and a half years.", "Screenshots and a gameplay trailer of the game were leaked on the Internet weeks before the official reveal, under the title of Project Beast. Many believed at the time that the leak could be connected to Demon's Souls. However, Miyazaki later stated that Bloodborne was never considered to be Demon's Souls II, due to Sony Computer Entertainment wanting a new intellectual property (IP) for the PlayStation 4.", "Release", "Bloodborne was announced at E3 2014, where a trailer was shown. In January 2015, Bloodborne became Game Informer readers' most anticipated game of 2015. The game was originally planned to be released on February 6, 2015, but was delayed to March 24, 2015, in North America, March 25, 2015, in Europe, Australia and New Zealand, March 26, 2015, in Japan, and March 27, 2015, in the United Kingdom and Ireland. A downloadable content expansion, The Old Hunters, was released on November 24, 2015", ". A downloadable content expansion, The Old Hunters, was released on November 24, 2015. It takes place within a world where hunters of the past are trapped, and features new weapons, outfits, and items.", "A limited collector's edition was launched with the game. It includes a SteelBook case, a hard cover art book, and a digital copy of the game's soundtrack. The soundtrack was released separately on April 21, 2015. The European exclusive Nightmare Edition included physical items such as a quill and ink set, as well as all the items in the collector's edition. An Asian edition includes a letter opener modeled off of the in-game weapon, the Kirkhammer. A PlayStation 4 bundle is also available in Asian regions", ". A PlayStation 4 bundle is also available in Asian regions. A song to promote Bloodborne was recorded by the Hit House featuring Ruby Friedman for a trailer and TV spot of the game, titled \"Hunt You Down\", written by Scott Miller and William Hunt, and recorded by Wyn Davis in Los Angeles and at Word of Mouth Recording Studios in New Orleans.", "Sony Denmark teamed up with Danish organization GivBlod in order to encourage blood donations through a program where donators who donated on March 23, 2015, would receive a chance to win Bloodborne as a gift. An officially licensed card game, based on the game's Chalice Dungeons, was published by CoolMiniOrNot and released in November 2016. In February 2018, a tie-in comic book series written by Ales Kot and published by Titan Comics was released", ". It ran for four volumes, with each volume being a standalone story. A fifth volume launched in July 2022, written by Cullen Bunn.", "Reception", "Bloodborne received \"universal acclaim\" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Daniel Tack of Game Informer praised the game's unsettling atmosphere and the aesthetic visuals, which he stated, \"had brought horror to life\". He also praised its challenging gameplay, which he compared to the Dark Souls series, as well as its intimately-realized story, high replay value, deliberate, rewarding and fast-paced combat, sparse storytelling and satisfying weapon customization", ". He was also impressed by the well-crafted boss battles, unique enemy design, and soundtrack. He also praised the multiplayer for extending the longevity of the game, and the game for allowing players to learn and adapt throughout a playthrough. He summarized the review by saying that \"While this new IP doesn't stray far from the established Souls franchise, it is a magical, wondrous work that admirably instills both terror and triumph in those brave enough to delve into it.\"", "Edge wrote that it was a \"dazzling work of dark, abject horror that cements Miyazaki as one of the all-time greats.\" Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote \"Though built on the same core as the Souls games, Bloodborne marks the largest departure from the status quo to date. The numerous changes, many in service of a faster and more aggressive playstyle, might not be for everyone, but if you embrace that shift, you might well have a new favorite in the From Software canon", ".\" Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot praised its Lovecraftian horror-themed storyline, energetic boss battles, precise combat for making encounters with enemies fun, as well as its unique artistry and varied environments. He also praised the sound design of the enemies, the difficulty, which he compared to Dark Souls II, and the melee-based weapons featured in the game for allowing transformation during battle", ". Regarding the survival horror portion of the game, he stated that it succeeded in making players feel disturbed. The interconnected design of the game world is also praised for making discovery rewarding. Writing for GamesRadar, Ben Griffin praised the game's detailed environments, Gothic-styled visuals, rich combat, fresh challenges, the randomized Chalice Dungeons for extending the game's length and the rewarding character upgrade system", ". He also praised the game for delivering a sense of progression and offering players motivation to finish the game, as well as the narrative for \"intertwining with the geography of Yharnam\". However, he criticized the game's non-divergent class system, as well as the specialization, as he stated that \"lack of magic, miracles, pyromancy, archery, heavy, medium, and light options discourages experimentation", ".\" He also criticized the game for always forcing players to upgrade and stock weapons only in certain sections of the game.", "Destructoids Chris Carter called it \"the most stable Souls game to date\", he praised the game's emphasis on melee combat and raw skill, as well as the game's interesting NPCs, sidequests and interactions. He criticized the limited competitive multiplayer, low replay value, as well as the occasionally blocked area in the game, which he stated \"feel less sprawling and less replayable\" than previous FromSoftware games", ". He summarized the review by saying that \"Bloodborne is an interesting mix of everything FromSoftware has learned throughout its storied developmental career. FromSoftware is still one of the only developers left that makes you work for your satisfaction, and Bloodborne is damn satisfying.\" IGNs Brandin Tyrrel wrote that Bloodborne was \"an amazing, exacting, and exhausting pilgrimage through a gorgeous land that imposes the feeling of approaching the bottom of a descent into madness", ". Though extended load times and minor frame-rate hitches have an effect on the pacing, it's otherwise an intensely challenging and rewarding game. There's an incredible power to unlocking its mysteries, and in succeeding, despite its demand for a pound of your flesh.\"", "Game Revolutions Nick Tan was more critical than most but still quite positive, criticizing the restrictive builds and the unreliable firearms. He also noted that the game suffered from lock-on and camera issues", ". He also noted that the game suffered from lock-on and camera issues. He summarized the review by saying that \"Though not as refined and freeform as some of its predecessors, it continues in the longstanding Souls tradition of lending credence to challenging games and making the seemingly Sisyphean task of conquering ruthless, malformed monstrosities possible and downright commendable", ".\" Michael McWhertor of Polygon thought that the story was \"intriguing\", saying the guns were unlike any other he had used in another game, in that the Visceral attacks give the player \"one of the best feelings in any game\", praised the game's difficulty for providing satisfying encounters, and thought the cryptic mysteries did a good job at encouraging the player to progress through the game", ". He also praised the game's environments, enemies, and weapons, as he thought they were well-designed and offered the player freedom and variety. McWhertor's main criticisms were concerning the load times and technical issues. He found that the game performed noticeably worse when playing with another player, saying that the frame rate \"takes a hit\". He also found some mechanics and items confusing, and disliked the fact that there are many loading screens in quick succession", ". New York Daily News stated that it was \"the perfect marriage, blending mechanics that seem easy to learn with gameplay and challenge that demands mastery and ingenuity.\" The Guardian also gave it a full five-star rating, stating that \"elegance, precision, humor, and challenge make Bloodborne irresistible.\" The Telegraph wrote that it was the \"digital edition of a round-the-world trip to foreign continents, each turning of a corner providing equal helpings of excitement and trepidation\"", ". At launch, one of the more criticized points of the game was its long loading times, which were later mitigated via post-release patches.", "Sales", "The game sold 152,567 physical retail copies within the first week of release in Japan, ranking first place within the Japanese software sales charts for that particular week. Bloodborne debuted at number two in the UK software retail chart, behind Battlefield Hardline by 22,500 units. In North America, Bloodborne was the second best selling software in March, despite being released at the end of the month", ". By April 2015, the game had sold over one million copies, and by September 2015, the game had over two million copies sold. Soon after release, Sony stated that the game's sales exceeded their expectations.", "Awards \nBloodborne was awarded the 2015 Game of the Year by several video game review sites, including GameTrailers, Eurogamer, Destructoid, and Edge, along with being awarded the \"2015 PlayStation 4 Game of the Year\" by IGN. In 2015, Edge rated it the fourth greatest video game of all time. A 2023 poll conducted by GQ which surveyed a team of video game journalists across the industry ranked Bloodborne as the fourth best video game of all time.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links", "2015 video games\nAction role-playing video games\nDark fantasy role-playing video games\nFromSoftware games\nHorror video games\nCooperative video games\nVideo games about death\nDark fantasy video games\nFiction about diseases and disorders\nGothic video games\n2010s horror video games\nJapanese role-playing video games\nVideo games about cults\nMultiplayer and single-player video games\nPlayStation 4 games\nPlayStation 4-only games\nSony Interactive Entertainment games\nSoulslike video games\nVideo games about diseases", "Sony Interactive Entertainment games\nSoulslike video games\nVideo games about diseases\nVideo games about dreams\nVideo games about viral outbreaks\nVideo games adapted into comics\nVideo games developed in Japan\nVideo games directed by Hidetaka Miyazaki\nVideo games with gender-selectable protagonists\nVideo games scored by Cris Velasco\nVideo games using Havok\nVideo games with customizable avatars\nBritish Academy Games Award for Game Design winners\nJapan Studio games" ]

[ "Physical or corporal punishment by a parent or other legal guardian is any act causing deliberate physical pain or discomfort to a minor child in response to some undesired behavior. It typically takes the form of spanking or slapping the child with an open hand or striking with an implement such as a belt, slipper, cane, hairbrush or paddle, whip, hanger, and can also include shaking, pinching, forced ingestion of substances, or forcing children to stay in uncomfortable positions.", "Social acceptance of corporal punishment is high in countries where it remains lawful, particularly among more traditional groups. In many cultures, parents have historically been regarded as having the right, if not the duty, to physically punish misbehaving children in order to teach appropriate behavior. Researchers, on the other hand, point out that corporal punishment typically has the opposite effect, leading to more aggressive behavior in children and less long-term obedience", ". Other adverse effects, such as depression, anxiety, anti-social behavior and increased risk of physical abuse, have also been linked to the use of corporal punishment by parents. Evidence shows that spanking and other physical punishments, while nominally for the purpose of child discipline, are inconsistently applied, often being used when parents are angry or under stress. Severe forms of corporal punishment, including kicking, biting, scalding and burning, can also constitute child abuse.", "International human-rights and treaty bodies such as the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Council of Europe and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have advocated an end to all forms of corporal punishment, arguing that it violates children's dignity and right to bodily integrity. Many existing laws against battery, assault, and/or child abuse make exceptions for \"reasonable\" physical punishment by parents, a defence rooted in common law and specifically English law", ". During the late 20th and into the 21st century, some countries began removing legal defences for adult guardians' use of corporal punishment, followed by outright bans on the practice. Most of these bans are part of civil law and therefore do not impose criminal penalties unless a charge of assault and/or battery is justified; however, the local child protective services can and will often intervene.", "Ever since Sweden outlawed all corporal punishment of children in 1979, an increasing number of countries have enacted similar bans, particularly following international adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. , this comprises 22 of the 27 member states of the European Union as well as 26 of the 38 countries belonging to the OECD. However, domestic corporal punishment of children remains legal in most of the world.\n\nForms of punishment", "Forms of punishment \n\nThe Committee on the Rights of the Child defines corporal punishment as \"any punishment in which physical force is used and intended to cause some degree of pain or discomfort, however light\". Paulo Sergio Pinheiro, reporting on a worldwide study on violence against children for the Secretary General of the United Nations, writes:", "According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, \"Corporal punishment involves the application of some form of physical pain in response to undesirable behavior\", and \"ranges from slapping the hand of a child about to touch a hot stove to identifiable child abuse, such as beatings, scaldings and burnings. Because of this range in the form and severity of punishment, its use as a discipline strategy is controversial\"", ". The term \"corporal punishment\" is often used interchangeably with \"physical punishment\" or \"physical discipline\". In the context of causing pain in order to punish, it is distinct from physically restraining a child to protect the child or another person from harm.", "It is also shown that the language in which one uses to describe this form of punishment can alleviate the weight or responsibility of the act. Using terms such as \"spank\" instead of swat, hit, slap, or beat, tends to normalize the actions of corporal punishment. This language allows for the justification of these actions.\n\nContributing factors", "Contributing factors \n\nAmong various pre-existing factors that influence whether parents use physical punishment are: experience with physical punishment as a child, knowledge about child development, socioeconomic status, parental education and religious ideology. Favorable attitudes toward the use of physical punishment are also a significant predictor of its use. Child-development researcher Elizabeth Gershoff writes that parents are more likely to use physical punishment if:", "Parents tend to use corporal punishment on children out of a desire for obedience, both in the short and long term, and especially to reduce children's aggressive behaviors. This despite a significant body of evidence that physically punishing children tends to have the opposite effect, namely, a decrease in long-term compliance and an increase in aggression", ". Other reasons for parents' use of physical punishment may be to communicate the parent's displeasure with the child, to assert their authority and simple tradition.", "Parents also appear to use physical punishment on children as an outlet for anger. The American Academy of Pediatrics notes that \"Parents are more likely to use aversive techniques of discipline when they are angry or irritable, depressed, fatigued, and stressed\", and estimates that such release of pent-up anger makes parents more likely to hit or spank their children in the future", ". Furthermore, the effects of poverty, stress, a lack of understanding of children's development, and the need to control one's child are contributing factors to the approval and use of corporal punishments. Parents commonly resort to spanking after losing their temper and most parents surveyed expressed significant feelings of anger, remorse and agitation while physically punishing their children", ". According to the AAP, \"These findings challenge most the notion that parents can spank in a calm, planned manner\".", "It was also found that a strong contributing factor of parents using corporal punishment is if they believe that it is normative and an expectation of raising a child, or believe it is a necessary part of being a parent. Stress plays a large role in this as well.\n\nSociety and culture", "In a 2005 study, findings from China, India, Italy, Kenya, the Philippines and Thailand revealed differences in the reported use of corporal punishment, its acceptance in society and its relation to children's social adjustment. Where corporal punishment was perceived as being more culturally accepted, it was less strongly associated with aggression and anxiety in children. However, corporal punishment was still positively associated with child aggression and anxiety in all countries studied", ". Associations between corporal punishment and increased child aggression have been documented in the countries listed above as well as in Jamaica, Jordan and Singapore, as have links between corporal punishment of children and later antisocial behavior in Brazil,", "Hong Kong, Jordan, Mongolia, Norway and the United Kingdom. According to Elizabeth Gershoff, these findings appear to challenge the notion that corporal punishment is \"good\" for children, even in cultures with histories of violence.", "Researchers have found that while the use of corporal punishment predicts variation in children's aggression less strongly in countries where there is more social acceptance of it, cultures in which corporal punishment is more accepted have higher overall levels of societal violence.", "A 2013 study by Murray A. Straus at the University of New Hampshire found that children across numerous cultures who were spanked committed more crimes as adults than children who were not spanked, regardless of the quality of their relationship to their parents.", "Opinions vary across cultures on whether spanking and other forms of physical punishment are appropriate techniques for child-rearing. For example, in the United States and in England, social acceptance of spanking children maintains a majority position, from approximately 61% to 80%. In 2020 the Welsh Government banned all form of physical punishment in Wales. In Sweden, before the 1979 ban, more than half of the population considered corporal punishment a necessary part of child rearing", ". By 1996, the rate was 11% and less than 34% considered it acceptable in a national survey. Elizabeth Gershoff posits that corporal punishment in the United States is largely supported by \"a constellation of beliefs about family and child rearing, namely that children are property, that children do not have the right to negotiate their treatment by parents, and that behaviors within families are private\".", "Social acceptance toward, and prevalence of, corporal punishment by parents in some countries remains high despite a growing scientific consensus that the risks of substantial harm outweigh the potential benefits. Social psychologists posit that this divergence between popular opinion and empirical evidence may be rooted in cognitive dissonance. In countries such as the US and UK (except Scotland and Wales), spanking is legal but overt child abuse is both illegal and highly stigmatized socially", ". Because of this, any parent who has ever spanked a child would find it extremely difficult to accept the research findings. If they did acknowledge, even in the smallest way, that spanking was harmful, they would likely feel they are admitting they harmed their own child and thus are a child abuser", ". Similarly, adults who were spanked as children often face similar cognitive dissonance, because admitting it is harmful might be perceived as accusing their parents of abuse and might also be admitting to having been victimized in a situation where they were helpless to stop it. Such feelings would cause intense emotional discomfort, driving them to dismiss the scientific evidence in favor of weak anecdotal evidence and distorted self-reflection", ". This is commonly expressed as \"I spanked my children and they all turned out fine\" or \"I was spanked and I turned out fine.\"", "It should be noted, though, that many parenting resources are in fact against physical punishment. Most are in agreement in concluding that through the use of physical punishment, a child learns that violence is acceptable and it is often followed by a negative parent to child relationship as well.\n\nLegality", "Traditionally, corporal punishment of minor children is legal unless it is explicitly outlawed. According to a 2014 estimate by Human Rights Watch, \"Ninety percent of the world's children live in countries where corporal punishment and other physical violence against children is still legal\". Many countries' laws provide for a defence of \"reasonable chastisement\" against charges of assault and other crimes for parents using corporal punishment. The defence is ultimately derived from English law", ". The defence is ultimately derived from English law. Due to Nepal banning corporal punishment in September 2018, corporal punishment of children by parents (or other adults) is now banned in 58 countries.", "The number of countries banning all forms of corporal punishment against children has grown significantly since the 1989 adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, when only four countries had such bans. Elizabeth Gershoff writes that , most of these bans are written into various countries' civil codes, rather than their criminal codes; they largely do not make a special crime of striking a child, but instead establish that assaults against persons of all ages are to be treated similarly", ". According to Gershoff, the intent of such bans on corporal punishment is not typically to prosecute parents, but to set a higher social standard for caregiving of children.", "Religious views\n\nPope Francis has declared his approval of the use of corporal punishment by parents, as long as punishments do not \"demean\" children. The Vatican commission appointed to advise the Pope on sexual abuse within the church criticized the Pope for his statement, contending that physical punishments and the infliction of pain were inappropriate methods for disciplining children.", "The Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe asserts that \"While freedom of religious belief should be respected, such beliefs cannot justify practices which breach the rights of others, including children's rights to respect for their physical integrity and human dignity\". They maintain that \"Mainstream faith communities and respected leaders are now supporting moves to prohibit and eliminate all violence against children\", including corporal punishment", ". In 2006, a group of 800 religious leaders at the World Assembly of Religions for Peace in Kyoto, Japan endorsed a statement urging governments to adopt legislation banning all corporal punishment of children.", "Children's reactions\n\nPaulo Sérgio Pinheiro, referring to the UN Study on Violence Against Children, commented that \"Throughout the study process, children have consistently expressed the urgent need to stop all this violence. Children testify to the hurtnot only physical, but 'the hurt inside'which this violence causes them, compounded by adult acceptance, even approval of it\".", "According to Bernadette Saunders of Monash University, \"Children commonly tell us that physical punishment hurts them physically and can escalate in severity; arouses negative emotions, such as resentment, confusion, sadness, hatred, humiliation, and anger; creates fear and impedes learning; is not constructive, children prefer reasoning; and it perpetuates violence as a means of resolving conflict", ". Children's comments suggest that children are sensitive to inequality and double standards, and children urge us to respect children and to act responsibly\".", "When children aged between five and seven in the United Kingdom were asked to describe being smacked by parents, their responses included such remarks as, \"it feels like someone banged you with a hammer\", \"it hurts and it's painful insideit's like breaking your bones\", and \"it just feels horrid, you know, and it really hurts, it stings you and makes you horrible inside\"", ". Elizabeth Gershoff writes that \"The pain and distress evident in these first-hand accounts can accumulate over time and precipitate the mental-health problems that have been linked with corporal punishment\"", ". Other comments by children such as, \"you [feel] sort of as though you want to run away because they're sort of like being mean to you and it hurts a lot\" and \"you feel you don't like your parents anymore\" are consistent with researchers' concerns that corporal punishment can undermine the quality of parent–child relationships, according to Gershoff.", "Relationship to child abuse", "The belief that children require physical punishment is among several factors that predispose parents to mistreat their children.", "Overlapping definitions of physical abuse and physical punishment of children highlight a subtle or non-existent distinction between abuse and punishment. Joan Durrant and Ron Ensom write that most physical abuse is physical punishment \"in intent, form, and effect\"", ". Incidents of confirmed physical abuse often result from the use of corporal punishment for purposes of discipline, for instance from parents' inability to control their anger or judge their own strength, or from not understanding children's physical vulnerabilities.", "The Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health of the United Kingdom remarked in a 2009 policy statement that \"corporal punishment of children in the home is of importance to pediatricians because of its connection with child abuse... all pediatricians will have seen children who have been injured as a result of parental chastisement. It is not possible logically to differentiate between a smack and a physical assault since both are forms of violence", ". The motivation behind the smack cannot reduce the hurtful impact it has on the child.\" They assert that preventing child maltreatment is of \"vital importance\", and advocate a change in the laws concerning corporal punishment. In their words, \"Societies which promote the needs and rights of children have a low incidence of child maltreatment, and this includes a societal rejection of physical punishment of children\".", "According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, \"The only way to maintain the initial effect of spanking is to systematically increase the intensity with which it is delivered, which can quickly escalate into abuse\". They note that \"Parents who spank their children are more likely to use other unacceptable forms of corporal punishment\".", "In the United States, interviews with parents reveal that as many as two thirds of documented instances of physical abuse begin as acts of corporal punishment meant to correct a child's behavior. In Canada, three quarters of substantiated cases of physical abuse of children have occurred within the context of physical punishment, according to the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect", ". According to Elizabeth Gershoff, \"Both parental acts involve hitting, and purposefully hurting, children. The difference between the two is often degree (duration, amount of force, object used) rather than intent\".", "A 2006 retrospective report study in New Zealand showed that physical punishment of children was quite common in the 1970s and 80s, with 80% of the sample reporting some kind of corporal punishment from parents at some time during childhood. Among this sample, 29% reported being hit with an empty hand, 45% with an object, and 6% were subjected to serious physical abuse", ". The study noted that abusive physical punishment tended to be given by fathers and often involved striking the child's head or torso instead of the buttocks or limbs.", "Clinical and developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind argued in a 2002 paper that parents who are easily frustrated or inclined toward controlling behavior \"should not spank\", but that existing research did not support a \"blanket injunction\" against spanking. Gershoff characterized Baumrind et al.'s solution as unrealistic, since it would require potentially abusive parents to monitor themselves", ". She argues that the burden of proof should be high for advocates of corporal punishment as a disciplinary strategy, asserting that \"unless and until researchers, clinicians, and parents can definitively demonstrate the presence of [beneficial] effects of corporal punishment [and] not just the absence of negative effects, we as psychologists cannot responsibly recommend its use\".", "A 2008 study at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill found that mothers who reported spanking their children were three times more likely to also report using forms of punishment considered abusive to the researchers \"such as beating, burning, kicking, hitting with an object somewhere other than the buttocks, or shaking a child less than 2 years old\" than mothers who did not report spanking", ". The authors found that any spanking was associated with increased risk of abuse, and that there were strong associations between abuse and spanking with an object. Adam Zolotor, the study's lead author, noted that \"increases in the frequency of spanking are associated with increased odds of abuse, and mothers who report spanking on the buttocks with an object–such as a belt or a switch–are nine times more likely to report abuse\".", "One study reported by Murray Straus in 2001 found that 40% of 111 mothers surveyed were worried that they could possibly hurt their children by using corporal punishment.\n\nEffects on behavior and development", "Numerous studies have found increased risk of impaired child development from the use of corporal punishment. Corporal punishment by parents has been linked to increased aggression, mental health problems, impaired cognitive development, and drug and alcohol abuse. Many of these results are based on large longitudinal studies controlling for various confounding factors", ". Joan Durrant and Ron Ensom write that \"Together, results consistently suggest that physical punishment has a direct causal effect on externalizing behavior, whether through a reflexive response to pain, modeling, or coercive family processes\". Randomized controlled trials, the benchmark for establishing causality, are not commonly used for studying physical punishment because of ethical constraints against deliberately causing pain to study participants", ". However, one existing randomized controlled trial did demonstrate that a in harsh physical punishment was followed by a significant drop in children's aggressive behavior.", "The few existing randomized controlled trials used to investigate physical punishment have shown that it is not more effective than other methods in eliciting children's compliance.", "A 2002 indicated that spanking did increase children's immediate compliance with parents' commands. However, according to Gershoff, those findings were overly influenced by one study, which found a strong relationship but had a small sample size (only sixteen children studied). A later analysis found that spanking children was not more effective than giving children time-outs in eliciting immediate compliance, and that spanking led to a reduction in long‑term compliance.", "Gershoff suggests that corporal punishment may actually decrease a child's \"moral internalization\" of positive values. According to research, corporal punishment of children predicts weaker internalization of values such as empathy, altruism and resistance to temptation", ". According to Joan Durrant, it should therefore not be surprising that corporal punishment \"consistently predicts increased levels of antisocial behavior in children, including aggression against siblings, peers, and parents, as well as dating violence\".", "In examining several longitudinal studies that investigated the path from spanking to aggression in children from preschool age through adolescence, Gershoff concluded: \"In none of these longitudinal studies did spanking predict reductions in children's aggression [...] Spanking consistently predicted increases in children's aggression over time, regardless of how aggressive children were when the spanking occurred\"", ". A 2010 study at Tulane University found a 50% greater risk of aggressive behavior two years later in young children who were spanked more than twice in the month before the study began. The study controlled for a wide variety of confounding variables, including initial levels of aggression in the children. According to the study's leader, Catherine Taylor, this suggests that \"it's not just that children who are more aggressive are more likely to be spanked.\"", "A 2002 review by Gershoff that combined 60 years of research on corporal punishment found that corporal punishment was linked with nine negative outcomes in children, including increased rates of aggression, delinquency, mental health problems, problems in relationships with parents, and likelihood of being physically abused. A minority of researchers disagree with these results", ". A minority of researchers disagree with these results. Baumrind, Larzelere, and Cowan suggest that the majority of the studies analyzed by Gershoff include \"overly severe\" forms of punishment and therefore do not sufficiently distinguish corporal punishment from abuse, and that the analysis focused on cross-sectional bivariate correlations", ". In response, Gershoff points out that corporal punishment in the United States often includes forms, such as hitting with objects, that Baumrind terms \"overly severe\", and that the line between corporal punishment and abuse is necessarily arbitrary; according to Gershoff \"the same dimensions that characterize 'normative' corporal punishment can, when taken to extremes, make hitting a child look much more like abuse than punishment\"", ". Another point of contention for Baumrind was the inclusion of studies using the Conflict Tactics Scale, which measures more severe forms of punishment in addition to spanking.", "According to Gershoff, the Conflict Tactics Scale is \"the closest thing to a standard measure of corporal punishment\".", "A 2005 found that with child noncompliance and antisocial behavior, conditional spanking was favored over most other disciplinary tactics. Including other measurements, customary spanking was found equal to other methods, and only overly severe or predominant usage was found unfavorable. It was suggested that the apparently paradoxical effects are the result of statistical bias in typically used analysis methods, and thus relative comparisons are needed", ". However, primary usage and severe usage were associated with negative outcomes, and mild spanking still carries the risk of potential escalation into harsh forms.", "A 2012 study at the University of Manitoba indicated that people who reported being \"pushed, grabbed, shoved, slapped or hit\" even \"sometimes\" as children suffered more mood disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and mania, along with more dependence on drugs or alcohol in adulthood. Those who reported experiencing \"severe physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, or exposure to intimate partner violence\" were not included in the results", ". According to the researchers, the findings \"provide evidence that harsh physical punishment independent of child maltreatment is related to mental disorders\". An earlier Canadian study gave similar results.", "Preliminary results from neuroimaging studies suggest that physical punishment involving the use of objects causes a reduction of grey matter in brain areas associated with performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. as well as certain alterations to brain regions which secrete or are sensitive to the neurotransmitter dopamine, linked with a risk of drug and alcohol abuse.", "Corporal punishment also has links with domestic violence. According to Gershoff, research indicates that the more corporal punishment children receive, the more likely they are as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners.", "A 2013 by Dr. Chris Ferguson employed an alternative statistical analysis, finding negative cognitive and behavioral effects in children subjected to spanking and corporal punishment, but found the overall relationship to be \"trivial\" or marginally so with the externalizing effects differing by age", ". However, Ferguson acknowledged this still indicates potential harmful outcomes and noted some limitations of his analysis, stating \"On the other hand, there was no evidence from the current to indicate that spanking or CP held any particular advantages. There appears, from the current data, to be no reason to believe that spanking/CP holds any benefits related to the current outcomes, in comparison to other forms of discipline.\"", "A 2016 of five decades of research found positive associations between being exposed to spanking (defined as \"hitting a child on their buttocks or extremities using an open hand\") and anti-social behavior, aggression, and mental health problems.", "A 2018 found that the apparent effects on child externalizing behavior differ depending on method of analysis. This seems to be the result of a statistical bias in some of the typically used methods. This may explain the small results found in the 2013 analysis, and the replication of results in other disciplinary tactics. Several subsequent studies have investigated this line of inquiry", ". Several subsequent studies have investigated this line of inquiry. One found beneficial effects of only mild spanking after using a more flexible model that accounts for the issues brought up. Others used robustness checks, finding adverse effects of spanking and physical punishment.", "A 2021 review of 69 prospective longitudinal studies found that 59% of these studies found adverse effects, 23% found no association, and 17% found mixed effects. The review concluded that: \"The evidence is consistent and robust: physical punishment does not predict improvements in child behaviour and instead predicts deterioration in child behaviour and increased risk for maltreatment", ". There is thus no empirical reason for parents to continue to use physical punishment\", and advocated for the banning of physical punishment \"in all forms and all settings\".", "Statements by professional associations", "The pediatric division of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians has urged that physical punishment of children be outlawed in Australia, stating that is a violation of children's human rights to exempt them from protection against physical assault. They urge support for parents to use \"more effective, non-violent methods of discipline\"", ". They urge support for parents to use \"more effective, non-violent methods of discipline\". The Australian Psychological Society holds that corporal punishment of children is an ineffective method of deterring unwanted behavior, promotes undesirable behaviors and fails to demonstrate an alternative desirable behavior", ". It asserts that corporal punishment often promotes further undesirable behaviors such as defiance and attachment to \"delinquent\" peer groups, and encourages an acceptance of aggression and violence as acceptable responses to conflicts and problems.", "According to the Canadian Paediatric Society, \"The research that is available supports the position that spanking and other forms of physical punishment are associated with negative child outcomes. The Canadian Paediatric Society, therefore, recommends that physicians strongly discourage disciplinary spanking and all other forms of physical punishment\".", "The Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health of the United Kingdom opposes corporal punishment of children in all circumstances, stating that \"it is never appropriate to hit or beat children\". It states that \"Corporal punishment [of] children has both short term and long term adverse effects and in principle should not be used since it models an approach which is discouraged between adults\"", ". The college advocates legal reform to remove the right of \"reasonable punishment\" to give children the same legal protections as adults, along with public education directed towards nonviolent parenting methods.", "The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has stated \"parents, other caregivers, and adults interacting with children and adolescents should not use corporal punishment (including hitting and spanking)\". It recommends that parents be \"encouraged and assisted in the development of methods other than spanking for managing undesired behavior\"", ". In a 2018 policy statement, the AAP writes: \"corporal punishment to an increased risk of negative behavioral, cognitive, psychosocial, and emotional outcomes for children\".", "In the AAP's opinion, such punishments, as well as \"physical punishment delivered in anger with intent to cause pain\", are \"unacceptable and may be dangerous to the health and well-being of the child\"", ". They also point out that \"The more children are spanked, the more anger they report as adults, the more likely they are to spank their own children, the more likely they are to approve of hitting a spouse, and the more marital conflict they experience as adults\" and that \"spanking has been associated with higher rates of physical aggression, more substance abuse, and increased risk of crime and violence when used with older children and adolescents\".", "The AAP believes that corporal punishment polarizes the parent–child relationship, reducing the amount of spontaneous cooperation on the part of the child. In their words, \"[R]eliance on spanking as a discipline approach makes other discipline strategies less effective to use\". The AAP believes that spanking as a form of discipline can easily lead to abuse, noting also that spanking children younger than 18 months of age increases the chance of physical injury.", "The United States' National Association of Social Workers \"opposes the use of physical punishment in homes, schools, and all other institutions where children are cared for and educated\".\n\nHuman rights perspectives", "Paulo Pinheiro asserts that \"The [UN study] should mark a turning point—an end to adult justification of violence against children, whether accepted as 'tradition' or disguised as 'discipline' [...] Children's uniqueness—their potential and vulnerability, their dependence on adults—makes it imperative that they have more, not less, protection from violence\"", ". His report to the General Assembly of the United Nations recommends prohibition of all forms of violence against children, including corporal punishment in the family and other settings.", "The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child remarked in 2006 that all forms of corporal punishment, along with non-physical punishment which \"belittles, humiliates, denigrates, scapegoats, threatens, scares or ridicules\" children were found to be \"cruel and degrading\" and therefore incompatible with the Convention on the Rights of the Child", ". In the committee's view, \"Addressing the widespread acceptance or tolerance of corporal punishment of children and eliminating it, in the family, schools and other settings, is not only an obligation of States parties under the Convention. It is also a key strategy for reducing and preventing all forms of violence in societies\".", "The Committee on the Rights of the Child advocates legal reform banning corporal punishment that is educational rather than punitive:", "The office of Europe's Commissioner for Human Rights notes that the defence of \"reasonable chastisement\" is based on the view that children are property, equating it with former legal rights of husbands to beat wives and masters to beat servants. The Commissioner stresses that human rights, including the right to physical integrity, are the primary consideration in advocating an end to corporal punishment:", "The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe maintains that corporal punishment is a breach of children's \"fundamental right to human dignity and physical integrity\", and violates children's \"equally fundamental right to the same legal protection as adults\". The Assembly urges a total ban on \"all forms of corporal punishment and any other forms of degrading punishment or treatment of children\" as a requirement of the European Social Charter", ". The European Court of Human Rights has found corporal punishment to be a violation of children's rights under the European Convention on Human Rights, stating that bans on corporal punishment did not violate religious freedom or the right to private or family life.", "The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights concluded in 2009 that corporal punishment \"constitutes a form of violence against children that wounds their dignity and hence their human rights\", asserting that \"the member states of the Organization of American States are obliged to guarantee children and adolescents special protection against the use of corporal punishment\".", "UNESCO also recommends that corporal punishment be prohibited in schools, homes and institutions as a form of discipline, and contends that it is a violation of human rights as well as counterproductive, ineffective, dangerous and harmful to children.\n\nProhibition\n\nThe 1979 Swedish ban", "Sweden was the world's first nation to outlaw all forms of corporal punishment of children. In 1957, the section permitting parents to use force in reprimanding their children (as long as it did not cause any severe injury) was completely removed from the Penal Code. The intent of this change was to provide children with the same protection from assault that adults receive and to clarify the grounds for criminal prosecution of parents who abused their children", ". However, parents' right to use corporal punishment of their children was not eliminated; until 1966, parents might use mild forms of physical discipline that would not constitute assault under the Penal Code. In 1966, the section permitting parents to use physical discipline was removed and fully replaced by the constitution of assault under the Penal Code.", "Even though parents' right to use corporal punishment of their children was no longer supported by law, many parents believed the law allowed it. Therefore, it was necessary with a more clear law which supported children's rights and protected children from violence or other humiliating treatment. On 1 July 1979, Sweden became the world's first nation to explicitly ban corporal punishment of children through an amendment to the Parenthood and Guardianship Code which stated:", "Some critics in the Swedish Parliament predicted that the amendment would lead to a large-scale criminalization of Swedish parents. Others asserted that the law contradicted the Christian faith. Despite these objections, the law received almost unanimous support in Parliament. The law was accompanied by a public education campaign by the Swedish Ministry of Justice, including brochures distributed to all households with children, as well as informational posters and notices printed on milk cartons.", "One thing that helped pave the way for the ban was a 1971 murder case where a 3-year-old girl was beaten to death by her stepfather. The case shook the general public and preventing child abuse became a political hot topic for years to come.\n\nIn 1982, a group of Swedish parents brought a complaint to the European Commission of Human Rights asserting that the ban on parental physical punishment breached their right to respect for family life and religious freedom; the complaint was dismissed.", "According to the Swedish Institute, \"Until the 1960s, nine out of ten preschool children in Sweden were spanked at home. Slowly, though, more and more parents voluntarily refrained from its use and corporal punishment was prohibited throughout the educational system in 1958\". , approximately 5 percent of Swedish children are spanked illegally.", "In Sweden, professionals working directly with children are obliged to report any suggestion of maltreatment to social services. Allegations of assault against children are frequently handled in special \"children's houses\", which combine the efforts of police, prosecutors, social services, forensic scientists and child psychologists. The Children and Parents Code does not itself impose penalties for smacking children, but instances of corporal punishment that meet the criteria of assault may be prosecuted.", "From the 1960s to the 2000s, there was a steady decline in the numbers of parents who use physical punishment as well as those who believe in its use. In the 1960s, more than 90 percent of Swedish parents reported using physical punishment, even though only approximately 55 percent supported its use. By the 2000s, the gap between belief and practice had nearly disappeared, with slightly more than 10 percent of parents reporting that they use corporal punishment", ". In 1994, the first year that Swedish children were asked to report their experiences of corporal punishment, 35 percent said they had been smacked at some point. According to the Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, this number was considerably lower after the year 2000. Interviews with parents also revealed a sharp decline in more severe forms of punishment, such as punching or the use of objects to hit children, which are likely to cause injury.", "The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and Save the Children ascribe these changes to a number of factors, including the development of Sweden's welfare system; greater equality between the sexes and generations than elsewhere in the world; the large number of children attending daycare centers, which facilitate the identification of children being mistreated; and efforts by neonatal and children's medical clinics to reduce family violence.", "While cases of suspected assault on children have risen since the early 1980s, this rise can be attributed to an increase in reporting due to reduced tolerance of violence against children, rather than an increase in actual assaults. Since the 1979 ban on physical punishment, the percentage of reported assaults that result in prosecution has not increased; however, Swedish social services investigate all such allegations and provide supportive measures to the family where needed.", "According to Joan Durrant, the ban on corporal punishment was intended to be \"educational rather than punitive\". After the 1979 change to the Parenthood and Guardianship Code, there was no increase in the number of children removed from their families; in fact, the number of children entering state care significantly decreased. There have also been more social-service interventions done with parental consent and fewer compulsory interventions", ". Durrant writes that the authorities had three goals, namely: to bring about a change in public attitudes away from support for corporal punishment, to facilitate the identification of children likely to be physically abused, and to enable earlier intervention in families with the intention of supporting, rather than punishing, parents. According to Durrant, data from various official sources in Sweden show that these goals are being met. She writes:", "Contrary to expectations of an increase of juvenile delinquency following the ban of corporal punishment, youth crime remained steady while theft convictions and suspects in narcotics crimes among Swedish youth significantly decreased; youth drug and alcohol use and youth suicide also decreased", ". Durrant writes: \"While drawing a direct causal link between the corporal punishment ban and any of these social trends would be too simplistic, the evidence presented here indicates that the ban has not had negative effects\".", "Further research has shown no sign of a rise in crimes by young people. From the mid-1990s into the 2000s, youth crime decreased, primarily owing to fewer instances of theft and vandalism, while violent crime remained constant. Most young people in Sweden who commit offences do not become habitual criminals, according to the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs", ". While there has been an increase in reports of assaults by youth against others of similar age, official sources indicate that the increase has been largely due to a \"zero-tolerance\" approach to school bullying resulting in increased reporting, rather than an increase in actual assaults.", "After Sweden: bans around the world \n the following countries and territories have (or are planned to have) completely prohibited corporal punishment of children:", "(1979)\n (1983)\n (1989)\n (1994)\n (1997)\n (1997)\n (1998)\n (1999)\n (2000)\n (2000)\n (2000)\n (2002)\n (2003)\n (2004)\n (2004)\n (2005)\n (2006)\n (2007)\n (2007)\n (2007) (2007)\n (2007)\n (2007) \n (2007)\n (2007)\n (2008)\n (2008)\n (2008)\n (2008)\n (2010)\n (2010)\n (2010)\n (2010)\n (2010)\n (2011)\n (2013)\n (2013)\n (2013)\n (2014)\n (2014)\n (2014)\n (2014)\n (2014)\n (2014) \n (2014)\n (2014)\n (2015)\n (2015)\n (2015)\n (2016)\n (2016)\n (2016)\n (2016)\n (2016)\n (2017)\n (2018) \n (2019) \n (2019) \n (2019) \n (2019) \n (2020) \n (2020)", "(2016)\n (2016)\n (2016)\n (2017)\n (2018) \n (2019) \n (2019) \n (2019) \n (2019) \n (2020) \n (2020) \n (2020) \n (2020) \n (2021)\n (2021)\n (2021)\n (2022)\n (2022)\n (2022)", "See also\n\nDomestic violence\nCampaigns against corporal punishment\nChild corporal punishment laws\nSchool corporal punishment\n\nReferences", "References\n\nExternal links \nEqually Protected? A review of the evidence on the physical punishment of children, NSPCC Scotland, Children 1st, Barnardo's Scotland, Children and Young People's Commissioner Scotland\nJoint Statement on Physical Punishment of Children and Youth, Coalition on Physical Punishment of Children and Youth (Canada)\nInternational Save the Children Alliance position on corporal punishment\n\nHome\nParenting\nFamily\nChildren's rights\nViolence against children\n\nde:Züchtigungsrecht" ]

[ "The Prix Bordin is a series of prizes awarded annually by each of the five institutions making up the Institut Français since 1835.", "History\nThe prize was created by Charles-Laurent Bordin, a notary in Paris from 1794 to 1820, who bequeathed 12,000 Francs to the Institut de France in his testament dated April 7, 1835, for the foundation of an annual prize to be given to each of the five:\n the Académie Française, in order to \"encourage high literature\"; the prize was given irregularly until 1988 \n the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres", "the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres\n the French Academy of Sciences. The awarding of the prize is linked with a contest organized by the Academy. \n the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques : the biennial prize is awarded to \"works treating upon subjects relating to the public interest, to the wellbeing of humanity, to the progress of science and to national honor (of France).\"\n the Académie des Beaux-Arts: to reward works on painting, sculpture, architecture, engraving or music.", "Laureates of the Académie Française", "From 1857 to 1899\n 1857: Eugène Rosseeuw Saint-Hilaire for Histoire d'Espagne\n 1859: Nicolas Eugène Géruzez for Histoire de la littérature française depuis ses origines jusqu'à la Révolution et pendant la Révolution\n 1860: Louis Ratisbonne for Translation in verse of Dante\n 1861: André Sayous for Histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger pendant le XVIIIe siècle\n 1862: \n Léon Halévy for his translation into verse of Greek tragedies\n Auguste Lacaussade for Poèmes et Paysages", "Auguste Lacaussade for Poèmes et Paysages\n 1863: Ferdinand Béchard for Droit municipal dans l'antiquité et Droit municipal au moyen âge\n 1865: \n Jules Bonnet for Récits du XVIe siècle, Aonio Paleario, étude sur la Réforme en Italie and Olympia Morata\n Eugène Fallex for his translation into verse of Aristophanes\n Édélestand Pontas du Méril for Histoire de la comédie\n Eugène Rosseeuw Saint-Hilaire for Histoire d'Espagne\n 1866: Alphonse Dantier for Les monastères bénédictins d'Italie", "1866: Alphonse Dantier for Les monastères bénédictins d'Italie\n 1867: Elme-Marie Caro for La philosophie de Gœthe\n 1868: Emmanuel Henri Victurnien de Noailles for Henri de Valois and la Pologne en 1572\n 1869: Alexis Chassang for Le Spiritualisme et l’Idéal dans la poésie des Grecs\n 1870: \n Guillaume-Alfred Heinrich for Histoire de la littérature allemande\n Constant Martha for Poème de Lucrèce\n 1871: Alfred Fouillée for La philosophie de Platon\n 1872: Jules Gauthier for Histoire de Marie Stuart", "1872: Jules Gauthier for Histoire de Marie Stuart\n 1873: Georges Perrot for L’éloquence politique et judiciaire à Athènes\n 1874: \n Adolphe Bossert for La littérature allemande au moyen âge et les origines de l’épopée germanique, Goethe, ses précurseurs et ses contemporains and Goethe et Schiller\n Jules Sauzay for Histoire de la persécution révolutionnaire dans le département du Doubs de 1789 à 1801\n 1875: or Voltaire et la société française au XVIIIe siècle\n 1876:", "1875: or Voltaire et la société française au XVIIIe siècle\n 1876: \n Ernest Daudet for Histoire du ministère de M. de Martignac, sa vie politique et les dernières années de la Restauration\n Jules Levallois for Corneille inconnu\n 1877: François-Régie Chantelauze for Marie Stuart, son procès et son exécution\n 1878: \n Arthur Gobineau for La Renaissance\n Gustave Merlet for Tableau de la littérature française de 1800-1815\n 1879: \n Ernest Lichtenberger for Étude sur les poésies lyriques de Goethe", "1879: \n Ernest Lichtenberger for Étude sur les poésies lyriques de Goethe\n Charles Schmidt for Histoire littéraire de l’Alsace\n 1880: Henri Baudrillart for Histoire du luxe privé et public depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à nos jours\n 1881: \n (the widow of) Paul Albert\n Émile Gebhart for Les origines de la Renaissance\n Julian Klaczko for Causeries florentines\n 1882: \n Georges Pallain for Correspondance inédite du prince de Talleyrand et du roi Louis XVIII pendant le Congrès de Vienne", "Albert Vandal for Louis XV et Élisabeth de Russie\n 1883: Ferdinand Brunetière for Le roman naturaliste and Études critiques sur l’histoire de la littérature française\n 1884:\n James Darmesteter Essais orientaux\n Georges Duruy Le cardinal Carlo Carafa\n 1885: \n Prince Emmanuel de Broglie for Fénelon à Cambrai, d’après sa correspondance (1699-1715)\n François Laouënan for Le brahmanisme et ses rapports avec le judaïsme, le judaïsme et le christianisme\n 1886: \n Charles Bénard La philosophie ancienne", "1886: \n Charles Bénard La philosophie ancienne\n Charles de Baillon Henriette-Anne d’Angleterre, duchesse d’Orléans\n Gustave-Armand-Henri de Reiset for Modes et usages au temps de Marie-Antoinette\n 1887:\n Émile Bérard-Varagnac for Portraits littéraires\n Jacques Denis for La Comédie grecque\n 1888:\n Prince Georges Bibesco for Au Mexique, 1862. Combats et retraite des Six Mille\n Stéphen Liégeard La côte d’Azur\n René Millet La France provinciale", "Stéphen Liégeard La côte d’Azur\n René Millet La France provinciale\n 1889: Charles Ravaisson-Mollien Les manuscrits de Léonard de Vinci\n 1890:\n Antonin Fabre for Chapelain et nos deux premières Académies\n Alfred Marchand for Les poètes lyriques de l’Autriche\n Maurice Paléologue for Vauvenargues\n Gabriel Sarrazin for La Renaissance de la poésie anglaise (1798-1889) and les poètes modernes de l’Angleterre\n Émile Simond for Histoire du 28e régiment de ligne\n 1891: \n Georges Bengesco for Voltaire", "Émile Simond for Histoire du 28e régiment de ligne\n 1891: \n Georges Bengesco for Voltaire\n Auguste Couat Aristophane et l’ancienne comédie attique\n Théodore Reinach Mithridate Eupator, roi de Pont\n 1892:\n Charles Ravaisson-Mollien Les manuscrits de Léonard de Vinci\n Eugène Titeux for Histoire de la Maison militaire du Roy, de 1814 à 1830\n 1893: \n Viscountess Bardonnet for Mémoires et souvenirs du baron Hyde de Neuville", "1893: \n Viscountess Bardonnet for Mémoires et souvenirs du baron Hyde de Neuville\n Charles Dardier for Paul Rabaut, ses lettres à Antoine Court (1739-1755) and Paul Rabaut, ses lettres à divers (1744-1794)\n Charles de Moüy L’ambassade du duc de Créqui (1662-1665)\n Charles Lenthéric for Le Rhône, histoire d’un fleuve\n 1894:\n Victor Cucheval for Histoire de l’éloquence romaine depuis la mort de Cicéron jusqu’à l’avènement de l’empereur Hadrien", "Antoine Guillois for Le salon de Madame Helvétius. Cabanis et les idéologues\n Hippolyte Parigot for Le théâtre d’hier\n Auguste Rey for Les cahiers de Saint-Prix\n Léopold Sudre for Les sources du roman de Renart\n 1895: \n Clément de La Jonquière for L’armée à l’Académie\n Théophile Funck-Brentano for L’homme et sa destinée\n Jean-Jules Jusserand for Histoire littéraire du peuple anglais, des origines à la Renaissance\n Théodore Gosselin for Paris révolutionnaire\n 1896:", "Théodore Gosselin for Paris révolutionnaire\n 1896:\n Ferdinand Belin for Histoire de l’ancienne université de Provence : Aix\n Robert de la Sizeranne for La peinture anglaise contemporaine\n 1897:\n Henry Bordeaux for La Vie et l’Art\n Francis de Pressensé for Le Cardinal Manning\n Eugène Ritter for La famille et la jeunesse de Rousseau\n 1898:\n Maurice de Fleury for Introduction à la médecine de l’esprit\n Henri Druon for Histoire de l’éducation des princes dans la Maison des Bourbons de France", "Henri Druon for Histoire de l’éducation des princes dans la Maison des Bourbons de France\n Georges Goyau for L’Allemagne religieuse : le Protestantisme\n 1899:\n Henry Lapauze for Les pastels de De La Tour à Saint-Quentin\n Constantin Lecigne for Brizeux, sa vie et ses œuvres", "From 1900 to 1939\n 1900:\n Count Théodore Paul Émile Ducos for La mère du duc d’Enghien (1750-1822)\n Émile Dupré-Lasale for Michel de l’Hospital (1555-1960)\n Henri Lichtenberger for Richard Wagner, poète et penseur\n Louis Maigron for Le Roman historique à l'époque romantique\n Jean-Baptiste Mispoulet for La vie parlementaire à Rome sous la République\n 1901: \n Henry Fouquier for Philosophie parisienne\n Victor Giraud for Essais sur Taine, son œuvre et son influence", "Victor Giraud for Essais sur Taine, son œuvre et son influence\n Georges Le Bidois for La vie dans la tragédie de Racine\n 1902:\n André Bellessort La société japonaise\n André le Breton for Le roman français au XIXe siècle avant Balzac\n Édouard Ruel for Du sentiment artistique dans la morale de Montaigne\n 1903:\n Paul Allard for Julien l’Apostat\n Ignác Kont for Étude sur l’influence de la littérature française en Hongrie (1772-1896)\n Adolphe Liéby for Étude sur le théâtre de Marie Joseph Chénier", "Adolphe Liéby for Étude sur le théâtre de Marie Joseph Chénier\n Francisque Vial for L’enseignement secondaire et la démocratie\n 1904:\n Victor de Swarte for Descartes directeur spirituel\n Paul Gautier for Madame de Staël et Napoléon\n Paul et Victor Glachant for Essai critique sur le théâtre de Victor Hugo\n Gustave Michaut for Sainte-Beuve avant les lundis\n 1905:\n Charles ab der Halden for Études de littérature canadienne française\n Adolphe Bossert for Schopenhauer", "Adolphe Bossert for Schopenhauer\n René Canat for Du sentiment de la solitude morale chez les romantiques et les parnassiens\n Émile Dard for Le général Choderlos de Laclos (1741-1803)\n Paul Decharme for La critique des traditions religieuses chez les Grecs, des origines au temps de Plutarque\n 1906:\n Alfred Barbeau for Une ville d’eaux anglaise au XVIIIe siècle\n Philippe Godet for Madame de Charrière et ses amis (1740-1805)\n Édouard Herriot for Madame Récamier et ses amis", "Édouard Herriot for Madame Récamier et ses amis\n Samuel Rocheblave for George Sand et sa fille d’après leur correspondance inédite\n 1907:\n Jean Baruzi for Leibniz et l’organisation religieuse de la terre\n Marc Citoleux for La poésie philosophique au XIXe siècle : Lamartine. Mme Ackermann\n Camille Latteille for Joseph de Maistre et la Papauté\n Julien Luchaire for Essai sur l'évolution intellectuelle de l'Italie, de 1815 à 1830\n 1908:\n Albert Cassagne for La théorie de l’art pour l’art", "1908:\n Albert Cassagne for La théorie de l’art pour l’art\n Angelo De Gubernatis for La poésie amoureuse de la Renaissance italienne\n Louis Delaruelle for Guillaume Budé\n Guillaume Hüszar for Molière et l’Espagne\n Clodius Piat for Les philosophes grecs : Socrate, Aristote, Platon\n 1909:\n Jules Charrier for Claude Fauchet, évêque constitutionnel du Calvados (1744-1793)\n Georges Dalmeyda for Goethe et le drame antique\n René Radouant for Guillaume du Vair (1556-1596)\n 1910:", "René Radouant for Guillaume du Vair (1556-1596)\n 1910: \n Joseph Dedieu for Montesquieu et la tradition politique anglaise en France\n Charles Drouhet for Le poète François Mainard (1583-1646)\n Gabriel Maugain for Étude sur l’évolution intellectuelle de l’Italie de 1657 à 1750 environ\n François Vézinet for Molière, Florian et la littérature espagnole\n 1911:\n Victor Giraud for Blaise Pascal. L’homme, l’œuvre, l’influence\n Paul Hazard for La Révolution française et les lettres italiennes", "Paul Hazard for La Révolution française et les lettres italiennes\n Philippe Millet for La crise anglaise\n Napoléon-Maurice Bernardin for L’abbé Frifillis\n Alfred Jeanroy for Giosué Carducci, l’homme et le poète\n Hippolyte Loiseau for L’évolution morale de Goethe. Les années de libre formation (1749-1794)\n Émile Magne for Voiture et les origines de l’hôtel de Rambouillet (1597-1635)\n Auguste Rochette for L’Alexandrin chez Victor Hugo\n 1913:", "Auguste Rochette for L’Alexandrin chez Victor Hugo\n 1913:\n Louis-Frédéric Choisy for Alfred Tennyson, son spiritualisme, sa personnalité morale\n Joseph Drouet for L’abbé de Saint-Pierre, l’homme et l’œuvre\n Jean Lucas-Dubreton for La disgrâce de Nicolas Machiavel. Florence (1469-1527)\n Charles Régismanset for Le bienfaiteur de la ville\n 1914:\n Joseph-Émile Dresch for Le roman social en Allemagne (1850-1900)\n Christian Maréchal for La famille de La Mennais sous l’ancien Régime et la Révolution", "Christian Maréchal for La famille de La Mennais sous l’ancien Régime et la Révolution\n Jean Nesmy for Le roman de la forêt\n Henry Prunières for L’opéra italien en France avant Lulli\n 1916:\n Mr. Alline\n Ernest-Amédée de Renty\n François Gébelin\n Marcel Godet for La Congrégation de Montaigu\n Amédée Guiard\n Joachim Merlant\n Paul Peyre for Du droit et du devoir de l’éducation\n André Ruplinger for Charles Bordes, membre de l'Académie de Lyon (1711-1781)\n 1917:\n Louis Cario for Annette, un été au pays basque", "1917:\n Louis Cario for Annette, un été au pays basque\n Marcel Dupont for En campagne\n Pompiliu Eliade for La Roumanie au XIXe siècle\n René La Bruyère for Deux années de guerre navale\n Léon Lahovary for Les Lauriers et les Glaives\n 1918:\n Édouard Guyot for L’Angleterre (sa politique intérieure)\n Albert Monod for De Pascal à Châteaubriand\n Léon Rosenthal for Du romantisme au réalisme\n Paul Van Tieghem for Ossian en France\n 1919:\n Albert Chérel for Fénelon au XVIIIe siècle en France", "Paul Van Tieghem for Ossian en France\n 1919:\n Albert Chérel for Fénelon au XVIIIe siècle en France\n Émile Ripert for La Renaissance provençale (1800-1860)\n 1920:\n Albert Autin for La maison en deuil\n A. Dutil for Les chars d’assaut\n Casimir-Alexandre Fusil for La poésie scientifique de 1750 à nos jours\n Édouard Guyot for H.-G. Wells\n Raymonde Machard for Tu enfanteras\n Jean Suberville for Le théâtre d’Edmond Rostand\n Bénjamin Vallotton for Ceux de Barivier\n 1921:", "Jean Suberville for Le théâtre d’Edmond Rostand\n Bénjamin Vallotton for Ceux de Barivier\n 1921:\n Louis-Frédéric Choisy for Sainte-Beuve, l’homme et le poète\n Pierre de Labriolle for Histoire de la littérature latine chrétienne\n Léon Deffoux and Émile Zavie for Le groupe de Médan\n Ernest Delahaye for Verlaine\n L. Letellier for Louis Bouilhet, sa vie, ses œuvres\n Henri Morice for La poésie de Sully-Prud’homme\n 1922:\n Clara de Longworth-Chambrun Giovanni Florio", "Henri Morice for La poésie de Sully-Prud’homme\n 1922:\n Clara de Longworth-Chambrun Giovanni Florio\n Henri Girard Un bourgeois dilettante à l’époque contemporaine, Émile Deschamps\n Gonzague Truc Tibériade\n Philippe Van Tieghem La poésie de la nuit et des tombeaux en Europe au XVIIIe siècle\n Maurice Vaussard L’intelligence catholique dans l’Italie au XXe siècle\n 1923:\n Jacques Arnavon La représentation de la Comédie classique. Notes sur l’interprétation de Molière", "Jacques Arnavon La représentation de la Comédie classique. Notes sur l’interprétation de Molière\n Alexandre Masseron Les énigmes de la Divine Comédie\n Joseph Segond L'Imagination\n Édouard Thamiry De l’influence et La méthode d’influence de Saint-François-de-Sales\n 1924:\n Émile Dermenghem Joseph de Maistre mystique\n René Galland Georges Meredith (1828-1878)\n Jean Larat La tradition et l’exotisme dans l’œuvre de Charles Nodier\n Maurice Legendre Portrait de l’Espagne", "Maurice Legendre Portrait de l’Espagne\n Charles Loiseau Politique romaine et sentiment français\n Frederick Charles Roe Taine et l’Angleterre\n 1925:\n Adolphe Coster Luis de Léon\n Maurice de Fleury L’Angoisse humaine\n Camille Looten for Shakespeare et la religion\n Arthur Lytton Sells for Les sources françaises de Goldsmith\n Paul Truffau for Raoul de Cambrai\n 1926:\n Ernest de Ganay for Chantilly au XVIIIe siècle\n Cornelis Kramer for André Chénier et la poésie parnassienne", "Cornelis Kramer for André Chénier et la poésie parnassienne\n Maurice Levaillant for Splendeurs et misères de M. de Chateaubriand\n Émile Pons for Swift, les années de jeunesse and le conte du tonneau\"\n Albert Valentin for Giovanni Pascoli, poète lyrique 1927:\n Geneviève Bianquis for La poésie autrichienne de Hofmannsthal à Rilke Georges Connes for Étude sur la pensée de H. G. Wells Clara de Longworth-Chambrun for Shakespeare, auteur, poète A. Augustin-Thierry for La princesse Beljiojoso 1928:", "Paul Berret for Victor Hugo Robert Chantemesse for Le roman inconnu de la duchesse d’Abrantès John Charpentier for Coleridge Maurice Magendie for Du nouveau sur l’Astrée Pierre Moreau for Chateaubriand, l’homme et la vie, le génie et les livres Marcel Raymond for L’influence de Ronsard sur la poésie française 1929:", "Fernand Desonay for Le rêve hellénique chez les poètes parnassiens Robert d'Harcourt for La jeunesse de Schiller Lucien Maury for L’imagination scandinave James Sirven for Les années d’apprentissage de Descartes 1930:\n Jules Chaix-Ruy for De Renan à Jacques Rivière René Grousset for Sur les traces de Bouddha Jules Legras for La littérature en Russie 1931:", "Marguerite Aron for Un animateur de la jeunesse au XIIIe siècle. Bx Jourdain de Saxe Charles Felgères for Scènes et tableaux de l’histoire d’Auvergne Émilie Romieu for La Vie de George Eliot et La Vie des sœurs Brontë 1932:\n Maurice Bardon for Don Quichotte en France au XVIIe et au XVIIIe siècle Claire-Éliane Engel for La littérature alpestre Pierre Lyautey for L’Empire colonial français Jacques Meniaud for Les pionniers du Soudan 1933:", "Henri Ghéon for Promenades avec Mozart Agnès de La Gorce for Francis Thomson et les poètes catholiques d’Angleterre Régis Jolivet for Saint Augustin et le néoplatonisme Raymond Las Vergnas for W.-M. Thackeray Maurice Magendie for Le roman français au XVIIe siècle Henriette Psichari for Ernest Psichari, mon frère 1934:\n Paul Dudon for Saint Ignace de Loyola Jean Guitton for La philosophie de Newman Pierre Humbert for Un amateur : Peiresc Jean Lescoffier for Bjorson 1935:", "R.P. François Charmot for L'Humanisme et l'Humain André Fauconnet for Études sur l'Allemagne Modeste Lioudvigovitch Hofmann and André Pierre for La vie de Tolstoï Louis Jalabert for Syrie et Liban René Lote for Histoire de la culture allemande Pierre Séchaud for Victor de Laprade, l'homme, son œuvre poétique 1936:", "Alexis Carrel for L'homme, cet inconnu Robert d'Harcourt for Goethe et l’art de vivre Paul Henry, S.J. for Plotin et l'Occident Isabelle Rivière for Le bouquet de roses rouges Véga for Henri Heine peint, par lui-même et par les autres 1937:", "Jacques Arnavon for L’École des femmes, de Molière Jacques de Broglie for Madame de Staël et sa cour au château de Chaumont Léon-Basile Guerdan for Un ami oriental de Barrès, Tigrane Yergate Robert Mattlé for Lamartine voyageur Joannes Van der Lugt for L'action religieuse, de Ferdinand Brunetière 1938:", "Jean Cathala for Portrait de l'Estonie Yves Congar for Chrétiens désunis René Dollot for L'Afghanistan Lucienne Portier for Antonio Fogazzaro Auguste Thomazi for Les flottes de l'or Henri de Ziégler for Vie de l'Empereur Frédéric II de Hohenstaufen 1939:\n Raymond Christoflour for Louis le Cardonel Jean Wahl for Études KierkegardiennesFrom 1940 to 1988\n 1940:", "1940:\n Marie Delcourt for Périclès Alexandre Masseron for Pour comprendre la Divine Comédie Anatole Rivoallan for Littérature irlandaise contemporaine 1941:\n Albert Dauzat for Tableau de la langue française 1942: \n Pierre-Henri Simon\n 1943:\n Philippe Bertault for Balzac et la Religion 1944:\n Joseph Desaymard for L'Auvergne dans les lettres contemporaines 1945:\n Eugène David-Bernard for La conquête de Madagascar 1946:", "Eugène David-Bernard for La conquête de Madagascar 1946:\n Floris Delattre for La personnalité d’Auguste Angelier Edmond Delucinge for Images littéraires de Savoie Henri Morier for Le rythme du vers libre symboliste Auguste Viatte for Victor Hugo et les illuminés de son temps 1947: Victor-Henry Debidour for Saveur des lettres 1948:", "Clara de Longworth-Chambrun for Shakespeare retrouvé Albert Lopez for Un poète et sa divine Charles Mauron for L'homme triple Ludovic O'Followell for La vie manquée de Félix Arvers Maurice Ricord for Louis Bertrand l'Africain André Trofimoff for Au jardin des mused françaises 1949: John Charpentier for Alexandre Dumas 1950:\n Raphaël Barquissau for Les poètes créoles du XVIIIe siècle Claire-Éliane Engel for Esquisses anglaises 1951:", "Louis Chaigne for Vies et œuvres d'écrivains André-Jean Festugière for L'enfant d'Agrigente, suivi de Le grec et la nature 1952:\n Jacques-Henry Bornecque for Les années d’apprentissage d'Alphonse Daudet Pierre Sage for Le \"bon prêtre\" dans la littérature française 1953: Jean Soulairol for Paul Valéry 1955: Louis-Édouard Tabary for Duranty 1956: Auguste Haury for L’Ironie et l’Humour chez Cicéron 1957:", "Yves Le Hir for Esthétique et structure du vers français Yves du Parc for Dans le sillage de Stendhal 1958: Georges Cattaui for T. S. Eliot 1959: René Jasinski for Vers le vrai Racine 1960:\n Victor Del Litto for La vie intellectuelle de Stendhal Renée Lelièvre for Le Théâtre dramatique italien en France 1855-1940 1961:", "Aimée Alexandre for Le Mythe de Tolstoï André Lagarde and Laurent Michard for Les grands auteurs français 1962: Simone Blavier-Paquot for La Fontaine, vues sur l’art du moraliste 1963: Armand Pierhal for l'ensemble de son œuvre 1964: Jean-Georges Ritz for Le poète Gérard Manley Hopkins 1844-1889 1965: Jean Mesnard for l'Édition des Œuvres complètes de Pascal 1966:", "David Albert Griffiths for Jean Reynaud, encyclopédiste de l’Époque romantique Pierre Menanteau for Images d’André Mage de Fiefmelin", ", poète baroque 1967: Jean Onimus for La Connaissance poétique 1968: Edmée de La Rochefoucauld for En lisant les cahiers de Paul Valéry 1969: Henry Bonnier for l'Édition des Œuvres complètes de Vauvenargues 1970: Dominique Janicaud for Une généalogie du spiritualisme français 1971: Philippe Sellier for Pascal et saint Augustin 1972: Elie Wiesel for Célébration hassidique 1973: Pierre Marchais for Glossaire de Psychiatrie1974: François Châtelet for L’Histoire de la philosophie 1975:", "Guillaume Guindey for Le drame de la pensée dialectique, Hegel, Marx, Sartre Marie-Dominique Philippe for L’Être. Recherche d’une philosophie première 1976: René Démoris for Le roman à la première personne 1977: Mircea Elide for Histoire des croyances et des idées religieuses de l’âge de pierre aux mystères d’Eleusis 1978:", "Paul Bénichou for Le temps des prophètes. Doctrine de l’âge romantique Jean Lafond for La Rochefoucauld. Augustinisme et littératureLaureates of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres\nOrientalism\n 1861: Hermann Zotenberg\n 1904:\n William Marçais for Le Taqrîb de En-Nawawi, Le dialecte arabe parlé à Tlemcen et Les monuments arabes de Tlemcen. Charles Fossey for Manuel d'Assyriologie Antoine Cabaton for Nouvelles Recherches sur les Chams. 1907:", "Edmond Doutté for Merrâkech Adamantios Adamantiou for Chronique de Morée Armand Guérinot for Bibliographie du Jaïnisme Gaston Migeon for Manuel d'art musulman Jean Touzard for Grammaire hébraïque Henry de Castries for Sources inédites de l'histoire du Maroc 1910:", "Hermine Harrleben for Correspondance de Champollion Félix Lacôte for Essai sur Gunāḍhya et la \"Bṛhatkathā\" François Martin for Lettres néo-babyloniennes Antoine Cabaton for Catalogue sommaire des manuscrits sanscrits et pālis de la Bibliothèque nationale Mr. Delaporte for La Chronographie syriaque d'Élie bâr Sinaya (Chronographia of Elijah of Nisibis)\n 1913:", "1913:\n Étienne Lunet de Lajonquière for Inventaire descriptif des monuments du Cambodge Antoine Cabaton for Catalogue sommaire des manuscrits indiens, indo-chinois et malayopolynésiens de la Bibliothèque nationale Léon Legrain for Le temps des rois d'Ur Emmanuel Podechard for L'Ecclésiaste Fulcran Vigouroux for Dictionnaire de la Bible 1916:", "Edmond Fagnan for Mawerdi (Abou'l-Hasan ʿAli). Les Statuts gouvernementaux, ou Règles de droit public et administratif François Nau for Les ménologes des évangéliaires coptes-arabes and Ammonas, successeur de saint Antoine. 1937:\n Jean-Philippe Lauer for Fouilles à Saqqarah G. Ort-Geuthner for Grammaire démotique du Papyrus magique de Londres et de Leyde 1940:", "Roman Ghirshman for Fouilles de Sialk, près de Kashan Armand Ruhlmann for Les Grottes préhistoriques d'\"El Khenzira\" (région de Mazagan) and Les Recherches de préhistoire dans l'extrême Sud marocain 1943:\n Jean Sauvaget for Alep : essai sur le développement d'une grande ville syrienne des origines au milieu du XIXe siècle Abbé Chaîne for Notions de langue égyptienne. Langue du Nouvel-Empire Robert-C. Flavigny for Le Dessin de l'Asie occidentale ancienne 1946:", "Jean Vercoutter for Les objets égyptiens et égyptisants du mobilier funéraire carthaginois Robert de Langhe for Les textes de Ras Shamra-Ugarit et leurs rapports avec le milieu biblique de l'Ancien Testament 1949:\n Marcel Simon for Verus Israël, les relations entre juifs et chrétiens dans l'empire romain (135-425) Jean David-Weill for Le Djami, d'Ibn Wahb 1952:", "Pierre Merlat for Répertoire des inscriptions et monuments figurés du culte de Jupiter Dolichenus René Neuville for Le paléolithique et le mésolithique du désert de Judée 1958: René Brunel for Le Monachisme errant dans l'Islam, Sīdi Heddi et les Heddāwa 1961: Yvonne Rosengarten for Le Régime des offrandes dans la société sumérienne et Le concept sumérien de consommation dans la vie économique et religieuse 1964: René Labat for Manuel d’épigraphie akkadienne : signes, syllabaires", ", syllabaires, idéogrammes 1967 Toudic Fahd for La Divination arabe, études religieuses", ", études religieuses, sociologiques et folkloriques sur le milieu natif de l'Islam 1970: Maurice Birot for Tablettes économiques et administratives d'époque babylonienne ancienne 1973: Jean-Claude Goyon for Confirmation du pouvoir royal au nouvel an 1976: André Raymond for Artisans et commerçants au Caire au XVIIIe siècle 1979: Arion Roșu for Les conceptions psychologiques dans les textes médicaux indiens 1982: Centre de documentation et de recherche sur la civilisation khmère", "1985: Francesca Bray for Science and civilisation in China (Volume 6) 1991: Nathalie Beaux for Le cabinet de curiosités de Thoutmosis III. Plantes et animaux du « Jardin botanique » de Karnak 1994: Joseph Mélèze-Modrzejewski for all of his work", "1997: Audran Labrousse for L’architecture des pyramides à textes. I, Saqqara Nord 2000: Adnan Bounni, Jacques Lagarce and Élisabeth Lagarce for Ras Ibn Hani. I, Le palais nord du Bronze récent. Fouilles 1979-1995, synthèse préliminaire 2003: Bruno Dagens and Marie-Luce Barazer-Billoret for traduction du Rauravâgama : un traité de rituel et de doctrine shivaïtes 2006: Louis Le Quellec for Du Sahara au Nil. Peintures et gravures d’avant les pharaons 2009: Florence Jullien for Le monachisme en Perse", ". Peintures et gravures d’avant les pharaons 2009: Florence Jullien for Le monachisme en Perse. La réforme d’Abraham le Grand, père des moines de l’Orient 2010: Abdelhamid Fenina for Numismatique et histoire de la monnaie en Tunisie 2012: Aram Mardirossian for La collection canonique d’Antioche. Droit et hérésie à travers le premier recueil de législation ecclésiastique (IVe s.) 2015: Philippe Vallat for Épître sur l’intellect d’Abū Nasr al-Fārābī 2019: Anna Caiozzo for Le Roi glorieux", ". Les imaginaires de la royauté d’après les enluminures du Shāh Nāma de Firdawsī aux époques timouride et turkmène 2021: Géraud Poumarède for L’Empire de Venise et les Turcs, XVIe-XVIIe sièclesClassical Antiquity", "1901: Alfred Foucher for his mémoire entitled Une page nouvelle dans l'histoire de l'art grec (E. Curtius) 1903:\n Charles Lécrivain for his mémoire entitled In labore solatium Léon Homo for his mémoire entitled Quid de Historia Augusta sentiendum Mr. Colin for his mémoire entitled Furor est, si alienigenae homines, plus lingua et moribus et legibus quam maris terrarumque spatio discreti, etc., etc.. 1905:", "Gustave Glotz for La solidarité de la famille dans le droit criminel en Grèce Auguste Audollent for Carthage romaine 1908:\n Gustave Lefebvre for Fragments d’un manuscrit de Ménandre for Les clausules métriques latines Victor Chapot for La Frontière de l'Euphrate, de Pompée à la conquête arabe for La Table latine d'Héraclée Léon Robin for La Théorie platonicienne des idées et des nombres d'après Aristote 1911:", "Philippe-Ernest Legrand for Daos, tableau de la Comédie grecque pendant la période dite nouvelle Camille Sourdille for Hérodote et la religion de l'Égypte et La Durée et l'étendue du voyage d'Hérodote en Égypte Charles Plésent for Le culex, étude sur l'alexandrinisme latin Alfred Besançon for Les Adversaires de l'hellénisme à Rome pendant la période républicaine 1914:", "Eugène de Faye for Gnostiques et gnosticisme Waldemar Deonna for L'Archéologie Jean Lesquier for Les Institutions militaires de l'Égypte Raymond Billiard for La vigne dans l'Antiquité 1917:\n Jean Maspero for Papyrus grecs d'époque byzantine Pierre Gusman for L’Art décoratif de Rome de la fin de la République au IVe siècle 1923:\n Robert Fawtier for Sainte Catherine de Sienne Armand Delatte for Essai sur la politique pythagoricienne Jules Marouzeau for L'ordre des mots dans la phrase latine 1911:", "Philippe-Ernest Legrand for Daos, tableau de la Comédie grecque pendant la période dite nouvelle Camille Sourdille for Hérodote et la religion de l'Égypte et La Durée et l'étendue du voyage d'Hérodote en Égypte Charles Plésent for Le culex, étude sur l'alexandrinisme latin Alfred Besançon for Les Adversaires de l'hellénisme à Rome pendant la période républicaine 1914:", "Eugène de Faye for Gnostiques et gnosticisme Waldemar Deonna for L'Archéologie Jean Lesquier for Les Institutions militaires de l'Égypte Raymond Billiard for La vigne dans l'Antiquité 1917:\n Jean Maspero for Papyrus grecs d'époque byzantine Pierre Gusman for L’Art décoratif de Rome de la fin de la République au IVe siècle 1923:\n Robert Fawtier for Sainte Catherine de Sienne Armand Delatte for Essai sur la politique pythagoricienne Jules Marouzeau for L'ordre des mots dans la phrase latine 1938:", "André-Jean Festugière for Contemplation et vie contemplative selon Platon Paul Cloché for Démosthènes et la fin de la démocratie athénienne1941:\n Marcel Durry for his edition of Panégyrique de Trajan Mr. Cordier for his studies on the epic vocabulary of the Æneid\n Marius Soffray for his research into the syntax of saint John Chrysostome according to the Homélies sur les statues 1944:", "André Loyen for Sidoine Apollinaire et l'esprit précieux en Gaule aux derniers jours de l'Empire André Magdelaine for Essai sur les origines de la sponsio 1947:\n William Seston for Dioclétien et la tétrarchie Jacqueline Duchemin for L'Agôn dans la tragédie grecque Robert Marichal for L'Occupation romaine de la Basse-Egypte, le statut des \"auxilia\" Émile Szlechter for Le contrat de société en Babylonie, en Grèce et à Rome 1959:", "Pierre Fabre for Saint Paulin de Nole et l'amitié chrétienne Dr. R. Pépin for \"Liber medicinalis\" de Quintus Serenus (Serenus Sammonicus) 1953:\n Paul Cloché for Thèbes de Béotie, des origines à la conquête romaine Jean Irigoin for Histoire du texte de Pindare 1955:\n André Parrot for Archéologie mésopotamienne. II, Technique et Problèmes for Le feu grégeois 1956: Christian Courtois for Les Vandales et l'Afrique 1959:", "Georges Vallet for Rhégion et Zancle Henri Le Bonniec for Le culte de Cérès à Rome 1962: Hans-Georg Pflaum for Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le haut-empire romain 1965: François Chamoux for La Civilisation grecque à l'époque archaïque et classique 1968: Marcel Le Glay for Saturne africain, Histoire et Monuments 1971: Michel Labrousse for Toulouse antique 1974: for Saint Ambroise et la philosophie 1977: Madeleine Bonjour for Terre natale", ". études sur une composante affective du patriotisme romain 1980: Robert Amy and Pierre Gros for La maison Carrée de Nîmes 1983: Jean-Marie Dentzet for Le motif du banquet couché dans le Proche-Orient et le monde grec du VIIe au IVe siècle avant J.-C", ".-C. 1986: Madeleine Jost for Sanctuaires et cultes d'Arcadie 1988: Marie-Ange Bonhême for Les Noms royaux dans l'Égypte de la troisième période intermédiaire 1989: André Tchernia for Le vin de l'Italie romaine : essai d'histoire économique d'après les amphores 1992: Alexandre Grandazzi for La fondation de Rome. Réflexion sur l’histoire 1995: René Ginouvès", "1998: François de Callataÿ for L’histoire des guerres mithridatiques vues par les monnaies 2001: Galien for Exhortation à l’étude de la médecine, Art médical II. Édition et traduction par Véronique Boudon 2004: Bernard Holzmann for L’acropole d’Athènes 2007: Christophe Feyel for Les artisans dans les sanctuaires grecs aux époques classique et hellénistique à travers la documentation financière en Grèce 2013: André Tchernia for Les Romains et le commerce 2016: Hélène Dessales for Le Partage de l’eau", ". Fontaines et distribution hydraulique dans l’habitat urbain de l’Italie romaine 2020: Pierre Judet de La Combe for her work dedicated to Homer and her translation in Tout Homère of the Illiad.", "Middle Age and Renaissance\n 1906: \n Jules Gay for L'Italie méridionale et l'Empire byzantin depuis l'avènement de Basile Ier jusqu'à la prise de Bari par les Normands (867-1071) Charles Samaran and Guillaume Mollat for La fiscalité pontificale en France au xive siècle (période d'Avignon et grand schisme d'Occident) Pierre Champion for Guillaume de Flavy, capitaine de Compiègne 1909:", "Albert Vogt for Basile Ier, empereur de Byzance, 867-886, and la civilisation byzantine à la fin du IXe siècle Henri Quentin, for Les martyrologes historiques du Moyen Âge Mr. Wartmann for Les vitraux suisses au musée du Louvre Paul Perdrizet for La Vierge de Miséricorde 1912:", "Ferdinand Chalandon for Jean II Comnène, 1118-1143, et Manuel I Comnène, 1143-1180 Frédégand Callaey for L'Idéalisme franciscain spirituel au XIVe siècle. Étude sur Ubertin de Casale Jean Longnon for Chronique de Morée Dom Antonio Staerk for Les manuscrits latins du Ve au XIIIe siècle conservés à la Bibliothèque impériale de Saint-Pétersbourg 1915:\n Henri Hauvette for Boccace, étude biographique et littéraire René de Brebisson for Les Rabodanges 1918:", "André Blum for L'estampe satirique en France pendant les guerres de religion Charles Guéry for Histoire de l'abbaye de Lyre Arthur Långfors for Les incipit des poèmes français antérieurs au XVIe siècle Eugène Parturier for Délie, object de plus haulte vertu, édition critique par Maurice Scève 1924: Edmond Faral for Les Arts poétiques du xiie et du xiiie siècles 1939:", "Les Débuts de la sculpture romane espagnole Louis-Fernand Flutre and K. sneyders for Li Fet des Romains : compilé ensemble de Saluste et de Suetoine et de Lucan : texte du XIIIe siècle Charles de Tolnay for Le Maître de Flémalle et les frères Van Eyck 1942:", "Suzanne Solente for Le Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy Charles V par Christine de Pisan René Vielliard for Les origines de la Rome chrétienne for L'Etablissement de la compétence de l'Eglise en matière de divorce et de consanguinité 1945 for L'Église et la royauté en Angleterre sous Henri II Plantagenêt (1154-1189) 1990: for Les châteaux de France au siècle de la Renaissance 1993: for 1492 - « L’année terrible » 1996: Christian Trottmann for La vision béatifique", ". - Des disputes scolastiques à sa définition par Benoît XII 1999: for Agrippa d’Aubigné 2002: Florence Vuilleumier-Laurens for La raison des figures symboliques à la Renaissance et à l’Âge classique 2005: Ursula Bähler for Gaston Paris et la philologie romane 2008: for La légende du roi Arthur 2011: Hélène Millet for L’Église du Grand Schisme (1378-1417) 2014: André Bouvard and his collaborators for Heinrich Schickhardt, Inventarium, 1630-1632", ". L’inventaire des biens et des œuvres d’un architecte de la Renaissance. 2017: Thomas Tanase for Marco PoloLaureates of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques", "1877 : Gabriel Compayré for Histoire critique des doctrines de l'éducation en France depuis le seizième siècle.\n 1999 : for La femme seule et le prince charmant. Enquête sur la vie en solo, Paris (Nathan), 1999 (in the category Morality and sociology).\n 2001 : Cécile Janura for her doctoral thesis Le droit administratif de Marcel Waline. Essai sur la contribution d’un positiviste au droit administratif français (Université d’Artois, 1999). (in the category Legislation, public law and jurisprudence).", "2003 : Olivier Midière for his work L’aigle, le bœuf et le e-business, 3 tomes, auto-édition, 2002 (in the categories Political Economy, statistics and finance).\n 2005 : Jean-Pierre Gutton for Dévots et société au XVIIe siècle. Construire le ciel sur la terre, Paris (Belin), 2004 (in the category History and Geography).\n 2007 : Frédéric Gros for États de violence. Essai sur la fin de la guerre, Paris (Gallimard), 2006 (in the general category).", "2009 : for Nicolas Beauzée, grammairien philosophe, Paris (Honoré Champion), 2009 (in the category Philosophy).\n 2011 : for Jours de fête. Jours fériés et fêtes légales dans la France contemporaine, Paris (Tallandier), 2010 (in the category Morality and sociology).\n 2013 : Soudabeh Marin for Ostad Elahi et la tradition. Droit, philosophie et mystique en Iran, et Ostad Elahi et la modernité. Droit, philosophie et magistrature en Iran, éditions Safran, Bruxelles, 2012.", "2015 : for Pourquoi pas nous ?, Paris (Fayard/Les Belles Lettres), 2014.", "Laureates of the Académie des Beaux-Arts\n 1883 : for Les Médailleurs italiens des XVe et XVIe siècles.\n ...\n 1989 : Pierre et François Greffe for Traité des dessins et des modèles.\n 2001 : Hervé Lacombe for Georges Bizet : Naissance d'une identité créatrice, Fayard, 2000.\n 2007 : Andrei Nakov for Kazimir Malewicz, le peintre absolu, Thalia Édition (Paris, 2007).\n 2009 : Philippe Bouchet for , le dérangeur.", "2009 : Philippe Bouchet for , le dérangeur.\n 2011 : Christophe Looten for his work Dans la tête de Richard Wagner, archéologie d'un génie'' (Éditions Fayard).", "Laureates of the Académie des Sciences\n 1862:\n (Photography).\n Mr. Miersch (Photography).\n 1896 : Jacques Hadamard for his work in Geodesics.\n 1929 : Henri Benard for his work on eddies in fluid dynamics.\n 1992 : Monique Pick.\n\nReferences\n\nAcadémie Française awards\nAwards of the French Academy of Sciences\nFrench awards" ]

[ "This is a list of United Kingdom Labour Party MPs. It includes all members of Parliament (MPs) elected to the British House of Commons representing the Labour Party from 1900 to 1923 and since 1992. Members of the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd or the European Parliament are not listed. Those in italics are overall leaders of the Labour Party, those in bold are prime ministers.\n\n\n\nList of MPs", "A\nDiane Abbott, Hackney North and Stoke Newington, 1987–present\nWilliam Abraham, Rhondda, 1910–18; Rhondda West, 1918–20\nDebbie Abrahams, Oldham East and Saddleworth, 2011–present\nLeo Abse, Pontypool, 1958–83; Torfaen, 1983–87\nRichard Acland, Gravesend, 1947–55\nAllen Adams, Paisley, 1979–83; Paisley North, 1983–90\nDavid Adams, Newcastle-upon-Tyne West, 1922–23; Consett, 1935–43\nIrene Adams, Paisley North, 1990–2005\nRichard Adams, Balham and Tooting, 1945–50; Wandsworth Central, 1950–55", "Richard Adams, Balham and Tooting, 1945–50; Wandsworth Central, 1950–55\nJennie Adamson, Dartford, 1938–45; Bexley, 1945–46\nWilliam Adamson, West Fife, 1910–31\nWilliam Murdoch Adamson, Cannock, 1922–31; 1935–45\nChristopher Addison, Swindon, 1929–31; 1934–35\nNick Ainger, Pembroke, 1992–97; Carmarthen West and South Pembrokeshire, 1997–2010\nWilliam Ainsley, North West Durham, 1955–64\nBob Ainsworth, Coventry North East, 1997–2015\nCraigie Aitchison, Kilmarnock, 1929–31\nAusten Albu, Edmonton, 1948–74", "Craigie Aitchison, Kilmarnock, 1929–31\nAusten Albu, Edmonton, 1948–74\nPercy Alden, Tottenham South, 1923–24\nA. V. Alexander, Sheffield Hillsborough, 1927–31; 1935–50\nDouglas Alexander, Paisley South, 1997–2005; Paisley and South Renfrewshire, 2005–2015\nHeidi Alexander, Lewisham East, 2010–2018\nRushanara Ali, Bethnal Green and Bow, 2010–present\nTahir Ali, Birmingham Hall Green, 2019–present\nFrank Allaun, Salford East, 1955–83\nWalter Alldritt, Liverpool Scotland, 1964–71\nArthur Allen, Bosworth, 1945–59", "Walter Alldritt, Liverpool Scotland, 1964–71\nArthur Allen, Bosworth, 1945–59\nGraham Allen, Nottingham North, 1987–2017\nScholefield Allen, Crewe, 1945–74\nGarry Allighan, Gravesend, 1945–47\nRosena Allin-Khan, Tooting, 2016–present\nJoseph Alpass, Bristol Central, 1929–31; Thornbury, 1945–50\nMike Amesbury, Weaver Vale, 2017–present\nCharles Ammon, Camberwell North, 1922–31; 1935–44\nAlexander Anderson, Motherwell, 1945–54\nDavid Anderson, Blaydon, 2005–2017", "Alexander Anderson, Motherwell, 1945–54\nDavid Anderson, Blaydon, 2005–2017\nDonald Anderson, Monmouth, 1966–70; Swansea East, 1974–2005\nFleur Anderson, Putney, 2019–present\nFrank Anderson, Whitehaven, 1935–59\nJanet Anderson, Rossendale and Darwen, 1992–2010\nWilliam Crawford Anderson, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1914–18\nNorman Angell, Bradford North, 1929–31\nTonia Antoniazzi, Gower, 2017–present\nPeter Archer, Rowley Regis and Tipton, 1966–74; Warley West, 1974–92\nErnest Armstrong, North West Durham, 1964–87", "Ernest Armstrong, North West Durham, 1964–87\nHilary Armstrong, North West Durham, 1987–2010\nJack Ashley, Baron Ashley of Stoke, Stoke-on-Trent South, 1966–92\nJoe Ashton, Bassetlaw, 1968–2001\nJon Ashworth, Leicester South, 2011–present\nCandy Atherton, Falmouth and Camborne, 1997–2005\nCharlotte Atkins, Staffordshire Moorlands, 1997–2010\nRonald Atkins, Preston North, 1966–70; 1974–79\nNorman Atkinson, Tottenham, 1964–87\nClement Attlee, Limehouse, 1922–50; Walthamstow West, 1950–56", "Norman Atkinson, Tottenham, 1964–87\nClement Attlee, Limehouse, 1922–50; Walthamstow West, 1950–56\nHerschel Lewis Austin, Stretford, 1945–50\nIan Austin, Dudley North, 2005–2019\nJohn Austin, Woolwich, 1992–97; Erith and Thamesmead, 1997–2010\nStan Awbery, Bristol Central, 1945–64\nWalter Henry Ayles, Bristol North, 1923–24, 1929–31; Southall, 1945–50; Hayes and Harlington, 1950–53\nBarbara Ayrton-Gould, Hendon North, 1945–50", "B\nAlice Bacon, Leeds North East, 1945–55; Leeds South East, 1955–70\nGordon Bagier, Sunderland South, 1964–87\nAdrian Bailey, West Bromwich West, 2000–2019\nWillie Bain, Glasgow North East, 2009–2015\nJohn Baird, Wolverhampton East, 1945–50; Wolverhampton North East, 1950–64\nVera Baird, Redcar, 2001–2010\nJohn Baker, Bilston, 1924–31\nWalter John Baker, Bristol East, 1923–31\nOliver Baldwin, Dudley, 1929–31; Paisley, 1945–47\nAlfred Balfour, West Stirlingshire, 1945–59", "Oliver Baldwin, Dudley, 1929–31; Paisley, 1945–47\nAlfred Balfour, West Stirlingshire, 1945–59\nEd Balls, Normanton, 2005–2010; Morley and Outwood, 2010–2015\nJohn Banfield, Wednesbury, 1932–45\nGordon Banks, Ochil and South Perthshire, 2005–2015\nTony Banks, Newham North West, 1986–97; West Ham, 1997–2005\nGeorge Banton, Leicester East, 1922; 1923–24\nGeorge Barker, Abertillery, 1920–29\nPaula Barker, Liverpool Wavertree, 2019–present\nCelia Barlow, Hove, 2005–2010\nAlfred Barnes East Ham South 1922–31, 1935–55", "Celia Barlow, Hove, 2005–2010\nAlfred Barnes East Ham South 1922–31, 1935–55\nGeorge Nicoll Barnes, Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, 1906–18, Glasgow Gorbals, 1918\nHarry Barnes, North East Derbyshire, 1987–2005\nMichael Barnes, Brentford and Chiswick, 1966–74\nGuy Barnett, South Dorset, 1962–64; Greenwich, 1971–86\nJoel Barnett, Heywood and Royton, 1964–1983\nJames Barr, Motherwell, 1924–31; Coatbridge, 1935–45\nKevin Barron, Rother Valley, 1983–2019\nPercy Barstow, Pontefract, 1941–50", "Kevin Barron, Rother Valley, 1983–2019\nPercy Barstow, Pontefract, 1941–50\nPatrick Bartley, Chester-le-Street, 1950–56\nAlfred Bates, Bebington and Ellesmere Port, 1974–79\nJoseph Batey, Spennymoor, 1922–42\nJohn Battle, Leeds West, 1987–2010\nJohn Battley, Clapham, 1945–50\nWilliam Baxter, West Stirlingshire, 1959–74\nHugh Bayley, City of York, 1992–2010; York Central, 2010–2015\nRobert Bean, Rochester and Chatham, 1974–79\nAlan Beaney, Hemsworth, 1959–74\nNigel Beard, Bexleyheath and Crayford, 1997–2005", "Alan Beaney, Hemsworth, 1959–74\nNigel Beard, Bexleyheath and Crayford, 1997–2005\nHubert Beaumont, Batley and Morley, 1939–48\nJohn Beckett, Gateshead, 1924–29; Peckham, 1929–31\nMargaret Beckett, Lincoln, 1974–79; Derby South, 1983–present\nAnne Begg, Aberdeen South, 1997–2015\nApsana Begum, Poplar and Limehouse, 2019–present\nJames Bell, Ormskirk, 1918–22\nJoseph Nicholas Bell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne East, 1922–23\nRichard Bell, Derby, 1900–04\nStuart Bell, Middlesbrough, 1983–2012", "Richard Bell, Derby, 1900–04\nStuart Bell, Middlesbrough, 1983–2012\nHilary Benn, Leeds Central, 1999–present\nTony Benn, Bristol South East, 1950–61, 1963–83; Chesterfield, 1984–2001\nAndrew Bennett, Stockport South, 1974–1983; Denton and Reddish, 1983–2005\nJoe Benton, Bootle, 1990–2015\nLuciana Berger, Liverpool Riverside, 2010–2019\nGerry Bermingham, St Helens South, 1983–2001\nRoger Berry, Kingswood, 1992–2010\nHarold Best, Leeds North West, 1997–2005\nFrank Beswick, Uxbridge, 1945–59", "Harold Best, Leeds North West, 1997–2005\nFrank Beswick, Uxbridge, 1945–59\nClive Betts, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1992–2010; Sheffield South East, 2010–present\nAneurin Bevan Ebbw Vale 1929–60\nLiz Blackman, Erewash, 1997–2010\nRoberta Blackman-Woods, City of Durham, 2005–2019\nTony Blair, Sedgefield, 1983–2007\nOlivia Blake, Sheffield Hallam, 2019–present\nHazel Blears, Salford, 1997–2010; Salford and Eccles, 2010–2015\nTom Blenkinsop, Middlesbrough South and East Cleveland, 2010–2017", "Tom Blenkinsop, Middlesbrough South and East Cleveland, 2010–2017\nBob Blizzard, Waveney, 1997–2010\nPaul Blomfield, Sheffield Central, 2010–present\nDavid Blunkett, Sheffield Brightside, 1987–2010; Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, 2010–2015\nPaul Boateng, Brent South, 1987–2005\nMargaret Bondfield, Northampton, 1923–24; Wallsend, 1926–31\nBetty Boothroyd, West Bromwich, 1973–74; West Bromwich West, 1974–92\nDavid Borrow, South Ribble, 1997–2010", "David Borrow, South Ribble, 1997–2010\nHerbert Bowden, Leicester South 1945–50, Leicester South West, 1950–67\nCharles Bowerman, Deptford, 1906–31\nJimmy Boyce, Rotherham, 1992–94\nRoland Boyes, Houghton and Washington, 1983–97\nTracy Brabin, Batley and Spen, 2016–present\nWilliam Brace, South Glamorgan, 1910–18; Abertillery, 1918–20\nKeith Bradley, Manchester Withington, 1987–2005\nPeter Bradley, The Wrekin, 1997–2005\nBen Bradshaw, Exeter, 1997–present", "Peter Bradley, The Wrekin, 1997–2005\nBen Bradshaw, Exeter, 1997–present\nJeremy Bray, Middlesbrough West 1962–70, Motherwell and Wishaw 1974–83, Motherwell South 1983–97\nKevin Brennan, Cardiff West, 2001–present\nFrank Broad, Edmonton, 1922–31; 1935–45\nWilliam Bromfield, Leek, 1918–31; 1935–45\nJohn Bromley, Barrow-in-Furness, 1924–31\nJohn Brotherton, Gateshead, 1922–23\nGeorge Brown, Belper, 1945–70\nGordon Brown, Dunfermline East, 1983–2005; Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, 2005–2015", "Gordon Brown, Dunfermline East, 1983–2005; Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, 2005–2015\nJames Brown, Ayrshire South, 1918–31, 1935–39\nRon Brown, Edinburgh Leith 1979–92\nLyn Brown, West Ham, 2005–present\nNick Brown, Newcastle-upon-Tyne East, 1983–1997 and 2010–present; Newcastle-upon-Tyne East and Wallsend, 1997–2010\nRussell Brown, Dumfries, 1997–2005; Dumfries and Galloway, 2005–15\nDes Browne, Kilmarnock and Loudoun, 1997–2010\nChris Bryant, Rhondda, 2001–present", "Des Browne, Kilmarnock and Loudoun, 1997–2010\nChris Bryant, Rhondda, 2001–present\nNorman Buchan, West Renfrewshire 1964–83, Paisley South 1983–90\nGeorge Buchanan, Glasgow Gorbals, 1922–31; 1939–48\nKaren Buck, Regent's Park and Kensington North, 1997–2010, Westminster North, 2010–present\nJohn Buckle, Eccles, 1922–24\nGeorge Buckley, Hemsworth 1987–91\nRichard Burden, Birmingham Northfield, 1992–2019\nStanley Burgess, Rochdale, 1922–23\nColin Burgon, Elmet, 1997–2010\nRichard Burgon, Leeds East, 2015–present", "Colin Burgon, Elmet, 1997–2010\nRichard Burgon, Leeds East, 2015–present\nAndy Burnham, Leigh, 2001–2017\nElaine Burton, Coventry South, 1950-1959\nChristine Butler, Castle Point, 1997–2001\nDawn Butler, Brent South, 2005–2010, Brent Central, 2015–present\nJoyce Butler, Wood Green, 1955–79\nCharles Roden Buxton, Accrington, 1922–23; Elland, 1929–31\nNoel Noel-Buxton, North Norfolk, 1922–30\nStephen Byers, Wallsend, 1992–97; North Tyneside, 1997–2010\nIan Byrne, Birmingham Hall Green, 2019–present", "Ian Byrne, Birmingham Hall Green, 2019–present\nLiam Byrne, Liverpool West Derby, 2004–present", "C\nRichard Caborn, Sheffield Central, 1983–2010\nRuth Cadbury, Brentford and Isleworth, 2015–present\nDavid Cairns, Greenock and Inverclyde, 2001–05; Inverclyde, 2005–11\nJohn Cairns, Morpeth, 1918–23\nJames Callaghan, Cardiff South 1945–50, Cardiff South East 1950–83, Cardiff South and Penarth 1983–87\nJames Callaghan, Middleton and Prestwich 1974–83, Heywood and Middleton 1983–97\nAlan Campbell, Tynemouth, 1997–present\nAnne Campbell, Cambridge, 1992–2005\nRonnie Campbell, Blyth Valley, 1987–2019", "Anne Campbell, Cambridge, 1992–2005\nRonnie Campbell, Blyth Valley, 1987–2019\nDale Campbell-Savours, Workington, 1979–2001\nDennis Canavan, West Stirlingshire, 1974–83; Falkirk West, 1983–2000\nJamie Cann, Ipswich, 1992–2001\nThomas Cape, Workington, 1918–45\nIvor Caplin, Hove, 1997–2005\nDan Carden, Liverpool Walton, 2017–present\nRoger Casale, Wimbledon, 1997–2005\nBarbara Castle, Blackburn, 1945–50; 55–79; Blackburn East 1950–55\nMartin Caton, Gower, 1997–2015\nWilliam Carter, Mansfield, 1918–22", "Martin Caton, Gower, 1997–2015\nWilliam Carter, Mansfield, 1918–22\nIan Cawsey, Brigg and Goole, 1997–2010\nColin Challen, Morley and Rothwell, 2001–2010\nArthur Champion South Derbyshire 1945–50, South East Derbyshire 1950–59\nSarah Champion, Rotherham, 2012–present\nBen Chapman, Wirral South, 1997–2010\nJenny Chapman, Darlington, 2010–2019\nBambos Charalambous, Enfield Southgate, 2017–present\nHenry Charles Charleton, Leeds South, 1922–31; 35–45\nDavid Chaytor, Bury North, 1997–2010", "Henry Charles Charleton, Leeds South, 1922–31; 35–45\nDavid Chaytor, Bury North, 1997–2010\nMalcolm Chisholm, Edinburgh Leith, 1992–1997; Edinburgh North and Leith, 1997–2001\nArchibald George Church, Leyton East, 1923–24; Wandsworth Central, 1929–31\nJudith Church, Dagenham, 1994–2001\nMichael Clapham, Barnsley West and Penistone, 1992–2010\nDavid Clark, Colne Valley, 1970–74; South Shields, 1979–2001\nFeryal Clark, Enfield North, 2019–present\nHelen Clark, Peterborough, 1997–2005", "Feryal Clark, Enfield North, 2019–present\nHelen Clark, Peterborough, 1997–2005\nKaty Clark, North Ayrshire and Arran, 2005–2015\nPaul Clark, Gillingham, 1997–2010\nAndrew Bathgate Clarke, Midlothian and Peebles Northern, 1923–24; 29\nCharles Clarke, Norwich South, 1997–2010\nEric Clarke, Midlothian, 1992–2001\nTom Clarke, Coatbridge and Airdrie, 1982–83; Monklands West, 1983–97; Coatbridge and Chryston, 1997–2005; Coatbridge, Chryston and Bellshill, 2005–2015\nTony Clarke, Northampton South, 1997–2005", "Tony Clarke, Northampton South, 1997–2005\nDavid Clelland, Tyne Bridge, 1985–2010\nRobert Climie, Kilmarnock, 1923–24, 1929\nWilliam Sampson Cluse, Islington South, 1923–31, 35–50\nJohn Clynes, Manchester North East, 1906–18; Manchester Platting 1918–31, 35–45\nAnn Clwyd, Cynon Valley, 1984–2019\nEmma Dent Coad, Kensington, 2017–2019\nVernon Coaker, Gedling, 1997–2019\nAnn Coffey, Stockport, 1992–2019\nHarry Cohen, Leyton, 1983–97; Leyton and Wanstead, 1997–2010\nIain Coleman, Hammersmith and Fulham, 1997–2005", "Iain Coleman, Hammersmith and Fulham, 1997–2005\nJoseph Compton, Manchester Gorton, 1923–31; 35–37\nMichael Connarty, Falkirk East, 1992–2005; Linlithgow and Falkirk East, 2005–2015\nFrank Cook, Stockton North, 1983–2010\nRobin Cook, Edinburgh Central, 1974–83; Livingston, 1983–2005\nJulie Cooper, Burnley, 2015–2019\nRosie Cooper, West Lancashire, 2005–present\nYvette Cooper, Pontefract and Castleford, 1997–2010; Normanton, Pontefract and Castleford, 2010–present", "Robin Corbett, Hemel Hempstead, 1974–79; Birmingham Erdington, 1983–2001\nJeremy Corbyn, Islington North, 1983–present\nJean Corston, Bristol East, 1992–2005\nFrank Cousins, Nuneaton, 1965–66\nJim Cousins, Newcastle-upon-Tyne Central, 1987–2010\nWilliam Cove, Wellingborough, 1923–29; Aberavon, 1929–59\nJo Cox, Batley and Spen, 2015–2016 \nTom Cox, Wandsworth Central, 1970–74; Tooting, 1974–2005\nNeil Coyle, Bermondsey and Old Southwark, 2015–present\nRoss Cranston, Dudley North, 1997–2005", "Neil Coyle, Bermondsey and Old Southwark, 2015–present\nRoss Cranston, Dudley North, 1997–2005\nDavid Crausby, Bolton North East, 1997–2019\nMary Creagh, Wakefield, 2005–2019\nStella Creasy, Walthamstow, 2010–present\nValentine Crittall, Maldon, 1923–24\nWill Crooks, Woolwich, 1903–10, 10–21\nJon Cruddas, Dagenham and Rainham, 2001–present\nAnn Cryer, Keighley, 1997–2010\nBob Cryer, Keighley, 1974–83; Bradford South, 1987–94\nJohn Cryer, Hornchurch, 1997–2005; Leyton and Wanstead, 2010–present", "John Cryer, Hornchurch, 1997–2005; Leyton and Wanstead, 2010–present\nJohn Cummings, Easington, 1987–2010\nJudith Cummins, Bradford South, 2015–present\nLawrence Cunliffe, Leigh, 1979–2001\nAlex Cunningham, Stockton North, 2010–present\nJack Cunningham, Whitehaven, 1970–83; Copeland, 1983–2005\nJim Cunningham, Coventry South East, 1992–97; Coventry South, 1997–2019\nTony Cunningham, Workington, 2001–2015\nPeter Curran, Jarrow, 1906–10\nClaire Curtis-Thomas, Crosby, 1997–2010", "D\nJanet Daby, Lewisham East, 2018–present\nPaul Daisley, Brent East, 2001–2003\nNic Dakin, Scunthorpe, 2010–2019\nTam Dalyell, West Lothian, 1962–1983; Linlithgow, 1983–2005\nSimon Danczuk, Rochdale, 2010–2017\nAlistair Darling, Edinburgh Central, 1987–2005; Edinburgh South West, 2005–2015\nKeith Darvill, Upminster, 1997–2001\nValerie Davey, Bristol West, 1997–2005\nWayne David, Caerphilly, 2001–present\nIan Davidson, Glasgow Govan, 1992–1997, Glasgow Pollok, 1997–2005; Glasgow South West, 2005–2015", "Ian Davidson, Glasgow Govan, 1992–1997, Glasgow Pollok, 1997–2005; Glasgow South West, 2005–2015\nAlfred Davies, Clitheroe, 1918–1922\nBryan Davies, Enfield North, 1974–1979; Oldham Central and Royton, 1992–1997\nDenzil Davies, Llanelli, 1970–2005\nEvan Davies, Ebbw Vale, 1920-1929 \nGeraint Davies, Croydon Central, 1997–2005; Swansea West, 2010–present\nQuentin Davies, Grantham and Stamford, 2007–2010\nRhys Davies, Westhoughton, 1921–1951\nRon Davies, Caerphilly, 1983–2001", "Rhys Davies, Westhoughton, 1921–1951\nRon Davies, Caerphilly, 1983–2001\nAlex Davies-Jones, Pontypridd, 2019–present\nTerry Davis, Bromsgrove, 1971–1974; Birmingham Stechford, 1979–1983; Birmingham Hodge Hill, 1983–2004\nJohn Emanuel Davison, Smethwick, 1918–1926\nHilton Dawson, Lancaster and Wyre, 1997–2005\nGloria De Piero, Ashfield, 2010–2019\nMarsha de Cordova, Battersea, 2017–present\nJanet Dean, Burton, 1997–2010\nThangam Debbonaire, Bristol West, 2015–present", "Janet Dean, Burton, 1997–2010\nThangam Debbonaire, Bristol West, 2015–present\nGeorge Deer, Lincoln, 1945–1950; Newark, 1950–1964\nJohn Denham, Southampton Itchen, 1992–2015\nRobert Dennison, Birmingham King's Norton, 1924–1929\nJim Devine, Livingston, 2005–2010\nDonald Dewar, Aberdeen South, 1966–70; Glasgow Garscadden, 1978–1997; Glasgow Anniesland, 1997–2000\nParmjit Dhanda, Gloucester, 2001–2010\nTanmanjeet Singh Dhesi, Slough, 2017–present\nThomas Scott Dickson, Lanark, 1923–24, 1929–1931", "Tanmanjeet Singh Dhesi, Slough, 2017–present\nThomas Scott Dickson, Lanark, 1923–24, 1929–1931\nAndrew Dismore, Hendon, 1997–2010\nJim Dobbin, Heywood and Middleton, 1997–2014\nFrank Dobson, Holborn and St Pancras South, 1979–1983; Holborn and St Pancras, 1983–2015\nThomas Docherty, Dunfermline and West Fife, 2010–2015\nAnneliese Dodds, Oxford East, 2017–present\nBrian Donohoe, Cunninghame South, 1992–2005; Central Ayrshire, 2005–2015", "Brian Donohoe, Cunninghame South, 1992–2005; Central Ayrshire, 2005–2015\nFrank Doran, Aberdeen South, 1987–1997; Aberdeen Central, 1997–2005; Aberdeen North, 2005–2015\nJim Dowd, Lewisham West, 1992–2010; Lewisham West and Penge, 2010–2017\nPeter Dowd, Bootle, 2015–present\nGemma Doyle, West Dunbartonshire, 2010–2015\nDavid Drew, Stroud, 1997–2010; 2017–2019\nJack Dromey, Birmingham Erdington, 2010–present\nJulia Drown, Swindon South, 1997–2005\nRosie Duffield, Canterbury, 2017–present", "Julia Drown, Swindon South, 1997–2005\nRosie Duffield, Canterbury, 2017–present\nThomas Gavan Duffy, Whitehaven, 1922–1924\nMichael Dugher, Barnsley East, 2010–2017\nCharles Dukes, Warrington, 1923–1924; 1929–1931\nCharles Duncan, Barrow, 1906–18; Clay Cross, 1922–1933\nJimmy Dunnachie, Glasgow Pollok, 1987–1997\nHerbert Dunnico, Consett, 1922–1931\nGwyneth Dunwoody, Exeter, 1966–1970; Crewe, 1974–1983; Crewe and Nantwich, 1983–2008", "E\nAngela Eagle, Wallasey, 1992–present\nMaria Eagle, Liverpool Garston, 1997–2010; Garston and Halewood, 2010–present\nJames Chuter Ede, Mitcham, 1923; South Shields, 1929–31; 35–64\nCharles Edwards, Bedwellty, 1918–50\nEnoch Edwards, Hanley, 1910–12\nGeorge Edwards, South Norfolk, 1919–22; 23–24\nHuw Edwards, Monmouth, 1991–92; 97–2005\nClive Efford, Eltham, 1997–present\nWilliam Henry Egan, Birkenhead West, 1923–24; 29–31\nJulie Elliott, Sunderland Central, 2010–present", "William Henry Egan, Birkenhead West, 1923–24; 29–31\nJulie Elliott, Sunderland Central, 2010–present\nLouise Ellman, Liverpool Riverside, 1997–2019\nChris Elmore, Ogmore, 2016–present\nNatascha Engel, North East Derbyshire 2005–present\nJeff Ennis, Barnsley East and Mexborough, 1996–2010\nDerek Enright, Hemsworth, 1991–95\nFlorence Eshalomi, Vauxhall, 2019–present\nBill Esterson, Sefton Central, 2010–present\nBill Etherington, Sunderland North, 1992–2010\nChris Evans, Islwyn, 2010–present", "Bill Etherington, Sunderland North, 1992–2010\nChris Evans, Islwyn, 2010–present\nIoan Evans, Birmingham Yardley 1964–70, Aberdare 1974–83, Cynon Valley 1983–84", "F\nPaul Farrelly, Newcastle-under-Lyme, 2001–2019\nWalter Farthing, Frome, 1945–50\nDerek Fatchett, Leeds Central, 1983–99\nFrank Field, Birkenhead, 1979–2018\nSamuel Finney, North West Staffordshire, 1916–18; Stoke-on-Trent Burslem, 1918–22\nMark Fisher, Stoke-on-Trent Central, 1983–2010\nJim Fitzpatrick, Poplar and Canning Town, 1997–2010; Poplar and Limehouse, 2010–2019\nLorna Fitzsimons, Rochdale, 1997–2005\nRobert Flello, Stoke-on-Trent South, 2005–2017\nColleen Fletcher, Coventry North East, 2015–present", "Robert Flello, Stoke-on-Trent South, 2005–2017\nColleen Fletcher, Coventry North East, 2015–present\nCaroline Flint, Don Valley, 1997–2019\nPaul Flynn, Newport West, 1987–2019\nBarbara Follett, Stevenage, 1997–2010\nDingle Foot, Ipswich, 1957–70\nMichael Foot, Plymouth Devonport, 1945–55; Ebbw Vale, 1960–83; Blaenau Gwent, 1983–92\nLisa Forbes, Peterborough, June–November 2019\nDerek Foster, Bishop Auckland, 1979–2005\nMichael Jabez Foster, Hastings and Rye, 1997–2010\nMichael John Foster, Worcester, 1997–2010", "Michael Jabez Foster, Hastings and Rye, 1997–2010\nMichael John Foster, Worcester, 1997–2010\nGeorge Foulkes, South Ayrshire, 1979–83; Carrick, Cumnock and Doon Valley, 1983–2005\nYvonne Fovargue, Makerfield, 2010–present\nVicky Foxcroft, Lewisham Deptford, 2015–present\nMary Foy, City of Durham, 2019–present\nHywel Francis, Aberavon, 2001–2015\nJames Frith, Bury North, 2017–2019\nGill Furniss, Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, 2016–present\nMaria Fyfe, Glasgow Maryhill, 1987–2001", "G\nHugh Gaffney, Coatbridge, Chryston and Bellshill, 2017–2019\nHugh Gaitskell, Leeds South, 1945–63\nSam Galbraith, Strathkelvin and Bearsden, 1987–2001\nGeorge Galloway, Glasgow Hillhead, 1987–97; Glasgow Kelvin, 1997–2003\nMike Gapes, Ilford South, 1992–2019\nBarry Gardiner, Brent North, 1997–present\nBenjamin Gardiner, Upton, 1923–24; 29–31; 34–45\nJames Patrick Gardner, Hammersmith North, 1923–24; 26–31\nAlex Garrow, Glasgow Pollok, 1964–1967\nBruce George, Walsall South, 1970–2010", "Alex Garrow, Glasgow Pollok, 1964–1967\nBruce George, Walsall South, 1970–2010\nRuth George, High Peak, 2017–2019\nNeil Gerrard, Walthamstow, 1992–2010\nJoseph Gibbins, Liverpool West Derby, 1924–31; 35–50\nIan Gibson, Norwich North, 1997–2009\nAlfred Gill, Bolton, 1906–14\nPreet Gill, Birmingham Edgbaston, 2017–present\nGeorge Masterman Gillett, Finsbury, 1923–31\nWilliam Gillis, Penistone, 1921–22\nSheila Gilmore, Edinburgh East, 2010–2015\nLinda Gilroy, Plymouth Sutton, 1997–2010", "Sheila Gilmore, Edinburgh East, 2010–2015\nLinda Gilroy, Plymouth Sutton, 1997–2010\nPat Glass, North West Durham, 2010–2017 \nMary Glindon, North Tyneside, 2010–present\nThomas Glover, St Helens, 1906–10\nNorman Godman, Greenock and Port Glasgow, 1983–1997; Greenock and Inverclyde, 1997–2001\nRoger Godsiff, Birmingham Small Heath, 1992–1997; Birmingham Sparkbrook and Small Heath, 1997–2010; Birmingham Hall Green 2010–2019\nPaul Goggins, Wythenshawe and Sale East, 1997–2014", "Paul Goggins, Wythenshawe and Sale East, 1997–2014\nLlin Golding, Newcastle-under-Lyme, 1986–2001\nFrank Walter Goldstone, Sunderland, 1910–18\nHelen Goodman, Bishop Auckland, 2005–2019\nEileen Gordon, Romford, 1997–2001\nHarry Gosling, Whitechapel and St George's, 1923–30\nArchibald Gossling, Birmingham Yardley 1929–31\nBryan Gould, Southampton Test, 1974–79; Dagenham, 1983–94\nFrederick Gould, Frome, 1923–24, 29–31\nDuncan Macgregor Graham, Hamilton, 1918–43\nRobinson Graham, Nelson and Colne, 1920–22", "Duncan Macgregor Graham, Hamilton, 1918–43\nRobinson Graham, Nelson and Colne, 1920–22\nTommy Graham, Renfrew West and Inverclyde, 1987–97; Renfrewshire West, 1997–98\nWilliam Graham, Edinburgh Central, 1918–31\nBernie Grant, Tottenham, 1987–2000\nTom Greatrex, Rutherglen and Hamilton West, 2010–2015\nKate Green, Stretford and Urmston, 2010–present\nThomas Greenall, Farnworth, 1922–29\nArthur Greenwood, Nelson and Colne, 1922–31; Wakefield, 1932–51\nLilian Greenwood, Nottingham South, 2010–present", "Lilian Greenwood, Nottingham South, 2010–present\nMargaret Greenwood, Wirral West, 2015–present \nDavid Grenfell, Gower, 1922–59\nNia Griffith, Llanelli, 2005–present\nJane Griffiths, Reading East, 1997–2005\nNigel Griffiths, Edinburgh South, 1987–2010\nThomas Griffiths, Pontypool, 1918–35\nWin Griffiths, Bridgend, 1987–2005\nBruce Grocott, Lichfield and Tamworth, 1974–79; The Wrekin, 1987–97; Telford, 1997–2001\nJohn Grogan, Selby, 1997–2010; Keighley, 2017–2019\nThomas Edward Groves, Stratford West Ham, 1922–45", "Thomas Edward Groves, Stratford West Ham, 1922–45\nThomas Walter Grundy, Rother Valley, 1918–35\nJohn Guest, Hemsworth, 1918–31\nJohn Gunnell, Morley and Leeds South, 1992–97; Morley and Rothwell, 1997–2001\nAndrew Gwynne, Denton and Reddish, 2005–present", "H\nLeslie Haden-Guest, Southwark North, 1923–27; Islington North, 1938–50\nLouise Haigh, Sheffield Heeley, 2015–present\nPeter Hain, Neath, 1991–2015\nFrederick Hall, Normanton, 1910–33\nGeorge Hall, Aberdare, 1922–46\nMike Hall, Weaver Vale, 1997–2010\nPatrick Hall, Bedford, 1997–2010\nWalter Halls, Heywood and Radcliffe, 1921–23\nDavid Hamilton, Midlothian, 2001–2015\nFabian Hamilton, Leeds North East, 1997–present\nJohn Hancock, Mid Derbyshire, 1909–?\nDavid Hanson, Delyn, 1992–2019", "John Hancock, Mid Derbyshire, 1909–?\nDavid Hanson, Delyn, 1992–2019\nGeorge Hardie, Glasgow Springburn, 1922–31; 35–37\nKeir Hardie, Merthyr Tydfil, 1900–15\nEmma Hardy, Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle, 2017–present\nHarriet Harman, Peckham, 1982–97; Camberwell and Peckham, 1997–present\nHarry Harpham, Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, 2015–2016\nCarolyn Harris, Swansea East, 2015–present\nTom Harris, Glasgow Cathcart, 2001–05; Glasgow South, 2005–2015\nVernon Hartshorn, Ogmore, 1918–31", "Tom Harris, Glasgow Cathcart, 2001–05; Glasgow South, 2005–2015\nVernon Hartshorn, Ogmore, 1918–31\nDai Havard, Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney, 2001–2015\nW. E. Harvey, North East Derbyshire, 1910–14\nJames Haslam, Chesterfield, 1910–13\nSomerville Hastings, Reading, 1923–24; 29–31; Barking, 1945–59\nPatrick Hastings, Wallsend, 1922–26\nJohn Primrose Hay, Glasgow Cathcart, 1922–23\nAlexander Haycock, Salford West, 1923–24; 29–31\nHelen Hayes, Dulwich and West Norwood, 2015–present", "Alexander Haycock, Salford West, 1923–24; 29–31\nHelen Hayes, Dulwich and West Norwood, 2015–present\nJack Hayes, Liverpool Edge Hill, 1923–31\nSue Hayman, Workington, 2015–2019\nArthur Hayday, Nottingham West, 1918–31; 35–45\nSylvia Heal, Mid Staffordshire, 1990–92; Halesowen and Rowley Regis, 1997–2010\nJohn Healey, Wentworth, 1997–2010, Wentworth and Dearne, 2010–present\nEdward George Hemmerde, Crewe, 1922–24", "Edward George Hemmerde, Crewe, 1922–24\nArthur Henderson, Barnard Castle, 1903–18; Widnes, 1919–22; Newcastle East, 1922–23; Burnley, 1923–31; Clay Cross, 1933–35\nArthur Henderson, Baron Rowley, Cardiff South, 1923–24, 29–31; Kingswinford, 1935–50; Rowley Regis and Tipton, 1950–66\nDoug Henderson, Newcastle-upon-Tyne North, 1987–2010\nIvan Henderson, Harwich, 1997–2005\nThomas Henderson, Glasgow Tradeston, 1927–31; 35–45\nWilliam Henderson, Enfield, 1923–24; 29–31\nSir Mark Hendrick, Preston, 2000–present", "William Henderson, Enfield, 1923–24; 29–31\nSir Mark Hendrick, Preston, 2000–present\nStephen Hepburn, Jarrow, 1997–2019\nJohn Heppell, Nottingham East, 1992–2010\nJohn Herriotts, Sedgefield, 1922–23; 29–31\nStephen Hesford, Wirral West, 1997–2010\nPatricia Hewitt, Leicester West, 1997–2010\nDavid Heyes, Ashton under Lyne, 2001–2015\nAlfred Hill, Leicester West, 1922–23\nKeith Hill, Streatham, 1992–2010\nMike Hill, Hartlepool, 2017–2021 \nMeg Hillier, Hackney South and Shoreditch, 2005–present", "Mike Hill, Hartlepool, 2017–2021 \nMeg Hillier, Hackney South and Shoreditch, 2005–present\nJulie Hilling, Bolton West, 2010–2015\nDavid Hinchliffe, Wakefield, 1987–2005\nGeorge Harry Hirst, Wentworth, 1918–33\nJohn Hodge, Manchester Gorton, 1906–16 2\nMargaret Hodge, Barking, 1994–present\nFrank Hodges, Lichfield, 1923–24\nSharon Hodgson, Gateshead East and Washington West, 2005–2010; Washington and Sunderland West, 2010–present\nKate Hoey, Vauxhall, 1989–2019", "Kate Hoey, Vauxhall, 1989–2019\nPhilip Hoffman, South East Essex, 1923–24; Sheffield Central, 1929–31\nAlfred Holland, Clay Cross, 1935–1936\nKate Hollern, Blackburn, 2015–present\nJimmy Hood, Clydesdale, 1987–2005; Lanark and Hamilton East, 2005–2015\nGeoff Hoon, Ashfield, 1992–2010\nPhil Hope, Corby, 1997–2010\nKelvin Hopkins, Luton North, 1997–2019\nRachel Hopkins, Luton South, 2019–present\nAlan Howarth, Stratford-on-Avon, 1995–97; Newport East, 1997–2005", "Alan Howarth, Stratford-on-Avon, 1995–97; Newport East, 1997–2005\nGeorge Howarth, Knowsley North, 1986–97; Knowsley North and Sefton East, 1997–2010; Knowsley, 2010–present\nKim Howells, Pontypridd, 1989–2010\nDennis Howell, Birmingham, 1955–1959, Birmingham, 1961–1992\nLindsay Hoyle, Chorley, 1997–2019\nLes Huckfield, Nuneaton, 1967–83\nJames Hudson, Huddersfield, 1923–31; Ealing West, 1945–50; Ealing North, 1950–55\nWalter Hudson, Newcastle, 1906–18\nBeverley Hughes, Stretford and Urmston, 1997–2010", "Walter Hudson, Newcastle, 1906–18\nBeverley Hughes, Stretford and Urmston, 1997–2010\nKevin Hughes, Doncaster North, 1992–2005\nJoan Humble, Blackpool North and Fleetwood, 1997–2010\nTristram Hunt, Stoke-on-Trent Central, 2010–2017\nRupa Huq, Ealing Central and Acton, 2015–present\nAlan Hurst, Braintree, 1997–2005\nImran Hussain, Bradford East, 2015–present\nJohn Hutton, Barrow and Furness, 1992–2010", "I\nBrian Iddon, Bolton South East, 1997–2010\nEric Illsley, Barnsley Central, 1987–2011\nAdam Ingram, East Kilbride, 1987–2005; East Kilbride, Strathaven and Lesmahagow, 2005–10\nHuw Irranca-Davies, Ogmore, 2002–2016\nArthur Irvine, Liverpool Edge Hill, 1947–79\nDavid Irving, Burnley, 1918–24\nSydney Irving, Dartford, 1955–70; 74–79\nWilliam Irving, Tottenham North, 1945–50; Wood Green, 1950–55\nGeorge Isaacs, Gravesend, 1923–24; Southwark North, 1929–31; 39–50; Southwark, 1950–59", "J\nGlenda Jackson, Hampstead and Highgate, 1992–2010; Hampstead and Kilburn, 2010–2015\nHelen Jackson, Sheffield Hillsborough, 1992–2005\nRobert Jackson, Ipswich, 1923–24\nRobert V. Jackson, Wantage, 2005\nCathy Jamieson, Kilmarnock and Loudoun, 2010–2015\nDavid Jamieson, Plymouth Devonport, 1992–2005\nSian James, Swansea East, 1997–2015\nDan Jarvis, Barnsley Central, 2011–present\nBrian Jenkins, South East Staffordshire, 1996–97; Tamworth, 1997–2010\nJohn Jenkins, Chatham, 1906–10\nWilliam Jenkins, Neath, 1922–1944", "John Jenkins, Chatham, 1906–10\nWilliam Jenkins, Neath, 1922–1944\nDorothy Jewson, Norwich, 1923–24\nWilliam John, Rhondda West, 1920–50\nAlan Johnson, Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle, 1997–2017\nDiana Johnson, Kingston upon Hull North, 2005–present\nKim Johnson, Liverpool Riverside, 2019–present\nMelanie Johnson, Welwyn Hatfield, 1997–2005\nWilliam Johnson, Nuneaton, 1910–18\nThomas Johnston, Stirling and Clackmannan West, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–45; Dundee, 1924–29", "Thomas Johnston, Stirling and Clackmannan West, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–45; Dundee, 1924–29\nArthur Creech Jones Shipley 1935–50, Wakefield 1954–64\nBarry Jones, East Flintshire, 1979–83; Alyn and Deeside, 1983–2001\nDarren Jones, Bristol North West, 2017–present\nFiona Jones, Newark, 1997–2001\nGerald Jones, Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney, 2015–present\nGraham Jones, Hyndburn, 2010–2019\nHelen Jones, Warrington North, 1997–present\nJenny Jones, Wolverhampton South West, 1997–2001\nJohn Joseph Jones, Silvertown, 1919–40", "Jenny Jones, Wolverhampton South West, 1997–2001\nJohn Joseph Jones, Silvertown, 1919–40\nJon Owen Jones, Cardiff Central, 1992–2005\nKevan Jones, North Durham, 2001–present\nLynne Jones, Birmingham Selly Oak, 1992–2010\nMartyn Jones, Clwyd South West, 1987–1997; Clwyd South, 1997–2010\nMorgan Jones, Caerphilly, 1921–39\nRobert Thomas Jones, Caernarvonshire, 1922–23\nRuth Jones, Newport West, 2019–present\nSarah Jones, Croydon Central 2017–present\nSusan Elan Jones, Clwyd South, 2010–2019", "Sarah Jones, Croydon Central 2017–present\nSusan Elan Jones, Clwyd South, 2010–2019\nThomas Isaac Mardy Jones, Pontypridd, 1922–31\nTessa Jowell, Dulwich, 1992–97; Dulwich and West Norwood, 1997–2015\nFred Jowett, Bradford West, 1906–18; Bradford East, 1922–24; 29–31\nEric Joyce, Falkirk West, 2000–05; Falkirk, 2005–2015 (suspended 2012)", "K\nMike Kane, Wythenshawe and Sale East, 2014–present\nGerald Kaufman, Manchester Ardwick, 1970–83; Manchester Gorton, 1983–2017\nSally Keeble, Northampton North, 1997–2010\nBarbara Keeley, Worsley, 2005–2010; Worsley and Eccles South, 2010–present\nAlan Keen, Feltham and Heston, 1992–2011\nAnn Keen, Brentford and Isleworth, 1997–2010\nGeorge Davy Kelley, Manchester South West, 1906–10\nRuth Kelly, Bolton West, 1997–2010\nFraser Kemp, Houghton and Washington East, 1997–2010", "Ruth Kelly, Bolton West, 1997–2010\nFraser Kemp, Houghton and Washington East, 1997–2010\nLiz Kendall, Leicester West, 2010–present\nJane Kennedy, Liverpool Broadgreen, 1992–97; Liverpool Wavertree, 1997–2010\nTom Kennedy, Kirkcaldy Burghs, 1921–22; 23–31; 35–44\nJoseph Kenworthy, Kingston upon Hull Central, 1926–31\nBarnet Kenyon, Chesterfield, 1914–29\nPiara Khabra, Ealing Southall, 1992–2007\nAfzal Khan, Manchester Gorton, 2017–present\nSadiq Khan, Tooting, 2005–2016\nDavid Kidney, Stafford, 1997–2010", "Sadiq Khan, Tooting, 2005–2016\nDavid Kidney, Stafford, 1997–2010\nPeter Kilfoyle, Liverpool Walton, 1991–2010\nGerard Killen, Rutherglen and Hamilton West, 2017–2019\nRobert Kilroy-Silk, Ormskirk, 1974–83; Knowsley North, 1983–86\nAndy King, Rugby and Kenilworth, 1997–2005\nOona King, Bethnal Green and Bow, 1997–2005\nTess Kingham, Gloucester, 1997–2001Neil Kinnock, Islwyn, 1970–95\nStephen Kinnock, Aberavon, 2015–present\nDavid Kirkwood, Dumbarton Burghs, 1922–50; East Dunbartonshire, 1950–51", "David Kirkwood, Dumbarton Burghs, 1922–50; East Dunbartonshire, 1950–51\nJim Knight, South Dorset, 2001–2010\nAshok Kumar, Langbaurgh, 1991–92; Middlesbrough South and East Cleveland, 1997–2010\nPeter Kyle, Hove, 2015–present", "L\nStephen Ladyman, South Thanet, 1997–2010\nLesley Laird, Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, 2017–2019\nDavid Lammy, Tottenham 2000–presentGeorge Lansbury, Bow and Bromley, 1910–12, 22–40\nIan Lavery, Wansbeck, 2010–present\nJackie Lawrence, Preseli Pembrokeshire, 1997–2005\nSusan Lawrence, East Ham North, 1923–24, 26–31\nJohn James Lawson, Chester-le-Street, 1919–50\nRobert Laxton, Derby North, 1997–2010\nMark Lazarowicz, Edinburgh North and Leith, 2001–2015\nWilliam Leach, Bradford Central, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–45", "William Leach, Bradford Central, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–45\nKim Leadbeater, Batley and Spen, 2021–present\nFrank Lee, North East Derbyshire, 1922–31; 35–41\nFred Lee, Manchester Hulme, 1945-1950; Newton, 1950-1974\nJennie Lee, North Lanarkshire, 1929-1931; Cannock, 1945-1970\nKaren Lee, Lincoln, 2017–2019\nHastings Lees-Smith, Keighley, 1922–23; 24–31; 35–42\nRon Leighton, Newham North East, 1979–94\nDavid Lepper, Brighton Pavilion, 1997–2010\nChris Leslie, Shipley, 1997–2005; Nottingham East, 2010–2019", "Chris Leslie, Shipley, 1997–2005; Nottingham East, 2010–2019\nTom Levitt, High Peak, 1997–2010\nEmma Lewell-Buck, South Shields, 2013–present\nClive Lewis, Norwich South, 2015–present\nIvan Lewis, Bury South, 1997–2018\nTerence Lewis, Worsley, 1983–2005\nHelen Liddell, Monklands East, 1994–97; Airdrie and Shotts, 1997–2005\nFred Lindley, Rotherham, 1923–31\nMartin Linton, Battersea, 1997–2010\nKen Livingstone, Brent East, 1987–2000", "Martin Linton, Battersea, 1997–2010\nKen Livingstone, Brent East, 1987–2000\nTony Lloyd, Stretford, 1983–97; Manchester Central, 1997–2012; Rochdale, 2017–present\nDavid Lock, Wyre Forest, 1997–2001\nRebecca Long-Bailey, Salford and Eccles, 2015–present \nThomas Lowth, Manchester Ardwick, 1922–31\nAndy Love, Edmonton, 1997–2015\nIan Lucas, Wrexham, 2001–2019\nIain Luke, Dundee East, 2001–05\nWilliam Lunn, Rothwell, 1918–42\nHolly Lynch, Halifax, 2015–present\nJohn Lyons, Strathkelvin and Bearsden, 2001–05", "M\nJohn McAllion, Dundee East, 1987–2001\nTommy McAvoy, Glasgow Rutherglen, 1987–2005; Rutherglen and Hamilton West, 2005–2010\nSteve McCabe, Birmingham Hall Green, 1997–2010; Birmingham Selly Oak, 2010–present\nChristine McCafferty, Calder Valley, 1997–2010\nMichael McCann, East Kilbride, Strathaven and Lesmahagow, 2010–2015\nKerry McCarthy, Bristol East, 2005–present\nSarah McCarthy-Fry, Portsmouth North, 2005–2010\nIan McCartney, Makerfield, 1987–2010", "Sarah McCarthy-Fry, Portsmouth North, 2005–2010\nIan McCartney, Makerfield, 1987–2010\nGregg McClymont, Cumbernauld, Kilsyth and Kirkintilloch East, 2010–2015\nSiobhain McDonagh, Mitcham and Morden, 1997–present\nAndy McDonald, Middlesbrough, 2012–present\nCalum MacDonald, Western Isles, 1987–2005Ramsay MacDonald, Leicester, 1906–18; Aberavon, 1922–29; Seaham, 1929–31Expelled from the Labour Party in September 1931, founded National Labour.\nJohn McDonnell, Hayes and Harlington, 1997–present", "John McDonnell, Hayes and Harlington, 1997–present\nJohn MacDougall, Central Fife, 2001–05; Glenrothes, 2005–08\nValentine McEntee, Walthamstow West, 1922–24; 29–50\nPat McFadden, Wolverhampton South East, 2005–present\nJohn McFall, Dumbarton, 1987–2005; West Dunbartonshire, 2005–2010\nConor McGinn, St Helens North, 2015–present\nAlison McGovern, Wirral South, 2010–present\nJim McGovern, Dundee West, 2005–2015\nAnne McGuire, Stirling, 1997–2015\nLiz McInnes, Heywood and Middleton, 2014–2019", "Anne McGuire, Stirling, 1997–2015\nLiz McInnes, Heywood and Middleton, 2014–2019\nShona McIsaac, Cleethorpes, 1997–2010\nAnn McKechin, Glasgow Maryhill, 2001–05; Glasgow North, 2005–2015\nRosemary McKenna, Cumbernauld and Kilsyth, 1997–2005; Cumbernauld, Kilsyth and Kirkintilloch East, 2005–2010\nIain McKenzie, Inverclyde, 2011–2015\nWilliam Mackinder, Shipley, 1923–30\nAndrew MacKinlay, Thurrock, 1992–2010\nCatherine McKinnell, Newcastle upon Tyne North, 2010–present", "Andrew MacKinlay, Thurrock, 1992–2010\nCatherine McKinnell, Newcastle upon Tyne North, 2010–present\nAndrew MacLaren, North West Staffordshire, 1916–18; Stoke-on-Trent Burslem, 1922–23; 24–31; 35–45\nNeil Maclean, Glasgow Govan, 1918–50\nHenry McLeish, Central Fife, 1987–2001\nJim McMahon, Oldham West and Royton, 2015–present\nGordon McMaster, Paisley South, 1990–97\nAnna McMorrin, Cardiff North, 2017–present", "Gordon McMaster, Paisley South, 1990–97\nAnna McMorrin, Cardiff North, 2017–present\nKevin McNamara, Kingston upon Hull North, 1966–74; Kingston upon Hull Central, 1974–83; Kingston upon Hull North, 1983–2005\nTony McNulty, Harrow East, 1997–2010\nJohn Thomas Macpherson, Preston, 1906–10\nDenis MacShane, Rotherham, 1994–2012\nFiona Mactaggart, Slough, 1997–2017\nTony McWalter, Hemel Hempstead, 1997–2005\nJohn David McWilliam, Blaydon, 1979–2005", "Tony McWalter, Hemel Hempstead, 1997–2005\nJohn David McWilliam, Blaydon, 1979–2005\n Dickson Mabon, Greenock, 1959–1974; Greenock and Port Glasgow 1974 (February)-1983\n George Machin, Dundee East, 1973-1974\nJustin Madders, Ellesmere Port and Neston, 2015–present\nKhalid Mahmood, Birmingham Perry Barr, 2001–present\nShabana Mahmood, Birmingham Ladywood, 2010–present\nAlice Mahon, Halifax, 1987–2005\nSeema Malhotra, Feltham and Heston, 2011–present\nShahid Malik, Dewsbury, 2005–2010", "Seema Malhotra, Feltham and Heston, 2011–present\nShahid Malik, Dewsbury, 2005–2010\nJudy Mallaber, Amber Valley, 1997–2010\nPeter Mandelson, Hartlepool, 1992–2004\nJohn Mann, Bassetlaw, 2001–2019\nSamuel March, Poplar South, 1922–31\nMichael Marcus, Dundee 1929–31\nJohn Marek, Wrexham, 1983–2001\nJames Marley, St Pancras North, 1923–24; 29–31\nRob Marris, Wolverhampton South West, 2001–2010, 2015–2017\nGordon Marsden, Blackpool South, 1997–2019\nPaul Marsden, Shrewsbury and Atcham, 1997–2001", "Gordon Marsden, Blackpool South, 1997–2019\nPaul Marsden, Shrewsbury and Atcham, 1997–2001\nDavid Marshall, Glasgow Shettleston, 1979–2005; Glasgow East, 2005–08\nJim Marshall, Leicester South, 1974–83; 87–2004\nBob Marshall-Andrews, Medway, 1997–2010\nJoseph Martin, St Pancras East, 1910–18\nMichael Martin, Glasgow Springburn, 1979–2000\nSandy Martin, Ipswich, 2017–2019\nWilliam Henry Porteous Martin, Dunbartonshire, 1923–24\nEric Martlew, Carlisle, 1987–2010\nRachael Maskell, York Central, 2015–present", "Eric Martlew, Carlisle, 1987–2010\nRachael Maskell, York Central, 2015–present\nChris Matheson, City of Chester, 2015–present\nCharles James Mathew, Whitechapel and St George's, 1922–23\nJames Maxton, Glasgow Bridgeton, 1922–31\nJohn Maxton, Glasgow Cathcart, 1979–2001\nMichael Meacher, Oldham West, 1970–97; Oldham West and Royton, 1997–2015\nAlan Meale, Mansfield, 1987–2017\nIan Mearns, Gateshead, 2010–present\nGillian Merron, Lincoln, 1997–2010\nAlun Michael, Cardiff South and Penarth, 1987–2012", "Gillian Merron, Lincoln, 1997–2010\nAlun Michael, Cardiff South and Penarth, 1987–2012\nBill Michie, Sheffield Heeley, 1983–2001\nGeorge Middleton, Carlisle, 1922–23; 29–31\nAlan Milburn, Darlington, 1992–2010\nDavid Miliband, South Shields, 2001–2013Edward Miliband, Doncaster North, 2005–present Bruce Millan\nAndrew Miller, Ellesmere Port and Neston, 1992–2015\nJohn Edmund Mills, Dartford, 1920–22, 23–24, 29–31\nNavendu Mishra, Stockport, 2019–present\nAustin Mitchell, Great Grimsby, 1977–2015", "Navendu Mishra, Stockport, 2019–present\nAustin Mitchell, Great Grimsby, 1977–2015\nLaura Moffatt, Crawley, 1997–2010\nChris Mole, Ipswich, 2001–2010\nFrederick Montague, Islington West, 1923–31, 35–47\nMadeleine Moon, Bridgend, 2005–2019\nLewis Moonie, Kirkcaldy, 1987–2005\nMargaret Moran, Luton South, 1997–2010\nJessica Morden, Newport East, 2005–present\nEdmund Dene Morel, Dundee, 1922–24\nDavid Watts-Morgan, Rhondda East, 1918–33\nJulie Morgan, Cardiff North, 1997–2010\nRhodri Morgan, Cardiff West, 1987–2001", "Julie Morgan, Cardiff North, 1997–2010\nRhodri Morgan, Cardiff West, 1987–2001\nStephen Morgan, Portsmouth South, 2017–present\nElliot Morley, Glanford and Scunthorpe, 1987–97; Scunthorpe, 1997–2010\nGraeme Morrice, Livingston, 2010–2015\n Alf Morris, Manchester Wythenshawe, 1964–1997\nEstelle Morris, Birmingham Yardley, 1992–2005\nGrahame Morris, Easington, 2010–present\nJohn Morris, Aberavon, 1959–2001Herbert Morrison, Hackney South, 1923–24; 29–31; 35–45; Lewisham East, 1945–50; Lewisham South, 1950–59", "Robert Morrison, Tottenham North, 1927–31; 35–45\nKali Mountford, Colne Valley, 1997–2010\nMo Mowlam, Redcar, 1987–2001\nGeorge Mudie, Leeds East, 1992–2015\nJohn William Muir, Glasgow Maryhill, 1922–24\nChris Mullin, Sunderland South, 1987–2010\nMeg Munn, Sheffield Heeley, 2001–2015\nHugh Murnin, Stirling and Falkirk, 1922–23; 24–31\nDenis Murphy, Wansbeck, 1997–2010\nJim Murphy, Eastwood, 1997–2005; East Renfrewshire, 2005–2015\nPaul Murphy, Torfaen, 1987–2015\nIan Murray, Edinburgh South, 2010–present", "Paul Murphy, Torfaen, 1987–2015\nIan Murray, Edinburgh South, 2010–present\nJames Murray, Ealing North, 2019–present\nRobert Murray, West Renfrewshire, 1922–24\nThomas Myers, Spen Valley, 1919–22", "N\nLisa Nandy, Wigan, 2010–present\nPamela Nash, Airdrie and Shotts, 2010–2015\nThomas Ellis Naylor, Southwark South East, 1921–22; 23–31; 35–50\nDoug Naysmith, Bristol North West, 1997–2010\nDave Nellist, Coventry South East, 1983–92\nRobert Nichol, East Renfrewshire, 1922–24\nCharlotte Nichols, Warrington North, 2019–present\nHenry Nixon, The Wrekin, 1923–24\nAlex Norris, Nottingham North, 2017–present\nDan Norris, Wansdyke, 1997–2010", "O\nBill O'Brien, Normanton, 1983–2005\nMike O'Brien, North Warwickshire, 1992–2010\nFiona O'Donnell, East Lothian, 2010–2015\nJames O'Grady, Leeds East, 1906–18; Leeds South East, 1918–24\nEdward O'Hara, Knowsley South, 1990–2010\nJared O'Mara, Sheffield Hallam, 2017–2018\nMartin O'Neill, Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire, 1979–83; Clackmannan, 1983–97; Ochil, 1997–2005\nGeorge Oliver, Ilkeston, 1922–31; 35–64\nBill Olner, Nuneaton, 1992–2010\nFiona Onasanya, Peterborough, 2017–2019", "Bill Olner, Nuneaton, 1992–2010\nFiona Onasanya, Peterborough, 2017–2019\nAlfred Onions, Caerphilly, 1918–22\nMelanie Onn, Great Grimsby, 2015–2019\nChi Onwurah, Newcastle upon Tyne Central, 2010–present\nAbena Oppong-Asare, Erith and Thamesmead, 2019–present\nDiana Mary Organ, Forest of Dean, 1997–2005\nKate Osamor, Edmonton, 2017–present\nKate Osborne, Jarrow, 2019–present\nSandra Osborne, Ayr, 1997–2005; Ayr, Carrick and Cumnock, 2005–2015\nTaiwo Owatemi, Coventry North West, 2019–present", "Taiwo Owatemi, Coventry North West, 2019–present\nAlbert Owen, Ynys Môn, 2001–2019\nSarah Owen, Luton North, 2019–present", "P\nWilfred Paling, Doncaster, 1922–31; Wentworth, 1933–50; Dearne Valley, 1950–59\nEdward Timothy Palmer, Greenwich, 1923–24; 29–31\nNick Palmer, Broxtowe, 1997–2010\nJames Parker, Halifax, 1906–18\nMyles Harper Parker, Stoke-on-Trent Stoke, 1922–24\nJohn Parkinson, Wigan, 1918–41\nTerry Patchett, Barnsley East, 1983–96\nLaurence Pavitt, Willesden West, 1959–1974; Brent South, 1974–1987\nStephanie Peacock, Barnsley East, 2017–present\nTeresa Pearce, Erith and Thamesmead, 2010–2019", "Stephanie Peacock, Barnsley East, 2017–present\nTeresa Pearce, Erith and Thamesmead, 2010–2019\nIan Pearson, Dudley West, 1994–97; Dudley South, 1997–2010\nTom Pendry, Stalybridge and Hyde, 1970–2001\nMatthew Pennycook, Greenwich and Woolwich, 2015–present\nLinda Perham, Ilford North, 1997–2005\nToby Perkins, Chesterfield, 2010–present\nWesley Perrins, Birmingham Yardley 1945–1950\nSamuel Perry, Kettering, 1929–31\nFrederick Pethick-Lawrence, Leicester West, 1923–31; Edinburgh East, 1935–45", "Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, Leicester West, 1923–31; Edinburgh East, 1935–45\nJess Phillips, Birmingham Yardley, 2015–present\nBridget Phillipson, Houghton and Sunderland South, 2010–present\nAnne Picking, East Lothian, 2001–2010\nColin Pickthall, West Lancashire, 1992–2005\nLaura Pidcock, North West Durham, 2017–2019\nPeter Pike, Burnley, 1983–2005\nJames Plaskitt, Warwick and Leamington, 1997–2010\nJoanne Platt, Leigh, 2017–2019\nJoseph Pointer, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1909–14\nKerry Pollard, St Albans, 1997–2005", "Joseph Pointer, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1909–14\nKerry Pollard, St Albans, 1997–2005\nLuke Pollard, Plymouth Sutton and Devonport, 2017–present\nChris Pond, Gravesham, 1997–2005\nArthur Ponsonby, Sheffield Brightside, 1922–30\nGreg Pope, Hyndburn, 1992–2010\nEdward Porter, Warrington, 1945–1950\nJohn Samuel Potts, Barnsley, 1922–31\nStephen Pound, Ealing North, 1997–2019\nLucy Powell, Manchester Central, 2012–present\nRay Powell, Ogmore, 1979–2001\nBridget Prentice, Lewisham East, 1992–2010", "Ray Powell, Ogmore, 1979–2001\nBridget Prentice, Lewisham East, 1992–2010\nGordon Prentice, Pendle, 1992–2010\nJohn Prescott, Kingston upon Hull East, 1970–2010\nDawn Primarolo, Bristol South, 1987–2015\nGwyn Prosser, Dover, 1997–2010\n Albert Arthur Purcell, Coventry, 1923–1924; Forest of Dean 1925–1929\nKen Purchase, Wolverhampton North East, 1992–2010\nJames Purnell, Stalybridge and Hyde, 2001–2010", "Q\nDavid Quibell, Brigg, 1929–31, 35–45\nJoyce Quin, Gateshead East, 1987–97; Gateshead East and Washington West, 1997–2005\nLawrie Quinn, Scarborough and Whitby, 1997–2005\nYasmin Qureshi, Bolton South East, 2010–present", "R\nGiles Radice, Chester-le-Street, 1973–83; North Durham, 1983–2001\nBill Rammell, Harlow, 1997–2010\nSyd Rapson, Portsmouth North, 1997–2005\nFaisal Rashid, Warrington South, 2017–2019\nAngela Rayner, Ashton-under-Lyne, 2015–present\nWilliam Robert Raynes, Derby, 1923–24; 29–31\nNick Raynsford, Fulham, 1986–87; Greenwich, 1992–97; Greenwich and Woolwich, 1997–2015\nAndy Reed, Loughborough, 1997–2010\nJamie Reed, Copeland, 2005–2017\nSteve Reed, Croydon North, 2012–present\nChristina Rees, Neath, 2015–present", "Steve Reed, Croydon North, 2012–present\nChristina Rees, Neath, 2015–present\nEllie Reeves, Lewisham West and Penge, 2017–present\nRachel Reeves, Leeds West, 2010–present\nJohn Reid, Motherwell North, 1987–97; Hamilton North and Bellshill, 1997–2005; Airdrie and Shotts, 2005–2010\nEmma Reynolds, Wolverhampton North East, 2010–2019\nJonathan Reynolds, Stalybridge and Hyde, 2010–present\nGeoffrey Rhodes, Newcastle upon Tyne East, 1964–1974\nBell Ribeiro-Addy, Streatham, 2019–present", "Geoffrey Rhodes, Newcastle upon Tyne East, 1964–1974\nBell Ribeiro-Addy, Streatham, 2019–present\nFreddy Richards, Wolverhampton West, 1906–10\nRobert Richards, Wrexham, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–54\nTom Richards, Ebbw Vale, 1910–23\nJo Richardson, Barking, 1974–94\nRobert Richardson, Houghton-le-Spring, 1918–31\nThomas Richardson, Whitehaven, 1910–18\nBenjamin Riley, Dewsbury, 1922–23, 24–31, 35–45\nMarie Rimmer, St Helens South and Whiston, 2015–present \nLinda Riordan, Halifax, 2005–2015", "Marie Rimmer, St Helens South and Whiston, 2015–present \nLinda Riordan, Halifax, 2005–2015\nJoshua Ritson, City of Durham, 1922–31; 35–45\nAlfred Robens, Wansbeck 1945–50, Blyth 1950–60\nFrederick Owen Roberts, West Bromwich, 1918–31; 35–41\nGeorge Henry Roberts, Norwich, 1906–16\nGeorge Robertson, Hamilton, 1978–97; Hamilton South, 1997–99\nJohn Robertson, Bothwell, 1919–26\nJohn Robertson, Glasgow Anniesland, 2000–05; Glasgow North West, 2005–2015", "John Robertson, Glasgow Anniesland, 2000–05; Glasgow North West, 2005–2015\nJohn Home Robertson, Berwick and East Lothian, 1978–1983; East Lothian, 1983–2001\nGeoffrey Robinson, Coventry North West, 1976–2019\nWilliam Cornforth Robinson, Elland, 1922–23; 24–29\nBarbara Roche, Hornsey and Wood Green, 1992–2005\nMatt Rodda, Reading East, 2017–present\nBill Rodgers, Stockton-on-Tees, 1962-1981 \nAllan Rogers, Rhondda, 1983–200\nHerbert George Romeril, St Pancras South East, 1923–24; 29–31", "Allan Rogers, Rhondda, 1983–200\nHerbert George Romeril, St Pancras South East, 1923–24; 29–31\nJeff Rooker, Birmingham Perry Barr, 1974–2001\nTerry Rooney, Bradford North, 1990–2010\nJohn Roper, Farnworth, 1970–1983\nFrank Herbert Rose, Aberdeen North, 1918–28\nErnie Ross, Dundee West, 1979–2005\nWillie Ross, Kilmarnock, 1946-1979 \nSteve Rotheram, Liverpool Walton, 2010–2017\nTed Rowlands, Merthyr Tydfil, 1972–1983; Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney, 1983–2001\nDanielle Rowley, Midlothian, 2017–2019", "Danielle Rowley, Midlothian, 2017–2019\nFrank Roy, Motherwell and Wishaw, 1997–2015\nLindsay Roy, Glenrothes, 2008–2015\nWilliam Stapleton Royce, Holland with Boston, 1918–24\nChris Ruane, Vale of Clwyd, 1997–2015; 2017–2019\nJoan Ruddock, Lewisham Deptford, 1987–2015\nChristine Russell, City of Chester, 1997–2010\nLloyd Russell-Moyle, Brighton Kemptown, 2017–present\nJoan Ryan, Enfield North, 1997–2010; 2015–2019", "S\nShapurji Saklatvala, Battersea North, 1922–23\nAlfred Salter, Bermondsey West, 1922–23; 24–45\nMartin Salter, Reading West, 1997–2010\nHowel Walter Samuel, Swansea West, 1923–24; 29–31\nAnas Sarwar, Glasgow Central, 2010–2015\nMohammed Sarwar, Glasgow Govan, 1997–2005; Glasgow Central, 2005–2010\nMalcolm Savidge, Aberdeen North, 1997–2005\nPhil Sawford, Kettering, 1997–2005\nJohn Scurr, Mile End, 1923–31\nAlison Seabeck, Plymouth Devonport, 2005–2010; Plymouth Moor View, 2010–2015\nJames Seddon, Newton, 1906–10", "James Seddon, Newton, 1906–10\nBrian Sedgemore, Luton West, 1974–79; Hackney South and Shoreditch, 1983–2005\nJames Sexton, St Helens, 1918–31\nDavid Shackleton, Clitheroe, 1902–10\nNaz Shah, Bradford West, 2015–present\nVirendra Sharma, Ealing Southall, 2007–present\nJonathan Shaw, Chatham and Aylesford, 1997–2010\nThomas Shaw, Preston, 1918–31\nBarry Sheerman, Huddersfield East, 1979–83; Huddersfield, 1983–present\nRobert Sheldon, Ashton under Lyne, 1964–2001", "Robert Sheldon, Ashton under Lyne, 1964–2001\nJames Sheridan, West Renfrewshire, 2001–05; Paisley and North Renfrewshire, 2005–2015\nPaula Sherriff, Dewsbury, 2015–2019\nDrummond Shiels, Edinburgh East, 1924–31\nManny Shinwell, Linlithgow, 1922–24, 28–31; Seaham, 1935–50; Easington, 1950–70\nDebra Shipley, Stourbridge, 1997–2005\nAlfred Short, Wednesbury, 1918–31\nClare Short, Birmingham Ladywood, 1983–2006\nGavin Shuker, Luton South, 2010–2019\nTulip Siddiq, Hampstead and Kilburn, 2015–present", "Gavin Shuker, Luton South, 2010–2019\nTulip Siddiq, Hampstead and Kilburn, 2015–present\nDennis Skinner, Bolsover, 1970–2019\nSiôn Simon, Birmingham Erdington, 2001–2010\nAlan Simpson, Nottingham South, 1992–2010\nMarsha Singh, Bradford South, 1997–2012\nCharles Henry Sitch, Kingswinford, 1918–31\nAndy Slaughter, Ealing, Acton and Shepherd's Bush, 2005–2010; Hammersmith, 2010–present\nHenry Slesser, Leeds South East, 1924–29\nRobert Smillie, Morpeth, 1923–29", "Henry Slesser, Leeds South East, 1924–29\nRobert Smillie, Morpeth, 1923–29\nAlbert Smith, Clitheroe, 1910–18; Nelson and Colne, 1918–20\nAndrew Smith, Oxford East, 1987–2017\nAngela Smith, Sheffield Hillsborough, 2005–2010; Penistone and Stocksbridge, 2010–2019\nAngela Smith, Basildon, 1997–2010\nBenjamin Smith, Rotherhithe, 1923–31; 35–46\nCat Smith, Lancaster and Fleetwood, 2015–present\nChris Smith, Islington South and Finsbury, 1983–2005\nEleanor Smith, Wolverhampton South West, 2017–2019", "Eleanor Smith, Wolverhampton South West, 2017–2019\nGeraldine Smith, Morecambe and Lunesdale, 1997–2010\nJacqui Smith, Redditch, 1997–2010\nJeff Smith, Manchester Withington, 2015–presentJohn Smith, North Lanarkshire, 1970–83; Monklands East, 1983–94\nJohn Smith, Vale of Glamorgan, 1989–92; 1997–2010\nLaura Smith, Crewe and Nantwich, 2017–2019\nLlew Smith, Blaenau Gwent, 1992–2005\nNick Smith, Blaenau Gwent, 2010–present\nOwen Smith, Pontypridd, 2010–2019\nRennie Smith, Penistone, 1924–1931", "Owen Smith, Pontypridd, 2010–2019\nRennie Smith, Penistone, 1924–1931\nRuth Smeeth, Stoke-on-Trent North, 2015–2019\nTom Smith, Pontefract, 1922–24; 29–31; Pontefract, 1933–47\nWalter Robert Smith, Wellingborough, 1918–22\nKarin Smyth, Bristol South, 2015–present\nPeter Snape, West Bromwich East, 1974–2001\nAnne Snelgrove, Swindon South, 2005–2010\nGareth Snell, Stoke-on-Trent Central, 2017–2019\nHarry Snell, Woolwich East, 1922–31\nPhilip Snowden, Blackburn, 1906–18; Colne Valley, 1922–31", "Harry Snell, Woolwich East, 1922–31\nPhilip Snowden, Blackburn, 1906–18; Colne Valley, 1922–31\nAlex Sobel, Leeds North West, 2017–present\nClive Soley, Hammersmith North, 1979–83; Hammersmith, 1983–97; Ealing, Acton and Shepherd's Bush, 1997–2005\nPeter Soulsby, Leicester South, 2005–11\nHelen Southworth, Warrington South, 1997–2010\nJohn Spellar, Birmingham Northfield, 1982–83; Warley, 1997–present\nRobert Spence, Berwick and Haddington, 1923–24\nGeorge Alfred Spencer, Broxtowe, 1918–29", "Robert Spence, Berwick and Haddington, 1923–24\nGeorge Alfred Spencer, Broxtowe, 1918–29\nBenjamin Charles Spoor, Bishop Auckland, 1918–29\nRachel Squire, Dunfermline West, 1992–2005; Dunfermline and West Fife, 2005–06\nThomas William Stamford, Leeds West, 1923–31\nAlbert Stanley, North West Staffordshire, 1910–16\nPhyllis Starkey, Milton Keynes South West, 1997–2010Keir Starmer, Holborn and St Pancras, 2015–present\nGerry Steinberg, City of Durham, 1987–2005\nCampbell Stephen, Glasgow Camlachie, 1922–31; 47–48", "Gerry Steinberg, City of Durham, 1987–2005\nCampbell Stephen, Glasgow Camlachie, 1922–31; 47–48\nJo Stevens, Cardiff Central, 2015–present\nLewis Stevens, Nuneaton, 1983–92\nGeorge Stevenson, Stoke-on-Trent South, 1992–2005\nDavid Stewart, Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber, 1997–2005\nIan Stewart, Eccles, 1997–2010\nJames Stewart, Glasgow St Rollox, 1922–31\nPaul Stinchcombe, Wellingborough, 1997–2005\nHoward Stoate, Dartford, 1997–2010\nJohn Stonehouse, Wednesbury 1959–1974; Walsall North 1974 (February)-1976", "John Stonehouse, Wednesbury 1959–1974; Walsall North 1974 (February)-1976\nRoger Stott, Westhoughton, 1973–83; Wigan, 1983–99\nGavin Strang, Edinburgh East, 1970–97; Edinburgh East and Musselburgh, 1997–2005; Edinburgh East, 2005–2010\nJack Straw, Blackburn, 1979–2015\nWes Streeting, Ilford North, 2015–present\nGraham Stringer, Manchester Blackley, 1997–2010; Blackley and Broughton, 2010–present\nBarnett Stross, Hanely, 1945–1950\nGisela Stuart, Birmingham Edgbaston, 1997–2017", "Barnett Stross, Hanely, 1945–1950\nGisela Stuart, Birmingham Edgbaston, 1997–2017\nJoseph Sullivan, North Lanarkshire, 1922–24\nZarah Sultana, Coventry South, 2019–present\nThomas Summerbell, Sunderland, 1906–10\nGerry Sutcliffe, Bradford South, 1994–2015\nJohn Edward Sutton, Manchester East, 1910–18; Manchester Clayton, 1922; 23–31\nJohn Edmund Swan, Barnard Castle, 1918–22\nPaul Sweeney, Glasgow North East, 2017–2019", "T\nMark Tami, Alyn and Deeside, 2001–present\nSam Tarry, Ilford South, 2019–present\nAnn Taylor, Bolton West, 1974–83; Dewsbury, 1987–2005\nDari Taylor, Stockton South, 1997–2010\nDavid Taylor, North West Leicestershire, 1997–2009\nJohn Wilkinson Taylor, Chester-le-Street, 1906–19\nRobert Arthur Taylor, Lincoln, 1924–31\nPeter Temple-Morris, Leominster, 1998–2001\nJames Henry Thomas, Derby, 1910–31\nGareth Thomas, Harrow West, 1997–present\nGareth Thomas, Clwyd West, 1997–2005\nOwen Thomas, Anglesey, 1919–20", "Gareth Thomas, Clwyd West, 1997–2005\nOwen Thomas, Anglesey, 1919–20\nNick Thomas-Symonds, Torfaen, 2015–present\nEmily Thornberry, Islington South and Finsbury, 2005–present\nWill Thorne, West Ham, 1906–18; Plaistow, 1918–45\nErnest Thurtle, Shoreditch, 1923–31; 35–50; Shoreditch and Finsbury, 1950–54\nSydney Tierney, Birmingham Yardley 1974–79\nBen Tillett, Salford, 1917–24; 29–31\nStephen Timms, Newham North East, 1994–97; East Ham, 1997–present\nJohn Joseph Tinker, Leigh, 1923–45", "John Joseph Tinker, Leigh, 1923–45\nPaddy Tipping, Sherwood, 1992–2010\nMark Todd, South Derbyshire, 1997–2010\nJoseph Toole, Salford South, 1923–24; 29–31\nRobert Tootill, Bolton, 1914–22\nDon Touhig, Islwyn, 1995–2010\nWilliam John Tout, Oldham, 1922–24; Sowerby, 1929–31\nCharles Trevelyan, Elland, 1918; Newcastle-upon-Tyne Central, 1922–31\nJon Trickett, Hemsworth, 1996–present\nPaul Truswell, Pudsey, 1997–2010\nAnna Turley, Redcar, 2015–2019\nBen Turner, Batley and Morley, 1922–24; 29–31", "Anna Turley, Redcar, 2015–2019\nBen Turner, Batley and Morley, 1922–24; 29–31\nDennis Turner, Wolverhampton South East, 1987–2005\nDes Turner, Brighton Kemptown, 1997–2010\nGeorge Turner, North West Norfolk, 1997–2001\nKarl Turner, Kingston upon Hull East, 2010–present\nNeil Turner, Wigan, 1999–2010\nMoss Turner-Samuels, Barnard Castle, 1923–24; Gloucester, 1945–57\nDerek Twigg, Halton, 1997–present\nStephen Twigg, Enfield Southgate, 1997–2005; Liverpool West Derby, 2010–2019\nHenry Twist, Leigh, 1922–23", "Henry Twist, Leigh, 1922–23\nLiz Twist, Blaydon, 2017–present\nBill Tynan, Hamilton South, 1999–2005", "U\nChuka Umunna, Streatham, 2010–2019\nLynn Ungoed-Thomas, Leicester South East, 1945–62\nHenry Usborne, Birmingham Yardley 1950–59\nKitty Ussher, Burnley, 2005–2010\n\nV\nEric Varley, Chesterfield, 1964–84\nFrank Varley, Mansfield, 1923–29\nDavid John Vaughan, Forest of Dean, 1929–31\nKeith Vaz, Leicester East, 1987–2019\nValerie Vaz, Walsall South, 2010–present\nWilfrid Vernon, Dulwich, 1945–51\nSamuel Viant, Willesden West, 1923–31; 35–59\nRudi Vis, Finchley and Golders Green, 1997–2010", "W\nJohn Wadsworth, Hallamshire, 1910–18\nChristian Wakeford, Bury South, 2022–present\nThelma Walker, Colne Valley, 2017–2019\nPat Wall, Bradford North, 1987–90\nJoan Walley, Stoke-on-Trent North, 1987–2015\nRichard Wallhead, Merthyr, 1922–31; 33–34\nStephen Walsh, Ince, 1906–29\nLynda Waltho, Stourbridge, 2005–2010\nClaire Ward, Watford, 1997–2010\nGeorge Wardle, Stockport, 1906–16\nBob Wareing, Liverpool West Derby, 1983–2010\nGeorge Warne, Wansbeck, 1922–28\nTom Watson, West Bromwich East, 2001–2019", "George Warne, Wansbeck, 1922–28\nTom Watson, West Bromwich East, 2001–2019\nWilliam McLean Watson, Dunfermline Burghs, 1922–31; 35–50\nDavid Watts, St Helens North, 1997–2015\nClaudia Webbe, Leicester East, 2019–suspended 2020Sidney Webb, Seaham, 1922–29\nJosiah Wedgwood, Newcastle-under-Lyme, 1919–42\nLauchlin MacNeill Weir, Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire, 1922–31; 35–39\nJames Welsh, Paisley, 1929–31\nJames C. Welsh, Coatbridge, 1922–31; Bothwell, 1935–45", "James Welsh, Paisley, 1929–31\nJames C. Welsh, Coatbridge, 1922–31; Bothwell, 1935–45\nCatherine West, Hornsey and Wood Green, 2015–present\nMatthew Western, Warwick and Leamington, 2017–present\nJohn Wheatley, Glasgow Shettleston, 1922–30\nBrian White, North East Milton Keynes, 1997–2005\nJames White, Glasgow Pollok, 1970–1987\nAlan Whitehead, Southampton Test, 1997–present\nWilliam Whiteley, Blaydon, 1922–31; 35–55\nMick Whitley, Birkenhead, 2019–present\nNadia Whittome, Notthingham East, 2019–present", "Mick Whitley, Birkenhead, 2019–present\nNadia Whittome, Notthingham East, 2019–present\nMartin Whitfield East Lothian, 2017–2019\nMalcolm Wicks, Croydon North West, 1992–97; Croydon North, 1997–2012\nJames Wignall, Forest of Dean, 1918–25\nLyall Wilkes, Newcastle upon Tyne Central, 1945–51\nAlex Wilkie, Dundee, 1906–22\nEllen Wilkinson, Middlesbrough East, 1924–31; Jarrow, 1935–47\nAlan Williams, Swansea West, 1964–2010\nBetty Williams, Conwy, 1997–2010\nDavid Williams, Swansea East, 1922–40", "Betty Williams, Conwy, 1997–2010\nDavid Williams, Swansea East, 1922–40\nJohn Henry Williams, Llanelli, 1922–36\nJohn T. Williams, Gower, 1910–22\nPaul Williams, Stockton South, 2017–2019\nThomas Williams, Kennington, 1923–24\nTom Williams, Don Valley, 1922–59\nChris Williamson, Derby North, 2010-2015, 2017–2019 \nMichael Wills, Swindon North, 1997–2010\nBrian Wilson, Cunninghame North, 1987–2005\nCecil Henry Wilson, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1922–31; 35–44Harold Wilson'', Ormskirk, 1945–50; Huyton, 1950–83", "James Wilson, Dudley, 1921–23\nPhil Wilson, Sedgefield, 2007–2019\nRobert John Wilson, Jarrow, 1922–31\nWilliam Tyson Wilson, Westhoughton, 1906–21\nWalter Windsor, Bethnal Green North East, 1923–29; Kingston upon Hull Central, 1935–45\nDavid Winnick, Croydon South, 1966–70; Walsall North, 1979–2017\nBeth Winter, Cynon Valley, 2019–present\nRosie Winterton, Doncaster Central, 1997–present\nAudrey Wise, Coventry South West, 1974–79; Preston, 1987–2000\nMike Wood, Batley and Spen, 1997–2015", "Audrey Wise, Coventry South West, 1974–79; Preston, 1987–2000\nMike Wood, Batley and Spen, 1997–2015\nArthur Woodburn Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire 1939–70\nJohn Woodcock, Barrow and Furness, 2010–2018\nShaun Woodward, Witney, 1999–2001; St Helens South, 2001–2010; St Helens South and Whiston, 2010–2015\nPhil Woolas, Oldham East and Saddleworth, 1997–2010\nTony Worthington, Clydebank and Milngavie, 1987–2005\nJimmy Wray, Glasgow Provan, 1987–97; Glasgow Baillieston, 1997–2005", "Jimmy Wray, Glasgow Provan, 1987–97; Glasgow Baillieston, 1997–2005\nDavid Wright, Telford, 2001–2015\nIain Wright, Hartlepool, 2004–2017\nTony Wright, Cannock and Burntwood, 1992–97; Cannock Chase, 1997–2010\nTony Wright, Great Yarmouth, 1997–2010\nWilliam Wright, Rutherglen, 1922–31\nDerek Wyatt, Sittingbourne and Sheppey, 1997–2010", "X\n\nY\nMohammad Yasin, Bedford, 2017–present\nVictor Yates, Birmingham Ladywood, 1945–69\nAndrew Young, Glasgow Partick, 1923–24\nRobert Young, Newton, 1918–31; 35–50\nRobert Stanley Young, Islington North, 1929–31\nKenneth Younger, Great Grimsby, 1945–59\n\nZ\nDaniel Zeichner, Cambridge, 2015–present\nKonni Zilliacus, Gateshead, 1945–49; Manchester Gorton, 1955–67\n\nSee also\nList of Labour Co-operative Members of Parliament\n\nNotes" ]

[ "No. 1 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadron headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley, Queensland. It is controlled by No. 82 Wing, part of Air Combat Group, and is equipped with Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet multi-role fighters.", "The squadron was formed under the Australian Flying Corps in 1916 and saw action in the Sinai and Palestine campaigns during World War I. It flew obsolete Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s, B.E.12s, Martinsyde G.100s and G.102s, as well as Airco DH.6s, Bristol Scouts and Nieuport 17s, before re-equipping with the R.E.8 in October 1917 and finally the Bristol Fighter in December. Its commanding officer in 1917–18 was Major Richard Williams, later known as the \"Father of the RAAF\". Disbanded in 1919, No", ". Disbanded in 1919, No. 1 Squadron was re-formed on paper as part of the RAAF in 1922, and re-established as an operational unit three years later. Initially a composite formation of Airco DH.9s and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s, it took on a specialist bomber role in the 1930s, flying mainly Hawker Demons but also Westland Wapitis and Bristol Bulldogs, before re-equipping with Avro Ansons on the eve of World War II.", "Converting to Lockheed Hudsons in 1940, No. 1 Squadron saw action in the Malayan and Dutch East Indies campaigns, and suffered severe losses before being reduced to cadre in 1942. It was re-formed with Bristol Beauforts the following year, and re-equipped with de Havilland Mosquitos in 1945 for further operations in the Dutch East Indies. Reduced to cadre once more after the war ended, No. 1 Squadron was re-established at Amberley in 1948 as an Avro Lincoln heavy bomber unit under No. 82 Wing", ". 82 Wing. From 1950 to 1958 it was based in Singapore, flying missions during the Malayan Emergency, where it bore the brunt of the Commonwealth air campaign against communist guerrillas. When it returned to Australia it re-equipped with English Electric Canberra jet bombers. It operated McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II leased from the USAF from 1970 to 1973, as a stop-gap pending delivery of the General Dynamics F-111C swing-wing bomber", ". The F-111 remained in service for 37 years until replaced by the Super Hornet in 2010. In 2014–15, and again in 2017, a detachment of Super Hornets was deployed to the Middle East as part of Australia's contribution to the war against the Islamic State.", "Role and equipment", "No. 1 Squadron is located at RAAF Base Amberley, Queensland, and controlled by No. 82 Wing, which is part of Air Combat Group. Its mission responsibilities include air-to-air and air-to-surface combat. The squadron is nicknamed the \"Fighting First\". The blazon of its crest is \"the Australian Kookaburra in a diving position superimposed on the cross of Jerusalem\", which symbolises the Victoria Cross-winning action of No. 1 Squadron pilot Frank McNamara in Palestine during World War I", ". 1 Squadron pilot Frank McNamara in Palestine during World War I. The unit motto is Videmus Agamus (\"We see and we strike\").", "The squadron operates Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet multi-role fighters, the first of which entered service in March 2010. Nicknamed the \"Rhino\", its missions include air superiority, fighter escort, land strike, maritime strike, close air support, and reconnaissance. The Super Hornet is larger than the \"classic\" McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet formerly operated by the RAAF, carries more ordnance, and has a greater fuel capacity", ". It is fitted with a 20 mm cannon and can be armed with air-to-air and anti-shipping missiles, as well as a variety of air-to-ground bombs and missiles. Flown by a crew of two, a pilot and an air combat officer (ACO), it is capable of engaging targets in the air and on the surface simultaneously. It can be refuelled in flight by the RAAF's Airbus KC-30A Multi Role Tanker Transports. The Super Hornets are serviced at the operating level by No", ". The Super Hornets are serviced at the operating level by No. 1 Squadron technical staff; heavier maintenance is conducted by Boeing Defence Australia and other contractors.", "History", "World War I", "No. 1 Squadron was established as a unit of the Australian Flying Corps (AFC) at Point Cook, Victoria, in January 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Edgar Reynolds. With a complement of 28 officers, 195 airmen, no aircraft and little training, it sailed for Egypt in mid-March 1916, arriving at Suez a month later. There it came under the control of the 5th Wing of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC). Major Foster Rutledge, an Australian serving in the RFC, took command on 1 June", ". Major Foster Rutledge, an Australian serving in the RFC, took command on 1 June. After training in England and Egypt, the unit was declared operational at its new headquarters in Heliopolis on 12 June, when it took over aircraft belonging to No. 17 Squadron RFC. Its three flights were, however, operating in isolation at different bases in the Sinai Desert, and the squadron did not reunite until December. Flying primitive and poorly armed Royal Aircraft Factory B.E", ". Flying primitive and poorly armed Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 two-seat biplanes, its primary roles during this period of the Sinai campaign were reconnaissance—including aerial photography—and artillery spotting for the British Army. No. 1 Squadron pilots attached to No. 14 Squadron RFC took part in the Battle of Romani in July and August", ". 14 Squadron RFC took part in the Battle of Romani in July and August. In September and October, B and C Flights, led by Captains Oswald Watt and Richard Williams respectively, undertook bombing and reconnaissance missions in support of the Australian Light Horse in northern Sinai.", "On 12 September 1916, the British began to refer to No. 1 Squadron as No. 67 (Australian) Squadron RFC. This practice continued until January 1918, when the unit officially became known as No. 1 Squadron AFC. The relationship between airmen and ground crew was less formal than in British units; squadron members recalled that \"The CO is the only one who is ever called 'sir and that officers did not demand \"saluting and standing to attention and all that rot\"", ". The unit received the first of several Martinsyde G.100 single-seat fighters to augment the B.E.2s on 16 October; although considered obsolete, the \"Tinsyde\" was substantially faster than the B.E.2, and armed with forward-firing machine guns. Shortly before the squadron took part in a bombing raid against Beersheba on 11 November, Lieutenant Lawrence Wackett managed to fix a machine gun to the top plane of one of the B.E.2s, using a mount he designed himself", ".E.2s, using a mount he designed himself. Each flight was also assigned a Bristol Scout beginning in December, but it too was obsolete and under-powered, and the squadron ceased operating the type within three months. Other older models issued to the unit included the Airco DH.6, Martinsyde G.102 and Nieuport 17. On 17 December, the squadron's flights were finally brought together at one base, Mustabig in Sinai.", "March 1917 saw the heaviest bombing campaign carried out by the squadron to date; short of its regular ordnance, the pilots improvised by dropping howitzer shells on Turkish forces along the Gaza–Beersheba line. During one such mission on 20 March, Lieutenant Frank McNamara earned the Victoria Cross for landing his Martinsyde in the desert under enemy fire and rescuing a fellow pilot whose B.E.2 had been forced down. On 26 March, No", ".E.2 had been forced down. On 26 March, No. 1 Squadron took part in the First Battle of Gaza; it suffered its first combat death the next day, when one of its B.E.2s was attacked by a German Rumpler. The unit participated in the Second Battle of Gaza on 19 April; like its predecessor, the attack was a failure for the Allies. Williams, later known as the \"Father of the RAAF\", assumed command of the squadron in May. Two B.E", ". Williams, later known as the \"Father of the RAAF\", assumed command of the squadron in May. Two B.E.12s were delivered the same month; like the Martinsydes, they were armed with a forward-firing machine gun and employed as escorts for the B.E.2s. By June, mechanical issues caused by hot summer weather and the threat from new German Albatros scouts were rendering the B.E.2s largely ineffective, and Williams urgently requested newer models", ".E.2s largely ineffective, and Williams urgently requested newer models. Modern aircraft were eventually delivered, first the Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 in October, and then the Bristol F.2 Fighter in December. \"Now for the first time,\" wrote Williams, \"after 17 months in the field we had aircraft with which we could deal with our enemy in the air.\"", "No. 1 Squadron joined the 40th (Army) Wing of the RFC's Palestine Brigade on 5 October 1917. On 22 and 24 November, the squadron bombed Bireh village during the Battle of Jerusalem. The first of its 29 confirmed aerial victories, over an Albatros, occurred on 3 January 1918. By month's end, its complement of aircraft included five B.E.2s, five Martinsydes, two R.E.8s, and nine Bristol Fighters. The squadron supported the Capture of Jericho in February 1918", ".E.8s, and nine Bristol Fighters. The squadron supported the Capture of Jericho in February 1918. It carried out air raids and reconnoitred prior to the First Transjordan attack on Amman in March and prior to the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt a month later; it also flew reconnaissance missions during the advance to and fighting near Es Salt and Jisr ed Damieh. By the end of March, it was equipped with 18 Bristol Fighters, which had replaced all the other types", ". As well as undertaking offensive operations, the Bristol Fighters served in the photo-reconnaissance role. During the last week of April 1918, the squadron moved its base forward from Mejdel to a new aerodrome outside Ramleh. Williams relinquished command in June to take over 40th Wing.", "Beginning in August 1918, members of No. 1 Squadron, including one of its aces, Lieutenant Ross Smith, were attached to Colonel T.E. Lawrence's Arab army to protect it against German bombing. In September, the squadron began operating a Handley Page O/400, the only Allied heavy bomber in the Middle East and the only twin-engined aircraft flown by the AFC", ". That month it joined the Bristol Fighters in the final offensive of the Palestinian campaign, the Battle of Armageddon, inflicting what the Australian official history described as \"wholesale destruction\" on the Turkish Seventh Army", ". By October, the Bristol Fighters had moved forward from Ramleh to Haifa and by the middle of the month were required to patrol and reconnoitre an exceptionally wide area of country, sometimes between , flying over Rayak, Homs, Beirut, Tripoli, Hama, Aleppo, Killis and Alexandretta. They bombed the German aerodromes at Rayak, where 32 German machines had been either abandoned or burnt, on 2 October", ". On 19 October, the first German aircraft was seen in the air since fighting over Deraa in mid-September, just prior to the Battle of Sharon. Smith and another pilot forced a DFW two-seater to land, and destroyed it on the ground by firing a Very light into the aircraft after the German pilot and observer had moved to safety. In the wake of the 31 October armistice with Turkey, the squadron relocated to Ramleh in December, and then in February 1919 to Kantara", ". There its members were personally farewelled by General Sir Edmund Allenby, who congratulated them for achieving \"absolute supremacy of the air ... a factor of paramount importance\" to the Allied campaign.", "Inter-war years", "No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia on 5 March 1919, and was disbanded. In 1921, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) was established as a separate branch of the military, and on 1 January 1922, the squadron was re-formed on paper. Its planned strength, approved by the Air Board in December 1921, was three officers and five airmen, operating four Airco DH.9s. Funding problems for the fledgling Air Force resulted in the disbandment on 1 July of No", ".9s. Funding problems for the fledgling Air Force resulted in the disbandment on 1 July of No. 1 Squadron and other units established at the same time, their aircraft and personnel instead forming a single squadron of six flights under the control of No. 1 Flying Training School (No. 1 FTS) at Point Cook. No. 1 Squadron was reactivated as an operational unit of the RAAF reserve, known as the Citizen Air Force (CAF), at Point Cook on 1 July 1925. Its commanding officer was Flight Lieutenant Harry Cobby.", "Like No. 3 Squadron, formed the same day at Point Cook but transferred to RAAF Richmond, New South Wales, three weeks later, No. 1 Squadron was a multi-purpose or \"composite\" unit made up of three flights, each of which had a different role and comprised four aircraft: A Flight operated DH.9s for army cooperation, B Flight operated Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighters, and C Flight operated DH.9A bombers", ".E.5 fighters, and C Flight operated DH.9A bombers. A third of the squadron's complement of 27 officers and 169 airmen was Permanent Air Force (PAF), and the rest CAF. No. 1 Squadron relocated from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton on 1 January 1928. The RAAF retired its S.E.5s the same year, and in 1929 took delivery of Westland Wapiti general-purpose aircraft to replace its DH.9s and DH.9As. Through the inter-war years, No", ".9s and DH.9As. Through the inter-war years, No. 1 Squadron undertook a range of tasks including civil aid, flood and bushfire relief, search and rescue, aerial surveys, and air show demonstrations. In October 1930, a de Havilland DH.60 Moth attached to the unit conducted Australia's first crop-dusting operation, at the behest of the Victorian Forestry Commission.", "RAAF squadrons began adopting specialised roles in the early 1930s, No. 1 Squadron becoming No. 1 Single-Engined Bomber Squadron. By November 1935 it was made up of two flights of newly delivered Hawker Demon fighter-bombers, and one of Wapitis. In December 1935 it was augmented by No. 1 FTS's Fighter Squadron and its six Bristol Bulldogs, which were redesignated fighter-bombers. Nos", ". Nos. 21 and 22 (Cadre) Squadrons were formed on 20 April 1936 at Laverton and Richmond, respectively, absorbing the CAF personnel of Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons, which became PAF units. The same day, No. 1 Squadron was renamed No. 1 (Fighter Bomber) Squadron. This reorganisation temporarily denuded No. 1 Squadron of most of its aircraft, leaving only A Flight, with four Bulldogs and a Wapiti, in operation. The Wapiti was transferred to No", ". The Wapiti was transferred to No. 1 FTS in July, and by the end of the month the squadron's complement of aircraft stood at four Bulldogs and one Moth.", "No. 1 Squadron began receiving new Demons in November 1936. In January 1937, it relinquished its Bulldogs to No. 21 Squadron, which was to hold them until they could be transferred to the soon-to-be-formed No. 2 Squadron. By the end of February, No. 1 Squadron's strength was 12 Demons and one Moth, 11 officers and 108 airmen. The unit was redesignated No. 1 (Bomber) Squadron in August 1937", ". The unit was redesignated No. 1 (Bomber) Squadron in August 1937. Towards the end of the year, it was plagued by several Demon accidents, resulting in a series of inquiries and a review of RAAF procedures in 1938 by Marshal of the RAF Sir Edward Ellington; the so-called Ellington Report and its criticism of air safety standards led to the removal of Air Vice-Marshal Richard Williams from his position as Chief of the Air Staff, which he had held since the formation of the Air Force. No", ". No. 1 Squadron received the RAAF's first three CAC Wirraways on 10 July 1939. As the likelihood of war increased, the squadron's role was altered to incorporate reconnaissance as well as bombing, resulting in the transfer out of all Demons and Wirraways and the transfer in from other units of nine Avro Ansons on 28–29 August 1939; at the end of the month its personnel comprised nine officers and 122 airmen.", "World War II", "Following the outbreak of World War II, No. 1 Squadron's Ansons were tasked with maritime patrol and convoy escort duties. In 1940, the squadron became the RAAF's inaugural Lockheed Hudson unit; it received its first Hudson on 30 March, and by the end of May had transferred out the last of its Ansons and was operating 11 of the new aircraft. Deployed to Malaya to conduct maritime reconnaissance, No. 1 Squadron arrived at Sembawang, Singapore, on 4 July 1940", ". 1 Squadron arrived at Sembawang, Singapore, on 4 July 1940. It relocated to RAF Kota Bharu, near the Malaya–Thailand border, in August 1941. Two days before the attack on Malaya, its Hudsons spotted the Japanese invasion fleet but, given uncertainty about the ships' destination and instructions to avoid offensive operations until attacks were made against friendly territory, Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke-Popham did not allow the convoy to be bombed", ". Shortly after midnight, local time, on the night of 7/8 December, the Japanese force started landing on the beaches at Kota Bharu, close to the airfield, and from about 02:00, No. 1 Squadron launched a series of assaults on the Japanese forces, becoming the first aircraft to make an attack in the Pacific War", ". The Hudsons sank a Japanese transport ship, the IJN Awazisan Maru, and damaged two more transports, the Ayatosan Maru and Sakura Maru, for the loss of two Hudsons, an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor. By the end of the day, Japanese ground forces had advanced to the outskirts of the airfield, forcing the squadron's remaining airworthy aircraft to be evacuated to Kuantan, and from there back to Singapore.", "By Christmas Eve 1941, No. 1 Squadron had five serviceable aircraft. Together with No. 8 Squadron RAAF, also equipped with Hudsons, it was tasked with maritime patrols to the east of Singapore. On 26 January 1942, two of the squadron's Hudsons spotted a Japanese convoy heading for Endau, on the east coast of Malaya. It was decided to attack the convoy with all possible strength, including four Hudsons from No. 1 Squadron and five from No", ". 1 Squadron and five from No. 8 Squadron, together with obsolete Vickers Vildebeest and Fairey Albacore biplanes of Nos. 36 and 100 Squadrons RAF, and with what little fighter escort could be found. The convoy was strongly defended by Japanese fighters, and although all nine Hudsons returned to Singapore, several were badly shot up. The rest of the strike force did not fare as well; 11 Vildebeests, two Albacores, two Hudsons (of No. 62 Squadron RAF) and three fighters were lost. By the end of the month, No", ". 62 Squadron RAF) and three fighters were lost. By the end of the month, No. 1 Squadron had withdrawn to airfield P.2 on Sumatra, along with several other Commonwealth units including No. 8 Squadron. It continued to attack Japanese bases in Malaya and convoys in the Dutch East Indies, relocating to Semplak, Java, in mid-February. At Semplak it took over the Hudsons of No. 8 Squadron and No", ". At Semplak it took over the Hudsons of No. 8 Squadron and No. 62 Squadron RAF, giving it a strength of 25 aircraft; at one stage it was to be renumbered as an RAF squadron, but this never occurred. Heavily outnumbered by Japanese air units, which raided Allied bases with impunity, No. 1 Squadron suffered heavy losses and was ordered to withdraw its four remaining Hudsons to Australia on 2 March 1942, disbanding soon after", ". Although 120 of the squadron's personnel were evacuated from Java, 160 men including the commanding officer, Wing Commander Davis, were unable to escape and were taken prisoner by the Japanese; less than half survived captivity.", "No. 1 Squadron was re-formed with Bristol Beauforts on 1 December 1943 at Menangle, New South Wales. By March 1944 it had deployed to Gould, Northern Territory, where it was controlled by No. 79 Wing under North-Western Area Command. Its strength at the beginning of the month was some 350 officers and men, and 19 Beauforts. The squadron commenced reconnaissance operations on 20 March, and undertook its first bombing mission on 4 April against Lautem, East Timor", ". It attacked other targets in Timor during May, losing two aircraft. Having undertaken 82 sorties in July, the Beauforts concentrated on maritime reconnaissance from August, using air-to-surface radar during operations from Gould and Gove. After re-equipping with de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bombers at Kingaroy, Queensland, in January 1945, the squadron deployed to Morotai in May and then Labuan Island in June–July. Now part of No", ". Now part of No. 86 (Attack) Wing, it flew only a few missions before the end of the war, losing one Mosquito. No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia in December 1945 and was disbanded at Narromine, New South Wales, on 7 August 1946.", "Malayan Emergency", "No. 1 Squadron was re-formed as a heavy bomber unit on 23 February 1948, when No. 12 Squadron was re-designated. Operating Avro Lincolns, it was based at RAAF Station Amberley, Queensland, where it formed part of No. 82 (Bomber) Wing. The wing's aircraft were serviced by No. 482 (Maintenance) Squadron. From July 1950 to July 1958—for the first two-and-a-half years under the auspices of No", ". From July 1950 to July 1958—for the first two-and-a-half years under the auspices of No. 90 (Composite) Wing—it was based in Singapore, flying missions against communist guerrillas during the Malayan Emergency. Tasked by RAF Air Headquarters Malaya, the Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions, as well as strikes against pinpoint targets", ". They operated singly and in formations, sometimes in concert with RAF bombers, and often strafed targets with their machine guns and 20 mm cannon after dropping ordnance. The Lincolns were considered well suited to the campaign, owing to their range and ability to fly at low speeds to search for targets, as well as their firepower and heavy bomb load. Not having to contend with anti-aircraft fire, they flew mainly by day, but No. 1 Squadron also operated by night, the only Commonwealth unit to do so.", "The squadron carried out its own day-to-day maintenance in Malaya; the Lincolns were rotated back to Australia for major work. Its original complement of six aircraft was increased to eight after the British Air Ministry requested in February 1951 that Australia augment its bomber force to partly offset the imminent withdrawal of the RAF's Lincolns to Bomber Command in Europe. The squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency in 1950–51 and 1954–55", ". The squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency in 1950–51 and 1954–55. It suffered no casualties during the campaign but two of its aircraft were written off: one that overshot the landing strip at Tengah in November 1951, and another that crashed into the sea off Johore after striking trees on takeoff in January 1957.", "Although the original purpose of the bombing campaign in Malaya was to kill as many insurgents as possible, the impracticality of achieving this in operations over dense jungle resulted in a shift towards harassing and demoralising the communists, driving them out of their bases and into areas held by Commonwealth ground troops. Operation Kingly Pile, which involved two sorties by No. 1 Squadron and one by English Electric Canberra jet bombers of No", ". 1 Squadron and one by English Electric Canberra jet bombers of No. 12 Squadron RAF on 21 February 1956, was considered the most successful of the more than 4,000 missions conducted by the Lincolns, killing at least 14 communist troops. By the time it was withdrawn to Australia in July 1958, No. 1 Squadron had dropped over 14,000 tonnes of bombs—85 per cent of the total delivered by Commonwealth forces during the Emergency", ". Its service was recognised with the presentation of a Squadron Standard by the Commander-in-Chief Far East Air Force, Air Marshal The Earl of Brandon. As at 2014, the Malayan Emergency marked the last occasion that the unit took part in combat operations.", "Jet era", "No. 1 Squadron re-equipped with Canberra Mk.20s after returning to Australia. The RAAF's first jet bomber, the Canberra was subsonic but had long range and was highly manoeuvrable. It had been procured partly for its capacity to deliver nuclear weapons, an ordnance option the government seriously contemplated but never acquired", ". Initially the Canberra's envisaged mission profile was medium-to-high-altitude area bombing but its primitive bombsight and light load made this a dubious proposition, and by mid-1961 crews were training in low-level army cooperation tactics. No. 1 Squadron was awarded successive Gloucester Cups for its proficiency in 1959–60 and 1960–61. As of January 1962, its strength was eight aircraft and 53 personnel, including 18 officers", ". As of January 1962, its strength was eight aircraft and 53 personnel, including 18 officers. The unit effectively ceased operations in 1968, to begin converting to the General Dynamics F-111C supersonic bomber, which was expected to enter service soon afterwards. Already controversial owing to its escalating cost, the F-111 program was heavily delayed by airworthiness concerns related to its swing-wing technology. In September 1970, as an interim measure while awaiting delivery of the F-111, No", ". In September 1970, as an interim measure while awaiting delivery of the F-111, No. 1 Squadron relinquished its Canberras for leased McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantoms. Although the Phantom had a multi-role capability, the RAAF employed it as a strike aircraft to maintain compatibility with the proposed F-111 mission profile. One of No. 1 Squadron's Phantoms was lost with its crew of two in June 1971, the only fatalities and hull loss of the 24 aircraft leased to the RAAF", ". Though not as sophisticated an aircraft as the F-111, the Phantom was a significant advance over the Canberra, and well regarded by its Australian crews.", "No. 82 Wing accepted its first F-111Cs in June 1973. The Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Charles Read, ordered that the new aircraft be flown with great caution initially, well within operational limits, to minimise the possibility of further damage to its reputation through early attrition. No. 1 Squadron was assigned 12 of the initial 24 aircraft delivered. It was No. 82 Wing's lead strike force, No. 6 Squadron's primary task being crew conversion training", ". 82 Wing's lead strike force, No. 6 Squadron's primary task being crew conversion training. The wing employed a centralised servicing regime, whereby all aircraft and maintenance personnel were held by No. 482 Squadron, which released the F-111s in line with Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons' joint flying program. In February 1981, responsibility for operating-level servicing of the F-111s was transferred to the flying squadrons, which for the first time took direct control of their F-111s. No", ". No. 482 Squadron continued to provide intermediate-level servicing; major upgrades and complex maintenance were carried out by No. 3 Aircraft Depot. These two organisations merged in 1992 to form No. 501 Wing, which handed over heavy maintenance of the F-111 to Boeing Australia in 2001. Between 1977 and 1993, the RAAF lost seven F-111Cs in crashes. Three of the accidents involved aircraft flown by No. 1 Squadron: in August 1979, January 1986 and September 1993, the last two killing both crew members", ". In July 1996, No. 1 Squadron took responsibility for aerial reconnaissance using specially modified RF-111Cs previously operated by No. 6 Squadron. This gave No. 1 Squadron five mission types: land strike, maritime strike, close air support, long-range air defence, and reconnaissance. In May 1999 the unit was again awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency.", "Along with its revolutionary variable-sweep wings, the F-111 was equipped with terrain-following radar and an escape module that jettisoned the entire cockpit in an emergency, rather than individual ejection seats. Its top speed was Mach 2.5 and its combat radius allowed it to reach targets in Indonesia from bases in northern Australia. Upon delivery in 1973 it was fitted with analogue avionics and could only drop unguided (\"dumb\") bombs", ". In its 37 years of service with the RAAF the type went through several upgrades, including the Pave Tack infra-red and laser-guided precision weapons targeting system, Harpoon anti-shipping missiles, and advanced digital avionics. Alan Stephens, in the official history of the post-war Air Force, described the F-111 as \"the region's pre-eminent strike aircraft\" and the RAAF's most important acquisition", ". The closest they came to being used in anger, though, was during Australian-led INTERFET operations in East Timor commencing in September 1999. Both F-111 squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal, Northern Territory, to support the international forces in case of action by the Indonesian military, and remained there until December; six of No. 1 Squadron's aircraft and approximately 100 personnel were involved", ". 1 Squadron's aircraft and approximately 100 personnel were involved. From 20 September, when INTERFET forces began to arrive in East Timor, the F-111s were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated. As it happened, INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance, and F-111 operations were limited to reconnaissance by RF-111Cs from 5 November through 9 December.", "In 2007, the Australian government decided to retire the F-111s by 2010, and acquire 24 Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornets as an interim replacement, pending the arrival of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning then being developed. The F-111 fleet was considered to be at risk due to fatigue, and too expensive to operate as each aircraft required 180 hours of maintenance for every hour of flying time. No. 1 Squadron ceased operating the F-111 in January 2009, in preparation for converting to the Super Hornet", ". Former F-111 aircrew, familiar with side-by-side seating and a different performance envelope, found conversion more challenging than pilots experienced in the RAAF's McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet fighters, which shared many characteristics with the newer model. No. 1 Squadron re-equipped between 26 March 2010 and 21 October 2011, making it the first Australian unit, and the first squadron outside the United States, to fly the Super Hornet. It became operational with its new aircraft on 8 December 2011", ". It became operational with its new aircraft on 8 December 2011. The multi-role Super Hornet allowed No. 1 Squadron to augment its previous offensive strike role with an air-to-air combat function. The RAAF attained full operational capability with the Super Hornet in December 2012.", "In April 2014, the government purchased 58 F-35s in addition to 14 already ordered, for the express purpose of replacing the 71 \"classic\" Hornets of Nos. 3, 75 and 77 Squadrons and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit. A government decision on whether to purchase a further 28 F-35s, to be based at Amberley, would depend on how long the Super Hornets were to be retained", ". According to Australian Aviation, continuing delays to the F-35 program had increased the likelihood that the Super Hornets would, rather than being disposed of early as originally planned, continue to be operated by the RAAF for their full service life of over 20 years. On 14 September, the Federal government committed to deploying up to eight Super Hornets of No", ". On 14 September, the Federal government committed to deploying up to eight Super Hornets of No. 1 Squadron to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates, as part of the Australian Air Task Group joining the coalition against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) forces in Iraq. The Super Hornets conducted their first mission over Iraq on 5 October, and their first strike four days later", ". According to the Department of Defence, as of 20 December 2014 the Super Hornets had flown over 180 sorties, dropped 113 weapons, and destroyed 36 ISIL targets, damaging another six. In March 2015, having flown almost 3,000 hours in over 400 missions, the detachment was replaced by six F/A-18As from No. 75 Squadron.", "No. 1 Squadron commemorated its centenary in 2016 with several events including, on 8 June, a flight over Amberley by Super Hornets in concert with a vintage Bristol Fighter. On 23 November, the 12 Super Hornets operated by No. 6 Squadron were transferred to No. 1 Squadron in preparation for the former unit converting to an electronic warfare role with the Boeing EA-18G Growler in 2017. At the same time, a training flight was established within No", ". At the same time, a training flight was established within No. 1 Squadron to deliver refresher training on the Super Hornet. A detachment of No. 1 Squadron was again deployed to Al Minhad as part of the Australian Air Task Group in May 2017, replacing the legacy Hornets of No. 77 Squadron. The Super Hornets flew the last strike mission of their rotation, and the last of 2,700 sorties by the Air Task Group Hornets, on 14 January 2018. In April, No. 1 Squadron was awarded the 2017 Gloucester Cup", ". In April, No. 1 Squadron was awarded the 2017 Gloucester Cup. The squadron's training flight and six Super Hornets were transferred to the newly established No. 82 Wing Training Flight in June 2020.", "Aircraft operated", "Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2/B.E.12 (1916–1918)\n Martinsyde G.100/G.102 (1916–1918)\n Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 (1917–1918)\n Bristol F.2 Fighter (1917–1919)\n Handley Page O/400 (1918)\n Airco DH.9/DH.9A (1925–1929)\n Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 (1925–1928)\n Westland Wapiti (1929–1936)\n Hawker Demon (1935–1939)\n Bristol Bulldog (1935–1937)\n Avro Anson (1939–1940)\n Lockheed Hudson (1940–1942)\n Bristol Beaufort (1943–1945)\n De Havilland Mosquito (1945–1946)\n Avro Lincoln (1948–1958)", "Bristol Beaufort (1943–1945)\n De Havilland Mosquito (1945–1946)\n Avro Lincoln (1948–1958)\n English Electric Canberra (1958–1970)\n McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II (1970–1973)\n General Dynamics F-111C (1973–2009)\n Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet (2010–current)", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\n1916 establishments in Australia\nMilitary units and formations established in 1916\nAircraft squadrons of the Royal Australian Air Force in World War II\n1\n067 Squadron" ]

[ "is a 2021 Japanese animated science fiction film co-directed, written and produced by Hideaki Anno. Produced by Studio Khara, it is the fourth and final film in the Rebuild of Evangelion film series, part of the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise.", "After a protracted development and multiple delays, Thrice Upon a Time was released on March 8, 2021, and received critical acclaim, with praise given to the screenplay, animation, directing, themes, production design, voice-performances, emotional weight and satisfactory closures and answers.", "The film also was a box-office success, becoming the highest-grossing film of the franchise, and the second-highest-grossing Japanese film of 2021 at . It was released internationally on August 13 the same year via the Amazon Prime Video streaming service. On June 17, 2022, it was announced that GKIDS had acquired the North American rights to the film. The film was released to theaters in December 2022 with a release on home video to follow in October 2023.", "Plot\nIn Paris, a team from the Wille organization, led by Maya Ibuki, works on a system designed to restore the city to its previous state. Upon being attacked by Nerv forces, they are defended by the Wunder fleet and Mari Illustrious Makinami in Unit-08. Mari defeats the attackers, and the Wille team restores Paris.", "Asuka Langley Shikinami, Rei Ayanami and Shinji Ikari, still despondent, are walking across the outskirts of Tokyo-3. They arrive at a settlement of survivors, and encounter Toji Suzuhara, Hikari Horaki, and Kensuke Aida, now adults. Toji is a doctor and has a child with Hikari, while Kensuke is a technician, and all are friendly to Shinji. Asuka expresses frustration with Shinji, force-feeding him. As Shinji slowly recovers, Rei explores the village and settles down, working as a farmer", ". As Shinji slowly recovers, Rei explores the village and settles down, working as a farmer. Shinji meets Ryoji Kaji, the son of Misato Katsuragi and the late Ryoji Kaji, who died averting Third Impact. Rei requires constant exposure to LCL and cannot maintain herself, decomposing in Shinji's presence.", "Wunder arrives to pick up Asuka, and Shinji decides to go with her, despite protests from the crew. Shinji is placed in isolation. Meanwhile, Kozo Fuyutsuki, distressed over Shinji's treatment by Gendo Ikari in forcing him to experience the same loss as him, helps Gendo restart Unit-13. In response, Wunder heads to Antarctica", ". In response, Wunder heads to Antarctica. Before the mission, Asuka admits her feelings for Shinji but states that she \"grew up before him\", referring to their actual ages being 28 but bodies being stuck at 14 due to the Curse of Eva, as well as Shinji's suspended animation between the events of 2.0 and 3.0. Shinji apologizes to Asuka for being indecisive in either saving or killing her whilst she was trapped by the Ninth Angel in Unit-03 14 years ago", ". Asuka accepts the apology and acknowledges he has matured.", "Wunder is attacked by three Nerv ships and a swarm of EVA units. Asuka and Mari sortie and move to destroy Unit-13 before it can reactivate. However, Unit-02 refuses to attack Unit-13, forcing Asuka to remove her eyepatch, revealing the Ninth Angel contained within, converting Unit-02 into a \"Pseudo-Evolved EVA\"-Angel hybrid like Shinji's Unit-01 14 years ago. Unit-13 overpowers and absorbs Unit-02 according to Gendo's plan", ". Unit-13 overpowers and absorbs Unit-02 according to Gendo's plan. Moments before being absorbed, Asuka is approached by her \"original\", revealing she is a clone of the Shikinami series. Meanwhile, the Wunder is attacked by a new EVA, Unit-09A.", "In the Nerv vessel restraining the Wunder, Misato and Ritsuko Akagi confront Gendo. Ritsuko shoots him to no effect as Gendo has used the Key of Nebuchadnezzar to transcend humanity. Gendo reveals that the purpose of the Shikinami and Ayanami clones is to enact the Human Instrumentality Project, and enters Unit-13. A determined Shinji asks Misato to let him pilot Unit-01. Sakura and Midori Kitakami try to stop Shinji, but Misato protects him and is shot in the process", ". Sakura and Midori Kitakami try to stop Shinji, but Misato protects him and is shot in the process. Misato apologizes to Shinji, saying that she was wrong to blame him and will take responsibility for his actions, as she is still technically his legal guardian. Mari takes Unit-08 and merges it with Units 09A through 12. Inside Unit-01, the original Ayanami clone appears before Shinji, apologizing for not being able to spare him from having to get into an EVA, but Shinji forgives her.", "Gendo and Shinji fight in a surreal \"Anti Universe\", and Gendo shows Shinji an \"imaginary Evangelion\", a \"Black Lilith\". Shinji meets Gendo, seeing a vision of his past experiences, including how Yui's loss traumatized him. As a result, Gendo wanted to initiate an \"Additional Impact\" for a chance to reunite with Yui. Meanwhile, Misato evacuates the crew of the Wunder and sacrifices herself and the ship to create the \"Lance of Gaius\", which gives Shinji the power to rewrite the world", ". Shinji talks with and provides closure to Gendo; to Asuka, returning her feelings; and to Kaworu Nagisa, revealing the existence of a cycle the cast is trapped in. Kaworu also talks with the elder Kaji, who helps him understand that his own happiness should not be tied to Shinji's.", "Shinji says farewell to Rei, deciding upon a complete reset of the world, a \"Neon Genesis\", without Evangelions. Gendo and Yui sacrifice themselves to spare Shinji from doing so himself, bringing back all humans who were transformed in the Near Third Impact and restoring the world. Shinji waits on a beach as reality resets until Mari comes back to get him, with her \"Final Evangelion\" being the last to disappear", ". The children are all present as adults at a train station (Ube-Shinkawa Station), and Shinji and Mari leave for a shot at the real world.", "Cast \n\n New character\n\nProduction", "Early development and delays", "The film was announced alongside Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo for release in 2008 as the final part of the Rebuild series under the working title Evangelion: Final. After delays of the first three films, Evangelion: Final was expected for release in 2015. Production formally started in 2009", ". Production formally started in 2009. In 2014, following the troubled production of the third film, director and producer Hideaki Anno became depressed and announced that the film would be further delayed to an unknown date, stating publicly in 2015 that he could not work on another film. As part of his recovery, Anno had also worked on Studio Ghibli's The Wind Rises under his mentor Hayao Miyazaki", ". Toho (which co-distributes the film in Japan with Toei) also approached Anno with an offer to direct a reboot of its Godzilla film series, Shin Godzilla, which also contributed to the delay on 3.0+1.0. Getting Toei and Toho in the same film had been a long-standing dream of Anno's. Financial reasons also played a part. In 2014, Anno's Studio Khara loaned his former company Studio Gainax ¥100 million ($916,400)", ". In 2014, Anno's Studio Khara loaned his former company Studio Gainax ¥100 million ($916,400). In 2016, Anno filed a claim for debt collection, fearing not only for the return of the money but also because of Gainax selling production materials to third parties, after a precedent of other sales of intellectual property without informing him. This was part of several legal issues surrounding Gainax and Evangelion.", "After a formal apology from Anno, animation director Takeshi Honda stated that the last film had resumed development after the production of Shin Godzilla ended in late 2016, with Studio Khara tweeting on April 5, 2017, that development was going smoothly. In May 2018, the studio put out a job listing for animation staff to work on 3DCG, VFX, and 2D animation starting on June 30, 2018. Animation was going through the final check by October 2, 2020. Dialogue recording wrapped on November 19, 2020", ". Dialogue recording wrapped on November 19, 2020. On December 16, 2020, Studio Khara announced that compositing and editing work had finished. In 2019 the film was scheduled for a June 27, 2020, release date but received two delays due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic, first scheduled for a January 23, 2021, release, before being released on March 8, 2021.", "Development", "Anno was very reluctant to return to work on the film in 2016. In 2018, Anno had asked for the opinion of voice actors like Megumi Ogata (Shinji) on how to move the plot forward after 3.0. Anno felt he could no longer understand Shinji and by now his current self was closer to Gendo than Shinji, and needed Ogata's input on how Shinji could recover after the events of 3.0", ".0. Anno felt that at that point the only people who could understand Shinji's feelings were Ogata herself and his personal assistant, Ikki Todoroki. Anno himself had intended to go to Paris for Japan Expo 2019, but the film's continuing delays in production prevented him", ". Anno had often visited the film's music composer Shirō Sagisu, who lives half the year in Paris, and wished to pay homage to the city in the opening 10 minutes of the movie, entitled AVANT1 (\"before\" in French), seeking to surpass his earlier depiction in Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water. At the event, Ogata also recounted Anno had asked what ending she preferred \"as Shinji\"", ". At the event, Ogata also recounted Anno had asked what ending she preferred \"as Shinji\". AVANT1+2, including a further 2 minutes of the opening sequence, was also streamed on Khara's YouTube channel and Japanese Amazon Prime Video for free for two weeks.", "Dialogue for Parts A and B, set after AVANT, started recording in March 2019. As there were several changes to the plot, many voice actors had to come back and record lines again", ". In 2020, due to the pandemic restrictions, production slowed down further and recording was mostly done by the voice actors separately as many dozens of takes were necessary: Ogata first notified the recording as almost finished in February 2020, but as production slowed down, staff began retouching several aspects of the film, and Ogata later noted recording to be finished in November 2020. The voice actors organized themselves through a Line group", ". The voice actors organized themselves through a Line group. This created a bond between the cast that was unprecedented in previous productions. At the end of recording, Anno thanked the cast for their contributions. Yūko Miyamura, who played Asuka, was instructed to treat her character as completely separate from the series' Asuka Langley Soryu, and the last thing asked of her was to write the character's full name in cursive herself to be used in the movie", ". She had lived in Australia for the past two decades, but was still unsure of how to write \"Langley\". Miyamura expressed her surprise at Anno's behavior near the end of production, in contrast to his behavior during the making of End of Evangelion: \"Anno-san is amazing. He has become an adult\".", "Anno sought to bring in new talent and people outside the usual Evangelion core crew, like Darling in the Franxx creator Atsushi Nishigori, a protégé of his, while other core staffers like chief editor Masayuki largely stepped down in order to allow new talents to gain more experience. In addition, the series' original character designer, Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, has had diminishing involvement since 3.0, and the new character designs are mostly done by Hidenori Matsubara", ".0, and the new character designs are mostly done by Hidenori Matsubara. Anno had long stated his wish to revitalize the anime industry, and saw the sponsorship of new creators as a prime way of achieving this, as well as the promotions of events backed by Studio Khara like the Japan Animator Expo. Director Mahiro Maeda recounted Anno wanted him to figure out specific details of the plot on his own when asked", ". Similarly to production in the series, Anno would take ideas from staffers but have the final word in plot decisions. Anno had also been an advocate of employing new and innovative animation technologies, combined with extensive use of motion capture and computer-generated imagery, and employed them in the film", ". Maeda and others noted nonetheless that Anno seemed to be directing the film more like a live action film than animation, including in the way he directed the voice actors, taking cues from theatre techniques, after his previous experience outside Evangelion, despite the staff's own limited experience, something he had previously attempted in Cutie Honey. He thought Anno \"wanted to get out of here the most\", but expressed his feelings in film sincerely.", "Director Kazuya Tsurumaki details Anno wanted to try a new process for the film. Instead of first creating storyboards and then developing the animation based on them as is traditional, Anno proposed to first draw the animation cels and then draw the scenes from them. This technique was generally referred to by staff as \"pre-visualization\"", ". This technique was generally referred to by staff as \"pre-visualization\". He was once more inspired from the usual process in live action, where scenes are first shot from multiple angles and then stories are created and then selected during editing. The latter half of the film, however, progressively returned to the traditional anime style", ". Tsurumaki noted the original intention was that \"the first 80%\" of the Rebuild series would be a \"compilation\" of the original anime series, and the changes would only start with the last film, in keeping with earlier comments in 2006 by producer Toshimichi Ohtsuki regarding the intention that only the ending would be a major departure from the series, as staff felt End of Evangelion could not receive a sequel, and the Rebuild movies were not going to be \"metaphysical\" like the original anime", ", and the Rebuild movies were not going to be \"metaphysical\" like the original anime, but rather \"oriented towards entertainment\"", ". This eventually changed, and major changes started happening as early as Evangelion: 2.0 You Can (Not) Advance. He also noted that the previously stated goal of \"destroying Evangelion\" through the character of Mari was entrusted to an external party. Anno would ask the opinion of many parts of staff, including those not involved in the actual film like office staff for their opinions on several nuances. Anno's wife Moyoco Anno provided early designs for some characters", ". Anno's wife Moyoco Anno provided early designs for some characters. Studio Ghibli also provided assistance to scenes set in the survivor's village. For the village itself, Khara had a box model custom-built to orientate the artists, and Anno personally adjusted it to the smallest details like individual house layout, with road and utility posts to make it as realistic as possible. Staff consulted with multiple professionals and conducted research like sky-diving for maximum accuracy.", "A making-of documentary aired on Japanese broadcaster NHK on March 22, 2021, with the crew following production for 1214 days. BS Japan also broadcast an extended version of the documentary on April 29, 2021, totaling 100 minutes of runtime, featuring unused footage. Amazon Prime Video included the extended version of documentary in its international release of the film in August", ". When production started in 2016, Anno initially intended to not involve himself much in the film, wishing to delegate most of it to his directors, particularly Tsurumaki, generally considered Khara's second-in-command, but as the release date approached with mounting production problems he progressively took more control and took on more tasks directly, also driven by his perfectionism. Maeda was also not initially serving as a director, but was brought in the middle of production", ". Maeda was also not initially serving as a director, but was brought in the middle of production. Kim Morrisy of Anime News Network described it as tumultuous: \"There were several occasions shown when he decided that the work he had done at the time was insufficient and would scrap it entirely. The [final] D part of the script was eventually completed in early 2019, at the latest possible stage it could have been done to meet the deadline.\"", "In the documentary, Anno is depicted as frequently late or absent from the studio, or would often stay overnight adjusting individual scenes he was unsatisfied with. Part A had been rewritten 40 times due to the difficulty staff had in depicting it, and at one point Anno was so lost on how to resolve the storylines he considered restarting it from scratch after nine months of work", ". Anno told the documentary crew he wouldn't miss working on the franchise and said everything he needed to, but felt finishing his work remained a priority, even at the expense of his well-being. He told Ogata later at post-production that he'd indeed miss it. Hayao Miyazaki described Anno as \"one who sheds blood for his films\". Upon finishing production, Anno preferred to immediately start work on a script for a new production while his staff was watching the first screening together", ". Gainax co-founder Toshio Okada criticized the documentary as \"sloppy\" and \"propaganda\" trying to make Anno look better, claiming Anno's live-action approach in fact took inspiration from Hiroyuki Yamaga's work in Royal Space Force: The Wings of Honnêamise instead of being sui generis as the documentary implied, and Anno noted the crew was in fact not present during the highly intense production of Part D for several months, nor did it cover him thanking the staff at the end.", "On March 28, 2021, the cast was fully reunited for the first time in 14 years and held a stage greeting, commenting on the film and their bond to the characters. On April 12, 2021, directors Anno, Tsurumaki and Maeda, as well as Ogata, held another stage greeting. On June 26, 2021, Anno held a live stream on singer Hikaru Utada's Instagram page, and debated the film. The cast and directors also participated in the All Night Nippon radio show on June 22, 2021", ". The cast and directors also participated in the All Night Nippon radio show on June 22, 2021. On June 27, 2021, another cast greeting was held. Mari's voice actress Maaya Sakamoto explained she had been absent from the previous events because she felt apprehensive over the details she knew about Mari's character that Anno told her, but refused to share them: \"I will take secrets to my grave\". A last stage greeting was held on July 11, 2021", ". A last stage greeting was held on July 11, 2021. Anno felt he had now done everything he could with anime, and accordingly Khara denied reports that he was working on a reboot of a popular animation series. He also noted he initially attempted a shorter two hour runtime, but had to extend it.", "Anno had originally intended on making a new Evangelion story since 2000 and has intended to open up the franchise in the future to new creators and turn Eva into a \"new Gundam\", using the Rebuilds as a foundation for this, but 3.0+1.0 is intended to be his final Evangelion work", ".0+1.0 is intended to be his final Evangelion work. The Animator Expo already featured three independent works based on the franchise: Evangelion – Another Impact and Neon Genesis IMPACTS, as well as until You come to me, a short film intended to showcase the talent of younger Khara animators, not as an official trailer. In an interview in August 2021, Anno stated other parts of the franchise and story might be revisited later. Staff also commented on doubts over this being the \"end of the story\"", ". Staff also commented on doubts over this being the \"end of the story\". On the film's first anniversary on March 8, Khara held a livestream of the film and included a Q&A session with Anno and other staff reaffirming his future plans.", "Music", "The film's theme song is \"One Last Kiss\". The song, performed by Hikaru Utada and co-produced by Utada and A.G. Cook, was scheduled to be released for digital download on January 24, 2021, and as an extended play CD and LP record featuring remastered versions of the previous Rebuild of Evangelion theme songs on January 27. It was released alongside the film on March 9, 2021, and internationally in the summer", ". It was released alongside the film on March 9, 2021, and internationally in the summer. Utada noted this was the first time they wrote the song's lyrics based on reading a finished version of the film's script, instead of simply skimming over early rough drafts. Anno also directed the music video for the song.", "A soundtrack album, titled Shiro Sagisu Music from \"Shin Evangelion\", was scheduled to be released on February 10, 2021, but was also delayed due to the delay of the film. It was released on March 17", ". It was released on March 17. The 3-disc score utilized several revamped tracks from Sagisu's previous works for Anno, like Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water and Kare Kano, as well as featuring cover versions of \"VOYAGER ~ Hizuke no Nai Bohyou\" by Megumi Hayashibara, originally written and performed by Yumi Matsutoya for 1984's Bye-Bye Jupiter, and a cue from 1977's The War in Space, originally composed by Toshiaki Tsushima.", "A vocal song based on the track \"what if?: orchestra, choir and piano\" from the soundtrack album titled \"Shiro SAGISU << what if? >> Yoko TAKAHASHI ver.\" was released as a digital single on August 31, featuring Yoko Takahashi and arrangements by Sagisu himself.\n\nRelease \nOn July 6, 2019, Khara screened the first ten minutes of the film on Japan Expo in Paris, Anime Expo in Los Angeles and CCG Expo 2019 in Shanghai. The film was originally scheduled for release on June 27, 2020.", "In April 2020, it was announced that the film had been removed from the schedule due to concerns regarding the COVID-19 pandemic, and the film was later rescheduled for release on January 23, 2021. The theatrical release poster was revealed shortly afterwards with the tagline \"Bye-bye, all of EVANGELION.\", indicating that this would likely be Anno's final Evangelion-related project", ".\", indicating that this would likely be Anno's final Evangelion-related project. Anno released a statement via Studio Khara's Twitter in October apologizing for the delay while confirming the film was near completion. Khara suggested the run time of the finished film could be over two hours, with the \"D-part\" clocking in at 41 minutes. They also reported that as of October 2 the film was undergoing a \"rush check\", a final check of the animation before editing", ". On January 14, 2021, the film was removed from the release calendar again. On February 16, 2021, it was reported that the film would be 154 minutes long, making it the longest film in the Rebuild tetralogy and one of the longest animated feature films ever, behind the films In This Corner (and Other Corners) of the World, Final Yamato, The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya, and Revival of Evangelion.", "On February 26, Hikaru Utada's staff account on Twitter reported that the film's feature song \"One Last Kiss\" would be released on March 8, 2021, with a link to their website with more information confirming a new release date for the film of March 8, 2021. This was also confirmed on Studio Khara's website, along with a runtime of 155 minutes.", "Updated release", "An updated version of the film, titled Evangelion: 3.0+1.01 Thrice Upon a Time, was released in Japanese theaters on June 12, 2021. This version features updated cuts of various scenes while not changing the overall story of the film. It also accompanied the distribution of a 36-page booklet called Eva-Extra-Extra, including non-canon illustrations by staff and a prequel manga set before the events of the previous film, Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo, called Evangelion: 3.0 (-120min", ".0 You Can (Not) Redo, called Evangelion: 3.0 (-120min.), written by director Kazuya Tsurumaki under Anno's supervision. The manga was Anno's initiative, and began production on April 11.", "Internationally, Amazon Prime Video acquired exclusive streaming rights to the film; it was released in worldwide on August 13, 2021, excluding Japan. However, on July 20, 2021, Amazon Prime Video announced that it will also stream the film in Japan on the same day as its international release. It featured full re-dubbings of the previous Rebuild films, including several voice actors from the A.D", ".D. Vision and Manga Entertainment localizations of the original series and films, in place of the mostly new cast used in the Funimation adaptations of the Rebuild series and Netflix's adaptation of the series. Like Netflix's release, it also included a full re-translation by Khara's in-house translator, Dan Kanemitsu.", "GKIDS acquired the rights for theatrical releases of the film in North America. The film was released in the United States on IMAX in select theaters on November 30, 2022, followed by a nationwide release on December 6, 8, and 11. It is due to be released in the United Kingdom by All The Anime on October 6, 2023.", "Home media", "On October 4, 2022, Khara announced a home media release for March 8, 2023, on the film's two-year anniversary, titled 3.0+1.11. Its limited edition includes several bonus materials, like a copy of the script signed by Hideaki Anno. All editions also accompany a bonus feature short video called Evangelion: 3.0 (-46h), along with a re-release of the manga Evangelion 3.0 (-120 min.) in video format in full color and voiced by the original cast", ".0 (-120 min.) in video format in full color and voiced by the original cast. In North America, GKIDS also acquired home media rights to the film, with a release on October 17, 2023.", "Reception", "Box office", "Anno stated his desire to see 3.0+1.0 break the ¥10 billion mark, which he considered would be a landmark for robot anime. The film was released in Japan on March 8, 2021, earning ¥802,774,200 ($7,387,198) on its first day, outdoing its predecessor by 23.8% and breaking the IMAX opening day record in Japan. The film grossed ¥3,338,422,400 ($30,596,851) in its first week, ranking No. 1 in Japan in its opening week", ". 1 in Japan in its opening week. In 21 days, the film sold 3,961,480 tickets and grossed ¥6,078,211,750 ($55,492,310) in Japan, outdoing 3.0's total earnings of ¥5.3 billion. In 30 days, it surpassed ¥7 billion ($63.77 million), completing four weeks as #1 in Japanese box offices. On May 8, it surpassed Shin Godzilla and became Anno's highest-grossing film at ¥8.28 billion ($75.72 million). With the 3.0+1", ".28 billion ($75.72 million). With the 3.0+1.01 updated release on June 12, the film jumped back to top box office spot after spending a weekend out of the top 10 chart and on June 15, exactly the 100th day since release, achieving a 960.5% increase, reached ¥9 billion ($81.7 million). On July 13, it was announced that the film has exceeded ¥10 billion, becoming the first ever film distributed by Toei to hit this box office milestone and ending its theatrical run on July 21 pocketing ¥10", ".23 billion with an attendance number of 6.69 million people, finishing with almost double as its predecessor's ¥5.3 billion mark. Japanese Twitter archival site Fusetter had its all-time highest view count on March 9. After the film's August streaming release, it broke Amazon Prime Video's all-time high day-one view amount since its launch in Japan. By December 2021, the movie became the highest-grossing movie of the year in Japan, accounting for over ¥10.2 billion (about US$89.5 million)", ".2 billion (about US$89.5 million). The film has grossed a Japanese box office total of ().", "Critical response", "Japanese reception has been highly positive. The Asahi Shimbun released a series of reviews from Japanese academics and critics. Hiroki Azuma praised the film as a \"grand masterpiece\", and thought it was nearly impossible for the film to respond to all the \"burden\" it carried, but it did so successfully. He considered that, although it outwardly looks like a science fiction film, it is in reality a confessional I-novel by Anno", ". Commenting on Anno's style, anime director Mamoru Oshii shared this perception, and considered that Anno is \"more of a producer than a director these days\" and felt that he lacked a theme. In a later interview with comedian Hitoshi Matsumoto, Anno himself later echoed this, saying that as a director he could afford to be a child, but not after he started producing. Akiko Sugawa praised the portrayal of its female characters. Japanese aggregator site Eiga", ". Akiko Sugawa praised the portrayal of its female characters. Japanese aggregator site Eiga.com and others praised the movie for fulfilling its promise of being easily approachable to a viewer not familiar with the original Neon Genesis Evangelion, reiterating its role as a stand-alone story, but also likening it to the series' status as a pop culture phenomenon in view of the many emerging analyses, a view shared by the cast", ". On aggregator site Filmmarks, the film attained the highest first-day satisfaction score in its history.", "Reviewers also noted the film's deeply divided reception among Evangelion fans, with the ending proving particularly controversial", ". Gainax co-founder Toshio Okada promulgated an association between the character of Mari and Anno's wife Moyoco, and was rebuffed by significant backlash from Khara staff, Moyoco, and Anno himself, who instead pointed out to Tsurumaki's responsibility for developing her and similarities to his earlier characters from FLCL and Diebuster, which shared her voice actress, and Anno's detachment from her creation", ". Similarly to End of Evangelion, reviewers considered the film to have the theme of \"moving into reality\", but were divided on the effectiveness of its execution and the resolution of its plot lines. Bunshun Online concluded that unlike the 1997 film, 3.0+1.0 did not intend to give viewers a mystery to solve, but to provide a more straightforward answer", ". Writers for Yahoo", "! Japan and others agreed on its distinctiveness from the previous work, reflecting a different cultural context and personal state of Hideaki Anno, speculating his time at Ghibli had greatly influenced him, with a less multifaceted story where Shinji's character had been completely \"consumed\" by Anno attempting to break the \"Otaku curse\" represented in-story by the \"Curse of Evangelion\", and considered the ending could only be explained with background knowledge on Anno's life", ", and considered the ending could only be explained with background knowledge on Anno's life, and how this controversy would likely drive more heated discussion in the near future, with fan backlash coming even at small subsequent statements by Anno and other staff", ". Writer Ichisi Lida concluded he could not decide if he liked the film or not, but felt if he watched it again after some years, he'd think it was a bad film, not feeling the same feeling of confusion mixed with amazement as 1997's End of Evangelion or its 2012 predecessor Evangelion 3.0. Lida expressed disappointment at a \"sense of déjà vu\", characterizing the film a self-imitation of Anno's past works", ". Lida felt that Shinji's maturing was not surprising, but expected, as he had already gone through that process with the 1997 film. Similarly, he noted how the generation that grew up with the Rebuild films could feel like their own coming-of-age would be marked by the film, but for an older fan such as himself, that had already happened with the 1997 movie. Anno had partly re-created his hometown of Ube as it existed during his youth for the ending scene, prompting tourism from fans to the town.", "In contrast to the negative receptions of its predecessor Evangelion: 3.0 You Can (Not) Redo, Western critical reception has been extremely positive. As of December 2022, it holds a 100% score and an average score of 8.60/10 on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes with 25 reviews. The website's critic consensus states, \"With its characteristic boldness, Evangelion:3.0+1.01 more than thricely rewards fans with a cathartic finale to the 26-year-old iconic anime tale", ".0+1.01 more than thricely rewards fans with a cathartic finale to the 26-year-old iconic anime tale.\" According to Metacritic, which calculated a weighted average score of 84 out of 100 based on 7 critics reviews, the film received \"universal acclaim\"", ". Richard Eisenbeis of Anime News Network noted the film's close connections with End of Evangelion on a thematic and narrative level and praised its characterization, while also noting its different themes, but criticized its world-building, and also the lack of development given to Mari to justify her role in the plot. Kyle McLain of IGN praised the film for having themes of maturity, hope and positivity, but disliked the final act as \"inscrutable\"", ". Matt Schley of The Japan Times shared his opinion, saying: \"Thrice is not the charm for those hoping for a definitive, easy-to-understand ending for Evangelion. Like its predecessors, 3.0+1.0 raises more questions than it answers. Time is a circle.\" Justin Harrison of The Spool called it \"a deeply moving motion picture\"", ". Time is a circle.\" Justin Harrison of The Spool called it \"a deeply moving motion picture\". SoraNews24 expressed puzzlement at the ending, but noted the film is \"complex, hits different people in different ways, and is something that immediately triggers a repeat-viewing reaction\". Crunchyroll's Daryl Harding noticed the film \"goes pretty meta\" and praised its direction, but repeatedly criticized the animation", ". Otaquest's Chris Cimi noted the film builds an aesthetic that is meaningfully different from the series' \"iconic visual language\", to a point of contention: \"The CG sure does look like CG\". Andrew Osmond of NEO felt that although there were things about the film that felt \"indulgent, pandering, and flat-out dumb\", he felt satisfied with the film, noting a resolution of Evangelion's baseline conflict, and felt the film managed to synthesize Anno's previous efforts into a coherent and touching ending", ". Although he believed the Evangelion franchise has been \"bolder and more brilliant in the past\", he stated that the film \"brings it to a beautiful ending\".", "The film has won the 45th Japan Academy Film Prize, and animated film categories at the Tokyo Anime Film Festival, with Anno winning the original screenplay and director categories.\n\nAwards and honours\n\nPost–release\n\nCollaborative projects", "Awards and honours\n\nPost–release\n\nCollaborative projects\n\nIn February 2022, a collaborative project titled \"Shin Japan Heroes Universe\" was announced. A joint venture between Khara, Toei Company, Toho Co., Ltd., and Tsuburaya Productions, the project is intended for merchandising purposes; uniting films that Anno had worked on that bear the katakana title \"Shin\" (シン・), such as Shin Godzilla, Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time, Shin Ultraman, and Shin Kamen Rider.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Notes\n\nReferences \n\n Text was copied/adapted from Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon A Time at EvaGeeks wiki, which is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 (Unported) (CC-BY-SA 3.0) license\n\nExternal links", "2021 films\n2021 anime films\n2020s Japanese-language films\n2021 science fiction films\nKhara\nAnimated films set in Paris\nAnimated films set in the 2020s\nAnimated films set in the future\nAnimated post-apocalyptic films\nAnime films composed by Shirō Sagisu\nAnime postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic\nEiffel Tower in fiction\nFilms directed by Hideaki Anno\nFilms directed by Kazuya Tsurumaki\nFilms with screenplays by Hideaki Anno\nFilms set in 2029\nFilms set in Antarctica", "Films with screenplays by Hideaki Anno\nFilms set in 2029\nFilms set in Antarctica\nFilms postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic\nFilms with live action and animation\nJapan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year winners\nJapanese sequel films\nMecha anime and manga\nNeon Genesis Evangelion films\nToho animated films\nIMAX films" ]

[ "The following is a list of books, articles, and videos about the prime ministers of Canada.\n\nOverview \n \n \n\n \n\n\\\n Schlee, Gary. (2018) Unknown and Unforgettable: A Guide to Canada's Prime Ministers. Toronto: Shorelawn Publishing.\n Dutil, Patrice (ed.) (2023) Statesmen, Strategists and Diplomats. Canada's Prime Ministers and the Making of Foreign Policy. University of British Columbia Press.", "John A. Macdonald \nDutil, Patrice. (2024) Sir John A. Macdonald. Sutherland House. (forthcoming)\nLaxer, James (2016) Staking Claims to a Continent: John A. Macdonald, Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, and the Making of North America. Anansi Press \nPatrice Dutil and Roger Hall (2014) John A. Macdonald at 200: New Reflections and Legacies. Dundurn Press \nMartin, Ged. (2013) John A. Macdonald: Canada's First Prime Minister. Dundurn Press", "Martin, Ged. (2013) John A. Macdonald: Canada's First Prime Minister. Dundurn Press \nRohmer, Richard (2013) Sir John A.'s Crusade and Seward's Magnificent Folly Dundurn Press \n Gwyn, Richard (2011) Nation Maker Sir John A. MacDonald: His Life, Our Times Vol. 2. Random House. \n Gwyn, Richard (2008) John A: The Man Who Made Us Vol 1. Vintage Canada.", "Gwyn, Richard (2008) John A: The Man Who Made Us Vol 1. Vintage Canada. \n Johnson, J.K. and Waite, P.B. (2007) \"Sir John Alexander Macdonald,\" in Canada's Prime Ministers, Macdonald to Trudeau: Portraits from the Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. \nPatricia Phenix (2007) Private Demons: The Tragic Personal Life of John A. Macdonald McClelland & Stewart \nGeorge R. Parkin (2007) Sir John A. MacDonald: The Makers of Canada (1908) Kessinger Publishing", "George R. Parkin (2007) Sir John A. MacDonald: The Makers of Canada (1908) Kessinger Publishing \n Sletcher, Michael. (2004) \"Sir John A. Macdonald,\" in James Eli Adams, and Tom and Sara Pendergast, eds., Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era. 4 vols., Danbury, CT: Grolier Academic Reference. \nPeter B Waite(2000) John a MacDonald: Revised Fitzhenry & Whiteside \nEstate of Donald Creighton (1998) John A. Macdonald: The Young Politician. The Old Chieftain University of Toronto Press", "Swainson, Donald. (1989) Sir John A. Macdonald: The Man and the Politician. Kingston, ON: Quarry Press. \nCynthia M. Smith, Jack McLeod (1989)Sir John A. : an anecdotal life of John A. Macdonald Oxford University Press \n McSherry, James. (1984) The invisible lady: Sir John A. Macdonald's first wife. In Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, Vol. 1 pp. 91–97.\n Waite, P. B. (1976) + (1999) John A. Macdonald. Don Mills, ON: Fitzhenry and Whiteside Limited.", "Waite, P. B. (1976) + (1999) John A. Macdonald. Don Mills, ON: Fitzhenry and Whiteside Limited.\n Waite, P. B. (1975) Macdonald: His Life and World. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. .\n Johnson, J.K. (1969) Affectionately Yours: The Letters of Sir John A. Macdonald and His Family. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. \nGuillet, Edwin C, (1967) You'll Never Die, John A!. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada.\n Wallace, W. Stewart. (1924) Sir John Macdonald. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited.", "Wallace, W. Stewart. (1924) Sir John Macdonald. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited.\n Pope, Joseph (1921) Correspondence of Sir John Macdonald: selections from the correspondence of Sir John Alexander Macdonald. Toronto: Oxford University Press.\n Pope, Joseph. (1915) The Day of Sir John Macdonald: A Chronicle of the First Prime Minister of the Dominion. Toronto: Brook & Co.", "Pope, Joseph. (1894) Memoirs of the Right Honourable Sir John Alexander Macdonald, G.C.B., First Prime Minister of The Dominion of Canada, Vols. 1&2. Ottawa: J. Durie & Son.\nCollins, Joseph Edmund. (1883) Life and times of the Right Honourable Sir John A. Macdonald: Premier of the Dominion of Canada", "Alexander Mackenzie \nWilliam Buckingham, George W. Ross (2005) The Hon. Alexander MacKenzie: His Life and Times University Press of the Pacific: (Reprint of 1892 edition) \nW. H. Heick, \"Mackenzie and Macdonald: federal politics and politicians in Canada, 1873–1878\" (phd thesis, Duke Univ., Durham, N.C., 1966)\nG. E. Briggs, \"Edward Blake – Alexander Mackenzie: rivals for power?\" (ma thesis, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, Ont., 1965).", "G. F. Henderson, \"Alexander Mackenzie and the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1871–1878\" (ma thesis, Queen's Univ., Kingston, 1964)\nDale C. Thomson (1960) Alexander Mackenzie, Clear Grit Macmillan of Canada\nT. A. Burke, \"Mackenzie and his cabinet, 1873–1878,\" CHR, 41 (1960): 128–48.\nWilliam Buckingham, George William Ross \"The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie: His Life and Times\". 1892. Toronto: Rose Publishing Company Limited, 678 pages", "Sir George W. Ross \"Getting into Parliament and After\", 1913. Toronto: William Briggs, 343 pages\nT.G. Marquis \"Builders of Canada from Cartier to Laurier\", 1903. Toronto: John C. Winston and Co., 570 pages\nJohn Charles Dent \"The Canadian Portrait Gallery\". Vol. 1 1880. Toronto John B. Magurn", "John Abbott \n Elisabeth L. Abbott, 1997, The Reluctant P.M.: Notes on the Life of Sir John Abbott, Canada's Third Prime Minister, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, Québec, Abbott \n Michael Hill, 2022. The Lost Prime Ministers. Toronto: Dundurn Press. Covers Abbott, Thompson, Bowell and Tupper.\n Pieter L. van Ewijk, 2020, \"POWER BROKER; Canada's 3rd Prime Minister, John J.C. Abbott\", Coaldale, Alberta: PvE Publishing", "John Thompson \n J. Castell Hopkins, 1895, Life and Work of the Rt. Hon. Sir John Thompson, Toronto: United Publishing Houses.\n J.P. Heisler, 1955, Sir John Thompson, thesis, University of Toronto.\n John Saywell (editor), 1960, The Canadian Journal of Lady Aberdeen, 1893–1898, Champlain Society.\n Bruce Hutchison, 1964, Mr. Prime Minister 1867–1964, Toronto: Longmans Canada.\n Lovell Clark, 1968, A History of the Conservative Administrations, 1891–1896, PhD thesis, University of Toronto.", "Peter Busby Waite, 1985, The Man from Halifax: Sir John Thompson, Prime Minister, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, .\n Michael Bliss, 1994, Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney, Toronto.\n J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, 1999, Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders, Toronto: HarperCollinsPublishersLtd, A Phyllis Bruce Book, p. 40–42. .", "Mackenzie Bowell \n Betsy Boyce, 2001, The accidental Prime Minister: The biography of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, Ameliasburg, ON: Seventh Town Historical Society \n Ted Glenn, 2022. A Very Canadian Coup. Toronto: Dundurn Press. \n Barry K. Wilson, 2021. Sir Mackenzie Bowell: A Prime Minister Forgotten by History. Loose Cannon Press.", "Charles Tupper \nJoseph Howe, Hon. Mr. Howe's Speech on Dr. Tupper's Railway Resolution. House of assembly. Monday, 9 April 1860. (1860)\nJoseph Howe, Speech of the Honorable Provincial Secretary, In reply to Doctor Tupper, On the Subject of Retrenchment. Wednesday, March 25 (1863)\nCharles Tupper, A Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Carnarvon: In Reply to a Pamphlet Entitled \"Confederation Considered in Relation to the Interests of the Empire\" (1866)", "Charles Tupper, Letter from the Hon. Dr. Tupper, C.B., to the Hon. James McDonald, M.P.P. (1872)\nThe Pacific Railway: Speeches Delivered by Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, K.C.M.G., Minister of Railways and Canals, Hon. H.L. Langevin, C.B., Minister of Public Works, J.B. Plumbs, Esq., M.P., (Niagara), Thomas White, Esq., M.P., (Cardwell), During the Debate in the House of Commons, Session 1880 (1880)\nCharles Tupper, Le chemin de fer canadien du Pacifique: discours. Exposé complet de la question. (1880)", "Charles Tupper, Official Report of the Speech Delivered by Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, K.C.M.G., C.B., Minister of Raillways [sic] and Canals, On the Canadian Pacific Railway (1882)\nCharles Thibault, Biography of Sir Charles Tupper, Minister of Railway ... High Commissioner of Canada to England (1883)\nCharles Tupper, Unrestricted Reciprocity; Speech ... Delivered in the House of Commons, on Monday, March 19, 1888 (1888)", "Charles Tupper, Preferential Trade Relations Between Great Britain and Her Colonies: An Address Delivered before the Montreal Board of Trade, January 20, 1896 (1896)\nCharles Tupper, Speech on the Remedial Bill, Ottawa, 18 March 1896. (1896)\nHenry J. Morgan, Ad Multos Annos: A Tribute to Sir Charles Tupper on His Political Birthday, 1900 (1900)\nE. M. Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia: The Hon. J. W. Johnstone, The Hon. Joseph Howe, The Hon. Charles Tupper (1909)", "Charles Tupper, Political Reminiscences of the Right Honourable Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., ed. W. A. Harkin (1914)\nThe Life and Letters of the Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., K.C.M.G., ed. E. M. Saunders, 2 vols. (1916)\nJ. W. Longley, Sir Charles Tupper (1916)\nSupplement to the Life and Letters of the Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., G.C.M.G., ed. C. H. Tupper (1926)\nW. M. Whitelaw, The Maritimes and Canada Before Confederation (1934)", "W. M. Whitelaw, The Maritimes and Canada Before Confederation (1934)\nH. G. Skilling, Canadian Representation Abroad: From Agency to Embassy (1945)\nA. W. MacIntosh, \"The Career of Sir Charles Tupper in Canada, 1864–1900\", Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto (1960)\nG. R. Stevens, Canadian National Railways, 2 vols. (1960–62)\nD. H. Tait, \"The Role of Charles Tupper in Nova Scotian Politics, 1855–1870\", M.A. thesis, Dalhousie University (1962)", "J. M. Robinson, \"A Canadian at the Court of Queen Victoria: The High Commissionership, 1880–1895\", M.A. thesis, University of Calgary (1967)\nL. C. Clark, \"A History of the Conservative Administrations, 1891 to 1896\", Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto (1968)\nIan Wilson, \"Fleming and Tupper: The Fall of the Siamese Twins, 1880\", in Character and Circumstance: Essays in Honour of Donald Grant Creighton, ed. J. S. Moir (1970)", "P. B. Waite, The Life and Times of Confederation, 1864–1867: Politics, Newspapers, and the Union of British North America (1971)\nP. B. Waite, Canada, 1874–1896: Arduous Destiny (1971)\nD. A. Muise, \"Elections and Constituencies: Federal Politics in Nova Scotia, 1867–1878\", Ph.D. thesis, University of Western Ontario (1971)\nK. M. McLaughlin, \"Race, Religion and Politics: The Election of 1896 in Canada\", Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto (1974)", "Robert Page, \"Tupper's Last Hurrah: The Years as Opposition Leader, 1896–1900\" in The West and the Nation: Essays in Honour of W. L. Morton, ed. Carl Berger and Ramsay Cook (1976)\nH. C. Cameron, \"Nova Scotians in the Federal Cabinet, 1867–1878\", M.A. thesis, Queen's University (1976)\nW. K. Lamb, History of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1977)\nK. G. Pryke, Nova Scotia and Confederation, 1864–74 (1979)", "K. G. Pryke, Nova Scotia and Confederation, 1864–74 (1979)\nR. P. Langhout, \"Developing Nova Scotia: Railways and Public Accounts, 1849–1867,\" Acadiensis 14.2 (1984–85)\nVincent Durant, War Horse of Cumberland: The Life and Times of Sir Charles Tupper (1985)\nBen Forster, A Conjunction of Interests: Business, Politics, and Tariffs, 1825–1879 (1986)", "Ben Forster, A Conjunction of Interests: Business, Politics, and Tariffs, 1825–1879 (1986)\nR. P. Langhout, \"Public Enterprise: An Analysis of Public Finance in the Maritime Colonies During the Period of Responsible Government\", Ph.D. thesis, University of New Brunswick (1989)\nBen Forster, \"The 1870s: Political Integration\" in The Atlantic Provinces in Confederation, ed. E. R. Forbes and D. A. Muise (1993)", "I. P. A. Buckner, \"The 1860s: An End and a Beginning\" in The Atlantic Region to Confederation, ed. P. A. Buckner and John Reid (1994)\nJock Murray and Janet Murray, Sir Charles Tupper: Fighting Doctor to Father of Confederation (1998)\nJ.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders (1999)\nJohanna Bertin, Sir Charles Tupper: The Bully for Any Great Cause (2006)", "Wilfrid Laurier \n Patrice Dutil and David MacKenzie. Canada 1911: The Decisive Election that Shaped the Country (2011) \n Grace Stewart, Heather. Sir Wilfrid Laurier: the weakling who stood his ground (2006) \n Laurier LaPierre Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Romance of Canada – (1996). \n Patrice Dutil. Devil's Adovcate: Godfroy Langlois and the Politics of Liberal Progressivism in Laurier's Quebec (1994)", "Real Bélanger. Wilfrid Laurier; quand la politique devient passion (Québec et Montréal, 1986, rev.ed. 2007)\nR. T. Clippingdale, Laurier, his life and world (Toronto, 1979)\nH. B. Neatby. Laurier and a Liberal Quebec; a study in political management, ed. R. T. Clippingdale (Toronto, 1973)\n Joseph Schull. Laurier. The First Canadian (1965)\n Oscar Douglas Skelton, Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier 2v (1921; reprinted 1965)", "Oscar Douglas Skelton, Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier 2v (1921; reprinted 1965)\n H. Blair Neatby. Laurier and a Liberal Quebec: A Study in Political Management (1973)\n J. W. Dafoe, Laurier: A Study in Canadian Politics (1922)", "Robert Borden \nPatrice Dutil and David MacKenzie Canada 1911: The Decisive Election that Shaped the Country (2011) \nPatrice Dutil and David MacKenzie Embattled Nation: Canada's Wartime Election of 1917 (2017) \nJohn English. Borden: his life and world (Toronto, 1977)\nEnglish, John. The decline of politics: the Conservatives and the party system, 1901–20 (Toronto, 1977)\n Brown, Robert Craig. Robert Laird Borden: A Biography (1975)", "Brown, Robert Craig. Robert Laird Borden: A Biography (1975)\n Macquarrie, Heath. Robert Borden and the Election of 1911. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 1959, Vol. 25 Issue 3, pp 271–286 in JSTOR\n Cook, Tim. Warlords: Borden, Mackenzie King, and Canada's World Wars. Toronto: Allen Lane, 2012.", "Arthur Meighen \n \n Granatstein, J.L. and Hillmer, Norman. Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders. HarperCollinsPublishersLtd., 1999. P. 75-82. .\n Meighen, Arthur. Unrevised and Unrepented II: Debating Speeches and Others by the Right Honourable Arthur Meighen (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2011), Edited by Arthur Milnes; this is an expanded version of Arthur Meighen, Unrevised and Unrepented: Debating Speeches and Others by the Right Honourable Arthur Meighen (1949)", "Oversea Addresses, June – July 1921 by Arthur Meighen at archive.org", "William Lyon Mackenzie King \nBiographical\n Bliss, Michael. Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney (1994), pp. 123–184.\n Cook, Tim. Warlords: Borden, Mackenzie King, and Canada's World Wars. Toronto: Allen Lane, 2012.\n Courtney, John C. \"Prime Ministerial Character: An Examination of Mackenzie King's Political Leadership,\" Canadian Journal of Political Science Vol. 9, No. 1 (Mar., 1976), pp. 77–100 in JSTOR.", "Dawson, R.M. William Lyon Mackenzie King: A Political Biography. Vol. 1: 1874–1923, (1958) online edition.\n English, John, and J.O. Stubbs, eds. Mackenzie King: Widening the Debate, (1977), 257pp; 11 essays by scholars.\n Esberey, Joy E. Knight of the Holy Spirit: A Study of William Lyon Mackenzie King. (1980). 245 pp. a psychobiography stressing his spirituality.\n Ferns, Henry, Bernard Ostry, and John Meisel. The Age of Mackenzie King (1976), 396pp; scholarly biography to 1919; excerpt and text search.", "Granatstein, J.L. \"King, (William Lyon) Mackenzie (1874–1950)\", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed, Jan 2011 accessed 12 Sept 2011\n Granatstein, J.L. Mackenzie King: His Life and World, (1977).\n Hutchison, Bruce. The Incredible Canadian. 1952, a controversial popular book.\nLevine, Allan. King: William Lyon Mackenzie King: A Life Guided By the Hand of Destiny (2011), 515pp; .\n McGregor, F.A. The Fall & Rise of Mackenzie King, 1911–1919 (1962) online edition.", "McGregor, F.A. The Fall & Rise of Mackenzie King, 1911–1919 (1962) online edition.\n \n Neatby, H. Blair. William Lyon Mackenzie King, 1924–1932: The Lonely Heights (1963) standard biography, online edition.\n Neatby, H. Blair. William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1932–1939: the Prism of Unity (1976) standard biography online edition.\n Stacey, C.P. A Very Double Life: The Private World of Mackenzie King (1985) excerpt and text search.", "Thompson, Neville. The Third Man: Churchill, Roosevelt, Mackenzie King and the Friendships that won WWII. Toronto: Sutherland House, 2021.\n Wardhaugh, Robert A. \"A Marriage of Convenience? Mackenzie King and Prince Albert Constituency,\" Prairie Forum 1996 21(2): 177–199. He represented the safe Saskatchewan district 1926–45; his goal was to disarm the Progressives.\n Whitaker, Reginald. \"Political Thought and Political Action in Mackenzie King.\" Journal of Canadian Studies 1978–1979 13(4): 40–60. .", "Scholarly studies\n Allen, Ralph. Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945, (1961), 492pp online edition.\n Betcherman, Lita-Rose. Ernest Lapointe: Mackenzie King's Great Quebec Lieutenant. (2002). 435 pp.\n Cuff, R.D. and Granatstein, J.L. Canadian-American Relations in Wartime: From the Great War to the Cold War. (1975). 205 pp.\n Donaghy, Greg, ed. Canada and the Early Cold War, 1943–1957 (1998) online edition.", "Donaghy, Greg, ed. Canada and the Early Cold War, 1943–1957 (1998) online edition.\n Dummitt, Christopher. Unbuttoned: A History of Mackenzie King's Secret Life. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017.\n Dziuban, Stanley W. Military Relations between the United States and Canada, 1939–1945 (1959) online edition.\n Eayrs James. In Defence of Canada. 5 vols. 1964–1983. the standard history of defense policy.", "Eayrs James. In Defence of Canada. 5 vols. 1964–1983. the standard history of defense policy.\n Esberey, J.B. \"Personality and Politics: A New Look at the King-Byng Dispute,\" Canadian Journal of Political Science vol 6 no. 1 (March 1973), 37–55.\n Granatstein, J. L. Canada's War: The politics of the Mackenzie King government, 1939–1945 (1975)\n Granatstein, J.L. Conscription in the Second World War, 1939–1945;: A study in political management (1969).", "Granatstein, J.L. and Norman Hillmer. Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders, 1999, pp. 83–101.\n Macfarlane, John. \"Double Vision: Ernest Lapointe, Mackenzie King and the Quebec Voice in Canadian Foreign Policy, 1935–1939,\" Journal of Canadian Studies 1999 34(1): 93–111; argues Lapointe guided the more imperialist Mackenzie King through three explosive situations: the Ethiopian crisis of 1935, the Munich crisis of 1938, and the formulation of Ottawa's 'no-neutrality-no-conscription' pact in 1939.", "Mackenzie, David. King and Chaos. (1935 election) University of British Columbia Press, 2023.\n MacLaren, Roy. Mackenzie King in the age of the Dictators. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2019.\n Neatby, H. Blair. The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties (1972) online edition.\n Stacey, C. P. Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945 (1970).\n Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict: Volume 2: 1921–1948; the Mackenzie King Era, University of Toronto Press 1981, .", "Teigrob, Robert. Five Days in Hitler's Germany: Mackenzie King's Mission to Avert a Second World War, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2019.\n Thompson, John H., and Allan Seager. Canada 1922–1939. (1985). standard scholarly survey. (Part of The Canadian Centenary Series.)\n Whitaker, Reginald. The Government Party: Organizing and Financing the Liberal Party of Canada, 1930–1958 (1977).", "Primary sources\n The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs (annual, 1901–1938), full text for 1920 online and downloadable.\n Mackenzie King, W. L. Industry and Humanity: A Study in the Principles Under-Lying Industrial Reconstruction (1918) online edition; also full text online and downloadable.\n The diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, 50,000 pages, typescript; fully searchable.", "The diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, 50,000 pages, typescript; fully searchable.\n Pickersgill, J.W., and Donald F. Forster, The Mackenzie King Record. 4 vols. Vol. 1: 1939–1944 and Vol. 2: 1944–1945 (University of Toronto Press, 1960); and Vol. 3: 1945–1946 online and Vol. 4: 1946–1947 online (University of Toronto Press, 1970). Edited from King's private diary.\n Hou, Charles, and Cynthia Hou, eds. Great Canadian Political Cartoons, 1915 to 1945. (2002). 244pp.", "Canadian Department of External Affairs, Documents on Canadian External Relations (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1967–). These cover the period 1909–1960. (Often referred to as DCER.)\nTelevision series\n Brittain, Donald. The King Chronicles, National Film Board, 1988.", "R.B. Bennett \nMonographs\nAndrew D. Maclean; R. B. Bennett, Prime Minister of Canada, Toronto, Excelsior Publishing Co., 1935.\nErnest Watkins; R. B. Bennett: A Biography, 1963.\nJ. R. H. Wilbur; The Bennett New Deal: Fraud or Portent, 1968.", "Peter Busby Waite; Loner: Three Sketches of the Personal Life and Ideas of R.B. Bennett, 1870–1947, 1992.\nChristopher McCreery and Arthur Milnes (editors): The Authentic Voice of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, McGill – Queen's University Press, Centre for the Study of Democracy, 2009, . This book is a collection of Bennett's speeches in the British House of Lords from 1941–47.\nPeter Busby Waite; In Search of R.B. Bennett, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2012.", "Peter Busby Waite; In Search of R.B. Bennett, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2012.\nJohn Boyko; Bennett: The Rebel Who Challenged And Changed A Nation, Toronto, Key Porter Books, 2010, .\nOther works\nBruce Hutchison; The Incredible Canadian, Toronto 1952, Longmans Canada. This book is mainly concerned with William Lyon Mackenzie King, but also includes substantial material on R. B. Bennett.\nLord Beaverbrook; Friends, 1959.", "Lord Beaverbrook; Friends, 1959.\nH. Blair Neatby; The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties, 1972 ch 4 on Bennett, pp 51–72 online version.\nC. P. Stacey; Canada and the Age of Conflict, volume 2, 1981.", "Louis St. Laurent \nPatrice Dutil (ed.); The Unexpected Louis St-Laurent: Politics and Policies for a Modern Canada, University of British Columbia Press, 2020 .\nJ. W. Pickersgill, My years with Louis St-Laurent: a political memoir (Toronto and Buffalo, N.Y., 1975)\nD. C. Thomson, Louis St. Laurent: Canadian (Toronto, 1967)", "John Diefenbaker \nBibliography\n \n \n Courtney, John C. (2022) Revival and Change: The 1957 and 1958 Diefenbaker Elections. University of British Columbia Press. \n \n \n \n \n Ibbitson, John. (2023) The Duel (forthcoming)\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Spencer, Dick. (1994) Trumpets and Drums: John Diefenbaker on the Campaign Trail. Greystone Books. \n \n \n \n \n\nOnline sources\n\n (fee for article)\n\nLester B. Pearson \n Anderson, Antony. The Diplomat: Lester Pearson and the Suez Crisis. Toronto: Goose Lane, 2015.", "Also and .\n Also .\n Also .\n\nWritings\n\n Also published by Pall Mall Press (1970), , .", "Pierre Trudeau \n Aivalis, Christo. The Constant Liberal: Pierre Trudeau, Organized Labour and the Canadian Social Democratic Left. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2018.\n Bergeron, Gérard. Notre miroir à deux faces: Trudeau-Lévesque. Montreal: Québec/Amérique, c1985. \n Bliss, Michael. Right Honourable Men: the descent of Canadian politics from Macdonald to Mulroney, 1994.\n Bothwell, Robert and Granatstein, J.L. Pirouette : Pierre Trudeau and Canadian foreign policy, 1990.", "Bowering, George. Egotists and Autocrats: the Prime Ministers of Canada, 1999.\n Burelle, André. Pierre Elliott Trudeau: l'intellectuel et le politique, Montréal: Fides, 2005, 480 pages. \n Butler, Rick, Jean-Guy Carrier, eds. The Trudeau decade. Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1979.\n Butson, Thomas G. Pierre Elliott Trudeau. New York: Chelsea House, c1986. \n Clarkson, Stephen; McCall, Christina. Trudeau and our times. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, c1990–c1994. 2 v.", "Cohen, Andrew, J. L. Granatstein, eds. Trudeau's Shadow: the life and legacy of Pierre Elliott Trudeau. Toronto: Vintage Canada, 1999.\n Couture, Claude. Paddling with the Current: Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Étienne Parent, liberalism and nationalism in Canada. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, c1998. Issued also in French: La loyauté d'un laïc. \n Donaldson, Gordon (journalist). The Prime Ministers of Canada, 1997.", "Donaldson, Gordon (journalist). The Prime Ministers of Canada, 1997.\n English, John. Citizen of the World: The Life of Pierre Elliott Trudeau Volume One: 1919–1968 (2006); Just Watch Me: The Life of Pierre Elliott Trudeau Volume Two: 1968–2000 (2009); Knopf Canada, \n Griffiths, Linda. Maggie & Pierre: a fantasy of love, politics and the media: a play. Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1980. \n Gwyn, Richard. The Northern Magus: Pierre Trudeau and Canadians. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, c1980.", "Hillmer, Norman and Granatstein, J.L. Prime Ministers: Rating Canada's Leaders, 1999. .\n Laforest, Guy. Trudeau and the end of a Canadian dream. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, c1995. \n Litt, Paul. Trudeaumania. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2016.\n Lotz, Jim. Prime Ministers of Canada, 1987.\n McDonald, Kenneth. His pride, our fall: recovering from the Trudeau revolution. Toronto: Key Porter Books, c1995.", "McIlroy, Thad, ed. A Rose is a rose: a tribute to Pierre Elliott Trudeau in cartoons and quotas. Toronto: Doubleday, 1984. \n Mills, Allen. Citizen Trudeau: An Intellectual Biography, 1944-1965. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2016.\n Nemni, Max and Nemni, Monique. Young Trudeau: Son of Quebec, Father of Canada, 1919–1944. Toronto: Douglas Gibson Books, 2006. (Based on private papers and diaries of Pierre Trudeau which he gave the authors in 1995)", "Nemni, Max and Nemni, Monique. Trudeau Transformed: The Shaping of a Statesman, 1944-1965. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 2011.\n Peterson, Roy. Drawn & quartered: the Trudeau years. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1984.\n Plamondon, Bob. The Truth About Trudeau. Ottawa: Great River Media, 2013. \n Radwanski, George. Trudeau. New York: Taplinger Pub. Co., 1978. \n Raymaker, Darryl. Trudeau's Tango: Alberta Meets Pierre Elliott Trudeau, 1968-1972. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2017.", "Ricci, Nino. Extraordinary Canadians Pierre Elliott Trudeau (2009)\n Sawatsky, John. The Insiders: Government, Business, and the Lobbyists, 1987.\n Simpson, Jeffrey. Discipline of power: the Conservative interlude and the Liberal restoration. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1984. \n Stewart, Walter. Shrug: Trudeau in power. Toronto: New Press, 1971. \n Southam, Nancy. Pierre, McClelland & Stewart, September 19, 2006, 408 pages", "Southam, Nancy. Pierre, McClelland & Stewart, September 19, 2006, 408 pages \n Simard, François-Xavier. Le vrai visage de Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Montréal: Les Intouchables, April 19, 2006 \n Vastel, Michel. The outsider: the life of Pierre Elliott Trudeau. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, c1990. 266 pages. Translation of: Trudeau, le Québécois. \n Walters, Eric. Voyageur, Toronto: Penguin Groups 2008", "Walters, Eric. Voyageur, Toronto: Penguin Groups 2008\n Wright, Robert. Three Nights in Havana: Pierre Trudeau, Fidel Castro and the Cold War World. Toronto: HarperCollins, 2007.\n Wright, Robert. Trudeaumania: The Rise to Power of Pierre Elliott Trudeau. Toronto; Harper Collins, 2016.\n Zink, Lubor J. Trudeaucracy. Toronto: Toronto Sun Publishing Ltd., 1972. 150 pages. OCLC 837009381.", "Archival videos of Trudeau\n \n \n\nVideos about Trudeau\n Pierre Elliott Trudeau Memoirs. 292 minutes. By Terence McKenna and Brian McKenna. CBC, 1994.", "Works by Trudeau\n Memoirs. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, c1993. \n Towards a just society: the Trudeau years, with Thomas S. Axworthy, (eds.) Markham, Ont.: Viking, 1990.\n The Canadian Way: Shaping Canada's Foreign Policy 1968–1984, with Ivan Head\n Two innocents in Red China. (Deux innocents en Chine rouge), with Jacques Hébert 1960.\n Against the Current: Selected Writings, 1939–1996. (À contre-courant: textes choisis, 1939–1996). Gerard Pelletier (ed)", "The Essential Trudeau. Ron Graham, (ed.) Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, c1998. \n The asbestos strike. (Grève de l'amiante), translated by James Boake 1974\n Pierre Trudeau Speaks Out on Meech Lake. Donald J. Johnston, (ed). Toronto: General Paperbacks, 1990. \n Approaches to politics. Introd. by Ramsay Cook. Prefatory note by Jacques Hébert. Translated by I. M. Owen. from the French Cheminements de la politique. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1970.", "Underwater Man, with Joe MacInnis. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1975. \n Federalism and the French Canadians. Introd. by John T. Saywell. 1968\n Conversation with Canadians. Foreword by Ivan L. Head. Toronto, Buffalo: University of Toronto Press 1972. \n The best of Trudeau. Toronto: Modern Canadian Library. 1972 \n Lifting the shadow of war. C. David Crenna, editor. Edmonton: Hurtig, c1987.", "Lifting the shadow of war. C. David Crenna, editor. Edmonton: Hurtig, c1987. \n Human rights, federalism and minorities. (Les droits de l'homme, le fédéralisme et les minorités), with Allan Gotlieb and the Canadian Institute of International Affairs", "Joe Clark \n \n \n \n \n \n \n The Insiders: Government, Business, and the Lobbyists, by John Sawatsky, 1987.\n Prime Ministers of Canada, by Jim Lotz, 1987.\n Mulroney: The Politics of Ambition, by John Sawatsky, Toronto 1991, MacFarlane, Walter, and Ross publishers.\n Memoirs, by Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Toronto 1993, McClelland & Stewart publishers, .\n A Nation Too Good to Lose: Renewing the Purpose of Canada, by Joseph Clark, Toronto 1994, Key Porter Books, .", "Right Honourable Men: the descent of Canadian politics from Macdonald to Mulroney, by Michael Bliss, 1994.\n The Prime Ministers of Canada, by Gordon Donaldson (journalist), 1997.\n Prime Ministers: Rating Canada's Leaders, by Norman Hillmer and J.L. Granatstein, 1999. .\n Egotists and Autocrats: The Prime Ministers of Canada, by George Bowering, 1999.\n Bastards and Boneheads: Canada's Glorious Leaders, Past and Present, by Will Ferguson, 1999.\n In My Own Name, by Maureen McTeer, 2003.", "In My Own Name, by Maureen McTeer, 2003.\n The Secret Mulroney Tapes, edited by Peter C. Newman, 2006.\n Memoirs 1939–1993, by Brian Mulroney, 2007.", "John Turner \n\n \n \n \n Mulroney: The Politics of Ambition, by John Sawatsky, Toronto 1991, McFarlane, Walter, and Ross publishers, .\n Granatstein, J.L. and Norman Hillmer. Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders, (Toronto: 1999, HarperCollins) .\n Turner, John. Politics With Purpose, 40th anniversary edition, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2008.\n Paikin, Steve. John Turner. Toronto: Sutherland House, 2022.", "Brian Mulroney \n Blake, Raymond B. ed. Transforming the Nation: Canada and Brian Mulroney (McGill-Queen's University Press), 2007. 456pp; \n Winners, Losers, by Patrick Brown (journalist), Rae Murphy, and Robert Chodos, 1976.\n Where I Stand, by Brian Mulroney, 1983.\n Brian Mulroney: The Boy from Baie Comeau, by Nick Auf der Maur, Rae Murphy, and Robert Chodos, 1984.\n Mulroney: The Making of the Prime Minister, by L. Ian MacDonald, 1984.", "Mulroney: The Making of the Prime Minister, by L. Ian MacDonald, 1984.\n The Insiders: Government, Business, and the Lobbyists, by John Sawatsky, 1987.\n Prime Ministers of Canada, by Jim Lotz, 1987.\n Selling Out: Four Years of the Mulroney Government, by Eric Hamovitch, Rae Murphy, and Robert Chodos, 1988.\n Friends in high places: politics and patronage in the Mulroney government, by Claire Hoy, 1989.\n Mulroney: The Politics of Ambition, by John Sawatsky, 1991.", "Mulroney: The Politics of Ambition, by John Sawatsky, 1991.\n Right Honourable Men: the Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney, by Michael Bliss, 1994.\n On the Take: Crime, Corruption and Greed in the Mulroney Years, by Stevie Cameron, 1994.\n The Prime Ministers of Canada, by Gordon Donaldson (journalist), 1997.\n Presumed Guilty: Brian Mulroney, the Airbus Affair, and the Government of Canada, by William Kaplan, 1998.", "Prime Ministers: Rating Canada's Leaders, by Norman Hillmer and J.L. Granatstein, 1999. .\n The Last Amigo: Karlheinz Schreiber and the Anatomy of a Scandal, by Stevie Cameron and Harvey Cashore, 2001.\n A Secret Trial: Brian Mulroney, Stevie Cameron, and the Public Trust, by William Kaplan, 2004.\n The Secret Mulroney Tapes: Unguarded Confessions of a Prime Minister, by Peter C. Newman, 2005.\n Memoirs: 1939-1993 by Brian Mulroney, 2007.", "Memoirs: 1939-1993 by Brian Mulroney, 2007.\n Master of Persuasion: Brian Mulroney's Global Legacy, by Fen Osler Hampson, 2018.", "Kim Campbell \nCampbell, Kim. (1996). Time and Chance: The Political Memoirs of Canada's First Woman Prime Minister. Doubleday Canada, 434 pages.\n\nJean Chrétien \n\nChrétien, Jean (2018). My Stories, My Times. Random House Canada, 288 pages. \nChrétien, Jean (2018). Mes Histoires. LaPresse, 288 pages. \nChrétien, Jean (2021). My Stories, My Times, v. 2. Random House Canada.", "Double Vision: The Inside Story of the Liberals in Power, by Edward Greenspon and Anthony Wilson-Smith, Toronto 1996, Doubleday Canada publishers, .\nOne-Eyed Kings, by Ron Graham, Toronto 1986, Collins Publishers, .\nThe Shawinigan Fox: How Jean Chrétien Defied the Elites and Reshaped Canada, by Bob Plamondon, Ottawa 2017, Great River Media, .\n\nAcademic\n Flanagan, Tom. (2022). Pivot or Pirouette? The 1993 Canadian General Election. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.", "Paul Martin \n ; Autobiography\n Gray, John (2003). Paul Martin: The Power of Ambition. Key Porter Books. .\n Wells, Paul. (2007) Right Side Up: The Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism (Douglas Gibson Books) 344 pp \n Wilson-Smith, Anthony; Greenspon, Edward (1996). Double Vision: The Inside Story of the Liberals in Power. Doubleday Canada. .", "Stephen Harper \n Behiels, Michael D. \"Stephen Harper's Rise to Power\" (PDF) American Review of Canadian Studies Spring 2010, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp 118–45\n Chantal, Hébert. (2007) French Kiss: Stephen Harper's Blind Date with Quebec Vintage Canada, \n \n Flanagan, Tom. (2009) Harper's Team: Behind the Scenes in the Conservative Rise to Power (2nd ed), \n \n Gutstein, Donald. Harperism: How Stephen Harper and his Think Tank Colleagues Have Transformed Canada. Toronto: Lorimer, 2014.", "Harris, Michael. (2014) Party of One: Stephen Harper And Canada's Radical Makeover, 554 pp. Viking; Second Impression edition. \n Ibbitson, John. (2015) Stephen Harper, 448 pp. Signal. .\n Johnson, William. (2006) Stephen Harper & the Future of Canada (2nd ed) Douglas Gibson, \nMackey, Lloyd. (2005) \"The pilgrimage of Stephen Harper\" ECW Press \n Martin, Lawrence. \"Harperland: The Politics of Control\" Viking Canada (2010).", "Martin, Lawrence. \"Harperland: The Politics of Control\" Viking Canada (2010). \n Plamondon, Bob. Full Circle: Death and Resurrection in Canadian Conservative Politics (2006), 472 pp., \n Wells, Paul. (2007) Right Side Up: The Fall of Paul Martin and the Rise of Stephen Harper's New Conservatism Douglas Gibson Books, 344 Pages", "Works by Harper\nRight Here, Right Now: Politics and Leadership in the Age of Disruption. 2018. \nA Great Game: The Forgotten Leafs & the Rise of Professional Hockey. 2013.", "Justin Trudeau \n Trudeau, Justin. (2014) Common Ground. HarperCollins Publishers, 352 Pages. \nIvison, John. (2019) Trudeau: The Education of a Prime Minister. Signal, 368 Pages. \nLukacs, Martin. (2019) The Trudeau Formula: Seduction and Betrayal in an Age of Discontent. Black Rose Books, 295 Pages. \nRaj, Althia. (2013) Contender: The Justin Trudeau Story. Huffington Post Canada (eBook). Archive\nWherry, Aaron. (2019) Promise and Peril: Justin Trudeau in Power. HarperCollins Publishers, 368 Pages.", "Videos about Trudeau \n\n God Save Justin Trudeau (2014). Dir. Guylaine Maroist, Eric Ruel. Documentary about the boxing match between Trudeau and Conservative Senator Patrick Brazeau.\n\nSee also", "See also \n\nBibliography of Canada\nBibliography of Canadian history\nBibliography of Canadian military history\nBibliography of Nova Scotia\nBibliography of Saskatchewan history\nBibliography of Alberta history\nBibliography of British Columbia\nBibliography of the 1837–38 insurrections in Lower Canada\nList of books about the War of 1812\n\nReferences", "References\n\nExternal links \nPrime Minister's Official Site\nThe Prime Ministers of Canada – The Historica Dominion Institute (Simon Fraser University & Rogers Communications)\nPrime Ministers of Canada – Library of Parliament\nPrime Ministers – Canada History\n\nLists of prime ministers of Canada\nPrime ministers of Canada\nC" ]

[ "John Avery Lomax (September 23, 1867 – January 26, 1948) was an American teacher, a pioneering musicologist, and a folklorist who did much for the preservation of American folk music. He was the father of Alan Lomax, John Lomax Jr. and Bess Lomax Hawes, also distinguished collectors of folk music.", "Early life", "The Lomax family originally came from England with William Lomax, who settled in Rockingham County in what was then \"the colony of North Carolina.\" John Lomax was born in Goodman in Holmes County in central Mississippi, to James Avery Lomax and the former Susan Frances Cooper. In December 1869, the Lomax family traveled by ox cart from Mississippi to Texas. John Lomax grew up in central Texas, just north of Meridian in rural Bosque County", ". John Lomax grew up in central Texas, just north of Meridian in rural Bosque County. His father raised horses and cattle and grew cotton and corn on the of bottomland that he had purchased near the Bosque River. He was exposed to cowboy songs as a child. At around nine he befriended Nat Blythe, a former slave hired as a farmhand by James Lomax. The friendship, he wrote later, \"perhaps gave my life its bent", ". The friendship, he wrote later, \"perhaps gave my life its bent.\" Lomax, whose own schooling was sporadic because of the heavy farmwork he was forced to do, taught Blythe to read and write, and Blythe taught Lomax songs including \"Big Yam Potatoes on a Sandy Land\" and dance steps such as \"Juba\". When Blythe was 21 years old, he took his savings and left. Lomax never saw him again and heard rumors that he had been murdered. For years afterward, he always looked for Nat when he traveled around the South.", "When he was about to turn twenty-one, and his legal obligation to work as apprentice on his father's farm was coming to an end, his father permitted him to take the profits from the crops of one of their fields. Lomax used this, along with the money from selling his favorite pony, to pay to further his education. In the fall of 1887, he attended Granbury College in Granbury and in May 1888, he graduated and eventually became a teacher", ". He began his first job as a teacher at a country school in Clifton, southeast of Meridian. As time went on, he grew tired of the low pay and country-school drudgery and he applied for work at Weatherford College in Weatherford in Parker County in the spring of 1889. He was hired as principal by the school's new president, David Switzer, who had previously been president of Granbury College until it was closed down and he was transferred to Weatherford", ". In 1890, after having attended a summer course at Eastman Business College in Poughkeepsie, New York, Lomax returned to Texas where he became head of the Business Department of Weatherford College. Each summer, between 1891 and 1894, he also attended the annual lecture-and-concert series at New York State's Chautauqua Institute, which pioneered adult education (and where Lomax himself would later lecture)", ". According to Porterfield, \"There he improved his mathematics, struggled with Latin, listened to music that stirred him (opera and oratorios, light 'classics' of the day), and learned, for the first time, of two poets—Tennyson and Browning—whose work would soon become an integral part of his intellectual equipment.\"", "Early career\nLomax decided to further his education at a first-rate university. His first choice was Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, but he realized he would likely fail its tough entrance examinations. So, in 1895, at the age of 28, Lomax matriculated at the University of Texas at Austin, majoring in English literature, and undertaking almost a double course load (including Greek, Latin, and Anglo Saxon) and was graduated in two years. With a touch of Texas hyperbole, he later wrote:", "Never was there such a hopeless hodge-podge, There was I, a Chautauqua-educated country boy who couldn't conjugate an English verb or decline a pronoun, attempting to master three other languages at the same time. ... But I plunged on through the year, for since I was older than the average freshman, I must hurry, hurry, hurry. I don't think I ever stopped to think how foolish it all was.Porterfield, p. 40–41.", "In his memoir, Adventures of a Ballad Hunter, Lomax recounts how he had arrived at the University of Texas with a roll of cowboy songs he had written down in childhood. He showed them to an English professor, Morgan Callaway, only to have them discounted as \"cheap and unworthy,\" prompting Lomax to take the bundle behind the men's dormitory and burn it. His interest in folksongs thus rebuffed, Lomax focused his attentions on more acceptable academic pursuits", ". He joined the fraternity Phi Delta Theta and the Rusk Literary Society, as well as becoming an editor and later the editor-in-chief of the University of Texas Magazine. During the summer of 1896, he attended a summer school program in Chicago studying languages. In 1897, he became an associate editor of the Alcalde, a student newspaper. After graduation in June 1897, he worked at the University of Texas as registrar for the next six years until the spring of 1903", ". He also had other duties such as being personal secretary to the President of the University, manager of Brackenridge Hall (the men's dormitory on campus), and serving on the Alumni Scholarship Committee. Lomax joined a campus fraternity known as The Great and Honorable Order of Gooroos receiving the title \"Sybillene Priest\".", "Sometime around July 1898 Lomax began an intense relationship with Shirley Green of Palestine, Texas, to whom he had been introduced in 1897 by the president of the University of Texas. For four years, their friendship had its ups and downs, until June 1902, when Lomax met one of Green's acquaintances, Bess Baumann Brown from Dallas", ". It ultimately emerged that the reason for Green's reluctance to commit herself to an engagement to John Lomax had been her awareness that she was mortally ill with tuberculosis. However, Lomax continued to exchange letters with Green until a month before her death, which occurred in February 1903", ". That year, Lomax accepted an offer to teach English at Texas A&M University beginning in September To bolster his credentials, in the meantime, he decided to enroll at the University of Chicago for a summer course. Upon his return to Texas he became engaged to Bess Brown and they married on June 9, 1904, in Austin. The couple settled down at College Station near the A&M campus. Their first child, Shirley, was born on August 7, 1905.", "Lomax, aware of the deficiencies of his early education, still wished to improve himself, however, and on September 26, 1906, he jumped at the chance to attend Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as a graduate student, having previously received a $500 stipend: The Austin Teaching Fellowships. Here he had the opportunity to study under Barrett Wendell and George Lyman Kittredge, two renowned scholars who actively encouraged his interest in cowboy songs", ". Harvard, in fact, was the center of American folklore studies (then viewed as a subsidiary of English literature, itself a novel field of scholarship in comparison with the more traditional study of rhetoric focused on classical languages and geared to preparing lawyers and clergy)", ". Kittredge, in addition to being a well-known scholar of Chaucer and Shakespeare, had inherited the professorship in English literature previously held by Francis James Child, whose courses he continued to teach and whose great, unfinished eight-volume edition of the Popular Ballads of England and Scotland he brought to completion.", "It was Kittredge who pioneered modern methods of ballad study, and who encouraged collectors to get out of their armchairs and library halls and to get out into the countryside to collect ballads first hand. When he met John Lomax in 1907, this was what he encouraged him to do; the cowboy songs Lomax had been writing down were glimpses into a whole new world, and Lomax should follow up on his work. \"Go and get this material while it can be found,\" he told the young Texan. \"Preserve the words and music", ". \"Preserve the words and music. That's your job.\"", "Wendell and Kittredge continued to play an important advisory role in Lomax's career after he returned to Texas in June 1907 to resume his teaching position at A&M after completing his Master of Arts degree. This included a visit by the two professors to Texas during which Lomax took them to a Sunday service in an African-American church.", "Soon after his return to Austin, John Lomax's son, John Jr., was born, on June 14, 1907. Galvanized by Kittredge's advice and support, Lomax had begun collecting cowboy songs and ballads, but his work was interrupted on February 7, 1908, when \"The Great A&M Strike\" broke out. The strike, caused by student dissatisfaction with the administration, continued even after February 14, 1908, when the University, in a conciliatory gesture, fired some of its administrators", ". Unable to teach because of the strike, Lomax decided to see about resuming his collecting of cowboy ballads with a view to publishing them in a book. Encouraged by Wendell, he applied for and was awarded a Sheldon Fellowship grant. In June 1908, Lomax became a full professor at A&M. That August the strike ended when the President of the University resigned", ". That August the strike ended when the President of the University resigned. In June 1910, Lomax accepted an administrative job at the University of Texas as \"Secretary of the University Faculties and Assistant Director of the Department of Extension.\"", "In November 1910 the anthology, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads, was published by Sturgis and Walton, with an introduction by former president Theodore Roosevelt. Among the songs included were \"Jesse James\", \"The Old Chisholm Trail\", \"Sweet Betsy From Pike\", and \"The Buffalo Skinners\" (which George Lyman Kittredge considered \"one of the greatest western ballads\" and which was praised for its Homeric quality by Carl Sandburg and Virgil Thomson", ".) From the first, John Lomax insisted on the inclusiveness of American culture. Some of the most famous songs in the book — \"Git Along Little Dogies\", \"Sam Bass,\" and \"Home on the Range\" — were sourced from African-American cowboys. Before Home on the Range was published Lomax recorded a black saloon keeper in San Antonio singing it on an Edison cylinder.", "Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads emerged as a major collection of Western songs and had \"a profound effect on other folk song students.\". According to noted folklore scholar, D. K. Wilgus, the book's publication \"sparked a great surge of interest in folk songs of all kinds, and in fact, inspired a search for folk material in all regions of the nation.\" Its success transformed John A. Lomax into a nationally known figure.", "Texas Folklore Society", "Around the same time, Lomax and Professor Leonidas Payne of the University of Texas at Austin co-founded the Texas Folklore Society, following Kittredge's suggestion that Lomax establish a Texas branch of the American Folklore Society. Lomax and Payne hoped that the society would further their own research while kindling an interest in folklore among like-minded Texans. On Thanksgiving Day, 1909, Lomax nominated Payne as president of the society, and Payne nominated Lomax as first secretary", ". The two set out to marshal support, and a month later, Killis Campbell, an associate professor at the University, publicly proposed the formation of the Society at a meeting of the Texas State Teachers Association in Dallas. By April 1910, there were 92 charter members.", "Lomax then used his prestige as a nationally known author to travel the country raising money for folklore studies and to establish other state folklore societies. \"He was among the first scholars to present papers about American folk songs to the Modern Language Association, the nation's leading organization of teachers of languages and literature", ". For the next several years he hit the lecture circuit, traveling so often that his wife, Bess Brown, had to help him with his schedules and even some of his speeches.\" His lectures on cowboy songs, ballads and poetry took him all across the eastern USA. For example, in December 1911, Lomax made a successful performance at Cornell University, singing and reciting some of the cowboy songs he had collected", ". Sometimes he would have a chorus of college students dress up as cowboys to add interest to his presentations.", "Lomax's abiding interest in African-American folklore was also in evidence, for he had plans to publish another book within a year that consisted of folk songs collected from African-Americans. Although the book failed to materialize, he did publish (in the Journal of American Folklore, December 1912) \"Stories of an African Prince\", a collection of 16 African stories, which he had obtained through his correspondence with a young Nigerian student, Lattevi Ajayi", ". In 1912, with the backing of Kittredge, John A. Lomax was elected president of the American Folklore Society, with Kittredge (himself a former president of the society) as First Vice President. He was re-elected for a second term in 1913. In 1922, J. Frank Dobie became secretary-treasurer of the Texas Folklore Society, a job he was to hold for 21 years.", "Lomax's second son (and third child), Alan, was born on January 15, 1915. In time, Alan Lomax would prove a worthy successor of his father. A second daughter, Bess, was born in 1921, and she too had a distinguished career, both as a performer and teacher.", "The Texas Folklore Society grew gradually over the next decade, with Lomax steering it forward. At his invitation, Kittredge and Wendell attended its meetings. Other early members were Stith Thompson and J. Frank Dobie, who both began teaching English at the university in 1914. In 1915, at Lomax's recommendation, Stith Thompson became the society's secretary-treasurer. In 1916, Lomax's voluminous encyclopedia, The Book of Texas, which he had written jointly with Harry Yandall Benedict, was published", ". The same year, Stith Thompson edited the first volume of the Publications of the Texas Folklore Society, which Dobie reissued as Round the Levee in 1935. This publication exemplified the society's express purpose, and the motivation behind Lomax's own work: to gather a body of folklore before it disappeared, and to preserve it for the analysis of later scholars", ". These early efforts foreshadowed what would become Lomax's greatest achievement, the collection of more than ten thousand recordings for the Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress. In the inaugural issue of the Publications of the Texas Folklore Society, John A. Lomax urged the collection of Texas folklore: \"Two rich and practically unworked fields in Texas are found in the large Negro and Mexican populations of the state", ".\" He adds, \"Here are many problems of research that lie close at hand, not buried in musty tomes and incomplete records, but in vital human personalities.\"", "Throughout the next seven years he continued his research and lecture tours assisted and encouraged by his wife and children. All this came to an end on July 16, 1917, however, when Lomax was fired along with six other faculty members as the result of a political battle between Governor James E. Ferguson and the University President, Dr. R. E. Vinson. Lomax moved to Chicago to take a job selling bonds at Lee, Higginson & Co; a bond brokerage firm run by the son of his old professor Barrett Wendell", ". A few months later, Ferguson was impeached and the Board of Regents rescinded its dismissal of the faculty. Lomax judged that it would be wrong to leave his post at Lee, Higginson & Co so soon after arriving, especially with regards to his friendship with the family of Barrett Wendell, so he remained in Chicago for eighteen months until the war ended", ". There he struck up a what turned out to be a lifelong friendship with Chicago poet Carl Sandburg, who frequently mentions him in his book, American Songbag (1927). In 1919, his next book, Songs of the Cattle Trail and Cow Camp, an anthology of cowboy poetry, was published by Macmillan. That year Lomax returned to Texas to be secretary of the Texas Exes, which had become financially independent of the University, so as to avoid further interference from politicians", ". Nevertheless, interference struck, when Ferguson, whom the law prohibited from holding office, ran his wife, Miriam A. Ferguson, as his surrogate. As governor, Mrs. Ferguson was able to pack the board of regents and oust John from his job as editor of The Alcade, which during his tenure was a 100-page long publication. Seeing how the wind was blowing, Lomax resigned his secretaryship and joined the Republic Bank of Dallas in 1925. The economic crash of 1929 presaged bad things for the bank, however.", "Archive of American Folk Song", "In 1931, Lomax's wife Bess Brown died at the age of 50, leaving four children (the youngest, Bess, was ten years old). In addition, the Dallas bank at which Lomax worked failed: he had to phone his customers one by one to announce that their investments were all worthless. In debt and unemployed and with two school-age children to support, the sixty-five-year-old went into a deep depression. In hope of reviving his father's spirits, his oldest son, John Lomax Jr", ". In hope of reviving his father's spirits, his oldest son, John Lomax Jr. encouraged him to begin a new series of lecture tours. They took to the road, camping out by the side of the road to save money, with John Jr. (and later Alan Lomax) serving the senior Lomax as driver and personal assistant. In June 1932, they arrived at the offices of the Macmillan publishing company in New York City", ". In June 1932, they arrived at the offices of the Macmillan publishing company in New York City. Here Lomax proposed his idea for an anthology of American ballads and folksongs, with a special emphasis on the contributions of African Americans. It was accepted. In preparation he traveled to Washington to review the holdings in the Archive of American Folk Song of the Library of Congress.", "By the time of Lomax's arrival, the Archive already contained a collection of commercial phonograph recordings that straddled the boundaries between commercial and folk, and wax cylinder field recordings, built up under the leadership of Robert Winslow Gordon, Head of the Archive, and Carl Engel, chief of the Music Division. Gordon had also experimented in the field with a portable disc recorder, but had had neither time nor resources to do significant fieldwork", ". Lomax found the recorded holdings of the Archive woefully inadequate for his purposes. He therefore made an arrangement with the Library whereby it would provide recording equipment, obtained for it by Lomax through private grants, in exchange for which he would travel the country making field recordings to be deposited in the Archive of the Library, then the major resource for printed and recorded material in the United States", "After the departure of Robert Gordon from the Library in 1934, John A. Lomax was named Honorary Consultant and Curator of the Archive of American Folk Song, a title he held until his death in 1948. His work, for which he was paid a salary of one dollar, included fund raising for the Library, and he was expected to support himself entirely through writing books and giving lectures. Lomax secured grants from the Carnegie Corporation and the Rockefeller Foundation, among others, for continued field recordings", ". He and Alan recorded Spanish ballads and vaquero songs on the Rio Grande border and spent weeks among French-speaking Cajuns in southern Louisiana.", "Thus began a ten-year relationship with the Library of Congress that would involve not only John but the entire Lomax family, including his second wife, Ruby Terrill Lomax, Professor of Classics and Dean of Women at the University of Texas, whom he married in 1934. His sons and daughters assisted with his folksong research and with the daily operations of the Archive: Shirley, who performed songs taught to her by her mother; John Jr", "., who encouraged his father's association with the Library; Alan Lomax who accompanied John on field trips and who from 1937 to 1942 served as the Archive's first paid (though very nominally) employee as Assistant in Charge; and Bess, who spent her weekends and school vacations copying song texts and doing comparative song research.", "Field recordings", "Through a grant from the American Council of Learned Societies, Lomax was able to set out in June 1933 on the first recording expedition under the Library's auspices, with Alan Lomax (then eighteen years old) in tow. As now, a disproportionate percentage of African American males were held as prisoners. Robert Winslow Gordon, Lomax's predecessor at the Library of Congress, had written (in an article in The New York Times, c", ". 1926) that, \"Nearly every type of song is to be found in our prisons and penitentiaries\" Folklorists Howard Odum and Guy Johnson also had observed that, \"If one wishes to obtain anything like an accurate picture of the workaday Negro he will surely find his best setting in the chain gang, prison, or in the situation of the ever-fleeing fugitive.\" But what these folklorists had merely recommended John and Alan Lomax were able to put into practice", ". In their successful grant application they wrote, following Odum, Johnson and Gordon's hint, that prisoners, \"Thrown on their own resources for entertainment ... still sing, especially the long-term prisoners who have been confined for years and who have not yet been influenced by jazz and the radio, the distinctive old-time Negro melodies", ".\" They toured Texas prison farms recording work songs, reels, ballads, and blues from prisoners such as James \"Iron Head\" Baker, Mose \"Clear Rock\" Platt, and Lightnin' Washington. By no means were all of those whom the Lomaxes recorded imprisoned, however: in other communities, they recorded K.C. Gallaway and Henry Truvillion.", "In July 1933, they acquired a state-of-the-art, phonograph uncoated-aluminum disk recorder. Installing it in the trunk of his Ford sedan, Lomax soon used it to record, at the Louisiana State Penitentiary at Angola, a twelve-string guitar player by the name of Huddie Ledbetter, better known as \"Lead Belly,\" whom they considered one of their most significant finds. During the next year and a half, father and son continued to make disc recordings of musicians throughout the South.", "In contrast to earlier amateur collectors, the Lomaxes were also among the first to attempt to apply scholarly methodology in their work, though they did not adhere to the strict empirical positivism adopted by the subsequent generation of academic folklorists, who believed in refraining from drawing conclusions about the data they amassed.", "The following year (in July 1934), they visited Angola once again. This time Lead Belly begged them to make a recording of a song he had written to take to the Governor requesting parole, which they did. However, unbeknownst to them, Lead Belly was released in August for good time (and because of cost-cutting due to the Depression) and not because of the Lomaxes' recording, which the Governor may not have listened to", ". In September 1934, Lead Belly wrote to Lomax requesting employment, since he needed to have a job in order not to be sent back to prison. At the urging of John Jr., Lomax engaged Lead Belly as his driver and assistant, and the pair traveled the South together collecting folk songs for the next three months", ". Then, in December 1934, Lead Belly famously performed illustrating John Lomax's scheduled lecture of folk songs at a smoker and sing-along held at the national MLA meeting in Philadelphia (see Lead Belly). Their association continued for three more months until the following March (1935)", ". Their association continued for three more months until the following March (1935). In January, Lomax, who knew nothing whatever about the recording business, became Lead Belly's manager and, through a friend, cowboy singer Tex Ritter, got Lead Belly a recording contract with the famous A&R man Art Satherley of ARC records", ". Satherly had publicity photos made of the singer wearing overalls and sitting on sacks of grain, garb and setting that were customary in commercial publicity photos of country singers in those days. But Lead Belly's recordings, marketed as race music, failed to sell. A filmed re-enactment in early 1935 for The March of Time newsreel of Lomax's discovery of Lead Belly in prison, led to the myth that John Lomax made Lead Belly perform in prison stripes (which is inaccurate)", ". He did perform in overalls, however. During Lomax's two-week lecture tour with Lead Belly on the eastern college circuit in March 1935 (pre-scheduled by Lomax before teaming up with Lead Belly), the two men quarreled over money and never spoke to one another again.", "John A. Lomax has been accused of paternalism and of tailoring Lead Belly's repertoire and clothing during his brief association with Lead Belly. \"But,\" writes jazz historian Ted Gioia,", "few would deny the instrumental role he played in the transformation of the one-time convict into a commercially successful performer of traditional African American music. The turnabout in his life was rapid and profound: Lead Belly was released from prison on August 1, 1934; his schedule for the last week of December that year included performances for the MLA gathering in Philadelphia, for an afternoon tea in Bryn Mawr, and for an informal gathering of professors from Columbia and NYU", ". Even by the standards of the entertainment industry ... this was a remarkable transformation.", "After his three-months as a performer illustrating John A. Lomax's lectures, Lead Belly went on to a 15-year career as an independent artist, championed and assisted intermittently (but not managed) by Alan Lomax.\n\nIn 1938 John Lomax visited noted writer Ben Robertson in Pickens County, South Carolina, where Robertson introduced him to the all-day singing festivals of the area which enabled Lomax to preserve the lyrics of many local folk songs.", "The scope of the collection", "The Archive of American Folk Song of the Library of Congress contains songs collected in 33 states of the Union and certain parts of the West Indies, The Bahamas, and Haiti", ". As Curator and Assistant in Charge of the Folk Song Collection John and Alan Lomax supervised and worked with many other folklorists, musicologists, and composers, amateur and professional, all over the country, amassing more than ten thousand records of vocal and instrumental music on aluminum and acetate discs along with many pages of written documentation.", "In his 1942 introduction to the multi-volume Checklist of Recorded Folk Song in the Library of Congress, Harold Spivacke, Chief of the Library of Congress's Division of Music, wrote:", "Many hard-working and expert folklorists cooperated in the accumulation of this material, but in the main the development of the Archive of American Folk Song represents the work of two men, John and Alan Lomax", ". Starting in 1933, the Lomaxes, father and son, traveled tens of thousands of miles, endured many hardships, exercised great patience and tact to win the confidence and friendship of hundreds of singers in order to bring to the Library of Congress records of the voices of countless interesting people they met on the way", ". Very much remains to be done to make our Archive truly representative of all the people, but the country owes a debt of gratitude to these two men for the excellent foundation laid for future work in this field. ... The Lomaxes received much help in their expeditions from many interested folklorists, some of whom have made important contributions to the Archive as a result of independent expeditions of their own. To these the Library wishes to take this opportunity to express its deep gratitude", ". To these the Library wishes to take this opportunity to express its deep gratitude. They include Gordon Barnes, Mary E. Barnicle, E. C. Beals, Barbara Bell, Paul Brewster, Genevieve Chandler, Richard Chase, Fletcher Collins, Carita D. Corse, Sidney Robertson Cowell, Dr. E. K", ". Corse, Sidney Robertson Cowell, Dr. E. K. Davis, Kay Dealy, Seamus Doyle, Charles Draves, Marjorie Edgar, John Henry Faulk, Richard Fento, Helen Hartness Flanders, Frank Goodwin, Percy Grainger, Herbert Halpert, Melville Herskovits, Zora Neale Hurston, Myra Hull, George Pullen Jackson, Stetson Kennedy, Bess Lomax, Elizabeth Lomax, Ruby Terrill Lomax, Eloise Linscott, Bascom Lamar Lunsford, Walter McClintock, Alton Morris, Juan B", ". Rael, Vance Randolph, Helen Roberts, Domingo Santa Cruz, Charles Seeger, Mrs. Nicol Smith, Robert Sonkin, Ruby Pickens Tartt, Jean Thomas, Charles Todd, Margaret Valliant, Ivan Walton, Irene Whitfield, John Woods, and John W. Work III.", "This checklist has been prepared as a result of countless requests. ... Its appearance at this time is indeed appropriate since it is natural for a nation at war to try to evaluate and exploit to the fullest its own cultural heritage. In our folk song may be found some of the profoundedst currents that have run through American history. A mere glance at the titles listed here will be sufficient to show the variety and complexity of the democratic life of our country.", "After 1942, field work of collecting folk songs under government auspices was discontinued due to a shortage of acetate needed for the war effort. But the work had aroused the ire and suspicion of Southern conservatives in Congress who were fearful it could be used as a cover for civil and worker rights agitation, and because of congressional opposition it has never been resumed.\n\nLegacy", "John A. Lomax's contribution to the documentation of American folk traditions extended beyond the Library of Congress Music Division through his involvement with two agencies of the Works Progress Administration. In 1936, he was assigned to serve as an advisor on folklore collecting for both the Historical Records Survey and the Federal Writers' Project", ". Lomax's biographer, Nolan Porterfield, notes that the outlines of the famed WPA State Guides resulting from this work resemble Lomax and Benedict's earlier Book of Texas.", "As the Federal Writers' Project's first Folklore Editor, Lomax also directed the gathering of ex-slave narratives and devised a questionnaire for project fieldworkers to use.", "The WPA project to interview former slaves assumed a form and a scope that bore Lomax's imprint and reflected his experience and zeal as a collector of folklore. His sense of urgency inspired the efforts in several states. And his prestige and personal influence enlisted the support of many project officials, particularly in the deep South, who might otherwise have been unresponsive to requests for materials of this type", ". One might question the wisdom of selecting Lomax, a white Southerner to direct a project involving the collection of data from black former slaves. Yet whatever racial preconceptions Lomax may have held do not appear to have had an appreciable effect upon the Slave Narrative Collection. Lomax's instructions to interviewers emphasized the necessity of obtaining a faithful account of the ex-slave's version of his or her experience", ". \"It should be remembered that the Federal Writers' Project is not interested in taking sides on any question. The worker should not censor any materials collected regardless of its nature.\" Lomax constantly reiterated his insistence that the interviews be recorded verbatim, with no holds barred. In his editorial capacity he closely adhered to this dictum.", "Upon Lomax's departure this work was continued by Benjamin A. Botkin, who succeeded Lomax as the Project's folklore editor in 1938, and at the Library in 1939, resulting in the invaluable compendium of authentic slave narratives: Lay My Burden Down: A Folk History of Slavery, edited by B. A. Botkin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945).", "John A. Lomax served as president of the Texas Folklore Society for the years 1940–41, and 1941–42. In 1947 his autobiography Adventures of a Ballad Hunter (New York: Macmillan) was published and was awarded the Carr P. Collins prize as the best book of the year by the Texas Institute of Letters. The book was immediately optioned to be made into a Hollywood movie starring Bing Crosby as Lomax and Josh White as Lead Belly, but the project was never realized.", "In 1932, Lomax met his friend, Henry Zweifel, a rancher and businessman then from Cleburne in Johnson County, while both were volunteers for Orville Bullington's Republican gubernatorial race against the Democrat Miriam Ferguson. Lomax's old enemy, James Ferguson, was virtually running his wife's comeback attempt at the governorship.", "Lomax died of a stroke at the age of eighty in January 1948. On June 15 of that year, Lead Belly gave a concert at the University of Texas, performing children's songs such as \"Skip to My Lou\" and spirituals (performed with his wife Martha) that he had first sung years before for the late collector.\n\nIn 2010, John A. Lomax was inducted into the Western Music Hall of Fame for his contributions to the field of cowboy music.", "Following in his grandfather's footsteps, Lomax's grandson John Lomax III is a nationally published United States music journalist, author of Nashville: Music City USA (1986), Red Desert Sky (2001) and co-author of The Country Music Book (1988). He is also an artist manager and has represented Townes Van Zandt, Steve Earle, Rocky Hill, David Schnaufer and The Cactus Brothers. He began representing the Dead Ringer Band in 1996", ". He began representing the Dead Ringer Band in 1996. John Lomax III was also a music writer for Houston's early-'70s underground newspaper, Space City!", "Notes", "References\n Lomax, John A. Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads. New York: Collier Books, reissued 1938 (1910).\n Lomax, John A. \"Unexplored Treasures of Texas Folk-Lore\". Reprinted in Stith Thompson's Round the Levee. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, [1935] facsimile edition 1975.\n Porterfield, Nolan. Last Cavalier: The Life and Times of John A. Lomax, 1867–1948, University of Illinois Press, 2001.", "Spivacke, Harold. Library Of Congress Music Division: Checklist of Recorded Songs in the English Language in the Archive of American Folk Song to July, 1940 (3 Volume Set) Library of Congress (Paperback, March 1, 1942) ASIN: B0017HYX4E\n Wade, Stephen. A Treasury of Library of Congress Field Recordings. Rounder Audio CD, 1997. ASIN: B0000002UB. Contains recordings of E. C. Ball, Honeyboy Edwards, Texas Gladden, Vera Hall, Justice Learned Hand, Kelly Pace, W. H. Stepp, Sonny Terry, and many more.", "Wilgus, D. K. Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship since 1898. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1959.\n Wolfe, Charles, and Kip Lornell. Life and Legend of Leadbelly. New York: Da Capo, [1992] 1999.\n Zumwalt, Rosemary Levy. American Folklore Scholarship: a Dialogue of Dissent (Indiana University Press, 1988).", "External links", "\"Lomax, John Avery\" in the Handbook of Texas Online\n The Defenders, 1913–1926: The Association Saves the University from an Educational Infanticide\", The Alcalde (January 2010).\n Biography of John A. Lomax at the Library of Congress website\n 1939 Southern Recording Trip Fieldnotes, at the Library of Congress\n Notes on the John and Ruby Lomax 1930 Southern States Recording Trip, at the Library of Congress\n Lead Belly and the Lomaxes\n Books by John A. and Alan Lomax", "Lead Belly and the Lomaxes\n Books by John A. and Alan Lomax\n Biography of John A. Lomax from the Western Music Hall of Fame\n Discovering Keepers of Folk Music. Article by Michael Corcoran in Austin Statesman about John A. Lomax and the Gant family of Austin, Texas\n Retrieved 24 November 2014.", "1867 births\n1948 deaths\nAmerican folk-song collectors\nAmerican music historians\nAmerican male non-fiction writers\nHarvard University alumni\nPeople from Goodman, Mississippi\nPeople from Bosque County, Texas\nTexas A&M University faculty\nUniversity of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts alumni\nPlace of death missing\nUniversity of Texas at Austin people\nWorks Progress Administration workers\nAmerican people of English descent\nHistorians of slavery\nJohn\nHistorians from Texas", "American people of English descent\nHistorians of slavery\nJohn\nHistorians from Texas\nPresidents of the American Folklore Society" ]

[ "A doughnut or donut () is a type of food made from leavened fried dough. It is popular in many countries and is prepared in various forms as a sweet snack that can be homemade or purchased in bakeries, supermarkets, food stalls, and franchised specialty vendors. Doughnut is the traditional spelling, while donut is the simplified version; the terms are used interchangeably.", "Doughnuts are usually deep fried from a flour dough, but other types of batters can also be used. Various toppings and flavors are used for different types, such as sugar, chocolate or maple glazing. Doughnuts may also include water, leavening, eggs, milk, sugar, oil, shortening, and natural or artificial flavors.", "The two most common types are the ring doughnut and the filled doughnut, which is injected with fruit preserves (the jelly doughnut), cream, custard, or other sweet fillings. Small pieces of dough are sometimes cooked as doughnut holes. Once fried, doughnuts may be glazed with a sugar icing, spread with icing or chocolate, or topped with powdered sugar, cinnamon, sprinkles or fruit. Other shapes include balls, flattened spheres, twists, and other forms", ". Other shapes include balls, flattened spheres, twists, and other forms. Doughnut varieties are also divided into cake (including the old-fashioned) and yeast-risen doughnuts. Doughnuts are often accompanied by coffee or milk. They are sold at doughnut shops, convenience stores, petrol/gas stations, cafes or fast food restaurants.", "History\n\nThe cookbook Küchenmeisterei (Mastery of the Kitchen), published in Nuremberg in 1485, offers a recipe for \"Gefüllte Krapfen\", sugar free, stuffed, fried dough cakes.\n\nDutch settlers brought olykoek (\"oil(y) cake\") to New York (or New Amsterdam) in the early 18th century. These doughnuts closely resembled later ones but did not yet have their current ring shape.", "A recipe for fried dough \"nuts\" was published, in 1750 England, under the title \"How to make Hertfordshire Cakes, Nuts and Pincushions”, in The Country Housewife’s Family Companion by William Ellis.\n\nA recipe labelled \"dow nuts\", again from Hertfordshire, was found in a book of recipes and domestic tips written around 1800, by the wife of Baron Thomas Dimsdale, the recipe being given to the dowager Baroness by an acquaintance who transcribed for her the cooking instructions for a \"dow nut\".", "The first cookbook using the near conventional \"dough nuts\" spelling was possibly the 1803 edition of \"The Frugal Housewife: Or, Complete Woman Cook\", which included dough nuts in an appendix of American recipes.\n\nOne of the earliest mentions of \"dough-nut\" was in Washington Irving's 1809 book A History of New York, from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty:\n\nThe name oly koeks was almost certainly related to the oliekoek: a Dutch delicacy of \"sweetened cake fried in fat.\"\n\nEtymology", "\"Dough nut\"", "One of the earliest known literary usages of the term dates to an 1808 short story describing a spread of \"fire-cakes and dough-nuts\". Washington Irving described \"dough-nuts\", in his 1809 History of New York, as \"balls of sweetened dough, fried in hog's fat, and called dough-nuts, or olykoeks.\" These \"nuts\" of fried dough might now be called doughnut holes. The word nut is here used in the earlier sense of \"small rounded cake or cookie\", also seen in ginger nut", ". Doughnut is the traditional spelling and still dominates even in the United States though donut is often used. At present, doughnut and the shortened form donut are both pervasive in American English.", "\"Donut\"", "The first known printed use of donut was in Peck's Bad Boy and his Pa by George W. Peck, published in 1900, in which a character is quoted as saying, \"Pa said he guessed he hadn't got much appetite, and he would just drink a cup of coffee and eat a donut.\" According to author John T", ".\" According to author John T. Edge the alternative spelling \"donut\" was invented in the 1920s when the New York–based Display Doughnut Machine Corporation abbreviated the word to make it more pronounceable by the foreigners they hoped would buy their automated doughnut making equipment", ". The donut spelling also showed up in a Los Angeles Times article dated August 10, 1929 in which Bailey Millard jokingly complains about the decline of spelling, and that he \"can't swallow the 'wel-dun donut' nor the ever so 'gud bred'.\"", "The interchangeability of the two spellings can be found in a series of \"National Donut Week\" articles in The New York Times that covered the 1939 World's Fair. In four articles beginning October 9, two mention the donut spelling", ". In four articles beginning October 9, two mention the donut spelling. Dunkin' Donuts, which was so-named in 1950, following its 1948 founding under the name Open Kettle (Quincy, Massachusetts), is the oldest surviving company to use the donut variation; other chains, such as the defunct Mayflower Doughnut Corporation (1931), did not use that spelling. According to the Oxford Dictionaries while \"doughnut\" is used internationally, the spelling \"donut\" is American", ". The spelling \"donut\" remained rare until the 1950s, and has since grown significantly in popularity; this growth in use has possibly been influenced by the spread of Dunkin' Donuts.", "Types", "Rings", "Hanson Gregory, an American, claimed to have invented the ring-shaped doughnut in 1847 aboard a lime-trading ship when he was 16 years old. Gregory was dissatisfied with the greasiness of doughnuts twisted into various shapes and with the raw center of regular doughnuts. He claimed to have punched a hole in the center of dough with the ship's tin pepper box, and to have later taught the technique to his mother", ". Smithsonian Magazine states that his mother, Elizabeth Gregory, \"made a deep-fried dough that cleverly used her son's spice cargo of nutmeg and cinnamon, along with lemon rind,\" and \"put hazelnuts or walnuts in the center, where the dough might not cook through\", and called the food 'doughnuts'.", "Ring doughnuts are formed by one of two methods: by joining the ends of a long, skinny piece of dough into a ring, or by using a doughnut cutter, which simultaneously cuts the outside and inside shape, leaving a doughnut-shaped piece of dough and a doughnut hole (the dough removed from the center). This smaller piece of dough can be cooked and served as a \"doughnut hole\" or added back to the batch to make more doughnuts", ". A disk-shaped doughnut can also be stretched and pinched into a torus until the center breaks to form a hole. Alternatively, a doughnut depositor can be used to place a circle of liquid dough (batter) directly into the fryer.", "There are two types of ring doughnuts, those made from a yeast-based dough for raised doughnuts, or those made from a special type of cake batter. Yeast-raised doughnuts contain about 25% oil by weight, whereas cake doughnuts' oil content is around 20%, but have extra fat included in the batter before frying. Cake doughnuts are fried for about 90 seconds at approximately , turning once. Yeast-raised doughnuts absorb more oil because they take longer to fry, about 150 seconds, at", ". Yeast-raised doughnuts absorb more oil because they take longer to fry, about 150 seconds, at . Cake doughnuts typically weigh between , whereas yeast-raised doughnuts average and are generally larger, and taller (due to rising) when finished.", "Daniela Galarza, for Eater, wrote that \"the now-standard doughnut’s hole is still up for debate. Food writer Michael Krondl surmises that the shape came from recipes that called for the dough to be shaped like a jumble – a once common ring-shaped cookie. In Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People, culinary historian Linda Civitello writes that the hole was invented because it allowed the doughnuts to cook faster", ". By 1870 doughnut cutters shaped in two concentric circles, one smaller than the other, began to appear in home-shopping catalogues\".", "Topping\n\nAfter frying, ring doughnuts are often topped. Raised doughnuts are generally covered with a glaze (icing). Cake doughnuts can also be glazed, powdered with confectioner's sugar, or covered with cinnamon and granulated sugar. They are also often topped with cake frosting (top only) and sometimes sprinkled with coconut, chopped peanuts, or sprinkles.", "Holes \nDoughnut holes are small, bite-sized doughnuts that were traditionally made from the dough taken from the center of ring doughnuts. Before long, doughnut sellers saw the opportunity to market \"holes\" as a novelty and many chains offer their own variety, some with their own brand names such as \"Munchkins\" from Dunkin' Donuts and \"Timbits\" from Tim Hortons.", "Traditionally, doughnut holes are made by frying the dough removed from the center portion of the doughnut. Consequently, they are considerably smaller than a standard doughnut and tend to be spherical. Similar to standard doughnuts, doughnut holes may be topped with confections, such as glaze or powdered sugar.", "Originally, most varieties of doughnut holes were derivatives of their ring doughnut (yeast-based dough or cake batter) counterparts. However, doughnut holes can also be made by dropping a small ball of dough into hot oil from a specially shaped nozzle or cutter. This production method has allowed doughnut sellers to produce bite-sized versions of non-ring doughnuts, such as filled doughnuts, fritters and Dutchies.", "Filled\nFilled doughnuts are flattened spheres injected with fruit preserves, cream, custard, or other sweet fillings, and often dipped into powdered sugar or topped off with frosting. Common varieties include the Boston cream, coconut, key lime, and jelly.", "Other shapes\nOthers include the fritter and the Dutchie, which are usually glazed. These have been available on Tim Hortons' doughnut menu since the chain's inception in 1964, and a 1991 Toronto Star report found these two were the chain's most popular type of fried dough in Canada.", "There are many other specialized doughnut shapes such as old-fashioned, bars or Long Johns (a rectangular shape), or twists. Other shapes include balls, flattened spheres, twists, and other forms. In the northeast United States, bars and twists are usually referred to as crullers. Another is the beignet, a square-shaped doughnut covered with powdered sugar, commonly associated with New Orleans.\n\nScience", "Cake vs yeast style", "Yeast doughnuts and cake doughnuts contain most of the same ingredients, however, their structural differences arise from the type of flour and leavening agent used. In cake doughnuts, cake flour is used, and the resulting doughnut has a different texture because cake flour has a relatively low protein content of about 7 to 8 percent. In yeast doughnuts, a flour with a higher protein content of about 9 to 12 percent is used, resulting in a doughnut that is lighter and more airy", ". In addition, yeast doughnuts utilize yeast as a leavening agent. Specifically, \"Yeast cells are thoroughly distributed throughout the dough and begin to feed on the sugar that is present ... carbon dioxide gas is generated, which raises the dough, making it light and porous.\" Whereas this process is biological, the leavening process in cake doughnuts is chemical. In cake doughnuts, the most common leavening agent is baking powder. Baking powder is essentially \"baking soda with acid added", ". Baking powder is essentially \"baking soda with acid added. This neutralizes the base and produces more CO2 according to the following equation: NaHCO3 + H+ → Na+ + H2O + CO2.\"", "Physical structure", "The physical structure of the doughnut is created by the combination of flour, leavening agent, sugar, eggs, salt, water, shortening, milk solids, and additional components. The most important ingredients for creating the dough network are the flour and eggs. The main protein in flour is gluten, which is overall responsible for creating elastic dough because this protein acts as \"coiled springs.\" The gluten network is composed of two separate molecules named glutenin and gliadin", ".\" The gluten network is composed of two separate molecules named glutenin and gliadin. Specifically, \"the backbone of the gluten network likely consists of the largest glutenin molecules, or subunits, aligned and tightly linked to one another. These tightly linked glutenin subunits associate more loosely, along with gliadin, into larger gluten aggregates.\" The gluten strands than tangle and interact with other strands and other molecules, resulting in networks that provide the elasticity of the dough", ". In mixing, the gluten is developed when the force of the mixer draws the gluten from the wheat endosperm, allowing the gluten matrix to trap the gas cells.", "Molecular composition", "Eggs function as emulsifiers, foaming agents, and tenderizers in the dough. The egg white proteins, mainly ovalbumin, \"function as structure formers. Egg solids, chiefly the egg white solids combined with the moisture in the egg, are considered structure-forming materials that help significantly to produce proper volume, grain, and texture.\" The egg yolk contributes proteins, fats, and emulsifiers to the dough", ".\" The egg yolk contributes proteins, fats, and emulsifiers to the dough. Emulsifying agents are essential to doughnut formation because they prevent the fat molecules from separating from the water molecules in the dough. The main emulsifier in egg yolk is called lecithin, which is a phospholipid. \"The fatty acids are attracted to fats and oils (lipids) in food, while the phosphate group is attracted to water", ". It is this ability to attract both lipids and water that allow phospholipids such as lecithin to act as emulsifiers.\" The proteins from both the egg yolk and the egg whites contribute to the structure of the dough through a process called coagulation. When heat is applied to the dough, the egg proteins will begin to unfold, or denature, and then form new bonds with one another, thus creating a gel-like network that can hold water and gas.", "Shortening is responsible for providing tenderness and aerating the dough. In terms of its molecular structure, \"a typical shortening that appears solid [at room temperature] contains 15–20% solids and, hence, 80–85% liquid oil ... this small amount of solids can be made to hold all of the liquid in a matrix of very small, stable, needlelike crystals (beta-prime crystals).\" This crystalline structure is considered highly stable due to how tightly its molecules are packed", ". The sugar used in baking is essentially sucrose, and besides imparting sweetness in the doughnut, sugar also functions in the color and tenderness of the final product. Sucrose is a simple carbohydrate whose structure is made up of a glucose molecule bound to a fructose molecule. Milk is utilized in the making of doughnuts, but in large scale bakeries, one form of milk used is nonfat dry milk solids", ". These solids are obtained by removing most of the water from skim milk with heat, and this heat additionally denatures the whey proteins and increases the absorption properties of the remaining proteins. The ability of the casein and whey proteins to absorb excess water is essential to prolonging the doughnut's freshness", ". The major whey protein in the nonfat milk solids is known as beta-lactoglobulin, and a crucial feature of its structure is that there exists a single sulfhydryl group that is protected by the alpha helix, and when heating of the milk solids occurs, these groups participate in disulfide exchanges with other molecules. This interchange prevents the renaturation of the whey proteins. If the crosslinking of the sulfide groups does not occur, the whey proteins can rebond and weaken the gluten network.", "Water is a necessary ingredient in the production of doughnuts because it activates the other ingredients, allowing them to perform their functions in building the doughnut's structure. For example, sugar and salt crystals must be dissolved in order for them to act in the dough, whereas larger molecules, such as the starches or proteins, must be hydrated in order for them to absorb moisture", ". Another important consideration of water is its degree of hardness, which measures the amount of impurities in the water source. Pure water consists of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen, but water used in baking often is not pure. Baker's salt (NaCl) is usually used as an ingredient due to its high purity, whereas the salts in water are derived from varying minerals. As an ingredient, \"salt is added to enhance the flavour of cakes and breads and to ‘toughen up’ the soft mixture of fat and sugar", ".\" If relatively soft water is being used, more salt should be added in order to strengthen the gluten network of the dough, but if not enough salt is added during the baking process, the flavor of the bread will not be appealing to consumers.", "Health effects\nDoughnuts are unhealthful, though some are less so than others. According to Prevention Magazine, doughnuts made from enriched flour provide some thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin, along with some fiber, but they are high in sugar and calories. Steps to improve the healthfulness of doughnuts include removing trans fats.", "Dough rheology", "An important property of the dough that affects the final product is the dough's rheology. This property measures the ability of the dough to flow. It can be represented by the power law equation: where is the tangentic stress, is the viscosity coefficient, is the shear rate, and is the flow index. Many factors affect dough rheology including the type of ingredients, the amount of the ingredients, or the force applied during mixing", ". Dough is usually described as a viscoelastic material, meaning that its rheology depends on both the viscosity and the elasticity. The viscosity coefficient and the flow index are unique to the type of dough being analyzed, while the tangentic stress and the shear rate are measurements obtained depending on the type force being applied to the dough.", "Regional variations\n\nAsia", "Cambodia", "Nom kong (នំបុ័ងកង់), the traditional Cambodian doughnut, is named after its shape – the word ‘កង់’ (pronounced kong in Khmer) literally means “wheel”, whilst nom (‘នំបុ័ង’) is the general word for pastry or any kind of starchy food. A very inexpensive treat for everyday Cambodians, this sweet pastry consists of a jasmine rice flour dough moulded into a classic ring shape and then deep fried in fat, then drizzled with a palm sugar toffee and sprinkled with sesame seeds", ". The rice flour gives it a chewy texture that Cambodians are fond of. This childhood snack is what inspired Cambodian-American entrepreneur Ted Ngoy to build his doughnut empire, inspiring the film The Donut King.", "China\nA few sweet, doughnut-style pastries are regional in nature. Cantonese cuisine features an oval-shaped pastry called ngàuhleisōu (牛脷酥, lit. \"ox-tongue pastry\", due to its tongue-like shape).", "A spherical food called saa1 jung (沙翁), which is also similar to a cream puff but denser with a doughnut-like texture and usually prepared with sugar sprinkled on top, is normally available in dim sum\nCantonese restaurants. An oilier Beijing variant of this called 高力豆沙, gaoli dousha, is filled with red bean paste; originally, it was made with egg white instead of dough. Many Chinese cultures make a chewy doughnut known as shuangbaotai (雙包胎), which consists of two conjoined balls of dough.", "Chinese restaurants in the United States sometimes serve small fried pastries similar to doughnut holes with condensed milk as a sauce.\n\nChinese cuisine features long, deep-fried doughnut sticks that are often quite oily, hence their name in Mandarin, yóutiáo (油條, \"oil strips\"); in Cantonese, this doughnut-style pastry is called yàuhjagwái (油炸鬼, \"ghosts fried in oil\"). These pastries are lightly salted and are often served with congee, a traditional rice porridge or soy milk for breakfast.\n\nIndia", "India\n\nIn India, an old-fashioned sweet called gulgula is made of sweetened, deep-fried flour balls. A leavening agent may or may not be used.", "There are a couple of unrelated doughnut-shaped food items. A savory, fried, ring-shaped snack called a vada is often referred to as the Indian doughnut. The vada is made from dal, lentil or potato flours rather than wheat flour. In North India, it is in the form of a bulging disc called dahi-vada, and is soaked in curd, sprinkled with spices and sliced vegetables, and topped with a sweet and sour chutney. In South India, a vada is eaten with sambar and a coconut chutney.", "Sweet pastries similar to old-fashioned doughnuts called badushahi and jalebi are also popular. Balushahi, also called badushah, is made from flour, deep fried in clarified butter, and dipped in sugar syrup. Unlike a doughnut, balushahi is dense. A balushahi is ring-shaped, but the well in the center does not go all the way through to form a hole typical of a doughnut. Jalebi, which is typically pretzel-shaped, is made by deep frying batter in oil and soaking it in sugar syrup", ". A variant of jalebi, called imarti, is shaped with a small ring in the center around which a geometric pattern is arranged.", "Along with these Indian variants, typical varieties of doughnuts are also available from U.S. chains such as Krispy Kreme and Dunkin' Donuts retail outlets, as well as local brands such as Mad Over Donuts and the Donut Baker.\n\nIndonesia\nThe Indonesian, donat kentang is a potato doughnut, a ring-shaped fritter made from flour and mashed potatoes, coated in powder sugar or icing sugar.\n\nJapan", "In Japan, an-doughnut (あんドーナッツ, \"bean paste doughnut\") is widely available at bakeries. An-doughnut is similar to Germany's Berliner, except it contains red azuki bean paste. Mister Donut is one of the most popular doughnut chains in Japan. Native to Okinawa is a spheroid pastry similar to doughnuts called sata andagi. Mochi donuts are \"a cross between a traditional cake-like doughnut and chewy mochi dough similar to what’s wrapped around ice cream\"", ". This hybrid confection was originally popularized in Japan by Mister Donut before spreading to the United States via Hawaii. The Mister Donut style, also known as \"pon de ring\", uses tapioca flour and produces mochi donuts that are easy to pull apart. Another variation developed in the United States uses glutinous rice flour which produces a denser mochi donut akin to Hawaiian-style butter mochi", ". Mochi donuts made from glutinous rice flour \"typically contain half the amount of calories as the standard cake or yeast doughnut\".", "Malaysia\nKuih keria is a hole doughnut made from boiled sweet potato that is mashed. The sweet potato mash is shaped into rings and fried. The hot doughnut is then rolled in granulated sugar. The result is a doughnut with a sugar-crusted skin.", "Nepal\nSel roti is a Nepali homemade, ring-shaped, rice doughnut prepared during Tihar, the widely celebrated Hindu festival in Nepal. A semiliquid dough is usually prepared by adding milk, water, sugar, butter, cardamom, and mashed banana to rice flour, which is often left to ferment for up to 24 hours. A sel roti is traditionally fried in ghee.", "Pakistan\nDoughnuts are available at most bakeries across Pakistan. The Navaz Sharif variety, available mainly in the city of Karachi, is covered in chocolate and filled with cream, similar to a Boston cream. Doughnuts can readily be found at the many Dunkin' Donuts branches spread across Pakistan.\n\nPhilippines", "Local varieties of doughnuts sold by peddlers and street vendors throughout the Philippines are usually made of plain well-kneaded dough, deep-fried in refined coconut oil and sprinkled with refined (not powdered or confectioner's) sugar. Round versions of this doughnut are known as buñuelos (also spelled bunwelos, and sometimes confusingly known as \"bicho-bicho\"), similar to the doughnuts in Spain and former Spanish colonies", ". Indigenous versions of the doughnut also exist, like the cascaron, which is prepared similarly, but uses ground glutinous rice and coconut milk in place of wheat flour and milk.", "Other native doughnut recipes include the shakoy, kumukunsi, and binangkal. Shakoy or siyakoy from the Visayas islands (also known as lubid-lubid in the northern Philippines) uses a length of dough twisted into a distinctive rope-like shape before being fried. The preparation is almost exactly the same as doughnuts, though there are variants made from glutinous rice flour. The texture can range from soft and fluffy, to sticky and chewy, to hard and crunchy (in the latter case, they are known as pilipit)", ". They are sprinkled with white sugar, but can also be topped with sesame seeds or caramelized sugar. Kumukunsi is a jalebi-like native doughnut from the Maguindanao people. It is made with rice flour, duck eggs, and sugar that is molded into rope-like strands and then fried in a loose spiral. It has the taste and consistency of a creamy pancake. Binangkal are simple fried dough balls covered in sesame seeds", ". Binangkal are simple fried dough balls covered in sesame seeds. Other fried dough desserts include the mesh-like lokot-lokot, the fried rice cake panyalam, and the banana fritter maruya, among others.", "Taiwan\nIn Taiwan, shuāngbāotāi (雙胞胎, lit. \"twins\") is two pieces of dough wrapped together before frying.\n\nThailand\nIn Thailand, a popular breakfast food is pa thong ko, also known as Thai donuts, a version of the Chinese yiu ja guoy/youtiao. Often sold from food stalls in markets or by the side of the road, these doughnuts are small, sometimes X-shaped, and sold by the bag full. They are often eaten in the morning with hot Thai tea.", "Vietnam", "Vietnamese varieties of doughnuts include bánh tiêu, bánh cam, and bánh rán. Bánh tiêu is a sesame-topped, deep-fried pastry that is hallow. It can be eaten alone or cut in half and served with bánh bò, a gelatinous cake, placed inside the pastry. Bánh cam is from Southern Vietnam and is a ball-shaped, deep-fried pastry coated entirely in sesame seeds and containing a mung bean paste filling", ". Bánh rán is from Northern Vietnam and is similar to bánh cam; however, the difference is that bánh rán is covered with a sugar glaze after being deep-fried and its mung bean paste filling includes a jasmine essence.", "Europe\n\nAustria\nIn Austria, doughnut equivalents are called Krapfen. They are especially popular during Carneval season (Fasching), and do not have the typical ring shape, but instead are solid and usually filled with apricot jam (traditional) or vanilla cream (Vanillekrapfen). A second variant, called Bauernkrapfen are also made of yeast dough, and have a thick outside ring, but are very thin in the middle.", "Belgium\nIn Belgium, the smoutebollen in Dutch, or croustillons in French, are similar to the Dutch kind of oliebollen, but they usually do not contain any fruit, except for apple chunks sometimes. They are typical carnival and fair snacks and are coated with powdered sugar.\n\nCzech Republic", "Czech Republic\n\nU.S.-style doughnuts are available in the Czech Republic, but before they were solid shape and filled with jelly (strawberry or peach). The shape is similar to doughnuts in Germany or Poland. They are called Kobliha (Koblihy in plural). They may be filled with nougat or with vanilla custard. There are now many fillings; cut in half or non-filled knots with sugar and cinnamon on top.", "Denmark\nIn Denmark, U.S.-style doughnuts may be found at various stores, e.g. McDonald's and most gas stations. The Berliner, however, is also available in bakeries.\n\nFinland\n\nin Finland, a sweet doughnut is called a munkki (the word also means monk) and are commonly eaten in cafés and cafeteria restaurants. It is sold cold and sometimes filled with jam (like U.S. jelly donuts) or a vanilla sauce. A ring doughnut is also known as donitsi.", "A savory form of doughnut is the lihapiirakka (literally meat pie). Made from a doughnut mixture and deep fried, the end product is more akin to a savory doughnut than any pie known in the English-speaking world.", "Former Yugoslavia", "Doughnuts similar to the Berliner are prepared in the northern Balkans, particularly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia and Serbia (pokladnice or krofne). They are also called krofna, krafna or krafne, a name derived from the Austrian Krapfen for this pastry. In Croatia, they are especially popular during Carneval season and do not have the typical ring shape, but instead are solid. Traditionally, they are filled with jam (apricot or plum)", ". Traditionally, they are filled with jam (apricot or plum). However, they can be filled with vanilla or chocolate cream. Other types of doughnuts are uštipci and fritule.", "France\nThe French beignet, literally \"bump\", is the French and New Orleans equivalent of a doughnut: a pastry made from deep-fried choux pastry.\n\nGermany", "Germany\n\nIn parts of Germany, the doughnut equivalents are called Berliner (sg. and pl.), but not in the capital city of Berlin itself and neighboring areas, where they are called Pfannkuchen (which is often found misleading by people in the rest of Germany, who use the word Pfannkuchen to describe a pancake, which is also the literal translation of it). Both Berliner and Pfannkuchen are abbreviations of the term Berliner Pfannkuchen, however.", "In middle Germany, doughnuts are called Kreppel or Pfannkuchen. In southern Germany, they are also called Krapfen and are especially popular during Carnival season (Karneval/Fasching) in southern and middle Germany and on New Year's Eve in northern Germany. A Berliner does not have the typical ring shape of a doughnut, but instead is solid and usually filled with jam, while a ring-shaped variant called Kameruner is common in Berlin and eastern Germany", ". Bismarcks and Berlin doughnuts are also found in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland and the United States. Today, U.S.-style doughnuts are also available in Germany, but are less popular than their native counterparts.", "Greece\nIn Greece, a doughnut-like snack called loukoumas (λουκουμάς), which is spherical and soaked in honey syrup, is available. It is often served with sprinkled cinnamon and grated walnuts or sesame seeds.\n\nHungary", "Hungary\n\nFánk is a sweet traditional Hungarian cake. The most commonly used ingredients are flour, yeast, butter, egg yolk, rum, salt, milk and oil for frying. The dough is allowed to rise for approximately 30 minutes, resulting in an extremely light pastry. Fánk is usually served with powdered sugar and lekvar.\n\nIt is supposed that Fánk pastry is of the same origin as German Berliner, Dutch oliebol, and Polish pączki.\n\nItaly", "Italy\n\nItalian doughnuts include ciambelle, krapfen from Trentino-Alto Adige, zippuli or zeppole from Calabria and Campania, maritozzi from Latium, above all Rome, bomboloni from Tuscany, frittelle from Veneto and many others. In the island of Sardinia there is a particular donut, a ring cake called lorica.", "Lithuania\nIn Lithuania, a kind of doughnut called spurgos is widely known. Some spurgos are similar to Polish pączki, but some specific recipes, such as cottage cheese doughnuts (varškės spurgos), were invented independently.\n\nNetherlands", "Netherlands\n\nIn the Netherlands, oliebollen, referred to in cookbooks as \"Dutch doughnuts\", are a type of fritter, with or without raisins or currants, and usually sprinkled with powdered sugar. Variations of the recipe contain slices of apple or other fruits. They are traditionally eaten as part of New Year celebrations.", "Norway\nIn Norway, smultring is the prevailing type of doughnut traditionally sold in bakeries, shops, and stalls. However, U.S.-style doughnuts are widely available in larger supermarkets, McDonald's restaurants, 7-elevens and bakeries. The Berliner is more common than U.S.-style doughnut, and sold in most supermarkets and bakeries alongside smultring doughnuts.\n\nPoland", "In Poland and parts of the U.S. with a large Polish community, like Chicago and Detroit, the round, jam-filled doughnuts eaten especially—though not exclusively—during the Carnival are called pączki (). Pączki have been known in Poland at least since the Middle Ages", ". Pączki have been known in Poland at least since the Middle Ages. Jędrzej Kitowicz has described that during the reign of the Augustus III under influence of French cooks who came to Poland at that time, pączki dough fried in Poland has been improved, so that pączki became lighter, spongier, and more resilient.", "Portugal\nThe malasada is a common type of holeless donut created in Portugal. They are made of fried dough. In Madeira and the Azores they are eaten on Fat Tuesday. It is also popular in Hawaii and Cape Cod. The malasada arrived after immigrants came in.\n\nRomania\nThe Romanian dessert gogoși are fried dough balls similar to filled doughnuts. They are stuffed with chocolate, jam, cheese and other combinations and may be dusted with icing sugar.\n\nRussia", "Russia\n\nIn Russia and the other Post-Soviet countries, ponchiki (, plural form of пончик, ponchik) or (, especially in St. Petersburg) are a very popular sweet doughnut, with many fast and simple recipes available in Russian cookbooks for making them at home as a breakfast or coffee pastry.", "Slovenia\nIn Slovenia, a jam-filled doughnut known as krofi, is very popular. It is the typical sweet during Carnival time, but is to be found in most bakeries during the whole year. The most famous krofi come from the village of Trojane in central Slovenia, and are originally filled with apricot jam filling.\n\nSpain", "Spain\n\nIn Spain, there are two different types of doughnuts. The first one, simply called donuts, or more traditionally berlinesas, is a U.S.-style doughnut, i.e., a deep-fried, sweet, soft, ring of flour dough.", "The second type of doughnut is a traditional pastry called rosquilla or rosquete (the latter name is typical in the Canary Islands), made of fermented dough and fried or baked in an oven. Rosquillas were purportedly introduced in Spain by the Romans. In Spain, there are several variants of them depending on the region where they are prepared and the time of the year they are sold. In some regions they are considered a special pastry prepared only for Easter", ". In some regions they are considered a special pastry prepared only for Easter. Although overall they are more tightly textured and less sweet than U.S.-style doughnuts, they differ greatly in shape, size and taste from one region to another.", "The churro is a sweet pastry of deep-fried dough similar to a doughnut but shaped as a long, thin, ribbed cylinder rather than a ring or sphere. Churros are commonly served dusted in sugar as a snack or with a cup of hot chocolate.\n\nSwitzerland\nIn Switzerland, there are Zigerkrapfen, Berliner and tortelli di San Giuseppe.", "Switzerland\nIn Switzerland, there are Zigerkrapfen, Berliner and tortelli di San Giuseppe.\n\nSweden\nSimilar to the Finnish munkki, the Swedish munk is a sweet doughnut commonly eaten as fika along with coffee. It is sold cold and is sometimes filled with jam (U.S. jelly) or a vanilla sauce. A ring doughnut is also known as simply munk.\n\nUkraine", "Ukraine\n\nIn Ukraine doughnuts are called pampushky (). Pampushky are made of yeast dough containing wheat, rye or buckwheat flour. Traditionally they are baked, but may also be fried. According to William Pokhlyobkin, the technology of making pampushky points to German cuisine, and these buns were possibly created by German colonists in Ukraine.\n\nUnited Kingdom", "United Kingdom\n\nIn some parts of Scotland, ring doughnuts are referred to as doughrings, with the 'doughnut' name being reserved exclusively for the nut-shaped variety. Glazed, twisted rope-shaped doughnuts are known as yum-yums. It is also possible to buy fudge doughnuts in certain regions of Scotland. Fillings include jam, custard, cream, sweet mincemeat, chocolate and apple. Common ring toppings are sprinkle-iced and chocolate.", "In Northern Ireland, ring doughnuts are known as gravy rings, gravy being an archaic term for hot cooking oil.\n\nNorth America\n\nCaribbean region\nA kurma is a small, sweet, fried cube-shaped or rectangular doughnut which originated in Eastern India but is sold in Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nCosta Rica\nA traditional Puntarenas cream-filled doughnut is round and robust, managing to keep the cream inside liquified. They are popular in Costa Rica.", "Mexico\nThe Mexican donas are similar to doughnuts, including the name; the dona is a fried-dough pastry-based snack, commonly covered with powdered brown sugar and cinnamon, white sugar or chocolate.\n\nUnited States and Canada \nFrosted, glazed, powdered, Boston cream, coconut, sour cream, cinnamon, chocolate, and jelly are some of the varieties eaten in the United States and Canada. There are also potato doughnuts (sometimes referred to as spudnuts).", "Doughnuts are ubiquitous in the United States and can be found in most grocery stores, as well as in specialty doughnut shops. They are equally popular in Canada.\n\nA popular doughnut in Hawaii is the malasada. Malasadas were brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Portuguese settlers, and are a variation on Portugal's filhós. They are small, eggy balls of yeast dough deep-fried and coated in sugar.", "Immigrants have brought various doughnut varieties to the United States. To celebrate Fat Tuesday in eastern Pennsylvania, churches sell a potato starch doughnut called a Fastnacht (or Fasnacht). The treats are so popular there that Fat Tuesday is often called Fastnacht Day. The Polish doughnut, the pączki, is popular in U.S. cities with large Polish communities such as Chicago, Milwaukee, and Detroit.", "In regions of the country where apples are widely grown, especially the Northeast and Midwest states, cider doughnuts are a harvest season specialty, especially at orchards open to tourists, where they can be served fresh. Cider doughnuts are a cake doughnut with apple cider in the batter. The use of cider affects both the texture and flavor, resulting in a denser, moister product. They are often coated with either granulated, powdered sugar, or cinnamon sugar.", "In southern Louisiana, a popular variety of the doughnut is the beignet, a fried, square doughnut served traditionally with powdered sugar. Perhaps the most well-known purveyor of beignets is New Orleans restaurant Cafe Du Monde.\n\nIn Quebec, homemade doughnuts called beignes de Noël are traditional Christmas desserts.\n\nMiddle East and North Africa\n\nIran", "Middle East and North Africa\n\nIran\n\nThe Persian zoolbia and bamiyeh are fritters of various shapes and sizes coated in a sugar syrup. Doughnuts are also made in the home in Iran, referred to as doughnut, even in the plural.\n\nIsrael", "Israel\n\nJelly doughnuts, known as sufganiyah (סופגניה, pl. sufganiyot סופגניות) in Israel, have become a traditional Hanukkah food in the recent era, as they are cooked in oil, associated with the holiday account of the miracle of the oil. Traditional sufganiyot are filled with red jelly and topped with icing sugar. However, many other varieties exist, with some being filled with dulce de leche (particularly common after the South American aliyah early in the 21st century).", "Morocco\nIn Morocco, Sfenj is a similar pastry eaten sprinkled with sugar or soaked in honey.\n\nTunisia\nIn Tunisia, traditional pastries similar to doughnuts are yo-yos. They come in different versions both as balls and in shape of doughnuts. They are deep-fried and covered in a honey syrup or a kind of frosting. Sesame seeds are also used for flavor and decoration along with orange juice and vanilla.\n\nOceania\n\nAustralia", "In Australia, the doughnut is a popular snack food. Jam doughnuts are particularly popular, especially in Melbourne, Victoria and the Queen Victoria Market, where they are a tradition. Jam doughnuts are similar to a Berliner, but are served hot: red jam (raspberry or strawberry) is injected into the bun before it is deep-fried, and then it is coated with either sugar or sugar mixed with cinnamon as soon as it has been cooked. Jam doughnuts are sometimes also bought frozen", ". Jam doughnuts are sometimes also bought frozen. In South Australia, they are known as Berliner or Kitchener and often served in cafes. Popular variants include custard-filled doughnuts, and more recently Nutella-filled doughnuts.", "Mobile vans that serve doughnuts, traditional or jam, are often seen at spectator events, markets, carnivals and fetes, and by the roadside near high-traffic areas like airports and the car parks of large shopping centres. Traditional cinnamon doughnuts are readily available in Australia from specialized retailers and convenience stores. Doughnuts are a popular choice for schools and other not-for-profit groups to cook and sell as a fundraiser.", "New Zealand\nIn New Zealand, the doughnut is a popular food snack available in corner dairies. They are in the form of a long sweet bread roll with a deep cut down its long axis. In this cut is placed a long dollop of sweetened clotted cream and on top of this is a spot of strawberry jam. Doughnuts are of two varieties: fresh cream or mock cream. The rounded variety is widely available as well.\n\nSouth America", "Brazil", "In Brazil, bakeries, grocery stores and pastry shops sell ball-shaped doughnuts popularly known as \"sonhos\" (lit. dreams). The dessert was brought to Brazil by Portuguese colonizers that had contact with Dutch and German traders. They are the equivalent of nowadays \"bolas de Berlim\" (lit. balls of Berlin) in Portugal, but the traditional Portuguese yellow cream was substituted by local dairy and fruit products", ". They are made of a special type of bread filled with \"goiabada\" (guava jelly) or milk cream, and covered by white sugar.", "Chile\nThe Berlin (plural Berlines) doughnut is popular in Chile because of the large German community. It may be filled with jam or with manjar, the Chilean version of dulce de leche.\n\nPeru\nPeruvian cuisine includes picarones which are doughnut-shaped fritters made with a squash and sweet potato base. These snacks are almost always served with a drizzle of sweet molasses-based sauce.\n\nSub-Saharan Africa", "Sub-Saharan Africa\n\nSouth Africa\nIn South Africa, an Afrikaans variation known as the koeksister is popular. Another variation, similar in name, is the Cape Malay koesister being soaked in a spiced syrup and coated in coconut. It has a texture similar to more traditional doughnuts as opposed to the Afrikaans variety. A further variation is the vetkoek, which is also dough deep fried in oil. It is served with mince, syrup, honey or jam.\n\nIn popular culture", "In popular culture\n\nThe doughnut has made an appearance in popular culture, particularly in the United States and Australia. References extend to objects or actions that are doughnut-shaped.", "In film, the doughnut has inspired Dora's Dunking Doughnuts (1933), The Doughnuts (1963) and Tour de Donut: Gluttons for Punishment. In video games, the doughnut has appeared in games like The Simpsons Game and Donut Dilemma. In the cartoon Mucha Lucha, there are four things that make up the code of mask wrestling: honor, family, tradition, and doughnuts", ". Also, in the television sitcom The Simpsons, Homer Simpson's love affair with doughnuts is a prominent ongoing joke as well as the focal point of more than a few episodes. There is also a children's book Arnie the Doughnut and music albums The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse.", "In films, TV shows, and other popular culture references, police officers are associated with doughnuts, depicted as enjoying them during their coffee break or office hours. This cliché has been parodied in the film Police Academy 4: Citizens on Patrol, where Officer Zed is instructing new recruits how to \"properly\" consume their doughnuts with coffee. It is also parodied in the television series Twin Peaks, where the police station is always in large supply", ". In the video game Neuromancer, there is a Donut World shop, where only policemen are allowed. During a citywide \"lockdown\" after the Boston Marathon bombing, a handful of selected Dunkin' Donuts locations were ordered to remain open to serve police and first responders despite the closing of the vast majority of city businesses.", "Cops & Doughnuts, a doughnut shop in Clare, Michigan, is notable for being owned and operated by current and former members of the city's police force.", "Tim Hortons is the most popular Canadian doughnut and coffee franchise, and one of the most successful quick service restaurants in the country. In the Second City Television sketch comedy \"The Great White North\" featuring the fictional stereotypically Canadian brothers Bob and Doug MacKenzie (and in their film Strange Brew), doughnuts play a role in the duo's comedy.\n\nIndustry by country", "Industry by country\n\nAustralia\nDonut King is Australia's largest retailer of doughnuts. A Guinness Book of Records largest doughnut made up of 90,000 individual doughnuts was set in Sydney in 2007 as part of a celebration for the release of The Simpsons Movie.\n\nCanada\nPer capita, Canadians consume the most doughnuts, and Canada has the most doughnut stores per capita.", "United States \nWithin the United States, the Providence metropolitan area was cited as having the most doughnut shops per capita (25.3 doughnut shops per 100,000 people) as of January 13, 2010. National Doughnut Day celebrates the doughnut's history and role in popular culture. There is a race in Staunton, Illinois, featuring doughnuts, called the Tour de Donut.\n\nPink boxes", "In the US, especially in Southern California, fresh doughnuts sold by the dozen at local doughnut shops are typically packaged in generic pink boxes. This phenomenon has been attributed to Ted Ngoy and Ning Yen, refugees of the Cambodian genocide who began to transform the local doughnut shop industry in 1976. They proved so adept at the business and in training fellow Chinese Cambodian refugees to follow suit that these local doughnut shops soon dominated native franchises such as Winchell's Donuts", ". Ngoy and Yen allegedly planned to purchase boxes of a lucky red color rather than the standard white, but settled on a leftover pink stock because of its lower cost.", "In the mid-1970s, pink doughnut boxes were already a common sight in the eastern and midwestern United States, due to the fact that Dunkin' Donuts used a solid pink color for its boxes at that time. (It switched to a different box design sometime after 1975.) But the chain did not begin to establish a major presence in California until the 2010s.", "Owing to the success of Ngoy and Yen's business, the color soon became a recognizable standard in California. Due to the locality of Hollywood, the pink boxes frequently appeared as film and television props and were thus transmitted into popular culture.\n\nHolidays and festivals\n\nNational Doughnut Day", "National Doughnut Day, also known as National Donut Day, celebrated in the United States of America, is on the first Friday of June each year, succeeding the Doughnut Day event created by The Salvation Army in 1938 to honor those of their members who served doughnuts to soldiers during World War I. About 250 Salvation Army volunteers went to France", ". About 250 Salvation Army volunteers went to France. Because of the difficulties of providing freshly baked goods from huts established in abandoned buildings near the front lines, the two Salvation Army volunteers (Ensign Margaret Sheldon and Adjutant Helen Purviance) came up with the idea of providing doughnuts. These are reported to have been an \"instant hit\", and \"soon many soldiers were visiting The Salvation Army huts\"", ". Margaret Sheldon wrote of one busy day: \"Today I made 22 pies, 300 doughnuts, 700 cups of coffee.\"", "Soon, the women who did this work became known by the servicemen as \"Doughnut Dollies\".", "See also\n\n Brown Bobby\n Cronut\n Danish pastry\n Fried dough foods\n Gulab Jamun\n Kolache\n List of desserts\n List of doughnut shops\n List of doughnut varieties\n Pączki\n Pan dulce (sweet bread)\n Pastry\n Puff-puff\n Sufganiyah\n Torus\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n Origins of the doughnut hole.\n \n\n \nArticles containing video clips\nTypes of food" ]

[ "The Peoples Temple, the new religious movement which came to be known for the mass killings at Jonestown, was headquartered in San Francisco, California, United States from the early to mid-1970s until the Temple's move to Guyana in 1977. During this period, the Temple and its founder, Reverend Jim Jones, rose to national prominence thanks to Jones' interest in social and political causes, and wielded a significant amount of influence in San Francisco's city government.\n\nHistory", "History\n\nThe Peoples Temple began in 1955 as a racially integrated Christian church founded by Reverend Jim Jones. While the Temple originated in suburban Indiana, the congregation moved to Redwood Valley, California in the late 1960s after Jones predicted a nuclear apocalypse that would facilitate the beginning of a socialist Eden on earth. By the mid-1970s, the organization possessed over a dozen locations in California, including in San Francisco and Los Angeles.", "Its headquarters later moved into San Francisco, where Jones remained until July 1977, when he fled with almost 1,000 Temple members to the cult's remote settlement at Jonestown, Guyana following an investigative article in New West magazine.", "San Francisco activities", "When the Temple expanded its operations into the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1970s, its staff concentrated on advertising the organization's bus caravans to attract new converts, including the handing out of free trinkets. By 1972, despite the Temple still calling its Redwood Valley facility the \"mother church\" of a statewide movement, moving the seat of power to an urban area seemed a strategic necessity. The Temple had previously held services in San Francisco and Los Angeles since 1970.", "In 1971, the Temple established a permanent facility in San Francisco at 1859 Geary Boulevard, an old building in the city's Western Addition that used to be a Scottish Rite temple; a Los Angeles facility followed two years later. The Temple purchased the Geary Boulevard building for $122,500 in 1972", ". The Temple purchased the Geary Boulevard building for $122,500 in 1972. While the Temple's Los Angeles facility initially attracted a larger, mostly African-American membership, the Temple later enticed hundreds of devoted Los Angeles members to move north to San Francisco to attend Temple meetings at Geary Boulevard.", "By August 1975, Jones had completely abandoned prior plans to make Redwood Valley an internal \"promised land.\" The reversal of the direction of Temple efforts from rural areas back into urban areas, where it had focused when located in Indiana, was complete. The liberal, counter-cultural stronghold of San Francisco better reflected the Temple's politics than conservative Indiana, and relocating to San Francisco permitted Jones and his followers to be open with their ideology.", "However, Jones' faith healing ceremonies were problematic for the Temple, as they also drew some religious conservatives who were less likely to join a socialist organization. Because of this and the Temple's constant fear of conspiracies by outsiders opposing its message, new members were carefully screened.", "Entrants to the Geary Boulevard facility were not permitted free access to the inner areas of the buildings. Rather, they were greeted by an amicable covert interrogation party that sized up visitors, with \"suspicious\" figures told to wait indefinitely in the lobby. The Temple assigned admitted attendees an \"interpreter\" of sorts to watch their reactions to the meetings and \"explain\" Jones' statements", ". If the attendee seemed non-objectionable, a five-week period of observation began, which usually involved sifting through the attendees' trash by the third or fourth week.", "San Francisco Temple life\nAs the Temple shifted its focus to cities in the mid-1970s, communes became an important means of tightening controls and improving finances. Temple members in San Francisco were urged to live a communal lifestyle. Members elevated to the Temple's central governing body, the Planning Commission, were expected to \"go communal.\" The money saved from communal living was to be donated to the Temple.", "Children of Temple members would also be raised \"communally,\" often in other Temple communes or through guardianships. The Temple stressed physical discipline, which involved repeated paddlings of children with a wooden paddle in front of Temple members. The practice later turned into disciplinary boxing matches, where the disciplined child was outmatched by one or more other members. Later, adult Temple members were involved in both paddlings and boxing matches.", "Planning Commission meetings in San Francisco would sometimes run all night. They often involved long \"catharsis\" sessions in which members would be called \"on the floor\" for emotional dissections, including why they were wearing nice clothes when others in the world were starving. Other members were expected to accuse those \"on the floor\" of various disallowed activities, while the Temple considered it improper for the accused to mount a defense", ". The Temple also asked adults to sign papers admitting various crimes and wrongdoings, including conspiring against the U.S. government, involvement in terrorist acts and molesting their own children. If such members attempted to leave the Temple, Jones threatened to release the statements.", "The Temple converted some former real estate of its members into communal living units, and came to possess at least a dozen such locations scattered throughout San Francisco's Fillmore district. Communal members' possessions were sold through two Temple antique stores and through weekend flea markets. Because of commune size constraints, Temple security chief Jim McElvane shot and buried communal members' pets in mass graves.\n\nMedia alliances", "In 1972, Jones first met Dr. Carlton Goodlett, publisher of the San Francisco newspaper The Sun Reporter, which was targeted towards African-American readers. The two encountered each other at political rallies and at Goodlett's medical practice. The Sun Reporter soon thereafter presented the Temple with a \"Special Merit Award.\" Temple media advisor Michael Prokes, a former reporter for a CBS affiliate, dined with Sun Reporter editor Tom Fleming and spoke of harassment of the Temple by the CIA and FBI.", "The Temple and Goodlett soon forged an alliance, with Goodlett permitting the Temple to print its Peoples Forum newspaper on The Sun Reporters presses. The deal was profitable for The Sun Reporter, and Jones and Goodlett entered into another media venture to invest and reorganize the Norfolk, Virginia newspaper The Journal and Guide. The Peoples Forums first issue was published in 1973, with a large format issue first being published in 1976.", "While Jones hoped to build the Peoples Forum into San Francisco's third largest daily paper behind the San Francisco Chronicle and San Francisco Examiner, and grossly exaggerated the circulation of the paper at \"600,000\", the paper only modestly grew to a circulation of closer to 60,000. While The Sun Reporter printed positive articles about the Temple, and despite his apparent close ties to Goodlett, Jones called the publisher a \"Cadillac communist\" behind his back.", "Jones also cultivated other media relationships. At the Chronicle, famed columnist Herb Caen was the Temple's most widely read media acquaintance, while city editor Steven Gavin attended Temple services along with a Chronicle reporter. Several reporters at local newspapers and television stations also spoke favorably of the Temple.", "Caen repeated some of Prokes' claims of orchestrated harassment by the CIA and FBI against the Temple in his columns. Jones also won the National Newspaper Publishers Association Man of the Year Award, given by the Black Press of America. The Temple also broadcast a weekly hour-long radio show that ran in several cities, including KFAX in San Francisco.", "The Temple carefully rehearsed any meetings Jones would have with reporters, staging visits to the Geary Boulevard facility, permitting reporters to see only specific parts of the building, and stationing Temple members in places to compliment the reporter.\n\nPolitical beginnings\n\nPolitical volunteerism", "Several political developments in San Francisco in the mid-1970s, including a shift from citywide elections of county supervisors to district elections as well as campaign spending limits and reporting requirements, bestowed unprecedented power on local neighborhood groups and civil organizations such as the Peoples Temple. The organization began distinguishing itself with an overtly political message", ". The organization began distinguishing itself with an overtly political message. It participated in political processes and formed alliances, not just for the sake of expediency, but also out of genuine political sympathies. As the ideological direction of the Temple became more openly socialist, it depended more upon the political world.", "Jones made it known that he was interested in politics, and Corey Buscher, former press secretary to Mayor George Moscone, stated that he \"made his followers available to support progressive Democratic candidates,\" though earlier Jones had also supported at least some local Mendocino County Republicans", ". However, the Temple played a double game of working underground among progressive circles, assuming the political establishment consisted of \"corrupt enemies\", while working publicly in traditional channels to advance its own causes.", "Buscher explained that, soon after the Geary Boulevard facility opened, it \"became common knowledge that if you were going to run for office in San Francisco, and your constituency included the black, the young or the poor, you'd better have Jones in your corner.\" The Temple had 3,000 registered members, though it regularly drew that same number to its San Francisco services alone, whether or not these were registered. Some more recent accounts state the effective membership numbered perhaps 8,000.", "Of particular interest to San Francisco politicians was the Temple's ability to produce 2,000 people for campaign activities with only six hours notice. Buscher stated that Jones offered thousands of \"foot soldiers\" willing to walk precincts and get out the vote, which was \"an offer no politician in his right mind could refuse", ".\" Similarly, Mayor Art Agnos stated that, \"If you were having a rally for a presidential candidate, you needed to fill up the crowd, you could always get busloads from Jim Jones' church.\"", "Agar Jaicks, who was chairman of San Francisco County's Democratic Central Committee, referred to the Temple as \"a ready-made volunteer workforce.\" Jaicks further explained that Jones was \"a man who touched a component of the consensus power forces in the city, such as labor and ethnicity groups, and he was very strong in the Western Addition. So here was a guy who could provide workers for causes progressives cared about.\"", "Introductions\nCalifornia State Assemblyman Willie Brown first met Jones at the Bardelli's restaurant in Union Square. Later, Jones sent Prokes to Brown's office to interview him, future District Attorney Joseph Freitas and future Sheriff Richard Hongisto for a Temple-produced documentary film.\n\nInvolvement in George Moscone's 1975 mayoral race", "Involvement in George Moscone's 1975 mayoral race\n\nIn San Francisco's 1975 mayoral race, Democratic candidate George Moscone ran against Republican John Barbagelata. During the race, Moscone held a meeting with Jones and Prokes requesting Temple volunteers to perform campaign work. Temple members subsequently saturated San Francisco neighborhoods, distributing slate cards for Moscone, Freitas, and Hongisto.", "The Temple worked to get out the vote in precincts where Moscone received a 12-to-1 vote margin over Barbagelata. All three candidates won, with Moscone winning a close runoff by less than two percent of the vote. At the time of the election, a Moscone campaign aide stated, \"Everybody talks about the labor unions and their power, but Jones turns out the troops.\"", "After the election, Moscone and others believed that the Temple's efforts were instrumental in his close victory. A transcription of a phone conversation with Prokes one month later stated, \"Moscone acknowledges in essence that we won him the election\" and that \"he promises J. an appointment.\"", "Barbagelata and others suspected election fraud on the part of the Temple, believing that followers of Jones who were not San Francisco residents had been transported into the city to vote. After the mass killings at Jonestown in 1978, Temple members revealed to The New York Times that the Temple had indeed arranged for \"busloads\" of members to be driven from Redwood Valley to vote for Moscone", ". A former Temple member stated that many of those members were not registered to vote in San Francisco, while another former member said that \"Jones swayed elections.\"", "Yet another former member stated of Jones that \"he told us how to vote\", stating that Temple members were required to produce booth stubs to prove that they voted, and that members who could not produce such stubs were \"pushed around, shoved and physically abused.\" When asked how Jones could know for whom they voted, the member responded, \"You don't understand, we wanted to do what he told us to.\".", "As San Francisco's newly-elected district attorney, Freitas set up a special unit to investigate the election fraud charges. Freitas named Temple member Timothy Stoen, whom he had hired as an assistant district attorney, to lead the unit. Stoen employed Temple members as volunteers to help with work on the investigation. The Temple was not mentioned in the proceedings that followed", ". The Temple was not mentioned in the proceedings that followed. After the tragedy, Stoen, who had turned against the Temple in 1977, stated that he was not aware at an election fraud effort by the Temple at the time, but that such a plot could have happened without his knowledge because, \"Jim Jones kept a lot of things from me.\"", "Help with Harvey Milk's 1976 race for the California State Assembly\n\nHarvey Milk, who eventually became a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, first became acquainted with the Temple while running for a seat in the California State Assembly against Art Agnos. Jones initially telephoned a Milk campaign worker and stated that he wished to back Milk, apologized for earlier backing Agnos, and said he would \"make up for it\" by sending volunteers to work on Milk's campaign.", "When told by friend Michael Wong of Jones' earlier backing of Agnos, Milk retorted, \"Well, fuck him. I'll take his workers, but that's the game Jim Jones plays.\" Temple member Sharon Amos organized the Temple's leafleting campaign for Milk. Amos requested the delivery of 30,000 pamphlets and Milk's campaign delivered them to the Temple.\n\nCarter Administration encounters", "After Jones' rise to political prominence in San Francisco, the Temple had a few meetings with members of the administration of President Jimmy Carter before the 1976 presidential campaign. During that campaign, Jones and Moscone met privately with Carter's running mate, Walter Mondale, on board his campaign plane at San Francisco International Airport", ". As soon as the encounter ended, Jones bandied it about to increase his standing with the government of Guyana, claiming he and Mondale engaged in private talks regarding outside attempts to destabilize the country.", "In the fall of 1976, Jones and First Lady Rosalynn Carter both spoke at the grand opening of the San Francisco Democratic Party Headquarters. Temple members packed the audience, and Jones garnered louder applause when he spoke than Mrs. Carter. Mrs. Carter also met Jones for a private dinner at the Stanford Court Hotel, photos of which were printed in the Peoples Forum newspaper.", "Mrs. Carter later telephoned Jones personally, unaware that the Temple was taping her conversation. President Carter also sent a representative to a dinner at the Temple at which Jones and then-Governor Jerry Brown spoke. Jones and Mrs. Carter dined again in March 1977 and exchanged letters afterward. In one of these letters, Jones requested aid for Cuba, having recently met dictator Fidel Castro.", "In a handwritten reply to Jones on White House stationery, Carter wrote, \"Your comments on Cuba have been helpful. I hope your suggestion can be acted on in the near future.\" Carter also wrote that, \"I enjoyed being with you during the campaign -- and do hope you can meet Ruth soon.\"", "However brief their encounters, the Temple did receive some limited praise from administration members. In 1976, Mondale stated regarding the Temple that \"knowing the congregation's deep involvement in the major social and constitutional issues of our country ... is a great inspiration to me", "... is a great inspiration to me.\" Carter's Welfare Secretary, Joseph Califano, stated to Jones that \"your humanitarian principles and your interest in protecting individual liberty and freedom have made an outstanding contribution to furthering the cause of human dignity.\"", "The San Francisco Housing Authority Commission\n\nIn March 1976, Mayor Moscone appointed Jones to the Human Rights Commission. Without telling his aides, just minutes before being sworn in, Jones declined the appointment, feeling it was a lateral move because he had served on a similar commission in Indiana in the 1960s. The aides of Moscone and Jones then scrambled to tell the media that Jones and Moscone were working on an alternative appointment.", "Thereafter, Moscone appointed Jones as a member of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission. After Jones' name appeared on the appointment list, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors requested that all potential appointees should receive background checks. Moscone then turned the matter over to a nominating committee that included Prokes and Goodlett. The committee approved Jones' appointment", ". The committee approved Jones' appointment. When potential resistance arose to Jones' appointment, Willie Brown introduced legislation that would have stripped the Board of Supervisors of its power over the appointment. Wishing to maintain the status quo, the Board unanimously approved Jones' appointment.", "After lobbying by Moscone's office, Jones was soon named Chairman of the Commission. At the time, Moscone stated that Jones was a \"peacemaker ... who had the ability to work with people.\" In July 1977, after media investigations into the Temple had begun, Moscone defended the appointment stating Jones was \"both sensitive and realistic. From everything I've seen, he's been a good chairman.\"", "Jones' most notable accomplishment on the Commission was to lead the fight for a period against the eviction of impoverished residents at the International Hotel by the Four Seas Corporation. With Jones as Chairman, the Housing Authority voted to acquire the building using $1.3 million in federal funds in order to transfer ownership to tenants rights groups.", "When a federal court rejected the plan and ordered evictions in January 1977, the Temple provided 2,000 of the 5,000 people that surrounded the building, barricaded the doors and chanted, \"No, no, no evictions!\" Sheriff Hongisto, a political ally of Jones, refused to execute the eviction order, which resulted in him being held in contempt of court and serving five days in his own jail.\n\nRadicals", "Symbionese Liberation Army", "Jones empathized with inner city frustrations that nourished Bay Area guerrilla vanguards such as the Black Panthers, the Black Liberation Army (BLA) and the Venceremos, which spawned the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA). Jones expressed admiration for the SLA after its members kidnapped Patricia Hearst, and the Temple distributed the SLA's manifesto among its members", ". However, Jones attempted to convince law enforcement officials and the press that he opposed the SLA's violent actions by having members hand deliver a $2,000 check to the Hearst family mansion.", "The police were not persuaded by Jones' efforts. Investigators interviewed a Temple member who admitted that, one year before the Hearst kidnapping, Jones stated that Randolph Hearst would be a target of guerilla action as he represented \"capitalist society.\" A police report contained an analysis of press photos and determined that SLA leader Donald DeFreeze and SLA member Nancy Ling Perry attended various Temple meetings along with Hearst's boyfriend Stephen Weed.", "After learning of police suspicions, Stoen wrote police in an attempt to dissuade them of the notion that Jones was involved with the SLA. Attempting to address police fears of Temple violence, Stoen's letters also claimed that Temple member Chris Lewis, who was involved in a BLA-related shooting, had agreed to leave San Francisco, though it did not mention that Lewis had been sent to Jonestown.", "The Nation of Islam", "Jones considered the Nation of Islam (NOI) to be racist and sexist, and feared that violence might flare up between the NOI and the Temple because of their close proximity in San Francisco's Western Addition. He inflamed tensions by claiming that the NOI was responsible for a fire at the Temple's San Francisco headquarters. After Temple member Al Mills was hassled for taking a photograph of NOI members, Jones sent burly African-American Temple security guards to a nearby NOI mosque to issue a warning.", "However, relations later improved. To heal the rift, the two organizations held a historic \"Spiritual Jubilee\" in the Los Angeles Convention Center in 1976. Thousands packed the Civic Center, with the Temple members dressed in red and black intermixed with NOI members in white. Temple supporters Goodlett, Freitas, and Angela Davis traveled to the event, along with Lieutenant Governor Mervyn Dymally and Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley.", "As Jones took the podium, imposing Temple \"Red Brigade\" security guards stood shoulder-to-shoulder with NOI security in a half moon formation in front of the stage. After calming the cheering crowd, Jones stated, \"We are grateful for this symbolic merging of our two movements ... If the Peoples Temple and the Nation of Islam can get together, anyone can ... A few years ago, we couldn't even walk the streets because of tensions.\"", "Angela Davis and the American Indian Movement \nDavis was considered the Temple's favorite African American communist. Davis visited the Temple, and the Temple participated in rallies on her behalf. She frequently chatted with Jones and top Temple aides in Jones' San Francisco apartment. The relationship with Davis strengthened Jones' political credentials.", "Jones cultivated an even closer relationship with American Indian Movement (AIM) co-founder Dennis Banks, who spoke at the Temple. The AIM received the Temple's largest donation, $19,500. The Temple also posted bail for Banks' wife, Ka-mook, from an Oregon jail. Banks' name would also later surface in the Temple's investigation of conspiracy theories concerning Al and Jeannie Mills.\n\nDefectors and Conspiracies", "Bob Houston and Joyce Shaw", "Married Temple members Bob Houston and Joyce Shaw owned a house on Potrero Hill that was used as a Temple communal living facility. After Houston repeatedly questioned Jones about the details of socialist theory, Jones often branded Houston an \"insensitive intellectual\" and a \"class enemy\", and encouraged others to mock him. Houston became involved in at least two of the Temple's \"boxing matches\" where he was pummeled for punishment, suffering a bloody nose and being embarrassed in front of his family.", "Meanwhile, Shaw suffered stress from running the commune and from coordinating medical care for all Temple members in San Francisco. Frustrated by the emotional abuse she endured within the Temple, Shaw defected in July 1976 while most Temple members were traveling on a cross country bus trip. Frightened of potential Temple search parties, Shaw lived on the Sonoma County Fairgrounds with a friend for three weeks before leaving for Ohio.", "On October 2, 1976, Shaw called Houston on a line recorded by the Temple and invited him to leave, offering to rekindle their relationship. Three days later, Houston's dead body was found along the tracks at a Southern Pacific railroad yard. The Temple maintained that Houston coincidentally had resigned from the Temple on the morning of his death. Shaw saw the purported resignation letter, but believed it was forged because it was typewritten; Houston, she claimed, never typed his letters.", "Temple members attended Houston's funeral, and Shaw held her purse in such a manner as to convince Temple members that the purse contained a tape recorder so that they would not bother her. The next day, when Shaw went to the Potrero Hill commune to pick up Houston's belongings, Temple member Carolyn Layton told Joyce she should not attempt to gain custody of his daughters, Judy and Patricia, because of documents the couple had been forced to sign claiming they had molested the girls", ". The Temple frequently required members to sign such documents.", "Houston's father, Associated Press (AP) photographer Robert \"Sammy\" Houston, was convinced the Temple was involved in his son's death even though he was not yet aware of the taped telephone call of October 2. Sammy Houston conveyed the information to several AP reporters, including Tim Reiterman. Thereafter, letters from Judy and Patricia arrived at Sammy's house—from Jonestown. Sammy eventually communicated his story to a friend, Congressman Leo Ryan, stoking his interest in investigating the Temple", ". It would be Ryan's fact-finding mission to Jonestown in 1978 which led to the Temple's tragic demise.", "The Stoens\n\nIn 1972, Timothy Stoen's wife Grace gave birth to a son named John. Two weeks later, Jones secretly had Tim sign a document claiming that he had urged Jones to engage in sexual relations with Grace, the result of which was the conception of John.", "Grace grew to dislike the Temple after, among other things, they raised John \"communally\" and she witnessed the assault of Temple members. In July 1976, she fled to Lake Tahoe with another Temple member to avoid search parties. In her absence, the Temple moved John to Jonestown. Several months later, at the urging of Jones to avoid a possible custody-related investigation, Tim quit his job as assistant district attorney and also moved to Jonestown.", "By June 1977, Tim's disaffection with the Temple grew to the point where he left the organization's headquarters in the Guyanese capital of Georgetown and returned to the U.S. to reunite with his wife. The Stoens' later opposition, including leadership in a group called the \"Concerned Relatives\", would become a significant reason for the investigation by Congressman Ryan's visit to Jonestown.", "Unita Blackwell, the Mills and other conspiracies\nThe Temple frequently saw itself as the target of conspiracies by government agencies and others, and included these conspiracies in its literature.", "In November 1976, Unita Blackwell, a Mississippi mayor and civil rights activist, spoke at the Geary Boulevard Temple about her trip to the People's Republic of China with actress Shirley MacLaine. Two men were caught eavesdropping at the front door and quickly fled in a rental car. The Temple traced the car's license plates to a government electronics expert. After a series of letters with Congressman Phillip Burton, the U.S", ". After a series of letters with Congressman Phillip Burton, the U.S. Air Force stated that the civilian was in their employ but that he was off the day of the Blackwell speech. This event was added to the growing list of alleged conspiratorial actions against the Temple.", "The Temple also saw conspiracies and intrigue surrounding former Temple members Elmer and Deanna Mertle, who had fled the Temple and changed their names to Al and Jeannie Mills. Jones, who sometimes claimed he saw himself as the reincarnation of Vladimir Lenin, prophetically told Jeannie before the Mills' defection that, \"Lenin died with a bullet in his body and so will I", ".\" As an offshoot of the Temple's \"Diversions Committee\", it formed a \"Mertle Committee\", which conducted activities such as breaking into the Mills' house to steal documents with the help of her daughter, still a Temple member. The Mills eventually began to host meetings with other Temple defectors, including the Stoens.", "Meanwhile, the U.S. Customs Service had been investigating charges by over a dozen former Temple members that the group had illegally transported 170 guns to Jonestown in the false bottoms of crates. The Temple found out about the investigation when David Conn, a longtime friend of the Mills, tipped off Temple ally Dennis Banks by stating that Banks would be better off regarding an upcoming extradition matter if he denounced the Temple", ". Thereafter, the Mertle Committee conducted searches of Conn's garbage, broke into the crawl space under his house, and made an anonymous threatening phone call to Conn's wife. The Temple denounced the Conn and Banks meeting as a \"blackmail attempt\" in its literature.", "The Temple also claimed that the U.S. Postal service was tampering with mail to the Geary Boulevard location, that \"conspirators\" were behind the death of alleged San Francisco Temple body guard Chris Lewis, and that \"reactionary forces were trying to destroy his [Jones] image because he is the most persistent fighter for social justice.\"\n\nPolitical activities at the Temple", "While the Temple aided some local politicians, it did not do so entirely without suspicion. Milk privately felt that Temple members were odd and dangerous. When a Milk aide became wary of the Temple's large and imposing security force following a delivery of election pamphlets, Milk cautioned the aide: \"Make sure you're always nice to the Peoples Temple. If they ask you to do something, do it, and then send them a note thanking them for asking you to do it", ". They're weird and they're dangerous, and you never want to be on their bad side.\" Jim Rivaldo, a political consultant and associate of Milk, said that, after later meetings at the Temple, he and Milk agreed that \"there was something creepy about it.\"", "However, many politicians spoke at Geary Boulevard, including Milk and Governor Jerry Brown. By mid-1977, Willie Brown had visited the Temple perhaps a dozen times, some by invitation and some on his own. Preliminary consideration was even given by Brown's administration to a statewide post for Jones before his flight to Guyana.", "Governor Brown, Willie Brown, Moscone, Dymally, Freitas, and Republican State Senator Milton Marks, were among the attendees of a large testimonial dinner in Jones' honor in September 1976. Willie Brown served as master of ceremonies and introduced Jones, stating, \"Let me present to you what you should see every day when you look in the mirror in the early morning hours ... Let me present to you a combination of Martin Luther King Jr., Angela Davis, Albert Einstein ... Chairman Mao.\"", "At another testimonial dinner, Brown introduced Jones, referring to him as \"a young man came upon the scene, became an inspiration for a whole lot of people. He’s done fantastic things.\" Dymally stated that Jones was bringing together all ages and races and stated that \"I am grateful he is showing an example not only in the U.S. but also in my former home territory, the Caribbean", ".S. but also in my former home territory, the Caribbean.\" At another testimonial dinner, when Jones garnered huge applause from the thousands attending, Moscone stated, \"You know I’m smarter than to give a speech after listening to Reverend Jim Jones\" and \"there are two people I’m glad I’m not running against, Cecil Williams and Jim Jones\".", "Similarly, Milk was enthusiastically received at the Temple several times during his visits, and he always sent glowing notes of gratitude to Jones after visits. Milk ally Richard Boyle recalls \"[b]oth Milk and I spoke at the temple to the cheers of thousands of Jones' followers and won their support.\" Following one visit, Milk wrote to Jones: \"Rev Jim, It may take me many a day to come back down from the high that I reach today. I found something dear today", ". I found something dear today. I found a sense of being that makes up for all the hours and energy placed in a fight. I found what you wanted me to find. I shall be back. For I can never leave.\"", "In another hand-written note, Milk wrote to Jones: \"my name is cut into stone in support of you - and your people.\" Jim Rivaldo, who attended Temple meetings with Milk, explained that, until Jonestown, the church \"was a community of people who appeared to be looking out for each other, improving their lives", ".\" Boyle explained that it was vital for both his campaign and Milk's that they be received well at the Temple \"because Jones was not only Moscone's appointed head of the Housing Authority but also could turn out an army of volunteers.\"", "In an interview of Jones by Willie Brown for a television show about the Temple, Brown stated, \"You've managed to make the many peoples associated with the Peoples Temple a part of a family. If you're in need of health care, you get health care. If you're in need of legal assistance of some sort, you get that. If you're in need of transportation, you get that.\"", "On another occasion, Brown stated, \"San Francisco should have ten more Jim Joneses.\" Although Brown praised Jones, Jones in turn detested Brown for indulging in sports cars, clothes and women. During one of Brown's addresses at the Temple, Jones sat behind Brown and flipped his middle finger into the air.", "While the Temple received political guests, Jones used his relationship with Moscone to intimidate potentially disagreeable Temple members. For example, former member Deborah Layton stated that her thoughts of running away were quashed by Jones' threats, including his statement: \"Don't think you can get away with bad-mouthing this church. Mayor Moscone is my friend and he'll support my efforts to seek you out and destroy you.\"\n\nMedia investigation and exodus", "In 1976, despite the Temple's newly acquired political might and upgraded image, high visibility had heightened Jones' fears of government crackdowns and media scrutiny. In April of that year, through harassment of newspaper personnel by way of numerous phone calls and letters, Jones was able to prevent Chronicle reporter Julie Smith from publishing an unfavorable story on the Temple", ". Fellow Chronicle reporter Marshall Kilduff wished to do a story on the Temple, but became reluctant after witnessing the Temple's treatment of Smith. Kilduff wondered how Jones had somehow learned the exact contents of Smith's article before it had come out.", "When touring the Temple, Kilduff noticed, much to his surprise, that Chronicle city editor Steve Gavin and reporter Katy Butler were in attendance. The Temple's Peoples Forum newspaper chided Kilduff for not having a venue for his story and stated that he was \"trying to convince different periodicals that a 'smear' of a liberal church that champions minorities and the poor would make 'good copy.'\" Rather than dropping his story, Kilduff took it to New West magazine.", "The Temple conducted another harassment campaign against New West, its advertisers, and owner Rupert Murdoch. The magazine received fifty calls and seventy letters a day before the article was even published. Concerned about the potential fallout from Kilduff's article, which included testimonies from Grace Stoen and Joyce Shaw, prompted Jones to decide on relocating the Temple to Jonestown. Jones convened with top aides for four days to formulate a plan for the exodus.", "In its final form, Kilduff's article contained numerous allegations of fraud, assault and potential kidnapping. Just before its publication in July 1977, Moscone urged an ally who was the chairman of a department store chain to call friends at New West to inquire about the contents of the article. Jones fled to Guyana the night that the contents were read to him over the phone.", "While Jones' exit was hasty, the exodus of most Temple members had been carefully prepared. The San Francisco field office of Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) received hundreds of requests for passports in the weeks before the New West article was published.", "After the New West article broke, San Francisco Supervisor Quentin Kopp immediately demanded that Moscone and Freitas launch an investigation into the Temple's activities. Moscone's office issued a press release stating, \"The Mayor's Office does not and will not conduct any investigation\" because the article was \"a series of allegations with absolutely no hard evidence that the Rev. Jones has violated any laws, either local, state or federal.\"", "After a six-week inquiry by the special unit, formerly headed by Timothy Stoen, into charges of battery, kidnapping, homicide, arson, extortion, and welfare fraud, District Attorney Freitas' office authored a report stating that the investigation turned up \"no evidence of criminal wrongdoing\", though it stated that the Temple's practices were at best \"unsavory\". Freitas did not publicly disclose either the investigation or the report.", "Following the publication of media reports alleging criminal wrongdoing, Guyanese Minister of State Kit Nasciemento contacted Freitas and was told that the case against Jones was closed. It was not until after the tragedy at Jonestown that Freitas disclosed the investigation of the Temple.\n\nAfter Jones' move to Guyana", "A temple without a leader", "As the time after Jones' departure proceeded, the zealotry of the San Francisco staff turned to martyrdom. Friday and Sunday meetings were still held, but attendance dropped. With donations in decline, the Temple began to sell off its property. With shrinking personnel, the staff that remained became overworked", ". With shrinking personnel, the staff that remained became overworked. While the Geary Boulevard facility eventually became little more than a supply depot for Jonestown, the Temple insisted in a press release that \"we are not moving out of San Francisco or California\", denouncing news reports of a permanent exodus as \"biased and sensationalistic reporting.\"", "San Francisco media, such as the San Francisco Examiner, monitored communications that Jones made from Jonestown back to Geary Boulevard via shortwave radio. Much of them contained mundane requests interspersed with Jones' usual propaganda. Many in the San Francisco Temple feared that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) would revoke the Temple's radio license, cutting its lifeline to Jonestown.", "Complicating matters, Jones made impossible demands on the now skeletal staff, including writing 1,500 letters to the FCC and 1,500 to the Internal Revenue Service. Any members that were seen as wavering were sent to Jonestown. Meanwhile, former Bay Area Temple allies, such as Angela Davis and Huey Newton, broadcast live radio messages to the inhabitants of Jonestown during Jones' fiery \"White Night\" rallies, telling Temple members to hold strong against the \"conspiracy.\"", "The Temple hired Charles R. Garry to represent it in numerous lawsuits and to draft Freedom of Information Act requests. The Temple also hired noted JFK assassination conspiracy theorist Mark Lane, who gave press conferences at the Geary Boulevard facility.", "In October 1978, a crippling blow occurred when San Francisco Temple leader Terry Buford defected, though she wrote a series of notes falsely claiming that she was going under cover as a \"double agent\" to infiltrate \"Timothy Stoen's group.\" Buford had secretly gone to stay with Lane, whom she had met during interactions at Geary Boulevard.", "Waning political clout\nWhile most influential allies broke ties with the Temple following Jones' departure, some did not. Willie Brown stated that the attacks were \"a measure of the church’s effectiveness\", while Herb Caen wrote a column in the Chronicle questioning the validity of the New West article. The Sun Reporter also defended the Temple.", "On July 31, 1977, just after Jones had fled to Guyana, the Temple conducted a rally against political opponents attended by Brown, Milk and Agnos, among others", ". At that rally, Brown stated, \"When somebody like Jim Jones comes on the scene … and constantly stresses the need for freedom of speech and equal justice under law for all people, that absolutely scares the hell out of most everybody … I will be here when you are under attack, because what you are about is what the whole system ought to be about!\" Brown also stated of Jones at the rally that \"[h]e is a rare human being\" and \"he cares about people … Rev", ". Jim Jones is that person who can be helpful when all appears to be lost and hope is just about gone.\"", "While Moscone refused a request to launch his own inquiry, he was deeply disturbed by the allegations against the Temple, though he thought Jones would return from Guyana. However, on August 2, 1977, Jones dictated his resignation from Guyana via radio-telephone.", "Milk remained popular among Temple members. Two months before the Jonestown tragedy, Temple members sent over fifty letters of sympathy to Milk following the death of his lover, Jack Lira. The letters were formulaic and one typical letter ended, \"You have our deepest sympathy in your loss and we would be glad to have you with us [in Jonestown], even for only a short visit.\"", "Temple member Sharon Amos wrote, \"I had the opportunity in San Francisco when we were there to get to know you and thought very highly of your commitment to social actions and the betterment of your community.\" She also wrote, \"I hope you will be able to visit us here sometime in Jonestown. Believe it or not, it is a tremendously sophisticated community, though it is in a jungle.\"", "Milk spoke at a service at the Temple for the last time in October 1978. After Congressman Ryan announced that he would investigate Jonestown following the 1978 midterm elections, Brown was still planning a fund raising dinner for the Temple that was to be held on December 2.\n\nSan Francisco media and the Concerned Relatives", "In San Francisco, Jones suffered further damage from unfavorable media articles during his absence. Especially damaging was a February 18, 1978 article in the Examiner, following a telephone interview with Jones, which detailed the custody fight over John Stoen and pressure for a congressional investigation of Jonestown spearheaded by John's father Tim, the leader of the Concerned Relatives", ". The repercussions of the article were devastating for the Temple's reputation, and made most former supporters even more suspicious of the group's claim that they were being subjected to a \"rightist vendetta.\" The Examiner article also drew the interest of Congressman Ryan, who had weeks earlier been lobbied by Timothy Stoen and wrote a letter on his behalf.", "The next day, on February 19, Milk wrote a letter to President Carter supporting Jones and made statements about the Stoens. Milk wrote that \"Rev. Jones is widely known in the minority communities and elsewhere as a man of the highest character.\" Regarding Timothy Stoen, Milk wrote that \"[i]t is outrageous that Timothy Stoen could even think of flaunting this situation in front of Congressman with apparent bold-faced lies.\" The letter ended with, \"Mr. President, the actions of Mr", ".\" The letter ended with, \"Mr. President, the actions of Mr. Stoen need to be brought to a halt. It is offensive to most in the San Francisco community and all those who know Rev. Jones to see this kind of outrage taking place.\"", "Jones also told the San Francisco Temple staff to prepare for a media blast. In order to attempt to combat the damage, the Temple sent to various newspapers a document signed by Stoen claiming that Jones was the father of the child in the custody dispute after he had allegedly directed Jones to engage in sexual relations with Grace. Caen reprinted the document in his Chronicle column.\n\nAfter the mass suicide", "After the mass suicide\n\nOn the evening of November 18, 1978 in Jonestown, Jones ordered his congregation to drink cyanide-laced Flavor Aid. In all, at Jonestown, at a nearby airstrip in Port Kaituma, and in Georgetown, 918 people died, including over 270 children, resulting in the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a non-natural disaster until the September 11 attacks. Congressman Ryan was among those killed at the airstrip.", "Judy and Patty Houston, the girls about whom Carolyn Layton threatened Joyce Houston not to move for custody at the Sutter Street commune, were also found poisoned. Timothy Stoen's son John was found poisoned in Jim Jones's cabin. Sharon Amos, who had earlier led political pamphletting campaigns in San Francisco, murdered her children with a knife and committed suicide at the Temple's Georgetown headquarters (150 miles from Jonestown) at the behest of Jones.", "412 unclaimed victims are buried at Evergreen Cemetery, in Oakland, as many of the local members of the church had come from Oakland. A memorial plaque with the names of all victims was placed at the site in 2011, which controversially included the name of Jones, who is not buried at the cemetery.", "Temple and law enforcement\nParalyzing fear initially gripped the Temple's enemies as press reports of Temple \"hit squads\" surfaced immediately after the tragedy. Public officials, reporters and former members were all among groups reportedly targeted by such squads. San Francisco officials, law enforcement and mental health professionals took steps to avert the spread of violence.", "Ex-members immediately traveled to the Human Freedom Center in Berkeley to gather under police protection and await word of the list of survivors. On the afternoon of the attack at the Port Kaituma airstrip, before the news became public, the wife of Ryan aide William Holsinger received three threatening phonecalls at the couple's San Francisco home. The caller allegedly stated, \"Tell your husband that his meal ticket just had his brains blown out, and he better be careful.\"", "After Holsinger's family was initially evacuated to Palo Alto under police protection, the Holsingers then fled to Lake Tahoe and later to a ranch in Houston, Texas. They never returned to their home in San Francisco. None of the reported hit squads ever materialized.", "After years of Jones' statements about ominous forces aligning against the Temple, members at the Geary Boulevard facility expected an immediate attack by government troops. They were so afraid of a \"McCarthy era\" backlash that they smuggled documents and records past police cars stationed outside the building and burned them in a massive bonfire on the beach.", "Meanwhile, the Geary Boulevard building itself was besieged by national media and victims' relatives. The Temple was labeled \"Cult of Death\" in many sources, including the covers of Time and Newsweek magazines. Relatives of victims camped outside the Temple's chained fences for days, screaming at members through the fence. Inside, Temple loyalists were as emotionally hurt as others—perhaps 100 to 200 would have themselves taken the poison had they been in Jonestown that day", ". They woke up not only without friends and relatives, but also without the figure at the center of their political and religious worldview.", "State and local law enforcement and prosecutors finally investigated the Temple. While they felt that health and welfare officials did not properly investigate complaints against the organization, they found no criminal wrongdoing by Timothy Stoen or other former members.", "Eleven years after the mass suicide at Jonestown, the building on Geary Boulevard sustained structural damage in the Loma Prieta earthquake. Since the owner was unwilling to reinforce the structure, the building was demolished, and the property remained undeveloped until a Post Office branch opened at the site in the late 1990s.", "Michael Prokes", "Michael Prokes, who directed the Temple's relations with several San Francisco politicians and media, survived when he was ordered to deliver a suitcase containing Temple funds to be transferred to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He committed suicide in March 1979 at a press conference in Modesto. In the days leading up to his death, Prokes sent notes to several people, together with a thirty-page statement he had written about the Temple. Caen reprinted one copy in his Chronicle column.", "Influential allies' reactions", "After the tragedy, Mayor Moscone initially defended his appointment of Jones, stating that his reputation in 1975 was that of a man who believed in social justice and racial equality, and that there was evidence that the Temple had initiated programs for drug and alcohol rehabilitation. When asked by a reporter whether he felt in any way culpable for the events, Moscone became angry and stated, \"I'm not taking any responsibility, it's not mine to shoulder", ".\" Milk stated that, \"Guyana was a great experiment that didn't work. I don't know, maybe it did.\"", "Because Milk and Moscone were both killed by Dan White nine days after the Jonestown tragedy and rumors persisted of purported Temple hit squads seeking to assassinate political figures, many in San Francisco initially believed that their murders were connected to the Temple. No evidence exists that White acted at the behest of Jones or the Temple.", "Unlike most other politicians, Willie Brown continued to praise Jones, feeling that attacks on Jones were effectively attacks on the black community. Brown initially stated he had \"no regrets\" over his past association with the Temple and that he would not dissociate himself from it like other politicians. \"They all like to say, 'Forgive me, I was wrong', but that's bulls—t. It doesn't mean a thing now, it just isn't relevant", ". It doesn't mean a thing now, it just isn't relevant.\" Brown stated that his decision to speak at the Temple was \"not a faulty decision at the time it was made, based on all the object factors at that time.\" Brown later said, \"If we knew then he was mad, clearly we wouldn't have appeared with him.\"", "Of his relationship with Jones, Goodlett said in a 1997 interview: \"You don't need glasses for hindsight. Everybody is running like hell away from Jim Jones now, but none of us knew at the time.\"", "Civil rights activist Rev. Jesse Jackson, who had met with Jones on several occasions, refused to disparage him, stating that he still considered Jones to be a man that \"worked for the people.\" Jackson also stated, \"I would hope that all of the good he did will not be discounted because of this tremendous tragedy.\" Jackson praised Moscone for \"not going on a diatribe against the Peoples Temple\" and \"blowing the whole thing out of proportion.\"\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nSan Francisco\n20th century in San Francisco\nReligious buildings and structures in San Francisco\nBurials at Evergreen Cemetery (Oakland, California)\nCrime in the San Francisco Bay Area\nAfrican-American history in the San Francisco Bay Area" ]

[ "This is a list of some notable people who have lived in the U.S. State of Colorado. It includes people who were born, raised, or have significant relations with the state.\n\nColoradans have been prominent in many fields, including literature, entertainment, art, music, politics, and business. This list attempts to maintain biographical notability of significant Coloradans, and to organize historically important men and women hailing from Colorado.\n\nActors", "Amy Adams (raised in Castle Rock, alumnus of Douglas County High School) – actress, nominated five times for an Oscar for performances in Junebug, Doubt, The Fighter, The Master and American Hustle\n Tim Allen (born in Denver) – film and television actor, comedian, winner of a Golden Globe Award (1993, nominated six times); star of The Santa Clause, Toy Story and the television series Home Improvement and Last Man Standing", "Baby Marie (real name Marie Osborne; born in Denver) – film actress and costumer, starred in numerous silent films as a child\n Roseanne Barr (lived in Denver) – film and television actress, comedian; Golden Globe Award winner, and a Primetime Emmy Award winner; starred in Roseanne and was host of The Roseanne Show\n Earl W. Bascom (cowboyed in Northwest Colorado) – film and television actor in Hollywood western The Lawless Rider and in television commercials with Roy Rogers", "Barbara Bates (born in Denver) – actress, featured in such films as All About Eve and The Caddy\n Melissa Benoist (born in Houston, Texas; raised in Littleton, Colorado – actress and singer, star of 2015 television series Supergirl\n Jessica Biel (born in MN and lived in Boulder) – film and television actress, starred in 7th Heaven and films including Easy Virtue, The Illusionist and Playing for Keeps\n Julie Bishop (born in Denver) – actress featured in many 1930s and 1940s films", "Julie Bishop (born in Denver) – actress featured in many 1930s and 1940s films\n Kelly Bishop (born in Colorado Springs; raised in Denver) – film and television actress, played Emily Gilmore on Gilmore Girls\n Michael Boatman (born in Colorado Springs) – film and television actor, co-starred in such TV shows as Spin City, China Beach, Arliss\n Frank Bogert (born in Mesa, Colorado) - rodeo announcer, actor, author, Mayor of Palm Springs California, Walk of Stars honoree", "Sierra Boggess (born in Denver) – actress and singer; Laurence Olivier Award and Drama Desk Award-nominated Broadway and West End soprano; originated parts of Christine Daae in Love Never Dies and Ariel in The Little Mermaid\n Tom Bower (born in Denver) – film and television actor, played Dr. Curtis Willard on The Waltons\n Jason Brooks (born in Colorado Springs) – film and television actor, played Sean Monroe on Baywatch Hawaii and Peter Blake on Days of Our Lives", "Zachery Ty Bryan (born in Aurora) – film and television actor, starred in Home Improvement\n Molly Burnett (born in Denver) – television actress, starred on Days of Our Lives\n Spring Byington (born in Colorado Springs) – actress, star of many films and television series; December Bride\n Mary Jo Catlett (born in Denver) – film and television actress, played Pearl Gallagher, the housekeeper, on Diff'rent Strokes and does the voice of Mrs. Puff on SpongeBob SquarePants", "Kristin Cavallari (born in Denver) – reality television personality and actress best known for appearing in MTV's Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County and The Hills\n Lon Chaney (born in Colorado Springs) – actor in films of 1910s and 1920s, subject of biographical film Man of a Thousand Faces\n Beth Chapman (born in Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality\n Duane \"Dog\" Chapman (born 1953 in Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality", "Duane \"Dog\" Chapman (born 1953 in Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality\n \"Baby\" Lyssa Chapman (born 1987 Denver) – bounty hunter and television personality\n Don Cheadle (alumnus of East High School) – actor, Oscar nominee and two-time Golden Globe Award winner, four-time Emmy Award nominee and Grammy winner; known for films Boogie Nights, Hotel Rwanda, Ocean's Eleven, The Rat Pack and Iron Man 2", "Ken Curtis (born in Las Animas; attended Colorado College in Colorado Springs) – actor, musician; starred in TV series Gunsmoke and in western films The Searchers and The Alamo\n Kristin Davis (born in Boulder) – actress, star of Sex and the City television series and films\n Brian Dietzen (lived in Boulder; attended University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, co-star of NCIS as the young Dr. Jimmy Palmer", "Thomas Doerr (lives in Boulder, Colorado) – architect, author, and educator at the University of Colorado Boulder\n Big Jack Earle (born in Denver) – silent film actor, sideshow performer and tall man\n Ralph Edwards (born in Merino) – television host and producer known for This Is Your Life and Truth or Consequences", "Chris Eigeman (born in Denver) – actor best known for Whit Stillman films Metropolitan, Barcelona, and The Last Days of Disco; starred in ABC's It's Like, You Know... and played Jason Stiles on Gilmore Girls\n Douglas Fairbanks (born in Denver, attended East High School and the Colorado School of Mines) – film actor, first president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (1927–1929), posthumous winner of an honorary Academy Award (1940) and star of numerous films during the 1910s and 1920s", "David Fincher (born in Denver) – director of such films as Zodiac, Fight Club, Seven and Gone Girl\n Joel Geist (born in Denver) – film and television actor\n Jacque Georgia (lives in Aurora) – actress, author, Mrs. Colorado United States 2019\n Pam Grier (attended East High School in Denver) – actress, star of films including Foxy Brown and Jackie Brown\n Devon Gummersall (born in Durango) – film television actor, played Brian Kraków on ABC's teen drama My So-Called Life", "Jon Heder (born in Fort Collins) – actor, played title character in Napoleon Dynamite\n Michael \"Ffish\" Hemschoot (born in Parker) – director, animator and visual effects artist in films\n Kelo Henderson (born in Pueblo) – co-starred in 1957–1959 syndicated western television series 26 Men, based on case files of Arizona Rangers law-enforcement team", "Gregg Henry (born in Lakewood) – film and television actor, known for his roles in Guardians of the Galaxy, Payback, Body Double and Slither, as well as playing Hollis Doyle on Scandal\n Neil Hopkins (lived in Aurora; attended Regis Jesuit High School) – film and television actor\n Steve Howey (lived in Lakewood); attended Green Mountain High School – film and television actor, played Van on Reba television show and has been in various films, including Bride Wars", "Olin Howland (born in Denver) – film and television actor\n Matt Iseman (born in Denver) – comedian, actor, television host, and winner of The New Celebrity Apprentice\n Daniel Junge (lives in Denver) – Academy Award-winning documentary filmmaker\n Brandy Ledford (born in Denver) – actress, model, former Penthouse Pet of the Year; played Dawn Masterton on Baywatch and Doyle on Andromeda", "Sheryl Lee (grew up in Boulder, alumnus of Fairview High School) – film and television actress, played Laura Palmer and Maddy Ferguson on Twin Peaks and Dr. Sarah Church on L.A. Doctors\n Jake Lloyd (born in Fort Collins) – film actor, played young Anakin Skywalker on Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace\n Scott Lowell (born in Denver) – film and television actor, starred in Queer as Folk\n John Carroll Lynch (born in Boulder) – actor, starred in films including Zodiac and The Founder", "John Carroll Lynch (born in Boulder) – actor, starred in films including Zodiac and The Founder\n Hattie McDaniel (lived in Fort Collins and Denver, attended East High School) – film and television actress, winner of an Academy Award (1940) for Gone with the Wind\n T. J. Miller (born in Denver) – actor and stand-up comedian, voice of Tuffnut in How to Train Your Dragon and Ranger Jones in Yogi Bear, played Hud in Cloverfield", "Bill Murray (attended Regis University in Denver) – film and television actor, comedian, starred in Saturday Night Live, Ghostbusters, Caddyshack, Rushmore, and Lost in Translation\n Tracey Needham (grew up in Denver) – film and television actress, appeared as Paige Thatcher on Life Goes On, Lt. Meg Austin on JAG, and as Inspector Candace \"C. D.\" DeLorenzo on The Division", "Cyrus Nowrasteh (born in Boulder) – screenwriter and director for theatrical films, television films and shows; notable works include the miniseries The Path to 9/11, the drama The Stoning of Soraya M., and the television film The Day Reagan Was Shot\n Peter O'Fallon (born in Denver) – film and television director, created NBC sci-fi/drama series Mysterious Ways, directed such films as Suicide Kings and A Rumor of Angels", "Debra Paget (born in Denver) – actress, star of films including The Ten Commandments and Love Me Tender\n Trey Parker (born in Conifer, alumnus of Evergreen High School, attended University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, animator, director, producer, musician, screenwriter; nominated for an Academy Award (2000) and winner of two Emmy Awards (2005 and 2007, nominated seven times); co-creator of South Park", "Antoinette Perry (born in Denver) – stage actress and director, co-founder of the American Theatre Wing, posthumous namesake of the Antoinette Perry Awards for Excellence in Theatre, better known as the Tony Awards\n Amanda Peterson (born in 1971 in Greeley) – film and television actress, starred in Can't Buy Me Love\n Cassandra Peterson (also known as Elvira; lived in Colorado Springs, alumnus of Palmer High School) – film and television actress, starred in Elvira, Mistress of the Dark", "Joseph C. Phillips (born in Denver) – actor, played Lt. Martin Kendall on The Cosby Show\n Denver Pyle (born in Bethune) – actor featured in films including Bonnie and Clyde and on television; played Uncle Jesse in The Dukes of Hazzard\n Brandon Quinn (born in Aurora) – actor, starred as Tommy Dawkins in Big Wolf on Campus\n Kelly Reno (born in Pueblo) – actor, starred in film The Black Stallion and its sequel\n Kristen Renton (born in Denver) – actress, played Morgan Hollingsworth on Days of Our Lives", "Kristen Renton (born in Denver) – actress, played Morgan Hollingsworth on Days of Our Lives\n AnnaSophia Robb (born and lives in Denver) – film and television actress, starred in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Bridge to Terabithia\n Mark Roberts (born in Denver) – actor who appeared in over 100 films\n Karly Rothenberg (born in Denver) – film and television actress", "Karly Rothenberg (born in Denver) – film and television actress\n Barbara Rush (born in Denver) – actress, star of films including The Young Philadelphians, The Young Lions, Bigger Than Life, Robin and the 7 Hoods and Hombre\n Kristen Schaal (born in Longmont) – actress and comedian, played Mel on Flight of the Conchords and Louise on Bob's Burgers\n Charity Shea (born in Denver) – actress, starred as Samantha Best on teen drama The Best Years", "Charity Shea (born in Denver) – actress, starred as Samantha Best on teen drama The Best Years\n Matt Stone (lived in Denver and Littleton, alumnus of Heritage High School and the University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, musician, producer, writer; winner of two Emmy Awards (2005 and 2007, nominated seven times); co-creator of South Park\n Sherry Stringfield (born in Colorado Springs) – actress, starred in TV series ER", "Sherry Stringfield (born in Colorado Springs) – actress, starred in TV series ER\n Tom Tully (born in Durango) – film and television actor, nominated for an Academy Award in 1955 for The Caine Mutiny, starred in CBS's police drama, The Lineup and co-starred in ABC's western TV series Shane in 1966\n Jan-Michael Vincent (born in Denver) – film and television actor, played helicopter pilot Stringfellow Hawke on 1980s series Airwolf (1984–1986)", "Frank Welker (born in Denver) – voice actor, played Fred Jones in Scooby-Doo and Nibbler in Futurama\n David White (born in Denver) – film and television actor, featured in TV series Bewitched\n Sheree J. Wilson (lived in Boulder) – actress, played Alex Cahill in TV series Walker, Texas Ranger\n Stephen Thomas Ochsner – actor, director, musician, artist, translator and producer", "Stephen Thomas Ochsner – actor, director, musician, artist, translator and producer\n Ross Marquand-born in Fort Collins, Colorado; attended University of Colorado Boulder) – actor, recurring main character of TV series The Walking Dead'", "Artists, photographers\n Robert Adams (lived in Colorado) – photographer of the western landscape; received two Guggenheim Fellowships, a MacArthur Fellowship; works are in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York\n Earl W. Bascom (lived in Colorado) – artist, sculptor, cousin of western artist Frederic Remington, lived and worked in Northwest Colorado during the late 1920s", "John Fabian Carlson (lived in Colorado Springs) – painter, director and an instructor at the Broadmoor Academy, a precursor to the current Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center and founder of the John F. Carlson School of Landscape Painting\n Tomory Dodge (born in Denver; alumnus of South High School (Denver) – artist, paintings in public collections including the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Smithsonian American Art Museum\n Jess E. DuBois (born in Denver) – artist, advocate of Indian art", "Jess E. DuBois (born in Denver) – artist, advocate of Indian art\n John Fielder – landscape photographer and nature writer\n William Henry Jackson (lived in Denver) – photographer for the United States Geological Survey and Union Pacific Railroad, created one of the largest and most expansive western photographic collections in the world\n Frank Tenney Johnson - western artist related to artists Frederic Remington and Earl Bascom, lived and cowboyed near Hayden", "Barry Kooser (born in Wheat Ridge; alumnus of Arvada West High School) – Disney artist, fine art painter and CCO of Worker Studio\n David Burroughs Mattingly (born in Fort Collins) – illustrator and painter known for book covers of science fiction and fantasy literature", "Amanda Marie Ploegsma, known as Amanda Marie (born in the Netherlands, lives in Colorado) – artist, exhibits across the United States and Europe, alumna of Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design, stencilist of storybook imagery in contemporary murals and paintings\n Robert Reid (lived in Colorado Springs) – painter, instructor at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Cooper Union, and the Broadmoor Academy", "Wendi Schneider (lives in Denver) – Denver-based photographer of nature and wildlife; often prints on paper vellum with hand-applied layers of gold leaf", "Astronauts\n Loren Acton (born 1936) – mission specialist on STS-51-F\n Jeffrey Ashby (born 1954) – pilot of STS-93 and STS-100; commander of STS-112\n Patrick Baudry (born 1946) – payload specialist on STS-51-G\n John E. Blaha (born 1942) – pilot of STS-29 and STS-33; commander of STS-43 and STS-58; Mission Specialist on STS-79, STS-81, and Mir space station\n Michael J. Bloomfield (born 1959) – pilot of STS-86 and STS-97; commander of STS-110", "Michael J. Bloomfield (born 1959) – pilot of STS-86 and STS-97; commander of STS-110\n Karol J. Bobko (born 1935) – pilot of STS-6; commander of STS-51-D and STS-51-J\n Eric A. Boe (born 1964) – pilot of STS-126\n Vance D. Brand (born 1931) – Mercury astronaut; Apollo docking module pilot on the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project; commander of STS-5, STS-41-B, and STS-35", "Roy D. Bridges Jr. (born 1943) – pilot of STS-51-F; director of the Kennedy Space Center (1997–2003); director of Langley Research Center (2003–2005)\n Curtis Brown (born 1956) – pilot of STS-47, STS-66, and STS-77; commander of STS-85, STS-95, and STS-103\n Scott Carpenter (1925–2013) – pilot of Mercury-Atlas 7 (Aurora 7); fourth human to orbit the Earth (1962)\n Gerald P. Carr (1932–2020) – commander of Skylab 4 (1973–1974)\n John Casper (born 1943) – pilot of STS-36; commander of STS-54, STS-62, and STS-77", "John Casper (born 1943) – pilot of STS-36; commander of STS-54, STS-62, and STS-77\n Kalpana Chawla (1961–2003) – mission specialist on STS-87 and STS-107; killed on February 1, 2003, on the reentry of the Space Shuttle Columbia\n Kevin P. Chilton (born 1954) – pilot of STS-49 and STS-59; commander of STS-76\n Mary L. Cleave (born 1947) – mission specialist on STS-61-B and STS-30\n Gordon Cooper (1927–2004) – pilot of Mercury-Atlas 9 (Faith 7); command pilot of Gemini V", "Gordon Cooper (1927–2004) – pilot of Mercury-Atlas 9 (Faith 7); command pilot of Gemini V\n Richard O. Covey (born 1946) – pilot of STS-51-I and STS-26; commander of STS-38 and STS-61\n Takao Doi (born 1954) – mission specialist on STS-87\n B. Alvin Drew (born 1962) – mission specialist on STS-118\n Brian Duffy (born 1953) – pilot of STS-45 and STS-57; commander of STS-72 and STS-92\n Samuel T. Durrance (born 1943) – payload specialist on STS-35 and STS-67\n James Dutton (born 1968) – pilot of STS-131", "James Dutton (born 1968) – pilot of STS-131\n Martin J. Fettman (born 1956) – payload specialist on STS-58\n Dale Gardner (1948–2014) – mission specialist on STS-8 and STS-51-A\n Guy Gardner (born 1948) – pilot of STS-27 and STS-35\n Ronald J. Grabe (born 1945) – pilot of STS-51-J and STS-30; commander of STS-42 and STS-57\n Frederick D. Gregory (born 1941) – pilot of STS-51-B; commander of STS-33 and STS-44\n William G. Gregory (born 1957) – pilot of STS-67", "William G. Gregory (born 1957) – pilot of STS-67\n Sidney M. Gutierrez (born 1951) – pilot of STS-40; commander of STS-59\n James D. Halsell (born 1956) – pilot of STS-65 and STS-74; commander of STS-83, STS-94, and STS-101\n L. Blaine Hammond (born 1952) – pilot of STS-39 and STS-64\n Susan J. Helms (born 1958) – mission specialist on STS-54, STS-64, STS-78, STS-101, STS-102, and STS-105; flight engineer of International Space Station Expedition 2 (2001)", "Terence T. Henricks (born 1952) – pilot of STS-44 and STS-55; commander of STS-70 and STS-78\n John Herrington (born 1958) – mission specialist on STS-113\n Richard Hieb (born 1955) – mission specialist on STS-39, STS-49, and STS-65\n James Irwin (1930–1991) – lunar module pilot on Apollo 15; eighth human to walk on the Moon (1971)\n Marsha Ivins (born 1951) – mission specialist on STS-32, STS-46, STS-62, STS-81, and STS-98\n Gregory H. Johnson (born 1962) – pilot of STS-123 and STS-134", "Gregory H. Johnson (born 1962) – pilot of STS-123 and STS-134\n Thomas D. Jones (born 1955) – mission specialist on STS-59, STS-80, and STS-98; payload commander on STS-68\n James M. Kelly (born 1964) – pilot of STS-102 and STS-114\n Kevin R. Kregel (born 1956) – pilot of STS-70 and STS-78; commander of STS-87 and STS-99\n Mark C. Lee (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-30, STS-64, and STS-82; payload commander of STS-47", "Kjell N. Lindgren (born 1973) – flight engineer and mission specialist on International Space Station Expedition 44 and Expedition 45\n Steven W. Lindsey (born 1960) – pilot of STS-87 and STS-95; commander of STS-104 and STS-121\n John M. Lounge (1946–2011) – mission specialist on STS-51-I, STS-26, and STS-35\n Bruce McCandless II (1937 - 2017) \n Donald R. McMonagle (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-39; pilot of STS-54; commander of STS-66", "Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger (born 1975) – mission specialist on STS-131\n George Nelson (born 1950) – mission specialist on STS-41-C, STS-61-C, and STS-26\n Ellison Onizuka (1946–1986) – mission specialist on STS-51-C and STS-51-L; killed on January 28, 1986, on the ascent of the Space Shuttle Challenger\n William A. Pailes (born 1952) – payload specialist on STS-51-J\n Scott E. Parazynski (born 1961) – payload specialist on STS-66; mission specialist on STS-86, STS-95, STS-100, and STS-120", "Charles J. Precourt (born 1955) – mission specialist on STS-55; pilot of STS-71; commander of STS-84 and STS-91\n Kent Rominger (born 1956) – pilot of STS-73, STS-80, and STS-85; commander of STS-96 and STS-100\n Stuart Roosa (1933–1994) – command module pilot on Apollo 14; eleventh human to orbit the Moon (1971)\n Richard A. Searfoss (1956–2018) – pilot of STS-58 and STS-76; commander of STS-90\n Ronald M. Sega (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-60 and STS-76", "Ronald M. Sega (born 1952) – mission specialist on STS-60 and STS-76\n Loren Shriver (born 1944) – pilot of STS-41-B; commander of STS-31 and STS-46\n Robert L. Stewart (born 1942) – mission specialist on STS-41-C and STS-51-J\n Steven Swanson (born 1960) – mission specialist on STS-117 and STS-119, International Space Station expeditions 39 and 40\n Jack Swigert (1931–1982) – command module pilot on Apollo 13 mission; orbited the Moon; elected to the United States Congress, but died before taking office", "Joseph R. Tanner (born 1950) – mission specialist on STS-66, STS-82, STS-97, and STS-115\n James van Hoften (born 1944) – mission specialist on STS-41-C and STS-51-I\n Charles L. Veach (1944–1995) – mission specialist on STS-39 and STS-52\n Terry W. Virts (born 1967) – pilot of STS-130\n James Voss (born 1949) – mission specialist on STS-44, STS-53, STS-69, STS-101, STS-102, and STS-105; flight engineer of International Space Station Expedition 2 (2001)", "Athletes", "David Aardsma (lived in Greenwood Village; alumnus of Cherry Creek High School) – Major League Baseball pitcher\n Max Aaron (born in Arizona, lives in Colorado Springs) – 2013 U.S. national champion figure skater\n Louis Amundson (raised in Boulder, alumnus of Monarch High School) – pro basketball player\n Heather Armbrust (lives in Wheat Ridge) – IFBB professional bodybuilder", "Heather Armbrust (lives in Wheat Ridge) – IFBB professional bodybuilder\n Tom Ashworth (born in Denver, alumnus of Cherry Creek High School and University of Colorado Boulder) – NFL player, member of three NFL Super Bowl champion teams (Super Bowls XXXVI, XXXVIII and XXXIX) with New England Patriots\n Buddy Baer (born in Denver) – boxer and actor, brother of Max Baer\n Kalen Ballage (born in Peyton) – running back for the Miami Dolphins", "Kalen Ballage (born in Peyton) – running back for the Miami Dolphins\n Josh Bard (born in Ithaca, New York, moved to Greenwood Village; alumnus of Cherry Creek High School) – MLB catcher and coach\n Earl W. Bascom (lived in Colorado) – rodeo champion and Hall of Famer, invented rodeo's first hornless bronc saddle and fone-hand bareback rigging, called \"father of modern rodeo\", lived on White Bear Ranch in Northwest Colorado, married cousin of Jack Dempsey", "Ben Bishop (born in Denver) – National Hockey League goaltender\n Chauncey Billups (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of George Washington High School and University of Colorado Boulder) – NBA player for Denver Nuggets, Los Angeles Clippers and champion Detroit Pistons team (2004); selected as MVP of NBA Finals (2004), three-time NBA All-Star\n Greg Bird (raised in Aurora; alumnus of Grandview High School) – first baseman for New York Yankees", "Jeremy Bloom (born in Loveland; alumnus of Loveland High School and University of Colorado Boulder) – Olympic and world champion freestyle moguls skier, played football for University of Colorado and in NFL\n Tony Boselli (raised in Boulder; alumnus of Fairview High School in Boulder) – offensive lineman for USC, second selection of 1995 NFL Draft; All Pro for Jacksonville Jaguars", "Ronnie Bradford (lived in Commerce City; alumnus of Adams City High School and University of Colorado at Boulder) – NFL player (1993–2002) for four teams; special teams coach of Denver Broncos\n William Glenn Brundige (from Holyoke) – former NFL defensive end\n Calais Campbell (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of South High School in Denver, Colorado) – NFL defensive end", "Joe Barry Carroll (raised in Denver, alumnus of East High School in Denver) – basketball player for Purdue, first selection of 1980 NBA draft, center and NBA All Star\n Tom Chambers (alumnus of Fairview High School in Boulder) – basketball player, 4-time NBA All Star\n Alysha Clark (born 1987) – American-Israeli basketball player for the Israeli team Elitzur Ramla and the Las Vegas Aces of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)", "E.H. \"Dutch\" Clark (born in Fowler); alumnus of Pueblo Central High School and Colorado College) – Colorado's first All-American football player; player and coach for Detroit Lions in 1930s; charter member of Pro Football Hall of Fame\n Jon Cooper (born in Fort Collins; alumnus of Fort Collins High School) – center for Minnesota Vikings\n John Coughlin (1985-2019), figure skater, committed suicide\n Jesse Crain (lived in Boulder; alumnus of Fairview High School) – MLB relief pitcher", "Jesse Crain (lived in Boulder; alumnus of Fairview High School) – MLB relief pitcher\n Mason Crosby (alumni of University of Colorado) – NFL kicker for Green Bay Packers\n Drew Davis (born in Denver) – wide receiver for Atlanta Falcons\n Hayden Dalton (born 1996) - basketball player for Hapoel Holon of the Israeli Basketball Premier League\n Pat Day (born in Brush) – Hall of Fame jockey, Kentucky Derby winner", "Pat Day (born in Brush) – Hall of Fame jockey, Kentucky Derby winner\n Joe DeCamillis (born in Arvada) – special teams coach for Denver Broncos previously with Dallas Cowboys, Chicago Bears\n Jack Dempsey (born in Manassa) – professional boxer, nicknamed \"the Manassa Mauler\", regarded as boxing's World Heavyweight Champion from 1919 to 1926 Inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame (1990); author of two books relating to hand-to-hand combat", "Reed Doughty (born in Greeley; alumnus of Theodore Roosevelt High School in Johnstown, Colorado) – safety for Washington Redskins\n Joel Dreessen (lived in Fort Morgan; alumnus of Fort Morgan High School) – NFL tight end\n Justin Drescher (born in Colorado Springs) – long snapper for New Orleans Saints", "John Elway (lives in Englewood) – NFL quarterback (1984–1999) for Denver Broncos, member of two Super Bowl champion teams (Super Bowls XXXII and XXXIII), selected as NFL MVP (1987), MVP of Super Bowl XXXIII, twice as UPI AFC Offensive Player of the Year (1987 and 1993), five times for AP NFL All-Pro team, nine-time Pro Bowl selection; Denver Broncos Ring of Fame (1999), College Football Hall of Fame (2000), and Pro Football Hall of Fame (2004), vice president and general manager of Broncos", "Alex English (lived in Denver) – NBA player (1976–1991) with Milwaukee Bucks, Indiana Pacers, Denver Nuggets and Dallas Mavericks, assistant coach with Toronto Raptors, seven-time NBA All-Star, inducted into Basketball Hall of Fame (1997)\n Brian Fisher (born in Denver, lives in Aurora) – Major League Baseball pitcher with New York Yankees and Pittsburgh Pirates\n Peter Foley (born 1965 or 1966) – former snowboarding coach; suspended for 10 years for sexual misconduct", "Missy Franklin (resides in Centennial) – five-time Olympic gold medalist in swimming, attended Regis Jesuit High School, and swam collegiality at UCLA\n Ben Garland (born in Grand Junction; alumnus of Central High School) – offensive guard for the Atlanta Falcons\n Kevin Gausman (born in Centennial; alumnus of Grandview High School in Aurora) – Major League Baseball pitcher for the Atlanta Braves\n Brian Ginsberg (born 1966, lived in Denver) - gymnast, two-time US junior national gymnastics champion", "Arielle Gold (born and lives in Steamboat Springs) – snowboarder; Olympic bronze medalist, Junior World Champion, and World Champion\n Taylor Gold (born and lives in Steamboat Springs) – Olympic snowboarder\n Richard \"Goose\" Gossage (born in Colorado Springs, lives in Highlands Ranch) – Major League Baseball pitcher (1972–1994) for nine teams; member of 1978 World Series champion New York Yankees, 12-time All-Star, inducted into National Baseball Hall of Fame (2008)", "Daniel Graham (raised in Denver; attended Thomas Jefferson High School) – NFL tight end\n Robert Griswold (born 1996) - swimmer\n Roy Halladay (born in Denver, raised in Arvada) – MLB starting pitcher, won AL Cy Young Award in 2003, NL Cy Young Award in 2010; eight-time All-Star\n Matt Hasselbeck (born in Boulder) – quarterback for four NFL teams, selected three times to Pro Bowl, commentator", "Chase Headley (born in Fountain; alumnus of Fountain-Fort Carson High School) – third baseman for the New York Yankees\n Phil Heath (lives in Arvada) – bodybuilder, twice Mr. Olympia\n Taryn Hemmings (born in Greeley) – professional soccer player for Chicago Red Stars and Boston Breakers, played in Japan for Tepco Mareeze and in Australia for Canberra United, all-time leading Division 1 scorer for University of Denver\n Jordan Hicks (born in Colorado Springs) – linebacker for Philadelphia Eagles", "Jordan Hicks (born in Colorado Springs) – linebacker for Philadelphia Eagles\n Luke Hochevar (born in Denver) – relief pitcher for Kansas City Royals\n Noah Hoffman (born 1989) – Olympic skier\n Lamarr Houston (raised in Colorado Springs; attended Thomas B. Doherty High School) – defensive end for Oakland Raiders\n Danny Jackson (lived in Aurora; graduated from Aurora Central High School) – baseball player, pitcher for KC Royals, Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Cubs", "Reggie Jackson (lived in Colorado Springs; attended Palmer High School) – basketball player for NBA's Oklahoma City Thunder\n Vincent Jackson (born and raised in Colorado Springs; attended Widefield High School and University of Northern Colorado) – wide receiver for San Diego Chargers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers", "Ryan Jensen (born in Rangely and reared in Fort Morgan; attended Fort Morgan High School and Colorado State University Pueblo) – offensive lineman for Baltimore Ravens, sixth-round pick of 2013 NFL Draft\n Seth Jones (born in Arlington, Texas, but lived in Denver) – plays defense in NHL currently with Columbus Blue Jackets\n Dirk Johnson (raised in Montrose, graduate of Montrose High School and University of Northern Colorado) – NFL punter\n Jonathan Kaye (born in Denver) – professional golfer on PGA Tour", "Jonathan Kaye (born in Denver) – professional golfer on PGA Tour\n Ronald Kiefel (lives in Wheat Ridge, born in Boulder) – bronze medal Olympic winner for road cycling' raced in Tour de France 7 times\n Mark Knudson (born in Denver, alumnus of Colorado State University) – Major League Baseball pitcher, first Colorado native to play for the Colorado Rockies\n Kevin Kouzmanoff (lived in Evergreen, alumnus of Evergreen High School) – Major League Baseball player for Colorado Rockies", "Oliver Larraz (born in Denver), soccer player\n Buddy Lazier (born in Vail) – auto racing driver, winner of Indy Racing League championship (2000) and Indianapolis 500 (1996), awarded Indianapolis Motor Speedway's Scott Brayton Trophy (2003)\n Brad Lidge (attended Cherry Creek High School in Greenwood Village and lives in Englewood) – relief pitcher for Philadelphia Phillies, Houston Astros", "Phillip Lindsay – (raised in Aurora, Colorado, Denver South High School alumnus, and former University of Colorado Boulder running back) current National Football League running back \n Jacob Lissek (born 1992), soccer player \n Phil Loadholt (lived in Fountain; alumnus of Fountain-Fort Carson High School) – offensive tackle for the Minnesota Vikings", "Dave Logan (attended Wheat Ridge High School and University of Colorado) – drafted to three professional sports (football, basketball and baseball); wide receiver for Cleveland Browns and Denver Broncos; radio personality on KOA; coached high school football teams for Arvada West High School, Chatfield Senior High School, Mullen High School, Cherry Creek High School to state championships\n Brian Matusz (born in Grand Junction) – relief pitcher for Baltimore Orioles", "Brian Matusz (born in Grand Junction) – relief pitcher for Baltimore Orioles\n Christian McCaffrey (born in Castle Rock, alumnus of Valor Christian High School in Highlands Ranch, Colorado) – NFL running back for the San Francisco 49ers\n Brandon McCarthy (lived in Colorado Springs, attended Cheyenne Mountain High School) – MLB pitcher for Atlanta Braves\n Scot McCloughan (raised in Loveland; attended Loveland High School) – general manager of the Washington Redskins", "Darnell McDonald (born in Fort Collins) – attended Cherry Creek High School) – outfielder for Boston Red Sox\n Mark Melancon (born in Wheat Ridge, attended Golden High School) – closer for Atlanta Braves\n Bill Musgrave (raised in Grand Junction) – graduate of Grand Junction High School, football player for Dallas Cowboys, San Francisco 49ers and Denver Broncos, offensive coordinator for Minnesota Vikings", "Jesse Nading (born in Highlands Ranch; alumnus of ThunderRidge High School) – defensive end for Houston Texans\n David Pauley (born in Longmont) – relief pitcher for Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox\n Erik Pears (alumnus of John F. Kennedy High School in Denver) – offensive tackle for San Francisco 49ers\n Jake Pemberton (born 1996) - American-Israeli basketball player in the Israeli National League\n Tyler Polumbus (born in Denver) – offensive tackle for Denver Broncos", "Tyler Polumbus (born in Denver) – offensive tackle for Denver Broncos\n Alina Popa (lives in Lakewood) – IFBB professional bodybuilder\n Mike Purcell (born in Highlands Ranch; alumnus of Highlands Ranch High School) – defensive end for San Francisco 49ers\n Sam Raben – soccer player\n Micheal Ray Richardson (raised in Denver, alumnus of Manual High School in Denver) – NBA All Star point guard", "Ryan Max Riley (raised in Winter Park and Steamboat Springs, alumnus of Lowell Whiteman School in Steamboat Springs) – national champion mogul skier on US Ski Team \n Dalton Risner (born in Wiggins, Colorado) – current National Football League left guard for the Denver Broncos\n Taylor Rogers (born in Littleton) – closer for the Minnesota Twins \n Kevin Russo (born in West Babylon, New York, moved to Boulder; attended Fairview High School) – baseball player for New York Yankees", "Jeff Salzenstein (born 1973; lived in Englewood), tennis player\n Bob Sapp (born in Colorado Springs) – kickboxer, attended Mitchell High School\n Bo Scaife (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of J.K. Mullen High School) – NFL tight end\n Daniel Schlereth (born in Anchorage, Alaska, moved to Highlands Ranch; alumnus of Highlands Ranch High School) – relief pitcher for Detroit Tigers\n Brian Schottenheimer (born in Denver) – offensive coordinator for Indianapolis Colts", "Brian Schottenheimer (born in Denver) – offensive coordinator for Indianapolis Colts\n Brian Shaw (born in Fort Lupton) – four-time World's Strongest Man champion; three-time Arnold Strongman Classic champion \n Nick Shore (born in Denver, attended University of Denver) – plays center in NHL currently with Los Angeles Kings\n Jaccob Slavin (born in Erie, attended Colorado College) – plays defense in NHL currently with Carolina Hurricanes", "Aaron Smith (born and raised in Colorado Springs; attended Sierra High School and University of Northern Colorado) – defensive end for Pittsburgh Steelers, won two Super Bowls (2005, 2008); selected to NFL Pro Bowl (2004); named to Sports Illustrated's All-Decade Team (2000s)\n Alex Smith (born in The Bahamas, moved to Denver; attended J. K. Mullen High School) – tight end for Cleveland Browns, New England Patriots and Tampa Bay Buccaneers", "Jason Smith (born in Kersey) – basketball player, first-round pick in 2007 NBA draft, power forward for Washington Wizards\n Nate Solder (born in Denver) – offensive tackle for New York Giants, first-round pick in 2011 NFL Draft\n Kory Sperry (born in Pueblo) – tight end for San Diego Chargers\n Eve Torres (born in Denver) – WWE Divas champion", "Eve Torres (born in Denver) – WWE Divas champion\n Bobby Unser (born in Colorado Springs) – auto racing driver; two-time winner of USAC/CART Indy Car championship (1968 and 1974), three-time winner of Indianapolis 500 (1968, 1975 and 1981); 13-time winner of Open-Wheel Class at Pikes Peak International Hill Climb; inducted in International Motorsports Hall of Fame (1990), Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (1994), and National Sprint Car Hall of Fame (1997)", "Jerry Unser (born in Colorado Springs) – auto racing driver, winner of USAC Stock Car championship (1957)\n Pat Valenzuela (born in Montrose – jockey, winner of Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Breeders' Cup\n Amy Van Dyken (born in Denver, alumnus of Cherry Creek High School) – swimmer, winner of six Olympic gold medals (four in 1996, two in 2000), three FINA World Championship gold medals (1998) and three Pan American Games gold medals (1995)\n Charles Washington (born in Colorado) – NFL player", "Charles Washington (born in Colorado) – NFL player\n LenDale White (born and raised in Denver, alumnus of South High School and Chatfield Senior High School) – All-American running back for USC, running back for three NFL teams\n Joanna Zeiger – Olympic and world champion triathlete, and author\n Cat Zingano (born in Winona, Minnesota but attended high school in Boulder) – UFC mixed martial artist", "Business and community leaders", "William Bent (lived near present-day La Junta) – with his brothers, Bent established Bent's Fort trading post; became a peace negotiator between settlers and Native Americans\n Norman E. Brinker (born in Denver; died in Colorado Springs) – restaurateur responsible for new business concepts in the restaurant field, such as the salad bar", "Margaret Brown (lived in Colorado) – socialite, philanthropist, and activist who became famous in the 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, The Unsinkable Molly Brown Margaret Isely (1921–1997) – American peace activist and co-founder of WCPA and Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage\n Philip Isely (1915–2012) – American peace activist, writer and co-founder of WCPA-GREN and Natural Grocers by Vitamin Cottage", "James C. Collins (born in Boulder) – business consultant, author, and lecturer on the subject of company sustainability and growth\n Adolph Coors (lived in Golden) – based in Golden, established what is now the nation's third largest brewing company; his family has been active in Colorado politics and philanthropy\n Charles Gates Jr. (born in Denver) – longtime president of the Gates Corporation, the world's largest maker of automotive belts and hoses", "Elliot Handler (raised in Denver) – co-founder of Mattel; helped develop some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, including Barbie dolls, Chatty Cathy, Creepy Crawlers and Hot Wheels\n Ruth Handler (born in Denver) – businesswoman and inventor; served as the president of the toy manufacturer Mattel and is remembered for her role in designing and marketing the Barbie doll", "Daniel M. Lewin (born in Denver) – mathematician and entrepreneur, known for co-founding the internet company, Akamai Technologies; one of the murdered passengers on American Airlines Flight 11\n James Smith McDonnell (1899–1980) (born in Denver) – aviation pioneer and founder of McDonnell Aircraft Corporation\n Otto Mears (born in Russia, lived in Silverton) – entrepreneur, financier, and railroad builder; founder of the Rio Grande Southern and the Silverton railroads", "David Halliday Moffat (1839–1911) – banker, financier, industrialist, and inspiration for the Moffat Tunnel, the world's-longest railway tunnel upon its completion\n Texas Jack Omohundro (lived and died in Leadville) – frontier scout, actor, and cowboy\n General William Jackson Palmer (lived in Colorado Springs) – founder of Colorado Springs, developed the first narrow gauge railroad system, the Denver and Rio Grande, owned the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in Pueblo", "Winfield Scott Stratton (lived in Victor and Colorado Springs) – prospector, businessman and philanthropist; became a millionaire after he discovered and developed the Independence Mine; when he died he left all of his wealth for the construction of the Myron Stratton Home, for homeless and poor people\n Horace Tabor (lived in Leadville) – prospector, businessman, and politician\n Gertrude Vaile (1878-1954), social worker", "Gertrude Vaile (1878-1954), social worker\n Stanley M. Wagner (1932–2013) – academic and longtime congregational rabbi of Beth HaMedrosh Hagodol-Beth Joseph", "Literary figures\n Robert Baer (raised in Aspen) – author and a former CIA case officer assigned to the Middle East; wrote the books See No Evil and Sleeping with the Devil Matthew Berry (born in Denver) – creator of the Man's League inductee in the Fantasy Sports Trade Association Hall of Fame, and author (Fantasy Life)", "Eleanor Brown (lives in Highlands Ranch) – author of New York Times bestselling novel The Weird Sisters and The Light of Paris Neal Cassady (born in Salt Lake City, Utah, raised in Denver) – figure from the Beat Generation, known for being characterized as Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac's novel On the Road Clive Cussler (lived in Arvada and Golden) – novelist, Raise the Titanic, Deep Six Eugene Field (lived in Denver) – poet and journalist known for his work in children's literature", ", wrote such poems as Little Boy Blue and Wynken, Blynken, and Nod Allen Ginsberg (lived in Boulder) – beat poet, author of Howl and Kaddish, co-founder of the Naropa Institute's Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics in Boulder", "Shelby Holliday (grew up in Denver) – journalist for The Wall Street Journal Helen Hunt Jackson (lived in Colorado Springs) – wrote about the relationship between Coloradans and the Native Indian Tribes, and is often remembered for her brave stance in novels such as A Century of Dishonor and Ramona Ken Kesey (born in La Junta) – author of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Benjamin Kunkel (born 1972) - novelist and political economist", "James A. Michener (attended college in Greeley) – worked as a professor at the University of Northern Colorado in Greeley where his archives are held; his novel Centennial is about Colorado history\n Jack Murphy (born in Denver) – sportswriter, football stadium in San Diego was named for him", "Jack Murphy (born in Denver) – sportswriter, football stadium in San Diego was named for him\n Sayyid Qutb – author, poet, educator, and Islamic political theorist who described his stay in Greeley in the censorious article The America that I Have Seen that aroused Anti-American Sentiment among many Muslims; executed by Egypt\n Marguerite Roberts (born in Greeley) – screenwriter, films include Ivanhoe, True Grit, 5 Card Stud Harold Ross (born in Aspen) – journalist, founder of The New Yorker magazine", "Lowell Thomas (born in Woodington, Ohio, but raised in Victor) – writer, journalist, broadcaster and traveler best known as the man who made Lawrence of Arabia famous\n Hunter S. Thompson (lived in Woody Creek) – author; creator of Gonzo journalism", "Hunter S. Thompson (lived in Woody Creek) – author; creator of Gonzo journalism\n Dalton Trumbo (born in Montrose; lived in Grand Junction; attended the University of Colorado Boulder) – author of Johnny Got His Gun and Oscar-winning screenwriter for his work in The Brave One; wrote the scripts for Spartacus, Exodus, Hawaii, and Papillon; was blacklisted during the 1950s as one of the Hollywood 10\n Connie Willis (lives in Greeley) – science fiction writer", "Military figures\n Erwin J. Boydston (enlisted in Colorado) – recipient of the United States Navy Medal of Honor for his service during the Boxer Rebellion\n Arleigh Burke (born in Boulder) – admiral of the United States Navy during World War II along with the Korean War; later the Chief of Naval Operations during the Eisenhower administration\n Louis H. Carpenter – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for meritorious service in Colorado during the Indian Wars", "Christopher Houston \"Kit\" Carson (1809–1868) – frontiersman, commander of Fort Garland (1866–1867), and negotiator of the 1867 peace treaty between the United States and the Ute tribe\n Francis S. Dodge – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service in Colorado during the Indian Wars", "Dwight David Eisenhower (married in Denver) – 34th President of the United States; organized the temporary location of Lowry Air Force Base, Denver, for a new service academy, the United States Air Force Academy; in 1954, Colorado Springs won the location for the new United States Air Force Academy site; as president, his official airplanes, Lockheed Constellation were The Columbine, Colorado's state flower; Several times President Eisenhower was treated for cardiac events at Fitzsimmons Army Hospital", "William R. Grove (enlisted in Colorado) – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service during the Philippine–American War\n William P. Hall – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service in Colorado during the Indian Wars\n Henry Johnson – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service as a \"Buffalo Soldier\" in Colorado during the Indian Wars", "Marc Alan Lee – first Navy SEAL to lose his life in Operation Iraqi Freedom; posthumously awarded the Silver Star, the Bronze Star Medal with Valor and the Purple Heart\n John Merrill – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for gallant service in Colorado during the Indian Wars\n Wilhelm O. Philipsen – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service in Colorado during the Indian Wars", "George W. Wallace (enlisted in Colorado) – recipient of the United States Army Medal of Honor for his service during the Philippine–American War", "Musicians", "3OH!3 (formed in Boulder) – electronica group; song \"Don't Trust Me\" from the album Want certified platinum by the RIAA\n Laurie Anderson (lived in Boulder) – avant garde performer and musician, communications expert, writer\n The Astronauts (formed in Boulder) – surf rock; first album along with the song \"Baja\" was number sixty-one in May 1963 on the Billboard 200 album chart\n Philip Bailey (attended East High School in Denver) – singer/musician, Earth, Wind and Fire", "Philip Bailey (attended East High School in Denver) – singer/musician, Earth, Wind and Fire \n Ginger Baker (lived in Parker during the 1990s – English drummer, member of Cream\n Jello Biafra (real name Eric Boucher; born in Boulder; lived in Denver) – singer, songwriter, owner of Alternative Tentacles record label, member of the punk band Dead Kennedys", "Big Head Todd and the Monsters (formed at the University of Colorado Boulder) – rock band; two of the band's albums have reached Billboard's Top 40 Album charts (1993, 1994), with one (Sister Sweetly) certified platinum by the RIAA\n Tommy Bolin (lived in Boulder) – guitarist of Zephyr, James Gang, and Deep Purple\n Breathe Carolina (born and raised in Denver) – electronica/screamo group; band consists of David Schmitt, Tommy Coops, Luis Bonet, Eric Armenta", "Antonia Brico (lived in Denver) – conductor and pianist; was conductor of the Brico Symphony Orchestra and the Denver Symphony Orchestra\n Chris Broderick (lived in Lakewood; attended University of Denver) – lead guitarist for thrash metal band Megadeth\n Jesse Carmichael (born in Boulder) – keyboardist for the rock group Maroon 5", "Jesse Carmichael (born in Boulder) – keyboardist for the rock group Maroon 5\n John Denver (real name Henry Deutschendorf Jr.; lived in Aspen) – singer, guitarist, songwriter; winner of a Grammy Award (1997) and a posthumous Grammy Hall of Fame Award (1998); inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame (1996); named the official Poet Laureate of the State of Colorado (1977), with his song \"Rocky Mountain High\", which was named as one of the state's official songs", "DeVotchKa (formed in Denver) – rock band, nominated for a Grammy Award (2006), assisted in composing and performing the score for the film Little Miss Sunshine Larry Dunn (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/keyboards, Earth, Wind and Fire \n Bryan Erickson (lives in Westminster) – singer, producer; member of the bands Velvet Acid Christ and Toxic Coma\n R5", "R5\n Flobots (formed in Denver) – Hip hop band known for the song \"Handlebars\" from their album Fight with Tools; board members on the non-profit organization Flobots.org, a community organization; Flobots.org was founded before the band attained any fame\n The Fluid (formed in Denver) – grunge band", "The Fluid (formed in Denver) – grunge band\n Dan Fogelberg – folk/soft rock/pop singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist. In the 1970s, moved to Nederland, recorded material for Nether Lands and some later albums at nearby Caribou Ranch. A decade or so later, after continued commercial success, Fogelberg bought a ranch in the Pagosa Springs area, where he built his own recording studio, Mountain Bird Studio.\n Josephine Foster (from Fort Collins) – singer-songwriter", "Josephine Foster (from Fort Collins) – singer-songwriter\n The Fray (formed in Denver) – rock band; nominated for two Grammy Awards (2007); album How to Save a Life has been certified double platinum by the RIAA; members Dave Welsh and Ben Wysocki attended Ralston Valley High School in Arvada\n Bill Frisell (attended East High School in Denver) – jazz musician/guitarist\n Don Grusin (born 1941 in Denver, lives in Boulder) – songwriter, producer and keyboardist", "Don Grusin (born 1941 in Denver, lives in Boulder) – songwriter, producer and keyboardist\n India.Arie (born as India Arie Simpson in Denver) – singer, multi-instrumentalist, songwriter, producer; winner of two Grammy Awards (2003, nominated sixteen times); three released albums have all hit Billboard's Top 40 Albums chart and have been certified by the RIAA as either platinum or multi-platinum sellers", "Itchy-O (formed in Denver) – electronica experimental group; approximately 40 band members performing in the audience, with marching-band drums, taiko drums, electronics, dancers, and a Chinese lion; all while masked, covered in LED lights, often with fireworks and other props such as giant puppets and flame throwers\n Ronnie Lane (lived and died in Trinidad) – singer, songwriter, bass guitarist; member of the bands Small Faces and Faces, and founder of his own backing band Slim Chance", "Lecrae (lived in Denver) – Christian hip hop recording artist, songwriter, record producer, and actor; president, co-owner and co-founder of the independent record label Reach Records\n The Lumineers (based in Denver) – folk rock band\n C.W. McCall (lived in Ouray) – country singer known for the song \"Convoy\" in 1975; served six years as mayor of Ouray in 1986", "Glenn Miller (full name Alton Glenn Miller; lived in Fort Morgan and Boulder; alumnus of Fort Morgan High School and the University of Colorado Boulder) – trombonist, band leader, leader of the Glenn Miller Orchestra and the United States Army Air Force Band; at the time of his death, one fifth of all music played on jukeboxes was a Glenn Miller creation\n Ron Miles (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/trumpet, Jazz", "Ron Miles (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/trumpet, Jazz \n Ronnie Montrose (born in Denver) – rock guitarist who led a number of his own bands as well as performing with a variety of musicians\n Jaye P. Morgan (born in Mancos) – singer and television personality\n OneRepublic (formed in Colorado Springs) – rock band; album Dreaming Out Loud has been certified platinum by the RIAA", "Günther Johannes Paetsch (born in Germany, lived in Colorado Springs) was a cellist and co-founder of the Paetsch Family Chamber Music Ensemble in Colorado Springs\n Pretty Lights (from Fort Collins)\n The Samples (formed in Boulder) – reggae-influenced rock/pop group\n Tickle Me Pink (formed in Fort Collins) – signed to Wind-Up Records; debut album Madeline Townes Van Zandt (lived in Boulder; briefly attended the University of Colorado) – country singer and songwriter", "Velvet Acid Christ (based in Denver) – electro-industrial band\n Chuck E. Weiss (grew up in Denver) – musician and subject of the 1979 Rickie Lee Jones song \"Chuck E.'s in Love\"", "Paul Whiteman (born in Denver) – considered by some the \"King of Jazz\"; after selling two million records with the song \"The Japanese Sandman\", Whiteman added to his fame by being one of the first nationally broadcast jazz musicians; remembered for his ability to fuse jazz and classical in hits like Rhapsody in Blue and \"Whispering\"", "Kip Winger (born in Denver) – singer and bassist for the 1980s hair metal band Winger, which had hit songs such as \"Seventeen\" and \"Headed for a Heartbreak\"; since band's breakup in 1994, Winger has continued as a solo artist\n Andrew Woolfolk (attended East High School in Denver) – musician/alto saxophone, Earth, Wind and Fire", "Yonder Mountain String Band (based in Nederland) – bluegrass jam band whose fan base has been fueled primarily through live performances since their inception in 1998; self-titled 2006 studio album was the band's first release with a major label\n Ace Young (born and raised in Denver) – American Idol finalist", "Politicians", "Madeleine Albright (spent her teen years in Denver; graduated from the Kent Denver School in Cherry Hills Village) – U.S. Secretary of State during the presidency of Bill Clinton\n Frank Bogert (born in Mesa, Colorado) - rodeo announcer, actor, author, Mayor of Palm Springs California, Walk of Stars honoree", "William B. Ebbert (lived in Rocky Ford, Pueblo and Cortez) – served in Colorado General Assembly, 1889–1890 (Republican); 1907–1908 (Democrat); 1911–1912 (Democrat); rancher, farmer, poet and American Civil War veteran\n Gerald Ford (lived in Vail) – 38th President of the United States\n Trent Franks (born in Uravan) – U.S. Representative for Arizona's 2nd congressional district", "Trent Franks (born in Uravan) – U.S. Representative for Arizona's 2nd congressional district\n John Kerry (born in Aurora) – U.S. Secretary of State since 2013; longtime U.S. Senator from Massachusetts, 1985–2013; ran as the Democratic nominee for U.S. President in 2004\n Golda Meir (spent part of her adolescence in Denver) – fourth prime minister of Israel\n Chief Ouray (lived in Colorado) – Native American leader of the Uncompahgre band of the Ute tribe of southwestern Colorado", "Dana Perino (grew up in Denver, graduate of Colorado State University Pueblo) – White House Press Secretary during the presidency of George W. Bush from September 14, 2007, to January 20, 2009\n Condoleezza Rice (attended St. Mary's Academy in Cherry Hills Village) – U.S. Secretary of State during the presidency of George W. Bush \n Karl Rove (born in Denver) – Deputy Chief of Staff during the presidency of George W. Bush\n Kenneth R. Rutherford – co-founder of the Landmine Survivors Network", "Kenneth R. Rutherford – co-founder of the Landmine Survivors Network\n Scott Walker (born in Colorado Springs) – Governor of Wisconsin", "Byron R. White (born in Fort Collins; raised in Wellington); graduate of the University of Colorado Boulder) – appointed by U.S. President John F. Kennedy as a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court; served from 1962 until retiring to senior status in 1993; also notable as a football player, both in college at the University of Colorado Boulder (with the Colorado Buffaloes) and professionally in the National Football League (with the Pittsburgh Pirates and Detroit Lions)", "Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics\n Maurice L. Albertson (1918–2009) – civil engineer and educator\n Sidney Altman (1939–2022) – molecular biologist; 1989 Nobel laureate in Chemistry for the discovery of catalytic properties of ribonucleic acid (RNA)\n Albert Allen Bartlett (1923–2013) – physicist; opponent of the concept of sustainable growth\n Arden L. Bement Jr. (born 1932) – metallurgical engineer, scientist; director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Lewis M. Branscomb (born 1926) – physicist; director of the National Bureau of Standards, founder of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (now known as JILA)\n Mary Babnik Brown (1907–1991) – her hair was used for the Norden bombsight crosshairs\n Louis George Carpenter – founder of the first Bachelor of Science degree in Irrigation Engineering in the Americas", "Thomas Robert Čech (born 1947) – biochemist; 1989 Nobel laureate in Chemistry for the discovery of catalytic properties of ribonucleic acid (RNA)\n Edward Uhler Condon (1902–1974) – nuclear physicist; director of the National Bureau of Standards; president of the American Physical Society\n Eric Allin Cornell (born 1961) – physicist; 2001 Nobel laureate in Physics for creating the first Bose–Einstein condensate in 1995", "T. Neil Davis (1932–2016) – professor emeritus of geophysics from the University of Alaska Fairbanks; author of several books\n George Gamow (born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov (Георгий Антонович Гамов)) (1904–1968) – theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author\n John Lewis \"Jan\" Hall (born 1934) – physicist; 2005 Nobel laureate in Physics for precision spectroscopy and the optical frequency comb technique\n Deborah S. Jin (born 1968) – physicist; created the first fermionic condensate in 2003", "Deborah S. Jin (born 1968) – physicist; created the first fermionic condensate in 2003\n Herbert Kroemer (born 1928) – physicist and electrical engineer; 2000 Nobel laureate in Physics for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics\n Matthew Meselson (born 1930) – geneticist and molecular biologist \n Margaret Mary Murnane (born 1959) – physicist and creator of ultra-high-speed lasers\n Frank Friedman Oppenheimer (1912–1985) – nuclear physicist and educator", "Frank Friedman Oppenheimer (1912–1985) – nuclear physicist and educator\n Tim Samaras (1957–2013) – engineer and storm chaser; starred on the Discovery Channel's documentary reality television series Storm Chasers; he died in Oklahoma City's EF3 wedge tornado on May 31, 2013, with his twenty-four-year-old son, Paul, and forty-five-year-old TWISTEX colleague Carl Young of South Lake Tahoe, California", "Nikola Tesla (Никола Тесла) (1856–1943) – inventor and engineer; ran a laboratory in Colorado Springs between 1899 and 1900 to conduct high-voltage, high-frequency experiments\n Carl Edwin Wieman (born 1951) – physicist; 2001 Nobel laureate in Physics for creating the first Bose–Einstein condensate in 1995", "Other notable people", "Gavin Arthur (1901–1972) – astrologer, sexologist, grandson of President Chester A. Arthur\n Emily Gibson Braerton (1884–1966) (lived in Denver) – historian; vice president general of the Daughters of the American Revolution (1950–1953)\n John Brown (1817-1889) - mountain man and trader in and around Pueblo from 1841 to 1849", "John Brown (1817-1889) - mountain man and trader in and around Pueblo from 1841 to 1849\n Mary \"Mamie\" Geneva Doud Eisenhower (lived in Denver) – married West Point graduate and future U.S. President Dwight David Eisenhower in 1916 in her Lafayette Street home; was a military wife before becoming the First Lady of the United States (1953–1961)\n Neil Gorsuch (born 1967) – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States", "Neil Gorsuch (born 1967) – Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\n Lars Grimsrud (born 1956) – aerospace engineer and performance automobile enthusiast\n Samuel Hartsel (1834–1918) – pioneer rancher in Park County; founder and namesake of Hartsel\n Marvin Heemeyer (1951–2004) – automobile muffler-repair shop owner killed in his rampage in Granby\n John J. Hoover (died 1880) – murderer lynched by a mob in Fairplay in Park County as he awaited transport to the state penitentiary", "Sheldon Jackson (1834–1909) – Presbyterian missionary in Denver and Fairplay and later Alaska\n Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) – sociologist who founded the concept of action theory\n Elizabeth Prann (born 1985) – reporter, anchor (Fox News)\n Renee Rabinowitz (1934–2020) – psychologist and lawyer\n Joy-Ann Reid (born 1970) – national correspondent (MSNBC)\n Rick Reilly (born 1958) – sportswriter, author, screenwriter (Leatherheads'') and commentator (ESPN)", "Teresita Sandoval (1811-1894) - One of the earliest residents of the settlement which became the city of Pueblo. \n Jon Scott (born 1958) – news anchor (Fox News)\n James Q. Wilson (1931–2012) – academic, political scientist, and an authority on public administration\n Jessie Young (1900–1987) – radio commentator, author, magazine publisher", "United States Penitentiary, Administrative Maximum Facility\n See Notable current inmates of ADX Florence and Notable former inmates of ADX Florence\n\nSee also\n\n Bibliography of Colorado\n Geography of Colorado\n History of Colorado\n Index of Colorado-related articles\n List of Colorado-related lists\n Outline of Colorado\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n State of Colorado\n History Colorado\n\n \nColorado history-related lists\nList of people from Colorado" ]

[ "This is a list of hospitals in Australia.\n\nAustralian Capital Territory\n\nPublic\n Calvary Public Hospital – Bruce\n The Canberra Hospital – Garran\n Queen Elizabeth II Family Centre – Curtin\n University of Canberra Hospital – Belconnen\n\nPrivate\n Brindabella Endoscopy and Day Surgery Centre – Garran\n Calvary John James Hospital – Deakin\n Calvary Private Hospital Bruce – Bruce\n Canberra Imaging Group Angiography/Interventional Suite – Deakin\n National Capital Private Hospital – Garran\n\nNew South Wales", "Public\n Albury Wodonga Health (Albury Campus) – Albury\n Armidale Hospital – Armidale\n Auburn Hospital – Auburn\n Ballina Hospital – Ballina\n Balmain Hospital – Balmain\n Balranald Multi Purpose Service – Balranald\n Bankstown Lidcombe Hospital – Bankstown\n Baradine Multi Purpose Service – Baradine\n Barham Hospital – Barham\n Barraba Multi Purpose Service – Barraba\n Batemans Bay Hospital – Batemans Bay\n Bathurst Hospital – Bathurst\n Batlow/Adelong Multi Purpose Service – Batlow", "Bathurst Hospital – Bathurst\n Batlow/Adelong Multi Purpose Service – Batlow\n Bellinger River District Hospital – Bellingen\n Belmont Hospital – Belmont\n Berrigan Multi Purpose Service – Berrigan\n Bingara Multi Purpose Service – Bingara\n Blacktown Hospital – Blacktown\n Blayney Multi Purpose Service – Blayney\n Blue Mountains District ANZAC Memorial Hospital – Katoomba\n Boggabri Multi Purpose Service – Boggabri\n Bombala Multi Purpose Service – Bombala\n Bonalbo Hospital – Bonalbo", "Bombala Multi Purpose Service – Bombala\n Bonalbo Hospital – Bonalbo\n Boorowa Multi Purpose Service – Boorowa\n Bourke Multi Purpose Service – Bourke\n Bourke Street Health Service – Goulburn\n Bowral and District Hospital – Bowral\n Braeside Hospital – Prairiewood\n Braidwood Multi Purpose Service – Braidwood\n Brewarrina Multi Purpose Service – Brewarrina\n Broken Hill Hospital – Broken Hill\n Bulahdelah Hospital – Bulahdelah\n Bulli Hospital – Bulli\n Byron Bay Hospital – Byron Bay\n Calvary Hospital – Kogarah", "Bulli Hospital – Bulli\n Byron Bay Hospital – Byron Bay\n Calvary Hospital – Kogarah\n Calvary Mater Newcastle Hospital – Waratah\n Camden Hospital – Camden\n Campbelltown Hospital – Campbelltown\n Canowindra Hospital – Canowindra\n Canterbury Hospital – Campsie\n Casino Hospital – Casino\n Cessnock Hospital – Cessnock\n Children's Hospital at Westmead – Westmead – Westmead\n Cobar Hospital – Cobar\n Coffs Harbour Hospital – Coffs Harbour\n Coledale Hospital – Coledale", "Cobar Hospital – Cobar\n Coffs Harbour Hospital – Coffs Harbour\n Coledale Hospital – Coledale\n Collarenebri Multi Purpose Service – Collarenebri\n Concord Repatriation General Hospital – Concord\n Condobolin Hospital – Condobolin\n Coolah Multi Purpose Service – Coolah\n Coolamon Multi Purpose Service – Coolamon\n Cooma Hospital – Cooma\n Coonabarabran Hospital – Coonabarabran\n Coonamble Multi Purpose Service – Coonamble\n Cootamundra Hospital – Cootamundra\n Coraki Hospital – Coraki", "Cootamundra Hospital – Cootamundra\n Coraki Hospital – Coraki\n Coral Tree Family Centre – North Ryde\n Corowa Hospital – Corowa\n Cowra Hospital – Cowra\n Crookwell Hospital – Crookwell\n Cudal Health Service – Cudal\n Culcairn Multi Purpose Service – Culcairn\n Cumberland Hospital – Westmead\n David Berry Hospital – Berry\n Delegate Multi Purpose Service – Delegate\n Deniliquin Hospital – Deniliquin\n Denman Multi Purpose Service – Denman\n Dorrigo Multi Purpose Service – Dorrigo\n Dubbo Hospital – Dubbo", "Dorrigo Multi Purpose Service – Dorrigo\n Dubbo Hospital – Dubbo\n Dunedoo Multi Purpose Service – Dunedoo\n Dungog Hospital – Dungog\n Eugowra Hospital – Eugowra\n Fairfield Hospital – Prairiewood\n Finley Hospital – Finley\n Forbes Hospital – Forbes\n Forster-Tuncurry District Hospital – Forster (opening soon)\n Gilgandra Multi Purpose Service – Gilgandra\n Glen Innes Hospital – Glen Innes\n Gloucester Hospital – Gloucester\n Goodooga Health Service – Goodooga\n Gosford Hospital – Gosford", "Gloucester Hospital – Gloucester\n Goodooga Health Service – Goodooga\n Gosford Hospital – Gosford\n Goulburn Base Hospital – Goulburn\n Gower Wilson Multi Purpose Service – Lord Howe Island\n Grafton Base Hospital – Grafton\n Greenwich Hospital – Greenwich\n Grenfell Multi Purpose Service – Grenfell\n Griffith Base Hospital – Griffith\n Gulargambone Multi Purpose Service – Gulargambone\n Gulgong Health Service – Gulgong\n Gundagai Hospital – Gundagai\n Gunnedah Hospital – Gunnedah", "Gulgong Health Service – Gulgong\n Gundagai Hospital – Gundagai\n Gunnedah Hospital – Gunnedah\n Guyra Multi Purpose Service – Guyra\n Hawkesbury Hospital – Windsor\n Hay Hospital – Hay\n Henty Multi Purpose Service – Henty\n Hillston Hospital – Hillston\n Holbrook Hospital – Holbrook\n Hornsby Ku-ring-gai Hospital – Hornsby\n Hunter New England Mater Mental Health Service – Newcastle\n Illawarra Mental Health Services\n Inverell Hospital – Inverell\n Ivanhoe Hospital – Ivanhoe", "Illawarra Mental Health Services\n Inverell Hospital – Inverell\n Ivanhoe Hospital – Ivanhoe\n Jerilderie Multi Purpose Service – Jerilderie\n John Hunter Hospital – New Lambton\n Junee Multi Purpose Service – Junee\n Justice Health Services – Malabar\n Karitane Mothercraft Society – Carramar\n Kempsey Hospital – Kempsey\n Kenmore Hospital – Kenmore\n Kiama Hospital – Kiama\n Kurri Kurri Hospital – Kurri Kurri\n Kyogle Multi Purpose Service – Kyogle\n Lake Cargelligo Multi Purpose Service – Lake Cargelligo", "Kyogle Multi Purpose Service – Kyogle\n Lake Cargelligo Multi Purpose Service – Lake Cargelligo\n Leeton Hospital – Leeton\n Lightning Ridge Multi Purpose Service – Lightning Ridge\n Lismore Base Hospital – Lismore\n Lithgow Hospital – Lithgow\n Liverpool Hospital – Liverpool\n Lockhart Hospital – Lockhart\n Long Jetty Health Care Centre – Killarney Vale\n Lourdes Hospital Dubbo – Dubbo\n Macksville Hospital – Macksville\n Maclean Hospital – Maclean\n Macquarie Hospital – North Ryde\n Maitland Hospital – Maitland", "Maclean Hospital – Maclean\n Macquarie Hospital – North Ryde\n Maitland Hospital – Maitland\n Manilla Hospital – Manilla\n Manly Hospital – Manly\n Manning Hospital – Taree\n Menindee Health Service – Menindee\n Mercy Care Hospital – Albury – Albury\n Mercy Care Hospital – Young – Young\n Merriwa Multi Purpose Service – Merriwa\n Milton Ulladulla Hospital – Milton\n Molong Hospital – Molong\n Mona Vale Hospital – Mona Vale\n Moree Hospital – Moree\n Morisset Hospital – Morisset\n Moruya Hospital – Moruya", "Moree Hospital – Moree\n Morisset Hospital – Morisset\n Moruya Hospital – Moruya\n Mount Druitt Hospital – Mount Druitt\n Mudgee Hospital – Mudgee\n Mullumbimby Hospital – Mullumbimby\n Murrumburrah-Harden Hospital – Harden\n Murwillumbah Hospital – Murwillumbah\n Muswellbrook Hospital – Muswellbrook\n Narrabri Hospital – Narrabri\n Narrandera Hospital – Narrandera\n Narromine Hospital – Narromine\n Nepean Hospital – Kingswood\n Neringah Hospital – Wahroonga\n Nimbin Multi Purpose Service – Nimbin", "Nepean Hospital – Kingswood\n Neringah Hospital – Wahroonga\n Nimbin Multi Purpose Service – Nimbin\n Northern Beaches Hospital – Frenchs Forest\n Nyngan Multi Purpose Service – Nyngan\n Oberon Multi Purpose Service – Oberon\n Orange Health Service – Orange\n Pambula Hospital – Pambula\n Parkes Hospital – Parkes\n Peak Hill Hospital – Peak Hill\n Port Kembla Hospital – Warrawong\n Port Macquarie Hospital – Port Macquarie\n Portland Hospital – Portland\n Prince of Wales Hospital – Randwick", "Portland Hospital – Portland\n Prince of Wales Hospital – Randwick\n Queanbeyan District Hospital – Queanbeyan\n Quirindi Hospital – Quirindi\n Rivendell Child, Adolescent and Family Unit – Concord West\n Riverlands Drug and Alcohol Centre – Lismore\n Royal Hospital for Women – Randwick\n Royal North Shore Hospital – St Leonards\n Royal Prince Alfred Hospital – Camperdown\n Royal Prince Alfred Institute of Rheumatology & Orthopaedics – Camperdown\n Royal Rehabilitation Hospital – Ryde\n Ryde Hospital – Eastwood", "Royal Rehabilitation Hospital – Ryde\n Ryde Hospital – Eastwood\n Rylstone Multi Purpose Service – Rylstone\n Sacred Heart Hospice – Darlinghurst\n Scone Hospital – Scone\n Shellharbour Hospital – Mount Warrigal\n Shoalhaven District Memorial Hospital – Nowra\n Singleton District Hospital – Singleton\n South East Regional Hospital – Bega\n Springwood Hospital – Springwood\n St George Hospital NSW – Kogarah\n St John of God Hospital Richmond – Richmond\n St Joseph's Hospital – Auburn", "St John of God Hospital Richmond – Richmond\n St Joseph's Hospital – Auburn\n St Vincent's Hospital – Darlinghurst\n Sutherland Hospital – Caringbah\n Sydney Children's Hospital – Randwick\n Sydney Dental Hospital – Surry Hills\n Sydney Hospital (oldest hospital in Australia, dating from 1788) / Sydney Eye Hospital – Sydney\n Tamworth Hospital – Tamworth\n Temora Hospital – Temora\n Tenterfield Hospital – Tenterfield\n Thomas Walker Hospital – Concord West\n Tibooburra Hospital – Tibooburra", "Thomas Walker Hospital – Concord West\n Tibooburra Hospital – Tibooburra\n Tingha Multi Purpose Service – Tingha\n Tocumwal Hospital – Tocumwal\n Tomaree Hospital – Nelson Bay\n Tottenham Multi Purpose Service – Tottenham\n Trangie Multi Purpose Service – Trangie\n Tresillian Family Care Centre, Canterbury – Belmore\n Tresillian Family Care Centre, Kingswood – Kingswood\n Trundle Multi Purpose Health Service – Trundle\n The Tweed Hospital – Tweed Heads\n Tullamore Multi Purpose Health Service – Tullamore", "The Tweed Hospital – Tweed Heads\n Tullamore Multi Purpose Health Service – Tullamore\n Tumbarumba Multi Purpose Service – Tumbarumba\n Tumut Hospital – Tumut\n Urana Multi Purpose Service – Urana\n Urbenville Multi Purpose Service – Urbenville\n Vegetable Creek Multi Purpose Service Emmaville – Emmaville\n Wagga Wagga Calvary Hospital – Wagga Wagga\n Wagga Wagga Rural Referral Hospital – Wagga Wagga\n Walcha Multi Purpose Service – Walcha\n Walgett Hospital – Walgett\n War Memorial Hospital – Waverley", "Walgett Hospital – Walgett\n War Memorial Hospital – Waverley\n Warialda Multi Purpose Service – Warialda\n Warren Multi Purpose Service – Warren\n Wauchope Hospital – Wauchope\n Wee Waa Hospital – Wee Waa\n Wellington Hospital – Wellington\n Wentworth Hospital – Wentworth\n Wentworth Psychiatric Services – Penrith\n Werris Creek Hospital – Werris Creek\n Westmead Hospital – Westmead\n Wilcannia Multi Purpose Service – Wilcannia\n Wilson Memorial Community Hospital, Murrurundi – Murrurundi\n Wingham Hospital – Wingham", "Wilson Memorial Community Hospital, Murrurundi – Murrurundi\n Wingham Hospital – Wingham\n Wollongong Hospital – Wollongong\n Woy Woy Hospital – Woy Woy\n Wyalong Hospital – West Wyalong\n Wyong Hospital – Hamlyn Terrace\n Yaralla Estate, also known as the Dame Edith Walker Estate – Concord West\n Yass Hospital – Yass\n Young Hospital – Young", "Private\n Aesthetic Day Surgery – Kogarah\n Albury Wodonga Private Hospital – West Albury\n Allowah Presbyterian Children's Hospital – Dundas\n Armidale Private Hospital – Armidale\n Ballina Day Surgery – Ballina\n Baringa Private Hospital – Coffs Harbour\n Bathurst Private Hospital – Bathurst\n Bega Valley Private Hospital – Bega\n Berkeley Vale Private Hospital – Berkeley Vale\n Brisbane Waters Private Hospital – Woy Woy\n Calvary Health Care Riverina – Wagga Wagga\n Camden Haven Medical Center (Laurieton Hospital)", "Calvary Health Care Riverina – Wagga Wagga\n Camden Haven Medical Center (Laurieton Hospital)\n Campbelltown Private Hospital – Campbelltown\n Castle Hill Day Surgery – Castle Hill\n Castlecrag Private Hospital – Castlecrag\n Central Coast Day Hospital – Erina\n Centre for Digestive Diseases – Five Dock\n Coffs Harbour Day Surgery – Coffs Harbour\n Coolenberg Day Surgery – Port Macquarie\n Crows Nest Day Surgery – Crows Nest\n Dee Why Endoscopy Unit – Dee Why\n Diagnostic Endoscopy Centre – Darlinghurst", "Dee Why Endoscopy Unit – Dee Why\n Diagnostic Endoscopy Centre – Darlinghurst\n Dudley-Orange Private Hospital – Orange\n Eastern Heart Clinic – Randwick\n Epping Surgery Centre – Epping\n Figtree Private Hospital – Figtree\n Forster Private Hospital – Forster\nGordon Private Hospital \n Hastings Day Surgery – Port Macquarie\n The Hills Clinic Kellyville – Kellyville\n The Hills Private Hospital – Baulkham Hills\n Hunter Valley Private Hospital – Shortland\n Hunters Hill Private Hospital – Hunters Hill", "Hunter Valley Private Hospital – Shortland\n Hunters Hill Private Hospital – Hunters Hill\n Hurstville Private – Hurstville\n Kareena Private Hospital – Caringbah\n Lady Davidson Private Hospital – North Turramurra\n Lake Macquarie Private Hospital – Gateshead\n Lawrence Hargrave Private Hospital – Thirroul\n Liverpool Day Surgery – Chipping Norton\n Macquarie University Hospital – Macquarie University\n Mater Hospital Sydney – North Sydney\n MetroRehab Hospital – Petersham\n Metwest Surgical – Blacktown", "MetroRehab Hospital – Petersham\n Metwest Surgical – Blacktown\n Miranda Eye Surgical Centre – Miranda\n Mogo Day Surgery – Mogo\n Mosman Private Hospital – Mosman\n Mount Wilga Private Hospital (see Mount Wilga House) – Hornsby\n Nepean Private Hospital – Kingswood\n Newcastle Private Hospital – New Lambton Heights\n North Shore Private Hospital – St Leonards\n Northside Clinic – Greenwich\n Northside Cremorne Clinic – Cremorne\n Northside Macarthur Clinic – Campbelltown\n Northside West Clinic – Wentworthville", "Northside Macarthur Clinic – Campbelltown\n Northside West Clinic – Wentworthville\n Norwest Private Hospital – Bella Vista\n Nowra Private Hospital – Nowra\n Ophthalmic Surgery Centre (North Shore) – Chatswood\n Orange Day Surgery Centre – Orange\n Pennant Hills Day Endoscopy Centre – Pennant Hills\n Perfect Vision Day Surgery – Hornsby\n Potentialz Unlimited, Clinical Psychologies in Sydney \n Port Macquarie Private Hospital – Port Macquarie\n Prince of Wales Private Hospital – Randwick", "Port Macquarie Private Hospital – Port Macquarie\n Prince of Wales Private Hospital – Randwick\n Radiation Oncology Institute – Gosford – Gosford\n Radiation Oncology Institute – The Sydney Adventist Hospital Wahroonga – Wahroonga\n San Day Surgery Hornsby – Hornsby\n The Skin & Cancer Foundation Australia – Westmead\n South Pacific Private – Curl Curl\n Southern Highlands Private Hospital – Bowral\n St George Private Hospital – Kogarah\n St John of God Burwood Hospital – Burwood", "St George Private Hospital – Kogarah\n St John of God Burwood Hospital – Burwood\n St John of God Hospital Richmond – North Richmond\n St Luke's Hospital – Potts Point\n St Vincent's Private Sydney – Darlinghurst\n St Vincents Private Hospital [Lismore] – Lismore\n Strathfield Private Hospital – Strathfield\n The Surgery Centre Hurstville – Hurstville\n Sutherland Heart Clinic – Caringbah\n Sydney Adventist Hospital – Wahroonga\n The Sydney Clinic – Bronte\n Sydney Day Surgery – Prince Alfred – Newtown", "The Sydney Clinic – Bronte\n Sydney Day Surgery – Prince Alfred – Newtown\n The Sydney Private Hospital Incorporating the NSW Eye Centre – Ashfield\n Sydney South West Private Hospital – Liverpool\n Tamara Private Hospital – Tamworth\n Tweed Day Surgery – Tweed Heads\n Ulladulla Endoscopy and Medical Centre – Ulladulla\n Vision Day Surgery Chatswood – Chatswood\n Vision Day Surgery Hurstville – Hurstville\n Wagga Endoscopy Centre – Wagga Wagga\n Warners Bay Private Hospital – Warners Bay", "Wagga Endoscopy Centre – Wagga Wagga\n Warners Bay Private Hospital – Warners Bay\n Wesley Hospital Ashfield – Ashfield\n Wesley Hospital Kogarah – Kogarah\n Western Sydney Oncology – Westmead\n Westmead Private Hospital – Westmead\n Westmead Rehabilitation Hospital – Merrylands\n Wollongong Day Surgery – Wollongong\n Wolper Jewish Hospital – Woollahra", "Northern Territory\n\nPublic\n Alice Springs Hospital – Alice Springs\n Gove District Hospital – Nhulunbuy\n Katherine District Hospital – Katherine\n Palmerston Regional Hospital – Holtze\n Royal Darwin Hospital – Tiwi\n Tennant Creek Hospital – Tennant Creek\n\nPrivate\n Darwin Private Hospital – Tiwi\n\nQueensland\n\nPublic", "Alpha Hospital – Alpha\nAramac Primary Healthcare Centre – Aramac\nAtherton Hospital – Atherton\nAugathella Hospital – Augathella\nAurukun Primary Health Care Centre – Aurukun\nAyr Hospital – Ayr\nBabinda Hospital – Babinda\nBadu Island Health Centre – Badu Island\nBaillie Henderson Hospital – Toowoomba\nBamaga Hospital – Bamaga\nBaralaba Hospital – Baralaba\nBarcaldine Hospital – Barcaldine\nBeaudesert Hospital – Beaudesert\nBiggenden Hospital – Biggenden\nBiloela Hospital – Biloela\nBlackall Hospital – Blackall", "Biggenden Hospital – Biggenden\nBiloela Hospital – Biloela\nBlackall Hospital – Blackall\nBlackwater Hospital – Blackwater\nBoigu Island Health Centre – Boigu Island\nBollon Outpatients Clinic – Bollon\nBoonah Hospital – Boonah\nBoulia Primary Health Centre – Boulia\nBowen Hospital – Bowen\nBundaberg Base Hospital – Bundaberg\nBurketown Health Centre – Burketown\nCaboolture Hospital – Caboolture\nCairns Hospital – Cairns\nCaloundra Hospital – Caloundra\nCamooweal Health Centre – Camooweal", "Cairns Hospital – Cairns\nCaloundra Hospital – Caloundra\nCamooweal Health Centre – Camooweal\nCapella Outpatients Clinic – Capella\nCapricorn Coast Hospital – Yeppoon\nCharleville Hospital – Charleville\nCharters Towers Hospital – Charters Towers\nCharters Towers Rehabilitation Unit – Charters Towers\nCherbourg Hospital – Cherbourg\nChilders Hospital – Childers\nChillagoe Hospital – Chillagoe\nChinchilla Hospital – Chinchilla\nClermont Hospital – Clermont\nCloncurry Hospital – Cloncurry", "Chinchilla Hospital – Chinchilla\nClermont Hospital – Clermont\nCloncurry Hospital – Cloncurry\nCoconut Island Health Centre – Coconut Island\nCoen Primary Health Care Centre – Coen\nCollinsville Hospital – Collinsville\nCooktown Hospital – Cooktown\nCracow Outpatients Clinic – Cracow\nCroydon Hospital – Croydon\nCunnamulla Hospital – Cunnamulla\nDajarra Health Centre – Dajarra\nDalby Hospital – Dalby\nDarnley Island Primary Health Care Centre – Darnley Island\nDauan Island Health Centre – Dauan Island", "Dauan Island Health Centre – Dauan Island\nDimbulah Outpatients Clinic – Dimbulah\nDirranbandi Hospital – Dirranbandi\nDoomadgee Hospital – Doomadgee\nDuaringa Outpatients Clinic – Duaringa\nDysart Hospital – Dysart\nEidsvold Hospital – Eidsvold\nEllen Barron Family Centre – Chermside\nEmerald Hospital – Emerald\nEsk Hospital – Esk\nForsayth Hospital – Forsayth\nGatton Hospital – Gatton\nGayndah Hospital – Gayndah\nGemfields Outpatients Clinic – Sapphire\nGeorgetown Hospital – Georgetown\nGin Gin Hospital – Gin Gin", "Gemfields Outpatients Clinic – Sapphire\nGeorgetown Hospital – Georgetown\nGin Gin Hospital – Gin Gin\nGladstone Hospital – Gladstone\nGlenmorgan Outpatients Clinic – Glenmorgan\nGold Coast University Hospital – Southport\nGoondiwindi Hospital – Goondiwindi\nGordonvale Hospital – Gordonvale\nGurriny Yealamucka Primary Health Care Service – Yarrabah\nGympie Hospital – Gympie\nHerberton Hospital – Herberton\nHervey Bay Hospital – Pialba\nHome Hill Hospital – Home Hill\nHope Vale Primary Health Care Centre – Hope Vale", "Home Hill Hospital – Home Hill\nHope Vale Primary Health Care Centre – Hope Vale\nHughenden Hospital – Hughenden\nIngham Hospital – Ingham\nInglewood Hospital – Inglewood\nInjune Hospital – Injune\nInnisfail Hospital – Innisfail\nIpswich Hospital – Ipswich\nIsisford Primary Health Centre – Isisford\nIsland Medical Service – Thursday Island\nJandowae Hospital – Jandowae\nJoyce Palmer Health Service – Palm Island\nJulia Creek Hospital – Julia Creek\nJundah Primary Health Centre – Jundah\nKarumba Health Centre – Karumba", "Jundah Primary Health Centre – Jundah\nKarumba Health Centre – Karumba\nKilcoy Hospital – Kilcoy\nKingaroy Hospital – Kingaroy\nKirwan Mental Health Rehabilitation Unit – Kirwan\nKowanyama Primary Health Care Centre – Kowanyama\nKubin Primary Health Care Centre – Kubin\nLaidley Hospital – Laidley\nLaura Outpatients Clinic – Laura\nLockhart River Primary Health Care Centre – Lockhart River\nLogan Hospital – Meadowbrook\nLongreach Hospital – Longreach\nMabuiag Island Health Centre – Mabuiag Island", "Longreach Hospital – Longreach\nMabuiag Island Health Centre – Mabuiag Island\nMackay Base Hospital – Mackay\nMagnetic Island Health Service Centre – Nelly Bay\nMalakoola Primary Health Care Centre – Napranum\nMalanda Outpatients Clinic – Malanda\nMaleny Soldier's Memorial Hospital – Maleny\nMapoon Primary Health Care Centre – Mapoon\nMareeba Hospital – Mareeba\nMarie Rose Centre – Dunwich\nMaryborough Hospital – Maryborough\nMater Adult Hospital – South Brisbane", "Maryborough Hospital – Maryborough\nMater Adult Hospital – South Brisbane\nMater Children's Hospital – South Brisbane (closed 2014)\nMater Mothers' Hospital – South Brisbane\nMeandarra Outpatients Clinic – Meandarra\nMiles Hospital – Miles\nMillaa Millaa Outpatients Clinic – Millaa Millaa\nMillmerran Hospital – Millmerran\nMitchell Hospital – Mitchell\nMonto Hospital – Monto\nMoonie Outpatients Clinic – Moonie\nMoranbah Hospital – Moranbah\nMornington Island Hospital – Mornington Island", "Moranbah Hospital – Moranbah\nMornington Island Hospital – Mornington Island\nMorven Outpatients Clinic – Morven\nMossman Hospital – Mossman\nMount Garnet Outpatients Clinic – Mount Garnet\nMount Isa Hospital – Mornington, Mount Isa\nMount Morgan Hospital – Mount Morgan\nMount Perry Health Centre – Mount Perry\nMoura Hospital – Moura\nMundubbera Hospital – Mundubbera\nMungindi Hospital – Mungindi\nMurgon Hospital – Murgon\nMurray Island Primary Health Centre – Murray Island", "Murgon Hospital – Murgon\nMurray Island Primary Health Centre – Murray Island\nMuttaburra Primary Health Centre – Muttaburra\nNambour Hospital – Nambour\nNanango Hospital – Nanango\nNormanton Hospital – Normanton\nOakey Hospital – Oakey\nThe Park Centre for Mental Health – Wacol\nPormpuraaw Primary Health Care Centre – Pormpuraaw\nThe Prince Charles Hospital – Chermside\nPrincess Alexandra Hospital – Woolloongabba\nProserpine Hospital – Proserpine\nQueen Elizabeth II Jubilee Hospital – Coopers Plains", "Proserpine Hospital – Proserpine\nQueen Elizabeth II Jubilee Hospital – Coopers Plains\nQueensland Children's Hospital – South Brisbane\nQuilpie Hospital – Quilpie\nRavenshoe Outpatients Clinic – Ravenshoe\nRedcliffe Hospital – Redcliffe\nRedland Hospital – Cleveland\nRedland Satellite Hospital (set to open 2023) – Redland Bay\nRichmond Hospital – Richmond\nRobina Hospital – Robina\nRockhampton Hospital – Rockhampton\nRoma Hospital – Roma\nRoyal Brisbane & Women's Hospital – Herston", "Rockhampton Hospital – Rockhampton\nRoma Hospital – Roma\nRoyal Brisbane & Women's Hospital – Herston\nRoyal Children's Hospital – Herston (closed 2014)\nSaibai Island Primary Health Centre – Saibai Island\nSarina Hospital – Sarina\nSpringsure Hospital – Springsure\nSt George Hospital Qld – St George\nSt Pauls Primary Health Care Centre – St Pauls\nStanthorpe Hospital – Stanthorpe\nStephens Island Primary Health Care Centre – Stephens Island\nSunshine Coast University Hospital\nSurat Hospital – Surat", "Sunshine Coast University Hospital\nSurat Hospital – Surat\nTambo Primary Health Centre – Tambo\nTara Hospital – Tara\nTaroom Hospital – Taroom\nTexas Hospital – Texas\nThargomindah Hospital – Thargomindah\nTheodore Hospital – Theodore\nThursday Island Hospital – Thursday Island\nThursday Island Primary Health Care Centre – Thursday Island\nToowoomba Hospital – Toowoomba\nTownsville Hospital – Douglas\nTully Hospital – Tully\nWallumbilla Outpatients Clinic – Wallumbilla\nWandoan Hospital – Wandoan", "Tully Hospital – Tully\nWallumbilla Outpatients Clinic – Wallumbilla\nWandoan Hospital – Wandoan\nWarraber Island Primary Health Centre – Warraber Island\nWarwick Hospital – Warwick\nWeipa Hospital – Weipa\nWindorah Clinic – Windorah\nWinton Hospital – Winton\nWondai Hospital – Wondai\nWoorabinda Hospital – Woorabinda\nWujal Wujal Primary Health Care Centre – Wujal Wujal\nWynnum Hospital – Lota\nYam Island Primary Health Centre – Yam Island\nYaraka Clinic – Yaraka\nYorke Island Primary Health Centre – Yorke Island", "Private\n Allamanda Private Hospital – Southport\n Brisbane Endoscopy Services P/L – Sunnybank\n Brisbane Private Hospital – Brisbane\n Caboolture Private Hospital – Caboolture\n The Cairns Clinic – Cairns\n Cairns Day Surgery – Cairns, Queensland\n Cairns Private Hospital – Cairns\n Caloundra Private Hospital – Caloundra\n Chermside Day Hospital – Chermside\n Eye-Tech Day Surgeries – Spring Hill\n Eye-Tech Day Surgeries Southside – Upper Mt Gravatt\n Friendly Society Private Hospital – Bundaberg", "Eye-Tech Day Surgeries Southside – Upper Mt Gravatt\n Friendly Society Private Hospital – Bundaberg\n Gold Coast Private Hospital\n Greenslopes Day Surgery – Greenslopes\n Greenslopes Private Hospital – Greenslopes\n Gympie Private Hospital – Gympie\n Hervey Bay Surgical Hospital – Pialba\n Hillcrest Rockhampton Private Hospital – Rockhampton\n Hopewell Hospice – Arundel\n Ipswich Day Hospital – Ipswich\n John Flynn Private Hospital – Tugun\n Kawana Private Hospital – Birtinya", "John Flynn Private Hospital – Tugun\n Kawana Private Hospital – Birtinya\n Mackay Specialist Day Hospital – North Mackay\n Mater Children's Private Hospital – South Brisbane\n Mater Hospital Pimlico – Pimlico\n Mater Misericordiae Day Unit – Mackay\n Mater Misericordiae Hospital Bundaberg – Bundaberg\n Mater Misericordiae Hospital Gladstone – Gladstone\n Mater Misericordiae Hospital Mackay – Mackay\n Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Rockhampton – Rockhampton\n Mater Misericordiae Hospital Yeppoon – Yeppoon", "Mater Misericordiae Hospital Yeppoon – Yeppoon\n Mater Mother's Private Hospital – South Brisbane\n Mater Private Hospital Redland – Cleveland\n Mater Private Hospital South Brisbane – South Brisbane\n Mater Women's and Children's Hospital Hyde Park – Hyde Park\n Montserrat Day Hospital Gaythorne – Gaythorne\n Montserrat Day Hospital Indooroopilly – Indooroopilly\n Montserrat Day Hospital North Lakes – North Lakes\n Nambour Day Surgery – Nambour\n Nambour Selangor Private Hospital – Nambour", "Nambour Day Surgery – Nambour\n Nambour Selangor Private Hospital – Nambour\n New Farm Clinic – New Farm\n Noosa Hospital – Noosaville\n North Mackay Private Hospital – North Mackay\n North Queensland Day Surgery – Pimlico\n North West Private Hospital – Everton Park\n Pacific Private Day Hospital – Southport\n Peninsula Private Hospital Queensland – Kippa-Ring\n Pindara Day Procedure Centre – Benowa\n Pindara Private Hospital – Benowa\n Pine Rivers Private Hospital – Strathpine", "Pindara Private Hospital – Benowa\n Pine Rivers Private Hospital – Strathpine\n Queensland Eye Hospital – Spring Hill\n River City Private Hospital – Auchenflower\n Robina Procedure Centre – Robina\n Short Street Day Surgery – Southport\n South Burnett Private Hospital – Kingaroy\n Southport Day Hospital – Southport\n Southside Endoscopy Centre – Loganholme\n Spendelove Private Hospital – Southport\n St Andrew's Ipswich Private Hospital – Ipswich\n St Andrew's Toowoomba Hospital – Toowoomba", "St Andrew's Ipswich Private Hospital – Ipswich\n St Andrew's Toowoomba Hospital – Toowoomba\n St Andrew's War Memorial Hospital – Spring Hill\n St Stephen's Hospital Hervey Bay – Hervey Bay\n St Stephen's Hospital Maryborough – Maryborough\nSt Vincents Private Hospital Northside – Chermside\n St Vincent's Private Hospital Brisbane – Kangaroo Point\n St Vincent's Private Hospital Toowoomba – Toowoomba\n Sunnybank Private Hospital – Sunnybank\n Sunshine Coast Haematology and Oncology Clinic – Cotton Tree", "Sunshine Coast Haematology and Oncology Clinic – Cotton Tree\n The Sunshine Coast Private Hospital – Buderim\n Sunshine Coast University Private Hospital – Birtinya\n Toowong Private Hospital – Toowong\n Toowoomba Surgicentre – Toowoomba\n Townsville Day Surgery – West End\n Vision Day Surgery Rivercity – Auchenflower\n Wesley Hospital – Auchenflower", "South Australia", "Public\n Andamooka Outpost Hospital – Andamooka\n Angaston District Hospital – Angaston\n Balaklava Soldiers Memorial District Hospital – Balaklava\n Barmera Health Service – Barmera\n Booleroo Centre District Hospital and Health Services – Booleroo Centre\n Bordertown Memorial Hospital – Bordertown\n Burra Hospital – Burra\n Ceduna District Health Service – Ceduna\n Central Yorke Peninsula Hospital (Maitland) – Maitland\n Clare Hospital – Clare\n Cleve District Hospital and Aged Care – Cleve", "Clare Hospital – Clare\n Cleve District Hospital and Aged Care – Cleve\n Coober Pedy Hospital and Health Service – Coober Pedy\n Cowell District Hospital and Aged Care – Cowell\n Crystal Brook and District Hospital – Crystal Brook\n Cummins and District Memorial Hospital – Cummins\n Elliston Hospital – Elliston\n Eudunda Hospital – Eudunda\n Flinders Medical Centre – Bedford Park\n Gawler Health Service – Gawler East\n Glenside Campus Mental Health Service – Glenside", "Gawler Health Service – Gawler East\n Glenside Campus Mental Health Service – Glenside\n Gumeracha District Soldiers Memorial Hospital – Gumeracha\n Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre – Northfield\n Hawker Memorial Hospital – Hawker\n Jamestown Hospital and Health Service – Jamestown\n Kangaroo Island Health Service – Kingscote\n Kapunda Hospital – Kapunda\n Karoonda and District Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Karoonda\n Kimba District Hospital and Aged Care – Kimba\n Kingston Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Kingston SE", "Kimba District Hospital and Aged Care – Kimba\n Kingston Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Kingston SE\n Lameroo District Health Service – Lameroo\n Laura and District Hospital – Laura\n Leigh Creek Health Service – Leigh Creek\n Loxton Hospital Complex – Loxton\n Lyell McEwin Hospital – Elizabeth Vale\n Mannum District Hospital – Mannum\n Marree Health Services – Marree\n Meningie & Districts Memorial Hospital & Health Services – Meningie\n Millicent & Districts Hospital & Health Service – Millicent", "Millicent & Districts Hospital & Health Service – Millicent\n Modbury Hospital – Modbury\n Mount Barker District Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Mount Barker\n Mount Gambier and Districts Health Service – Mount Gambier\n Mount Pleasant District Hospital – Mount Pleasant\n Murray Bridge Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Murray Bridge\n Naracoorte Health Service – Naracoorte\n Noarlunga Public Hospital – Noarlunga Centre\n Northern Yorke Peninsula Health Service (Wallaroo) – Wallaroo\n Oakden Hospital – Oakden", "Northern Yorke Peninsula Health Service (Wallaroo) – Wallaroo\n Oakden Hospital – Oakden\n Oodnadatta Clinic – Oodnadatta\n Orroroo & District Health Service – Orroroo\n Penola War Memorial Hospital – Penola\n Peterborough Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Peterborough\n Pinnaroo Soldiers' Memorial Hospital – Pinnaroo\n Port Augusta Hospital & Regional Health Services – Port Augusta\n Port Broughton & District Hospital & Health Service – Port Broughton\n Port Lincoln Health Service – Port Lincoln", "Port Lincoln Health Service – Port Lincoln\n Port Pirie Regional Health Service – Port Pirie\n Pregnancy Advisory Centre – Woodville Park\n Quorn Health Service – Quorn\n Renmark Paringa District Hospital – Renmark\n Riverland General Hospital – Berri\n Riverton District Soldiers Memorial Hospital – Riverton\n Roxby Downs Health Service – Roxby Downs\n Royal Adelaide Hospital – Adelaide\n Snowtown Hospital and Health Service – Snowtown\n South Coast District Hospital – Victor Harbor\n South East Regional CHS", "South Coast District Hospital – Victor Harbor\n South East Regional CHS\n Southern Yorke Peninsula Health Service (Yorketown) – Yorketown\n St Margaret's Hospital – Semaphore\n Strathalbyn and District Health Service – Strathalbyn\n Streaky Bay Hospital – Streaky Bay\n Tailem Bend District Hospital – Tailem Bend\n Tanunda War Memorial Hospital – Tanunda\n Queen Elizabeth Hospital – Woodville\n Tumby Bay Hospital and Health Services – Tumby Bay\n Waikerie Health Service – Waikerie", "Tumby Bay Hospital and Health Services – Tumby Bay\n Waikerie Health Service – Waikerie\n Whyalla Hospital and Health Services – Whyalla\n Women's and Children's Hospital – North Adelaide\n Woomera Hospital – Woomera\n Wudinna Hospital – Wudinna", "Private\n Adelaide Clinic – Gilberton\n Adelaide Day Surgery Pty Ltd – Adelaide\n Adelaide Eye & Laser Centre – Eastwood\n Adelaide Surgicentre – Kent Town\n Ashford Hospital – Ashford\n Burnside War Memorial Hospital – Toorak Gardens\n Calvary Adelaide Hospital – Adelaide\n Calvary Central Districts Hospital – Elizabeth Vale\n Calvary North Adelaide Hospital – North Adelaide\n Flinders Private Hospital – Bedford Park\n Fullarton Private Hospital – Parkside\n Glenelg Community Hospital Inc – Glenelg South", "Fullarton Private Hospital – Parkside\n Glenelg Community Hospital Inc – Glenelg South\n Griffith Rehabilitation Hospital – Hove\n Kahlyn Day Centre – Magill\n McLaren Vale & Districts War Memorial Hospital Inc – McLaren Vale\n Memorial Hospital – North Adelaide\n Mount Gambier Private Hospital – Mount Gambier\n Oxford Day Surgery Centre – Unley\n Parkside Cosmetic Surgery – Parkside\n Parkwynd Private Hospital – Adelaide\n SPORTSMED SA Hospital & Day Surgery – Stepney\n St Andrew's Hospital – Adelaide", "SPORTSMED SA Hospital & Day Surgery – Stepney\n St Andrew's Hospital – Adelaide\n Stirling Hospital – Stirling\n Western Hospital – Henley Beach\n Central Surgery Skin Cancer Removal – Dulwich", "Tasmania", "Public\n Beaconsfield District Health Service – Beaconsfield\n Campbell Town Multi Purpose Service – Campbell Town\n Deloraine District Hospital – Deloraine\n Esperance Multi Purpose Centre – Dover\n Flinders Island Multi Purpose Centre – Whitemark\n George Town Hospital and Community Health Centre – George Town\n HealthWest (West Coast District Hospital at Queenstown) – Queenstown\n Huon Eldercare – Franklin\n King Island Multi Purpose Centre – Currie\n Launceston General Hospital – Launceston", "King Island Multi Purpose Centre – Currie\n Launceston General Hospital – Launceston\n May Shaw District Nursing Centre – Swansea\n Mersey Community Hospital – Latrobe\n Midlands Multi Purpose Centre – Oatlands\n New Norfolk District Hospital – New Norfolk\n North East Soldiers' Memorial Hospital and Community Service Centre (Scottsdale Hospital) – Scottsdale\n North West Regional Hospital – Burnie\n Royal Hobart Hospital – Hobart\n Smithton District Hospital – Smithton\n St Helens District Hospital – St Helens", "Smithton District Hospital – Smithton\n St Helens District Hospital – St Helens\n St Marys Community Health Centre – St Marys\n Tasman Health and Community Service – Nubeena\n Toosey Memorial Hospital (Longford) – Longford", "Private\n Calvary Health Care Tasmania – Lenah Valley Campus – Lenah Valley\n Calvary Health Care Tasmania – St John's Campus – South Hobart\n Calvary Health Care Tasmania – St Luke's Campus – Launceston\n Calvary Health Care Tasmania – St Vincent's Campus – Launceston\n Hobart Private Hospital – Hobart\n St Helen's Private Hospital – Hobart\n The Eye Hospital – Launceston\n The Hobart Clinic – Rokeby\n\nVictoria\n\nPublic", "Metropolitan Melbourne\nAngliss Hospital – Upper Ferntree Gully\nAustin Hospital – Heidelberg\nBox Hill Hospital – Box Hill\nBroadmeadows Hospital – Broadmeadows\nBundoora Extended Care Centre – Bundoora\nCalvary Health Care Bethlehem – Caulfield South\nCaritas Christi Hospice – Kew\nCasey Hospital – Berwick\nCaulfield Hospital – Caulfield\nCraigieburn Health Service – Craigieburn\nCranbourne Integrated Care Centre – Cranbourne\nDandenong Hospital – Dandenong\nFootscray Hospital – Footscray", "Dandenong Hospital – Dandenong\nFootscray Hospital – Footscray\nFrankston Hospital – Frankston\nHealesville Hospital and Yarra Valley Health – Healesville\nHeidelberg Repatriation Hospital – Ivanhoe\nJessie McPherson Private Hospital – Clayton\nKingston Centre – Cheltenham\nMaroondah Hospital – Ringwood East\nMercy Hospital for Women – Heidelberg\nMonash Children's Hospital – Clayton\nMonash Medical Centre – Clayton\nMoorabbin Hospital – Bentleigh East\nPeter James Centre – Burwood East", "Moorabbin Hospital – Bentleigh East\nPeter James Centre – Burwood East\nPeter MacCallum Cancer Institute – Melbourne\nPanch Health Service – Preston\nQueen Elizabeth Centre – Noble Park\nRosebud Hospital – Capel Sound\nRoyal Children's Hospital – Parkville\nRoyal Dental Hospital of Melbourne – Carlton\nRoyal Melbourne Hospital – Parkville\nRoyal Talbot Rehabilitation Centre – Kew\nRoyal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital – East Melbourne\nRoyal Women's Hospital – Parkville\nSandringham Hospital – Sandringham", "Royal Women's Hospital – Parkville\nSandringham Hospital – Sandringham\nSt George's Hospital – Kew\nSt Vincent's Hospital – Fitzroy\nSunshine Hospital – St Albans\nThe Alfred Hospital – Melbourne \nThe Mornington Centre – Mornington\nThe Northern Hospital – Epping\nWantirna Health – Wantirna\nWilliamstown Hospital – Williamstown\nYarra Ranges Health – Lilydale", "Rural hospitals and health services\nAlbury Wodonga Health\nAlexandra District Hospital \nAlpine Health \nBairnsdale Regional Health Service \nBallarat Health Services \nBarwon Health \nBass Coast Regional Health \nBeaufort and Skipton Health Service \nBeechworth Health Service \nBenalla Health \nBendigo Base Hospital \nBoort District Health \nCasterton Memorial Hospital\nCastlemaine Health \nCentral Gippsland Health Service\nCobram District Health \nCohuna District Hospital \nColac Area Health\nDjerriwarrh Health Services", "Cobram District Health \nCohuna District Hospital \nColac Area Health\nDjerriwarrh Health Services\nDunmunkle Health Services \nEast Grampians Health Service \nEast Wimmera Health Service \nEchuca Regional Health \nEdenhope and District Hospital \nGippsland Southern Health Service \nGoulburn Valley Health \nHeathcote Health \nHepburn Health Service \nHesse Rural Health Service \nHeywood Rural Health \nInglewood and District Health Service \nKerang District Health \nKilmore and District Hospital", "Inglewood and District Health Service \nKerang District Health \nKilmore and District Hospital \nKooweerup Regional Health Service \nKyabram and District Health Service \nKyneton District Health Service \nLatrobe Regional Hospital \nLorne Community Hospital\nMaldon Hospital \nMaryborough District Health Service \nMelton Health\nMildura Base Hospital \nMoyne Health Services\nNathalia District Hospital \nNortheast Health Wangaratta \nNumurkah District Health Service \nOmeo District Health \nOrbost Regional Health", "Numurkah District Health Service \nOmeo District Health \nOrbost Regional Health\nOtway Health and Community Services\nPortland District Health\nRobinvale District Health Services \nRochester and Elmore District Health Service \nRural Northwest Health \nSeymour Health \nSouth Gippsland Hospital \nSouth West Healthcare\nStawell Regional Health\nSwan Hill District Health\nTallangatta Health Service \nTerang and Mortlake Health Service\nTimboon and District Healthcare Service\nUpper Murray Health and Community Services", "Timboon and District Healthcare Service\nUpper Murray Health and Community Services \nWarrnambool Base Hospital\nWest Gippsland Healthcare Group\nWest Wimmera Health Service \nWestern District Health Service \nWimmera Health Care Group \nYarram and District Health Service \nYarrawonga Health \nYea and District Memorial Hospital", "Private\n Albert Road Clinic – Melbourne\n Avenue Plastic Surgery – Windsor\n Beleura Private Hospital – Mornington\n Bellbird Private Hospital – Blackburn South\n Berwick Eye and Surgicentre – Berwick\n Cabrini Brighton – Brighton\n Cabrini Health Elsternwick Rehabilitation – Glenhuntly Rd – Elsternwick\n Cabrini Health Elsternwick Rehabilitation – Hopetoun – Elsternwick\n Cabrini Malvern – Malvern\n Cabrini Prahran – Prahran\n Chesterville Day Hospital – Cheltenham\n Como Private Hospital – Parkdale", "Chesterville Day Hospital – Cheltenham\n Como Private Hospital – Parkdale\n Corymbia House – Dandenong\n Cotham Private Hospital – Kew\n Donvale Rehabilitation Hospital – Donvale\n Dorset Rehabilitation Centre – Pascoe Vale\n Epworth Cliveden – East Melbourne\n Epworth Eastern – Box Hill\n Epworth Freemasons [Clarendon Street] – East Melbourne\n Epworth Freemasons [Victoria Parade] – East Melbourne\n Epworth Hawthorn – Hawthorn\n Epworth Rehabilitation Brighton – Brighton", "Epworth Hawthorn – Hawthorn\n Epworth Rehabilitation Brighton – Brighton\n Epworth Rehabilitation Camberwell – Camberwell\n Epworth Rehabilitation Richmond – Richmond\n Epworth Richmond – Richmond\n Frances Perry House – Parkville\n Glen Eira Day Surgery – Caulfield South\n Glenferrie Private Hospital – Hawthorn\n Healthscope Independence Services – Moorabbin\n Hobsons Bay Endoscopy Centre Altona – Altona\n Hobsons Bay Endoscopy Centre Sydenham – Sydenham\n Hobsons Bay Endoscopy Centre Werribee – Werribee", "Hobsons Bay Endoscopy Centre Sydenham – Sydenham\n Hobsons Bay Endoscopy Centre Werribee – Werribee\n John Fawkner Private Hospital – Coburg\n Jolimont Endoscopy – East Melbourne\n Knox Private Hospital – Wantirna\n Linacre Private Hospital – Hampton\n Manningham Day Procedure Centre – Templestowe Lower\n Maryvale Private Hospital – Morwell\n Masada Private Hospital – St Kilda\n Melbourne MediBrain & MediSleep Centre – Caulfield North\n Melbourne Oral & Facial Surgery – Melbourne", "Melbourne Oral & Facial Surgery – Melbourne\n Melbourne Private Hospital – Parkville\n Mildura Private Hospital – Mildura\n Mitcham Private Hospital – Mitcham\n Mulgrave Private Hospital- Mulgrave\n Murray Valley Private Hospital – Wodonga\n North Eastern Rehabilitation Centre – Ivanhoe\n Northpark Private Hospital – Bundoora\n Peninsula Private Hospital Victoria – Frankston\n Ringwood Private Hospital – Ringwood\n Rosebud SurgiCentre – Rosebud West\n Shepparton Private Hospital – Shepparton", "Rosebud SurgiCentre – Rosebud West\n Shepparton Private Hospital – Shepparton\nSkin Only – Skin cancer specialty clinic \n South Eastern Private – Noble Park\n St John of God Ballarat Hospital – Ballarat\n St John of God Bendigo Hospital – Bendigo\n St John of God Berwick Hospital – Berwick\n St John of God Frankston Rehabilitation Hospital – Frankston\n St John of God Geelong Hospital – Geelong\n St John of God Langmore Centre – Berwick\n St John of God Warrnambool Hospital – Warrnambool", "St John of God Langmore Centre – Berwick\n St John of God Warrnambool Hospital – Warrnambool\n St Vincent's Private Hospital East Melbourne – East Melbourne\n St Vincent's Private Hospital Fitzroy – Fitzroy\n St Vincent's Private Hospital Kew – Kew\n The Avenue Hospital – Windsor\n The Bays Hospital – Mornington\n The Geelong Clinic – St Albans Park\n The Melbourne Clinic – Richmond\n The Victoria Clinic – Prahran\n The Victorian Rehabilitation Centre – Glen Waverley\n Victoria Parade Surgery Centre – East Melbourne", "Victoria Parade Surgery Centre – East Melbourne\n Vision Day Surgery Camberwell – Camberwell\n Vision Day Surgery Eastern – Box Hill\n Vision Day Surgery Footscray – Footscray\n Vision Eye Institute – Melbourne\n Wangaratta Private Hospital – Wangaratta\n Warringal Private Hospital – Heidelberg\n Waverley Private Hospital – Mount Waverley\nWerribee Mercy Hospital – Werribee\n Western Private Hospital – Footscray", "Western Australia", "Public\n Albany Health Campus – Albany\n Armadale-Kelmscott Memorial Hospital – Armadale\n Augusta Hospital – Augusta\n Bentley Hospital – Bentley\n Beverley Hospital – Beverley\n Boddington Health Service – Boddington\n Boyup Brook Soldiers Memorial Hospital – Boyup Brook\n Bridgetown Hospital – Bridgetown\n Broome Health Campus – Broome\n Bruce Rock Memorial Hospital – Bruce Rock\n Busselton Health Campus – Busselton\n Carnarvon Health Campusl – Carnarvon\n Collie Health Service – Collie", "Carnarvon Health Campusl – Carnarvon\n Collie Health Service – Collie\n Corrigin District Hospital – Corrigin\n Cunderdin Hospital – Cunderdin\n Dalwallinu Hospital – Dalwallinu\n Denmark Hospital and Health Service – Denmark\n Derby Hospital – Derby\n Dongara Eneabba Mingenew Health Service – Dongara\n Donnybrook Hospital – Donnybrook\n Dumbleyung Memorial Hospital – Dumbleyung\n Esperance Hospital – Esperance\n Exmouth Hospital – Exmouth\nFiona Stanley Hospital – Murdoch", "Esperance Hospital – Esperance\n Exmouth Hospital – Exmouth\nFiona Stanley Hospital – Murdoch\n Fitzroy Crossing Hospital – Fitzroy Crossing\n Fremantle Hospital – Fremantle\n Geraldton Hospital – Geraldton\n Gnowangerup Hospital – Gnowangerup\n Goomalling Hospital – Goomalling\n Graylands Selby-Lemnos and Special Care Health Service – Mount Claremont\n Halls Creek Hospital – Halls Creek\n Harvey Hospital – Harvey\n Hedland Health Campus – South Hedland\n Joondalup Health Campus (Public) – Joondalup", "Hedland Health Campus – South Hedland\n Joondalup Health Campus (Public) – Joondalup\n Kalamunda Hospital – Kalamunda\n Kalbarri Health Centre – Kalbarri\n Kaleeya Hospital – East Fremantle\n Kalgoorlie Hospital – Kalgoorlie\n Katanning Hospital – Katanning\n Kellerberrin Memorial Hospital – Kellerberrin\n King Edward Memorial Hospital for Women – Subiaco\n Kojonup Hospital – Kojonup\n Kondinin Districts Health Service – Kondinin\n Kununoppin Health Service – Kununoppin\n Kununurra Hospital – Kununurra", "Kununoppin Health Service – Kununoppin\n Kununurra Hospital – Kununurra\n Lake Grace Hospital – Lake Grace\n Laverton Hospital – Laverton\n Leonora Hospital – Leonora\n Margaret River Hospital – Margaret River\n Meekatharra Hospital – Meekatharra\n Merredin Health Service – Merredin\n Moora Hospital – Moora\n Morawa Health Service – Morawa\n Mullewa Health Service – Mullewa\n Murray Hospital – Pinjarra\n Nannup Hospital – Nannup\n Narembeen Memorial Hospital – Narembeen\n Narrogin Hospital – Narrogin", "Nannup Hospital – Nannup\n Narembeen Memorial Hospital – Narembeen\n Narrogin Hospital – Narrogin\n Newman Hospital – Newman\n Next Step Drug And Alcohol Services, East Perth – East Perth\n Nickol Bay Hospital – Karratha\n Norseman Hospital – Norseman\n North Midlands Health Service – Three Springs\n Northam Hospital – Northam\n Northampton Kalbarri Health Service – Northampton\n Onslow Hospital – Onslow\n Osborne Park Hospital – Stirling\n Paraburdoo Hospital – Paraburdoo\n Peel Health Campus – Mandurah", "Osborne Park Hospital – Stirling\n Paraburdoo Hospital – Paraburdoo\n Peel Health Campus – Mandurah\n Pemberton Hospital – Pemberton\n Perth Children's Hospital – Nedlands\n Pingelly Hospital – Pingelly\n Plantagenet Hospital – Mount Barker\n Princess Margaret Hospital for Children – Subiaco\n Quairading Hospital – Quairading\n Ravensthorpe Health Centre – Ravensthorpe\n Rockingham General Hospital – Cooloongup\n Roebourne Hospital – Roebourne\n Royal Perth Hospital Shenton Park Campus – Shenton Park", "Roebourne Hospital – Roebourne\n Royal Perth Hospital Shenton Park Campus – Shenton Park\n Royal Perth Hospital Wellington Street Campus – Perth\n Selby Authorised Lodge – Shenton Park\n Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital – Nedlands\n South West Health Campus – Bunbury\n Southern Cross Hospital – Southern Cross\n State Forensic Mental Health Service – Mount Claremont\n St John of God Midland Public Hospital\n Tom Price Hospital – Tom Price\n Wagin Hospital – Wagin\n Warren Hospital – Manjimup", "Tom Price Hospital – Tom Price\n Wagin Hospital – Wagin\n Warren Hospital – Manjimup\n Wongan Hills Hospital – Wongan Hills\n Wyalkatchem-Koorda and Districts Hospital – Wyalkatchem\n Wyndham Hospital – Wyndham\n York Hospital – York", "Private\n Abbotsford Private Hospital – West Leederville\n Attadale Private Hospital – Attadale\n Bethesda Hospital – Claremont\n Colin Street Day Hospital – West Perth\n Glengarry Private Hospital – Duncraig\n Hollywood Private Hospital – Nedlands\n Joondalup Health Campus (Private) – Joondalup\n Mount Hospital – West Perth\n Oxford Day Surgery and Dermatology – Mount Hawthorn\n Perth Clinic – West Perth\nSentiens Hospital – West Perth\n South Perth Hospital – South Perth\n St John of God Bunbury Hospital – Bunbury", "South Perth Hospital – South Perth\n St John of God Bunbury Hospital – Bunbury\n St John of God Geraldton Hospital – Geraldton\n St John of God Mt Lawley Hospital – Mount Lawley\n St John of God Midland Private Hospital\n St John of God Murdoch Hospital – Murdoch\n St John of God Subiaco Hospital – Subiaco\n Subiaco Private Hospital – Subiaco\n Waikiki Private Hospital – Waikiki\n Walcott Street Surgical Centre – Mount Lawley\nWest Leederville Private Hospital, McCourt Street - West Leederville", "West Leederville Private Hospital, McCourt Street - West Leederville\n Westminster Day Surgery – Westminster", "See also \n\n Little Company of Mary Health Care (Australia)\n List of Australian hospital ships\n List of Australian psychiatric institutions\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Australian Government managed database of Australia hospitals, and performance data.\nList of all Queensland Health Hospitals and Health Services\nList of Hospitals and social networks in Australia" ]

[ "John Charlton (8 May 193510 July 2020) was an English footballer and manager who played as a centre-back. He was part of the England national team that won the 1966 World Cup and managed the Republic of Ireland national team from 1986 to 1996 achieving two World Cup and one European Championship appearances", ". He spent his entire club career with Leeds United from 1950 to 1973, helping the club to the Second Division title (1963–64), First Division title (1968–69), FA Cup (1972), League Cup (1968), Charity Shield (1969), Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (1968 and 1971), as well as one other promotion from the Second Division (1955–56) and five second-place finishes in the First Division, two FA Cup final defeats and one Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final defeat", ". His 629 league and 762 total competitive appearances are club records. He was the elder brother of former Manchester United forward Bobby Charlton, who was also one of his teammates in England's World Cup final victory. In 2006, Leeds United supporters voted Charlton into the club's greatest XI.", "Called up to the England team days before his 30th birthday, Charlton went on to score six goals in 35 international games and to appear in two World Cups and one European Championship. He played in the World Cup final victory over West Germany in 1966, and also helped England to finish third in Euro 1968 and to win four British Home Championship tournaments. He was named FWA Footballer of the Year in 1967.", "After retiring as a player he worked as a manager, and led Middlesbrough to the Second Division title in 1973–74, winning the Manager of the Year award in his first season as a manager. He kept Boro as a stable top-flight club before he resigned in April 1977. He took charge of Sheffield Wednesday in October 1977, and led the club to promotion out of the Third Division in 1979–80. He left the Owls in May 1983, and went on to serve Middlesbrough as caretaker-manager at the end of the 1983–84 season", ". He worked as Newcastle United manager for the 1984–85 season. He took charge of the Republic of Ireland national team in February 1986, and led them to their first World Cup in 1990, where they reached the quarter-finals. He also led the nation to successful qualification to Euro 1988 and the 1994 World Cup. He resigned in January 1996 and went into retirement. He was married to Pat Kemp and they had three children.", "Early life", "Born into a footballing family in Ashington, Northumberland, on 8 May 1935, Charlton was initially overshadowed by his younger brother Bobby, who was taken on by Manchester United while Jack was doing his national service with the Household Cavalry", ". His uncles were Jack Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford City), George Milburn (Leeds United and Chesterfield), Jim Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford Park Avenue) and Stan Milburn (Chesterfield, Leicester City and Rochdale), and legendary Newcastle United and England footballer Jackie Milburn was his mother's cousin.", "The economy of the village of Ashington was based entirely on coal mining, and though his family had a strong footballing pedigree, his father was a miner. The eldest of four brothers – Bobby, Gordon and Tommy – the tight finances of the family meant that all four siblings shared the same bed. His father, Bob, had no interest in football, but his mother, Cissie, played football with her children and later coached the local school's team", ". As a teenager she took them to watch Ashington and Newcastle United play, and Charlton remained a lifelong Newcastle supporter.", "At the age of 15 he was offered a trial at Leeds United, where his uncle Jim played at left-back, but turned it down and instead joined his father in the mines. He worked in the mines for a short time but handed in his notice after finding out just how difficult and unpleasant it was to work deep underground. He applied to join the police and reconsidered the offer from Leeds United", ". He applied to join the police and reconsidered the offer from Leeds United. His trial game for Leeds clashed with his police interview, and Charlton chose to play in the game; the trial was a success and he joined the ground staff at Elland Road.", "Club career", "Charlton played for Leeds United's youth team in the Northern Intermediate League and then for the third team in the Yorkshire League; playing in the physically demanding Yorkshire League at the age of 16 impressed the club's management, and he was soon promoted to the reserve team. Charlton was given his first professional contract when he turned 17. He made his debut on 25 April 1953 against Doncaster Rovers, taking John Charles' place at centre-half after Charles was moved up to centre-forward", ". It was the final Second Division game of the 1952–53 season, and ended in a 1–1 draw. He then had to serve two years' national service with the Household Cavalry, and captained the Horse Guards to victory in the Cavalry Cup in Hanover. His national service limited his contribution to Leeds, and he made only one appearance in the 1954–55 season.", "Charlton returned to the first team in September 1955, and kept his place for the rest of the 1955–56 season, helping Leeds win promotion into the First Division after finishing second to Sheffield Wednesday. He was dropped in the second half of the 1956–57 campaign, partly due to his habit of partying late at night and losing focus on his football. He regained his place in the 1957–58 season, and stopped his partying lifestyle as he settled down to married life", ". In October 1957 he was picked to represent the English Football League in a game against the League of Ireland.", "Leeds struggled after Raich Carter left the club in 1958, and Willis Edwards and then Bill Lambton took charge in the 1958–59 season as Leeds finished nine points above the relegation zone. Jack Taylor was appointed manager, and failed to keep Leeds out of the relegation zone by the end of the 1959–60 campaign. During this time Charlton began taking his coaching badges, and took part in the Football Association's coaching courses at Lilleshall.", "Leeds finished just five points above the Second Division relegation zone in the 1960–61 season and Taylor resigned; his replacement, Don Revie, was promoted from the United first team, and initially he was not fond of Charlton. Revie played Charlton up front at the start of the 1961–62 season, but he soon moved him back to centre-half after he proved ineffective as a centre-forward", ". He became frustrated and difficult to manage, feeling in limbo playing for a club seemingly going nowhere whilst his younger brother was enjoying great success at Manchester United. Revie told Charlton that he was prepared to let him go in 1962, but never actually transfer listed him", ". Liverpool manager Bill Shankly failed to meet the £30,000 Leeds demanded for Charlton and though Manchester United manager Matt Busby was initially willing to pay the fee he eventually decided to instead try an untested youngster at centre-half. During these discussions Charlton refused to sign a new contract at Leeds, but felt frustrated by Busby's hesitance and so signed a new contract with Leeds whilst making a promise to Revie to be more professional in his approach.", "The 1962–63 season was the beginning of a new era for Leeds United as Revie began to mould the team and the club into his own liking. In a game against Swansea Town in September, Revie dropped many senior players and played Charlton in a young new defensive line-up: Gary Sprake (goalkeeper), Paul Reaney (right-back), Norman Hunter and Charlton (centre-back), and Rod Johnson (left-back). With the exception of Johnson, this defensive line-up would remain consistent for much of the rest of the decade", ". Charlton took charge of the defence that day, and insisted upon a zonal marking system; Revie agreed to allow Charlton to become the key organiser in defence. Aided by new midfield signing Johnny Giles, Leeds put in a strong promotion challenge and finished fifth, before securing promotion as champions in the 1963–64 campaign, topping the table two points ahead of Sunderland. Other players that began to make their mark on the first team included Billy Bremner, Paul Madeley and Peter Lorimer.", "Leeds made an immediate impact on their first season back in the top flight, however the team gained a reputation for rough play, and Charlton said in his autobiography that \"the way we achieved that success made me feel uncomfortable\". They went 25 games unbeaten before losing to Manchester United at Elland Road – their title race meant that the two clubs built up an intense rivalry", ". Leeds needed a win in their final game of the season to secure the title but could only manage a 3–3 draw with Birmingham City at St Andrew's – Charlton scored the equalising goal on 86 minutes but they could not push on for a winner. They gained some measure of revenge over Man United by beating them 1–0 in the replay of the FA Cup semi-finals. Leeds met Liverpool in the final at Wembley, and the game went into extra-time after a goalless draw", ". Roger Hunt opened the scoring three minutes into extra-time, but seven minutes later Charlton headed on a cross for Bremner to volley into the net for the equaliser; with seven minutes left Ian St John scored for Liverpool to win the game 2–1.", "United again competed for honours in the 1965–66 season, finishing second to Liverpool in the league and reaching the semi-finals of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. It was the club's first season in European competition, and they beat Italian side Torino, East German club SC Leipzig, Spanish club Valencia and Hungarian outfit Újpest, before they were beaten 3–1 by Spanish side Real Zaragoza at Elland Road in a tiebreaker game following a 2–2 aggregate draw", ". Charlton caused controversy against Valencia after he and defender Vidagany began fighting after Vidagany kicked Charlton in an off-the-ball incident; Charlton never actually struck the Spaniard, who hid behind his teammates.", "The 1966–67 season proved frustrating for United, despite the introduction of another club great in the form of Eddie Gray. Leeds finished fourth, five points behind champions Manchester United, and exited the FA Cup at the semi-finals after defeat to Chelsea. They made progress in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, beating DWS (Netherlands), Valencia, Bologna (Italy) and Kilmarnock (Scotland) to reach the final, where they were beaten 2–0 on aggregate by Yugoslavian outfit Dinamo Zagreb", ". At the end of the season he was named as the Footballer of the Year, succeeding his brother who had won the award the previous year. During the award ceremony he told a number of amusing stories and won a standing ovation from the crowd; this started him on a successful sideline as an after-dinner speaker.", "Charlton developed a new ploy for the 1967–68 season by standing next to the goalkeeper during corners to prevent him from coming out to collect the ball; this created havoc for opposition defences and is still a frequently used tactic in the modern era. However, for the second successive season Leeds finished fourth and exited the FA Cup at the semi-finals, this time losing 1–0 to Everton at Old Trafford", ". They finally won major honours by beating Arsenal 1–0 in the final of the League Cup; Terry Cooper scored the only goal of the game despite allegations that Charlton pushed goalkeeper Jim Furnell in the build-up to the goal. Leeds then went on to lift the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup after beating CA Spora Luxembourg, FK Partizan (Yugoslavia), Hibernian (Scotland), Rangers (Scotland) and Dundee (Scotland) to reach the final with Hungarian club Ferencvárosi", ". They won 1–0 at Elland Road and drew 0–0 in Budapest to claim their first European trophy.", "Charlton helped Leeds to their first ever Football League title in 1968–69, as they lost just two games to finish six points clear of second-place Liverpool. They secured the title with a goalless draw at Anfield on 28 April, and Charlton later recalled the Liverpool supporters affectionately called him \"big dirty giraffe\" and that manager Bill Shankly went into the Leeds dressing room after the match to tell them they were \"worthy champions\".", "United opened the 1969–70 campaign by winning the Charity Shield with a 2–1 win over Manchester City, and went on to face realistic possibility of winning the treble – the league, FA Cup and European Cup. However they missed out on all three trophies as the games built up towards the end of the season, and the league title was the first to slip out of their hands as Everton went on to build an insurmountable lead", ". They then bowed out of the European Cup after a 3–1 aggregate defeat to Celtic, including a 2–1 loss at Hampden Park in front of a UEFA record crowd of 136,505. They took two replays to overcome Manchester United in the FA Cup semi-finals (Bremner scored the only goal in 300 minutes of football), but lost 2–1 in the replayed final to Chelsea after the original 2–2 draw, in which Charlton opened the scoring", ". Charlton took responsibility for Peter Osgood's goal in the replay as he was distracted from marking duties as he was trying to get revenge on a Chelsea player who had kicked him.", "Charlton caused controversy early in the 1970–71 season as in an October appearance on the Tyne Tees football programme, he said he'd once had a \"little black book\" of names of players whom he intended to hurt or exact some form of revenge upon during his playing days. He was tried by the Football Association and was found not guilty of any wrongdoing after arguing that the press had misquoted him", ". He admitted that though he never actually had a book of names he had a short list of names in his head of players who had made nasty tackles on him and that he intended to put in a hard but fair challenge on those players if he got the opportunity in the course of a game. Leeds ended the season in second place yet again, as Arsenal overtook them with a late series of 1–0 wins despite Leeds beating Arsenal in the penultimate game of the season after Charlton scored the winning goal", ". The final tally of 64 points was a record high for a second-placed team. In the last ever season of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup they beat Sarpsborg FK (Norway), Dynamo Dresden (Germany), Sparta Prague (Czechoslovakia), Vitória (Portugal) and Liverpool to secure a place in the final against Italian club Juventus. They drew 2–2 at the Stadio Olimpico and 1–1 at Elland Road to win the cup on the away goals rule", ". They drew 2–2 at the Stadio Olimpico and 1–1 at Elland Road to win the cup on the away goals rule. They had the opportunity to win the cup permanently, but lost 2–1 to Barcelona at Camp Nou in the trophy play-off game.", "Leeds finished second in the 1971–72 season for the third successive time, this time ending up just one point behind champions Derby County after losing to Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on the final day of the season. However Charlton managed to complete his list of domestic honours as Leeds beat Arsenal 1–0 in the FA Cup final; he kept Charlie George to a very quiet game as Leeds successfully defended their slender lead.", "Charlton was limited to 25 appearances in the 1972–73 campaign and suffered an injury in the FA Cup semi-final against Wolves which ended his season. After failing to regain his fitness for the final, he announced his retirement. Madeley played in his place but Gordon McQueen had been signed as his long-term replacement. He played his testimonial against Celtic, and was given £28,000 of the £40,000 matchday takings.\n\nInternational career", "With Charlton approaching his 30th birthday, he was called up by Alf Ramsey to play for England against Scotland at Wembley on 10 April 1965. The game ended 2–2 despite England being forced to end the game with nine men after picking up two injuries; he assisted his brother Bobby for England's first goal. Ramsey later said that he picked Charlton to play alongside Bobby Moore as he was a conservative player able to provide cover to the more skilful Moore, who could get caught out if he made a rare mistake", ". The defence remained relatively constant in the build up to the 1966 FIFA World Cup: Gordon Banks (goalkeeper), Ray Wilson (left-back), Charlton and Moore (centre-backs), and George Cohen (right-back). After playing in a 1–0 win over Hungary the following month, Charlton joined England for a tour of Europe as they drew 1–1 with Yugoslavia and beat West Germany 1–0 and Sweden 2–1", ". He played in a 0–0 draw with Wales and a 2–1 win over Northern Ireland to help England win the British Home Championship, though sandwiched between these two games was a 3–2 defeat to Austria – the first of only two occasions he was on the losing side in an England shirt. He played all nine England games in 1965, the final one being a 2–0 win over Spain at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium.", "England opened the year of 1966 on 5 January with a 1–1 draw with Poland at Goodison Park; Ramsey's managerial ability was demonstrated during the game as the equalising goal came from Bobby Moore, who was allowed to surge forward as Charlton covered the gap he left behind in defence. Charlton played in six of the next seven international victories as England prepared for the World Cup. The run started with impressive victories over West Germany and then Scotland in front of 133,000 fans at Hampden Park", ". He scored his first international goal with a deflected shot on 26 June, as England recorded a 3–0 victory over Finland at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium. He missed the match against Norway but returned to action with a headed goal in a 2–0 win over Denmark at Idrætsparken.", "England drew 0–0 in their opening group game of the World Cup against Uruguay after the South Americans came to play for a draw. They then beat Mexico 2–0 after a \"tremendous goal\" from Bobby Charlton opened up the game shortly before the half-time whistle. England beat France 2–0 in the final group game, with Charlton assisting Roger Hunt after heading the ball onto the post", ". England eliminated Argentina in the quarter finals with a 1–0 win – their efforts were greatly aided after Argentine centre-half Antonio Rattín was sent off for dissent, after which Argentina stopped attacking the ball and concentrated of holding out for a draw with their aggressive defending. England's opponents in the semi-finals were Portugal, who had giant centre-forward José Torres to compete with Charlton for aerial balls", ". Late in the game Charlton gave away a penalty by sticking out a hand to stop Torres from scoring; Eusébio scored the penalty but was largely contained by Nobby Stiles, and England won the game 2–1 after two goals from Bobby Charlton.", "West Germany awaited in the final at Wembley, and they took the lead through Helmut Haller on 12 minutes; Charlton felt that he could have blocked the shot but at the time he believed that Banks had it covered, though it was Wilson who was at fault for allowing Haller the chance to shoot", ". England came back and took the lead, but with only a few minutes left in the game Charlton gave away a free kick after fouling Uwe Seeler whilst competing for an aerial ball; Wolfgang Weber scored the equalising goal from a goalmouth scramble created from the free kick. Geoff Hurst scored two goals in extra-time to win the game 4–2.", "After the World Cup England lost the annual Home Championship to Scotland after a 3–2 defeat in April 1967, Charlton scored for the second successive international game running after also finding the net against Wales the previous November. He injured his foot during the game as he broke two sesamoid bones in his big toe", ". He injured his foot during the game as he broke two sesamoid bones in his big toe. As his career went on he began to miss England games with niggling injuries so as to avoid friendly games in favour of playing important matches for Leeds; Brian Labone would take his place in the England team during Charlton's absences. He was named in the squad for UEFA Euro 1968, but did not feature in either of England's games", ". He was named in the squad for UEFA Euro 1968, but did not feature in either of England's games. He won five caps in 1969, helping England to a memorable 5–0 win over France and scoring in a 1–0 win over Portugal from a corner taken by his brother Bobby.", "In mid-1970, Ramsey named Charlton in his squad of 22 for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico. However, he favoured Labone over Charlton and only picked Charlton for his 35th and final England game in the 1–0 group win over Czechoslovakia at the Estadio Jalisco. England lost in the quarter finals to West Germany, and on the flight home, Charlton asked Ramsey not to consider him for international duty again. He had agonised over how to break the news to Ramsey, and eventually said: \"Great times ..", ". He had agonised over how to break the news to Ramsey, and eventually said: \"Great times ... absolute privilege ... getting older ... slowing down ... not sure I am up to it any more ... time to step down.\" Ramsey listened, then agreed with him: \"Yes, I had reached that conclusion myself.\"", "Managerial career", "Middlesbrough", "Charlton was offered the job as manager of Second Division club Middlesbrough on his 38th birthday in 1973. He declined to be interviewed for the position, and instead handed the club a list of responsibilities he expected to take, which if agreed to would give him total control of the running of the club. He refused a contract, and would never sign a contract throughout his managerial career", ". He refused a contract, and would never sign a contract throughout his managerial career. He took a salary of £10,000 a year despite the chairman being willing to pay a lot more; his only stipulations were a gentleman's agreement that he would not be sacked, assurances that he would have no interference from the board in team affairs, and three days off a week for fishing and shooting", ". He decided to first repaint Ayresome Park and to publicise the upcoming league campaign so as to generate higher attendance figures.", "Charlton took advice from Celtic manager Jock Stein, who allowed him to sign right-sided midfielder Bobby Murdoch on a free transfer. Besides Murdoch the club already had ten players who Charlton moulded into a championship winning side: Jim Platt (goalkeeper), John Craggs (right-back), Stuart Boam and Willie Maddren (centre-backs), Frank Spraggon (left-back), David Armstrong (left midfield), Graeme Souness (central midfield), Alan Foggon (attacking midfield), John Hickton and David Mills (forwards)", ". Some of these players were already settled at the club and in their positions, whilst Charlton had to work with some of the other players. He moved Souness from left midfield to central midfield to compensate for his lack of pace and coached him to play the ball forward rather than side to side as was his instinct", ". Foggon was played in a new role which Charlton created to break the offside trap set by opposition defenders, an extremely fast player he was instructed to run behind defenders and latch on to the long ball to find himself one-on-one with the goalkeeper.", "Middlesbrough secured promotion with seven games still to play of the 1973–74 season, and Charlton actually told his team to settle for a point away at Luton Town so they could win the title at home but his players ignored his instruction to concede a goal and the title was secured with a 1–0 win at Kenilworth Road", ". They won the title by a 15-point margin (at the time only two points were awarded for a win); in contrast promoted Carlisle United (3rd) finished only 15 points ahead of Crystal Palace (20th), who were relegated. He was named Manager of the Year, the first time that a manager outside of the top-flight had been given such an honour.", "He continued to manage and change every aspect of the club, and took the decision to disassemble the club's scouting network to instead focus on local talent in Northumberland and Durham. His only major new signing of the 1974–75 season was Terry Cooper, a former Leeds United teammate. They adapted well to the First Division, finishing in seventh place, but would have finished fourth and qualified for Europe had Derby County not scored a last second goal against them on the last day of the season.", "Building for the 1975–76 campaign he signed Phil Boersma from Liverpool to replace Murdoch, but Boersma never settled at the club and was frequently injured. They finished in 13th place, and went on to win the Anglo-Scottish Cup with a 1–0 win over Fulham. They also reached the semi-finals of the League Cup, and took a 1–0 lead over Manchester City into the second leg at Maine Road, where they were soundly beaten 4–0", ". However teams had begun to learn how to combat Charlton's attack strategy and left their centre-backs on the outside of the penalty box to neutralise the threat of Foggon. Despite the team's steady progress the club's board voted to sack Charlton in July 1976 after becoming increasingly concerned that he was overstepping his authority in negotiating business deals on behalf of the club and choosing the club's strip. However, the club chairman overruled the decision and Charlton remained in charge.", "With Hickton coming to the end of his career Charlton tried to sign David Cross as a replacement but refused to go above £80,000 and Cross instead went to West Ham United for £120,000", ". Middlesbrough finished the 1976–77 campaign in 12th place and Charlton left the club at the end of the season on the belief that four years was an optimum time with one group of players and that he had reached his peak with them – he later regretted his decision and stated that he could have led the club to a league title if he had stayed and signed two more top quality players", ". He applied for the job of England manager after Don Revie quit the role and after Brian Clough was ruled out by the Football Association but did not receive a reply to his application, and he vowed never to apply for another job again and instead wait until he was approached.", "Sheffield Wednesday", "In October 1977, he replaced Len Ashurst as manager at Sheffield Wednesday, who were then bottom of the Third Division. He appointed as his assistant Maurice Setters, who had experience managing at that level but had effectively ruled himself out of another management job after taking Doncaster Rovers to court for unfair dismissal", ". The two agreed that while the standard of football in the division was low the work rates were high and so the best way to make progress would be to play long balls into the opposition penalty area whilst recruiting big defenders to avoid being caught out by opposition teams with similar tactics. He took the \"Owls\" to mid-table safety with a 14th-place finish in the 1977–78 season, though they did suffer embarrassment by being knocked out of the FA Cup by Northern Premier League side Wigan Athletic.", "His priority in summer 1978 was to find a target man for Tommy Tynan to play alongside and he found it in Andrew McCulloch, who arrived from Brentford for a £70,000 fee. He signed Terry Curran as a winger but eventually moved him up front to play alongside McCulloch. He sold goalkeeper Chris Turner to Sunderland and replaced him with the bigger Bob Bolder. He further raised the average height of the team by signing uncompromising centre-half Mick Pickering from Southampton", ". The team failed to advance in the league, finishing the 1978–79 season again in 14th spot. They did make their mark on the FA Cup in the Third Round by taking eventual winners Arsenal to four replays before they eventually succumbed to a 2–0 defeat.", "Charlton's major acquisition for the 1979–80 campaign was signing Yugoslavia international midfielder Ante Miročević for a £200,0000 fee from FK Budućnost Podgorica. Miročević proved unable to handle the British winter but otherwise added flair to the team in fairer weather. Wednesday went on to secure promotion with a third-place finish and Curran finished as the division's top-scorer.", "As the 1980–81 season came around Wednesday had young talent such as Mark Smith, Kevin Taylor, Peter Shirtliff and Mel Sterland breaking into the first team. The club were comfortable in the Second Division, finishing in tenth position.", "Wednesday pushed for promotion in the 1981–82 season but ended just one place and one point outside the promotion places and would have actually been promoted under the old two points for a win system that was replaced by the three points for a win system at the beginning of the campaign.", "In building for the 1982–83 campaign, Charlton signed experienced defender Mick Lyons from Everton and by Christmas Wednesday were top of the table. The club had a limited squad and successful cup runs took their toll, as did injuries to McCulloch and Brian Hornsby as they drifted down to sixth place by the close of the season. They reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, losing 2–1 to Brighton & Hove Albion at Highbury with key defender Ian Bailey out with a broken leg sustained the previous week", ". Charlton announced his departure from Hillsborough in May 1983 despite pleas from the directors for him to stay.", "In March 1984, Malcolm Allison left Middlesbrough and Charlton agreed to manage the club until the end of the 1983–84 to help steer the club away from the Second Division relegation zone. He was unpaid except for expenses and only took the job as a favour to his friend Mike McCullagh, who was the club's chairman. Middlesbrough ended the season in 17th place, seven points clear of the relegation zone.", "Newcastle United", "Charlton was appointed manager of Newcastle United in June 1984 after being persuaded to take the job by Jackie Milburn. Arthur Cox had left the club after leading the \"Magpies\" to the First Division and key player Kevin Keegan announced his retirement. His first action was to release Terry McDermott from his contract, who refused to agree to Charlton's offer of a new contract", ". He had little money to spend in preparation for the 1984–85 season, though he did have young talents in Chris Waddle and Peter Beardsley. He signed midfielder Gary Megson and big striker George Reilly. The \"Toon\" finished safely in 14th place, and a teenage Paul Gascoigne was on the verge of breaking into the first team.", "Charlton resigned at the end of pre-season training for the 1985–86 campaign after fans at St James' Park started calling for his dismissal after the club failed to secure the signing of Eric Gates, who instead joined Lawrie McMenemy at Sunderland.", "Republic of Ireland\nCharlton was approached by the FAI to manage the Republic of Ireland in December 1985.\nHis first game in charge was on 26 March 1986 against Wales at Lansdowne Road which ended in a 1–0 defeat.", "In May 1986, Ireland won the Iceland Triangular Tournament at Laugardalsvöllur, in Iceland's capital of Reykjavík, with a 2–1 victory over Iceland and a 1–0 win over Czechoslovakia. By this time Charlton had developed his tactics, which were based on the traditional British 4–4–2 system, as opposed to the continental approach of using deep-lying midfielders, as he noted that most of the Ireland international players plied their trade in England", ". Crucially he instructed all members of his team to pressure opposition players and in particular force ball-playing defenders into mistakes.", "Euro 1988", "Qualification for Euro 1988 meant winning a group containing Belgium, Bulgaria, Luxembourg and Scotland. The campaign opened with Belgium at the Heysel Stadium, and though Ireland contained danger man Nico Claesen, they had to settle for a 2–2 draw after conceding twice from corner-kicks; Frank Stapleton and Liam Brady scored the goals for Ireland. They then dominated Scotland at Lansdowne Road, but failed to find the net and instead drew 0–0", ". They then dominated Scotland at Lansdowne Road, but failed to find the net and instead drew 0–0. In the return fixture at Hampden Park Mark Lawrenson scored an early goal and another clean sheet won the Irish their first win of qualification", ". The campaign faltered with a 2–1 loss in Bulgaria, though Charlton was furious with referee Carlos Silva Valente as he felt that both of Lachezar Tanev's goals should not have counted as Nasko Sirakov allegedly pushed Mick McCarthy in the build-up to the first and he felt that Sirakov was outside the penalty box when he was fouled by Kevin Moran – Valente instead gave a penalty. They picked up another point after a 0–0 draw with Belgium in Dublin", ". They picked up another point after a 0–0 draw with Belgium in Dublin. Despite not particularly impressing, Ireland then picked up four points with two victories over Luxembourg. They ended the campaign with a 2–0 home win over Bulgaria, Paul McGrath and Kevin Moran the scorers, though Liam Brady (an ever-present in qualification) picked up a two-match suspension after lashing out late in the game after being repeatedly kicked by Bulgarian midfielder Ayan Sadakov", ". Despite the victory the Irish had to rely on a favour from the Scots in order to qualify, who duly obliged with a 1–0 victory, courtesy of Gary Mackay – a substitute earning his first cap – in Sofia to keep Bulgaria one point behind Ireland in the table.", "The build up to Euro 1988 in West Germany was far from ideal, as key player Mark Lawrenson was forced to retire after injuring his Achilles tendon, Liam Brady picked up a serious knee injury and Mark Kelly was also injured", ". The first match of the tournament was against England at the Neckarstadion, and Charlton reasoned that the threat posed by English wingers Chris Waddle and John Barnes could be nullified by allowing the English defence to feel comfortable on the ball without allowing them a pass; this made the build-up play slow and containable. His game-plan worked and Ireland claimed a 1–0 win after Ray Houghton secured an early lead", ". His game-plan worked and Ireland claimed a 1–0 win after Ray Houghton secured an early lead. He then compensated for a series of injuries by playing Ronnie Whelan and Kevin Sheedy in central midfield, and was rewarded with a great performance and a good point in a 1–1 draw with the Soviet Union at the Niedersachsenstadion, Whelan scoring the goal", ". To qualify they only needed a point against the Netherlands at the Parkstadion, and Charlton devised a time-wasting plan with goalkeeper Packie Bonner that he was forced to abandon after referee Horst Brummeier was less than impressed. Ireland lost the game 1–0 after Wim Kieft scored an 82nd-minute goal. England and Ireland were eliminated while Netherlands and the Soviet Union qualified – both teams would go on to contest the final, which the Dutch won 2–0.", "1990 World Cup", "Qualification for the 1990 World Cup required Charlton to mastermind a top two finish in a group consisting of Spain, Hungary, Northern Ireland and Malta. The campaign started on hostile ground at Belfast's Windsor Park, and he had stand-in goalkeeper Gerry Peyton to thank for the point gained from a goalless draw with Northern Ireland. A series of injuries left only a skeleton squad to face Spain at the Estadio Benito Villamarín, leaving a recall for defender David O'Leary, and Ireland were beaten 2–0", ". They then left Budapest's Népstadion with a point from another goalless draw, though they were criticised for not taking all two points after dominating the game. The next four fixtures would be played at Lansdowne Road, and all four games ended in victory. First they beat Spain 1–0 after an own goal from Míchel, then they overcame Malta and Hungary with 2–0 wins, before beating Northern Ireland 3–0", ". Qualification for Ireland's first World Cup was assured at the Ta' Qali National Stadium after John Aldridge scored both goals in another 2–0 victory.", "Ireland's group opponents in Italia '90 were England, Egypt and the Netherlands. Charlton felt that England's four-man midfield of Waddle, Barnes, Bryan Robson and Paul Gascoigne did not offer enough protection to the back four, and he was proved correct when Kevin Sheedy cancelled out Gary Lineker's opener to secure a 1–1 draw in the group opener at the Stadio Sant'Elia. A poor performance against a negative Egyptian side at the Stadio La Favorita meant that neither side scored a goal in a dour draw", ". They ended the group with a 1–1 draw with the Dutch, Niall Quinn cancelling out Ruud Gullit's opener in the 71st minute, after which both sides settled for a stalemate as a draw meant that both qualified ahead of Egypt. Ireland then defeated Romania in the Second Round match at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris which went to penalties after a 0–0 draw, before the whole team had a meeting with Pope John Paul II at the Vatican.", "One of the most iconic moments from Ireland's unexpected success in Italia 90, (the 1990 FIFA World Cup), took place at Walkinstown roundabout, Dublin on 25 June 1990 after Ireland beat Romania on penalties. Crowds emerged from the nearby public houses of the Kestrel and Cherry Tree and invaded the roundabout to celebrate the win", ". Amateur footage of the joyous scenes became synonymous with Ireland's success that year and epitomised the sense of hope which prevailed throughout the country, especially after a decade of economic recession. After Charlton died in 2020, fans gathered at the roundabout to recreate the moment and pay their respects to the past manager.", "Ireland eventually went out to the host country, Italy, 1–0 in the quarter-finals at the Stadio Olimpico. A lapse of concentration meant that Italy's Salvatore Schillaci scored on 38 minutes, and Ireland failed to build up enough chances to find the equalising goal. After returning to Dublin over 500,000 people turned out to welcome the team back.", "Euro 1992 qualifying", "Qualification for Euro 92 in Sweden left Ireland facing a group of England, Poland and Turkey. They opened in style with a 5–0 home win over the Turks and then drew 1–1 home and away with the English; Ireland were the better team than England in both encounters and Charlton said that they \"twice let them off the hook\" after Houghton missed easy chances in both games", ". A 0–0 draw at home with Poland followed, and they were then leading 3–1 in the return fixture in Poznań but conceded two late goals to end the match at 3–3. Ireland beat Turkey 3–1 in Istanbul despite the intimidating atmosphere of the İnönü Stadium, but were denied a place in the tournament as England scored a late equalizing goal in Poland to secure the point that would take them above Ireland in the group.", "1994 World Cup", "To qualify for the 1994 World Cup in the US, Ireland had to finish first or second in a seven-team group of Spain, Denmark, Northern Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Albania. Lithuania, Latvia and Albania proved to be little threat to the Irish, and both home and away fixtures against these three teams earned Ireland the maximum two points", ". The two most difficult fixtures – Denmark and Spain away – ended in goalless draws, and John Aldridge had a goal disallowed for offside against the Spanish which even Spain manager Javier Clemente said should have stood. Ireland then beat Northern Ireland 3–0 at home before settling for a 1–1 draw with Denmark", ". Ireland then beat Northern Ireland 3–0 at home before settling for a 1–1 draw with Denmark. The qualification campaign was then derailed in the opening 26 minutes of the home tie with Spain as the Spanish took a three-goal lead; the game ended 3–1, with John Sheridan's late consolation eventually proving crucial at the end of the campaign. The final game was in Belfast against Northern Ireland during a tense period of The Troubles", ". The final game was in Belfast against Northern Ireland during a tense period of The Troubles. Jimmy Quinn put Northern Ireland into the lead on 74 minutes, but four minutes later Alan McLoughlin scored the equalising goal to allow the Republic of Ireland to secure second place in the group due to their superior goals scored tally over Denmark", ". When Quinn scored Northern Ireland assistant manager Jimmy Nicholl shouted \"Up yours!\" to his counterpart Maurice Setters (Charlton's assistant); in response to this Charlton approached Northern Ireland manager Billy Bingham at the final whistle and told him \"Up yours too, Billy\".", "In the build up to the World Cup Charlton gave out first caps to Gary Kelly, Phil Babb and Jason McAteer; he had difficulty convincing McAteer to join Ireland as he first had to turn down an approach by the FA to play for the England under-21s. He scheduled difficult matches before the tournament and Ireland picked up positive results by beating both the Netherlands and Germany away from home", ". Ireland opened the group stage of the tournament by beating Italy 1–0 at the Giants Stadium, Ray Houghton scoring the winning goal on 11 minutes. They then fell to a 2–1 defeat to Mexico at the Florida Citrus Bowl Stadium, during which Charlton had a pitch-side argument with an official who was preventing substitute John Aldridge (who went on to score the consolation goal) from taking the pitch minutes after his teammate Tommy Coyne had left the pitch and sat down on the bench", ". For his arguing, Charlton was suspended by FIFA for the final group game against Norway, and had to watch from the commentary box as Ireland qualified with a 0–0 draw. They faced the Netherlands in the Round of 16; Dennis Bergkamp put the Dutch ahead on 11 minutes after Marc Overmars took advantage of a mistake by Terry Phelan, and Wim Jonk scored the second and final goal of the game from 30 yards after Packie Bonner fluffed an otherwise routine save", ". For his achievements Charlton was awarded the Freedom of the City of Dublin in 1994 by Lord Mayor Tomás Mac Giolla, the first Englishman to be given the honour since 1854.", "Euro 1996 qualifying", "Ireland failed to qualify for Euro 96, despite a strong start to the group, when they won their opening three games, including a 4–0 win against Northern Ireland. The Republic's next game was also against Northern Ireland, although the result was a 1–1 draw. From that point onwards the Republic stuttered badly as injuries struck down key players Roy Keane, Andy Townsend, John Sheridan and Steve Staunton", ". After beating the highly fancied Portugal, the Irish then endured an embarrassing 0–0 draw to Liechtenstein (this was Liechtenstein's only point in their ten matches), before losing twice to Austria, on both occasions by three goals to one. Although they defeated Latvia, Ireland needed to beat Portugal in Lisbon to qualify outright, but lost 3–0", ". They finished second in the group, ahead of Northern Ireland on goal difference, but as the worst performing runners-up they had to win a play-off game at Anfield against the Netherlands; Ireland lost 2–0 after a brace from Patrick Kluivert. Charlton resigned shortly after the game.", "Personal life", "Charlton married Pat Kemp on 6 January 1958, and his brother Bobby acted as his best man. They had three children: John (born in January 1959), Deborah (born 1961) and Peter, who was born just after Charlton senior played in the 1966 World Cup final. During the 1960s he ran two clothes shops in Leeds, and he also later operated the club shop at Elland Road. Charlton was a keen amateur fisherman and took part in field sports. Politically, Charlton was a socialist", ". Politically, Charlton was a socialist. He was a founding supporter of the Anti-Nazi League. Along with his wife, he was a supporter of the UK miners' strike of 1984-85, and lent two of his cars to striking miners for travelling to pickets. He appeared on Desert Island Discs in 1972 and 1996, and chose to take with him The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, the Encyclopaedia of How to Survive, a spyglass, and a fishing rod", ". Charlton was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1973 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.", "He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1974 Birthday Honours. In 1996, he was awarded honorary Irish citizenship. The honour amounts to full Irish citizenship; it is the highest honour the Irish state gives and is rarely granted. In 1994, he was made a Freeman of the city of Dublin, and was given an Honorary degree of Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) by the University of Limerick on 9 September 1994", ".Sc.) by the University of Limerick on 9 September 1994. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Distinguished Service Award for the Irish Abroad in 2020. In 1997, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northumberland. Charlton was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2005 in recognition of his contribution to the English game. There is a life-size statue of him at Cork Airport in Ireland, representing him sitting in his fishing gear and displaying a salmon", ". On 4 December 2019, he was made a Freeman of the City of Leeds along with the other members of the Revie team of the 1960s and 1970s, but was unable to attend the ceremony.", "He revealed in his 1996 autobiography that he had a strained relationship with his brother Bobby. Jack felt Bobby began to drift away from the Charlton family following his marriage to Norma, who did not get along with their mother. Bobby did not see his mother after 1992 until her death on 25 March 1996 as a result of the feud, though he and Norma did attend her funeral", ". Though the two brothers remained distant, Jack presented Bobby with his BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award on 14 December 2008.", "Death\nCharlton died at his home in Ashington Northumberland on 10 July 2020 at the age of 85 after suffering from lymphoma and dementia. The following day his former club Leeds United won 1–0 over Swansea City with a last minute winner; the goalscorer Pablo Hernández dedicated his goal to Charlton.", "On 20 July, ten days after his death, Irish fans gathered at Walkinstown roundabout in Dublin to recreate the highwater mark of Ireland's success at the 1990 World Cup under Charlton and to pay their respects", ". Put 'Em Under Pressure, the official song of the Republic of Ireland national football team's 1990 campaign, (which features soundbites of Charlton uttering the eponymous phrase) was played at 12:30pm synchronously with all national radio stations to remember the man who had led Ireland to their first-ever major tournament at Euro '88, as well as two World Cups in Italy (1990) and USA (1994).", "Charlton became the 12th player from the 1966 FIFA World Cup squad to die, after Bobby Moore (1993), Alan Ball (2007), John Connelly (2012), Ron Springett (2015), Gerry Byrne (2015), Jimmy Armfield (2018), Ray Wilson (2018), Gordon Banks (2019), Martin Peters (2019), Peter Bonetti (2020) and Norman Hunter (2020). His brother, Bobby Charlton, also part of 1966 FIFA World Cup squad, died in 2023.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nClub\n\nInternational", "Career statistics\n\nClub\n\nInternational\n\nScores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Charlton goal.\n\nAs a manager\n\nHonours\n\nPlayer\nLeeds United\nFootball League First Division: 1968–69\nFootball League Second Division: 1963–64\nFA Cup: 1971–72\nFootball League Cup: 1967–68\nFA Charity Shield: 1969\nInter-Cities Fairs Cup: 1967–68, 1970–71", "England\nBritish Home Championship: 1964–65, 1965–66, 1967–68, 1968–69\nFIFA World Cup: 1966\nUEFA European Championship third place: 1968\n\nIndividual\nFWA Footballer of the Year: 1967\nEnglish Football Hall of Fame: 2005\nPFA Team of the Century (1907–1976): 2007\n\nManager\nMiddlesbrough\nFootball League Second Division: 1973–74\nAnglo-Scottish Cup: 1975–76\n\nSheffield Wednesday\nFootball League Third Division third-place promotion: 1979–80\n\nRepublic of Ireland\nIceland Triangular Tournament: 1986", "Republic of Ireland\nIceland Triangular Tournament: 1986\n\nIndividual\nEnglish Manager of the Year winner: 1974\nPhilips Sports Manager of the Year: 1987, 1988, 1989, 1993\n\nSee also\n Put 'Em Under Pressure, the official song to the Republic of Ireland national football team's 1990 FIFA World Cup campaign in Italy.\n\nReferences\n\nSpecific\n\nGeneral\n\nExternal links", "1935 births\n2020 deaths\nDeaths from lymphoma\nFootballers from Ashington\nBritish Life Guards soldiers\nEnglish miners\nEnglish men's footballers\nEngland men's international footballers\nMen's association football central defenders\nLeeds United F.C. players\nEnglish Football League players\n1966 FIFA World Cup players\nUEFA Euro 1968 players\n1970 FIFA World Cup players\nFIFA World Cup-winning players\nEnglish football managers\nEnglish expatriate football managers\nMiddlesbrough F.C. managers", "English football managers\nEnglish expatriate football managers\nMiddlesbrough F.C. managers\nSheffield Wednesday F.C. managers\nNewcastle United F.C. managers\nRepublic of Ireland national football team managers\nEnglish Football League managers\nUEFA Euro 1988 managers\n1990 FIFA World Cup managers\n1994 FIFA World Cup managers\nEnglish Football Hall of Fame inductees\nDeputy Lieutenants of Northumberland\nOfficers of the Order of the British Empire\nEnglish Football League representative players", "Officers of the Order of the British Empire\nEnglish Football League representative players\nEnglish autobiographers\nEnglish male non-fiction writers\nEnglish expatriate sportspeople in Ireland\n20th-century British Army personnel\nEnglish socialists\nPeople with acquired Irish citizenship" ]

[ "Poverty in Mexico deals with the incidence of poverty in Mexico and its measurement. It is measured based on social development laws in the country and under parameters such as nutrition, clean water, shelter, education, health care, social security, quality and availability of basic services in households, income and social cohesion. It is divided in two categories: moderate poverty and extreme poverty.", "Poverty is probably one of the main challenges to overcome for any governmental administration; however, it would be important to understand it more thoroughly to see how complex and extensive it is. There are various types of poverty; which are, on the one hand, poverty per se, and on the other, extreme poverty.", "According to CONEVAL, the institution designated to measure poverty in Mexico, poverty analysis should not only look at monetary income but also at social factors. Six different lacks serve as indicators in terms of measuring poverty, which are educational backwardness, access to health services, access to social security, access to (decent) food, quality of housing spaces, and finally access to basic services in housing (having a roof to live in and access to certain goods and services).", "To be considered poor, it is enough to have an income below the well-being line (income that is less than food and non-food basic basket), regardless of the amount of social deficiencies that the person has, if any.\n\nOn the other hand, there is extreme poverty, the most precarious situation in which a person can be, and this is manifested when the income received by a person is less than the food basket and also has three or more lacks previously mentioned.", "While less than 2% of Mexico's population lives below the international poverty line set by the World Bank, as of 2013, Mexico's government estimates that 33% of the population lives in moderate poverty and 9% lives in extreme poverty, which leads to 42% of Mexico's total population living below the national poverty line", ". The extreme gap is explained by the government's adoption of the multidimensional poverty method as a way to measure poverty, which outlines that a person with an income above the \"international poverty line\" or \"well being income line\", set by the Mexican government, falls in the \"moderate poverty\" category if he or she has one or more deficiencies related to social rights such as education (did not complete studies), nutrition (malnutrition or obesity)", ", nutrition (malnutrition or obesity), or living standards (access to elemental services such as water or electricity, and secondary domestic assets, such as refrigerators)", ". Extreme poverty is defined by the Mexican government as deficiencies in both social rights and incomes lower than the \"well being income line\". Additional figures from SEDESOL (Mexico's social development agency) estimate that 6% of the population (7.4 million people) lives in extreme poverty and suffers from food insecurity.", "The high numbers of poverty in the country, despite Mexico's positive potential is a recurrent topic of discussion among professionals. Some economists have speculated that in four more decades of continuous economic growth, even with emigration and violence, Mexico will be among the five biggest economies in the world, along with China, the United States, Japan, and India.", "Recently, extensive changes in government economic policy and attempts at reducing government interference through privatization of several sectors, allowed Mexico to remain the biggest economy in Latin America up until 2005 when it became the second-largest. Despite these changes, Mexico continues to suffer great social inequality and lack of opportunities", ". The previous administration made an attempt at reducing poverty in the country by providing more professional and educational opportunities to its citizens, as well as establishing a universal healthcare.", "Background", "Mexico's unequal development between the richer urban zones and the considerably poorer rural zones have been attributed to the fast economic growth that took place during the so-called Mexican miracle, the period in which Mexican economy transitioned from an agricultural economy to an industrial one. This led many people to relocate to the cities", ". This led many people to relocate to the cities. Even though investments were pouring into urban infrastructure, the government couldn't accommodate the rapid influx of people, which led to the development of slums in the outskirts of many Mexican cities. The constant government corruption is another factor to which poverty is frequently attributed", ". The constant government corruption is another factor to which poverty is frequently attributed. Only in recent years, after various economic setbacks, Mexico has recovered to a level where the middle class, once virtually nonexistent, is beginning to flourish.", "Social stratification, still greatly present in Mexico, can be traced back to the country's origin. In the Colonial Period, before its independence, the upper class was composed of those who owned the land and the lower class was made of those who worked the land. After the Mexican Revolution, the government ceded an estimated 50 percent of the land to the general population, covering a small portion of the gap between the wealthy and the poor", ". Land ownership continued to be the main source of wealth for Mexicans and has dictated the hierarchy of wealth distribution amongst the population. After the country entered its economic industrial transformation, industrialists, businessmen, and politicians have controlled the direction of wealth in Mexico and have remained among the wealthy.", "The average individual gross annual income in Mexico in 2002 was US$6,879.37 (2010 dollars). 12.3 percent of the Mexican labor force earns the daily minimum wage or MX$1,343.28 per month (approx. US$111.94 November 2010 exchange rates). 20.5 of the labor force earns twice the minimum wage and 21.4 percent earns up to three times the daily minimum wage while 18.6 earn no more than five daily minimum wages. Only 11.8 percent of the working population earn wages equal or above MX$6,716.40 (US$559", ". Only 11.8 percent of the working population earn wages equal or above MX$6,716.40 (US$559.70) per month. According to Jaime Saavedra, World Bank Poverty Manager for Latin America, Mexico has made considerable strides in poverty reduction since the late 1990s, with performance above the Latin American average. Saavedra explained that: \"Between 2000 and 2004, extreme poverty fell almost seven percentage points, which can be explained by development in rural areas, where extreme poverty fell from 42", ".4 per cent to 27.9 per cent. The urban poverty rate, however, got stuck at 11.3 per cent.\"", "Government involvements \nSocial development began to take place in the form of written policy in the early 1900s. The Mexican Constitution, approved in 1917, outlined the basic social protections citizens are entitled to, including the right to property, education, health care, and employment; and it establishes the federal government responsible for the execution and enforcement of these protections.", "The global economic crisis of the late 1920s and forward slowed down any possibility of social development in the country. Between the 1920s and the 1940s the illiteracy levels range between 61.5 and 58 percent, due this the government focused on establishing social protection institutions. By the late 1950s, 59 percent of the population knew how to read and write. In the 2000s only 9.5 percent of the population older than 15 years was illiterated", ". In the 2000s only 9.5 percent of the population older than 15 years was illiterated. By the 1960s, individual involvement of some states to increase social development, along with the country's economic growth, as well as employment opportunities and greater income, and the migration of people from the rural states to the urban areas, helped reduced poverty nationwide. The 1970s and 1980s saw the transformation of government and economic policies", ". The 1970s and 1980s saw the transformation of government and economic policies. The government gave way to flexible foreign trade, deregulation and privatization of several sectors. After the economic crisis of the 1990s, Mexico recovered to become an emerging economic power; however, the number of poor nationwide has remained constant even with the country's overall growth.", "Regional variation", "Historically, southern states like Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Guerrero have remained segregated from the rest of the country. Their implementation of infrastructure, social development, education, and economic growth has been poorly accounted for. These states hold the highest levels of illiteracy, unemployment, lack of basic services such as running water and sanitation, overall urban infrastructure, and government establishment", ". As citizens of the least fortunate states have noticed growth and improvements in other states, many have simply left seeking better opportunities.", "Causes of poverty \nThe reasons for poverty in Mexico are complex and widely extensive. There is an agreement that a combination of uneven distribution of wealth and resources sponsored by economic and political agendas to favor the rich and powerful is a major contributor to the millions left behind.\n\nIndividual condition", "In the economic sense, access to insufficient monetary means to afford goods and services becomes the immediate reason to be poor. Because a person's personal income dictates what he or she can afford and what he or she will remain deprived of, the first common cause of poverty is the individual condition. This means, a person's individual circumstances and possibilities create their opportunity for access to goods and services", ". This condition is triggered by a person's income, education, training or work experience, social network, age, health, and other socio-economic factors:", "Lack of and unavailability of education", "As population has grown, the number of students enrolled in schools throughout the country has grown tremendously since the 1950s. At the same time, government efforts to accommodate the growing student population, improving the quality of instruction and promoting prevalent school attendance has not been enough and therefore education has not remained among priorities for families who must struggle with poverty. 700,000 students grades 1-9 dropped out of school in 2009 in all of Mexico. 7", ". 700,000 students grades 1-9 dropped out of school in 2009 in all of Mexico. 7.9 percent (almost 9 million) of the population is illiterate. 73% of Mexican households have at least one member without education or education below the 7th grade. 40 percent of people in the states of Chiapas, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Oaxaca and Guerrero have education below the 7th grade.", "Low quality public education", "It is difficult to speak of progress anywhere, with such alarming educational lag figures, Mexico has been fighting for years against teacher unions that ask for a lot and give a little in return, that is why the quality of public education is far below of what it should be. It is difficult to access public education, and not very efficient", ". It is difficult to access public education, and not very efficient. This is a serious problem because a low-quality early education translates into a poor human development index (HDI), which in turn shows low achievement and no expectations of personal and professional growth in the future, which generates the famous poverty trap.", "Underemployment", "Getting an education does not immediately translate to landing better paying jobs or overcoming underemployment in Mexico: According to data compiled by the Civic Observatory for Education, fewer than 20% of recent graduates manage to find an appropriate position during their first round of job-hunting", ". Although the country has made great strides in education and professional training, the absence of a serious employment policy means that economic expansion is sacrificed so that higher prices can be avoided. That exerts a negative impact on the labor market in both the short and medium term, and on new professionals most of all", ". Situations like this have caused the standard of living among the urban middle class to deteriorate and as a consequence brings on emigration from this sector to other countries, mainly the United States and Canada. Mexico has an extensive infrastructure of informal economics, which further complicates the measurement of unemployment, as people involved in these jobs are not considered unemployed, while not being officially employed either (ex. housemaids, street sellers, artisans)", ". housemaids, street sellers, artisans). It is estimated that 59% of the jobs in the country belong to the informal economy.", "Birth rate, contraception, and life expectancy", "Although Mexico's birth rate has been consecutively declining since the 1970, its population growth still exceeds its ability to pull people out of abject poverty. Contraception is widely used, despite it being a hot-button political and religious issue. Contraception is provided through a government-sponsored program called Mexfam. The average life expectancy has drastically increased from 60 years in 1968, to 77 years in 2012", ". The average life expectancy has drastically increased from 60 years in 1968, to 77 years in 2012. Rural areas still have the highest birth rates and poverty rates in Mexico, with indigenous populations topping the list.", "Other challenges", "Mexico does not promote equal opportunity employment despite established laws forbidding most socially-recognized forms of discrimination. The government doesn't become sufficiently involved to promote opportunities to all citizens; including reducing discrimination against middle-age and elder citizens. Over a million of the unemployed face age discrimination and 55% of all unemployed face some form of discrimination when seeking employment", ". There are virtually no opportunities for individuals with special requirements such as the disabled. As job seekers become older, it is harder for them to get employed as employers tend to seek candidates within the \"younger than 35 range\". Social security (IMSS) is insufficient and there is a huge gap in proportion to the entire population (50% covered), the work force (30% covered), and the retired (33% covered). There is no unemployment insurance in Mexico.", "Insufficient infrastructure", "Mexico is a country where investment on infrastructure has remained as unequally distributed as income, especially in rural areas and in the southern states. Because many people establish in rural areas, without government permission, and without paying property taxes, the government does not make significant efforts to invest in overall infrastructure of the entire country, yet it has started to do so until the 1990s", ". Communities often face a combination of unpaved roads, lack of electricity and potable water, improper sanitation, poorly maintained schools, vandalism and crime, and lack of social development programs. The government did not begin to focus on improving and modernizing the federal highway system up until two decades ago when it was composed of two-lane roads; often deathtraps and the scenarios of head-on collisions between truckers and families on vacation", ". City and state governments often face challenges providing citizens who live on informal commerce with the basic services of urbanized life. To worsen the problem the housing laws often vary greatly from one state to another, with the state of Hidalgo having no housing laws at all. Because of this, higher income communities will invest in the development of their own communities while lower income communities might be deprived of the basics such as running water and drainage in various cases.", "Geography and poverty", "The concentration of poverty and distribution of wealth and opportunities is clearly visible from a geographic perspective. The northern region of the country offers higher development while the southern states are the most impoverished. This is clearly the result of states equipped with better infrastructure that others. The states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Guerrero are among the least developed in the country. These states hold the highest numbers of indigenous population", ". These states hold the highest numbers of indigenous population. As a result, 75 percent of the indigenous population lives on moderate poverty line and 39 percent of these under extreme poverty.", "Unemployment", "Unemployment in Mexico has been continuous. In 2009, the unemployment rate was estimated at 5.5 percent (over 2.5 million). Although that figure is far below the unemployment indexes in the rest of Latin America, the European Union, the United States and much of Asia, Mexico faces a serious problem generating jobs", ". In spite of splendid macroeconomic indicators that currently exist: continuing low levels of inflation and stability in the nation's currency exchange rate; a sufficient number of formal jobs- at least one million every year to keep up with the growing population- have not been created in over ten years", ". With the abundance of natural resources in the country- as well as its petroleum wealth, these benefits don't seem to reach many of the people of Mexico who lack job opportunities and the means to raise their standards of living out of poverty and marginalization.", "In order to improve present day employment opportunities in Mexico, existing laws and regulations must be replaced for efficient instruments with greater legal certainty; encourage private investment; increase the collection of taxes; stimulate the productivity of businesses and the training of workers; and create more and better jobs.\n\n Inequitable distribution of income", "Mexico's wealth is unevenly distributed among its people where 10 percent of nation's wealthiest have 42.2 percent of all income and 10 percent of the nation's poorest have 1.3 of the remaining income. Carlos Slim, the richest man in Mexico and one of the richest in the world, has a personal fortune equal to 4 to 6 percent of the country's GDP", ". In spite of efforts by government officials during the past three administrations; transition to globalization, the NAFTA agreement; Mexico has been unable to create efficient public policies in order to compensate for the distortion of its market and the poor distribution of national income.", "Obsolete regulatory framework\nThe absence of basic agreements among Mexico's main political parties for more than ten years has caused a serious backwardness in needed legislation in a number of areas. The current economic framework needs adjustment on virtually all levels including business development opportunities, fair competition, tax collection and tax law; commerce, trade and finance regulations.", "Absent competitive principles", "The Mexican economy does not support unprivileged businesses, considering its current standards regarding monopolies, both in the public and private sectors. By law, there are public monopolies: government-owned companies controlling oil and gas, electricity, water, etc. Private sector monopolies and duopolies are found in the media, television, telecommunications, and raw materials", ". For this reason, clear principles of competitiveness that offer incentives to private investment, both national and foreign, are needed in order for jobs to be created.", "Government and politics", "Mexico's rampant poverty lagged social development and general public welfare is strongly tied to its politics. Historically, the political system of Mexico has not favored the general population, mainly because it focused to become and be a single-party system of government, largely dubbed \"institutionalized\" where those in charge had a one-voice, unquestionable plan of action mainly focused to favor the few elite while ignoring the welfare of the rest of population", ". From the 1800s to the end of the 20th century, as presidential administration came and went, the forms of government has been described as authoritarian, semi-democracy, centralized government, untouchable presidencies, mass-controlling, corporatist and elite-controlled", ". As each administration took turn, some changes have occurred, sometimes as to contribute to the welfare of the least fortunate but, overall, the political framework behind the economic and social structure of the country continues to be the greatest contributor to inequality.", "Foreign trade policies and foreign dependence", "While the NAFTA agreement proved effective in increasing Mexico's economic performance, foreign trade policies have been heavily criticized by activists such as Michael Moore (in Awful Truth) as not doing enough to promote social advancement and reducing poverty. To remain competitive in the international market, Mexico has had to offer low wages to its workers while allowing high returns and generous concessions to international corporations", ". The words \"palancas\" and \"favores\" are part of Mexican economic culture where high-ranking policy makers and private entrepreneurs are accused of promoting their own bottom line while ignoring the necessaries of the working class.", "Current recessionary trends in the United States have an even greater impact on Mexico because of the great economic dependence on the northern neighbor. After crude oil export sales, remittances sent home by Mexicans working in the United States are Mexico's second largest source of foreign income.", "Government efforts and economic policies\nAdministration after administration, economic policies and social development programs have been targeted at decreasing poverty and increasing development in the country. Even with the best of intentions, friction between the \"special interests\" of decision-makers and the general public welfare, makes it difficult for clear goals in the benefit of the public to be accomplished.", "Cancun is an example of where the government have failed to promote general welfare and unequal distribution of wealth. While known for its crispy white beaches, fancy hotels of international renown, and spring break; Cancun shows a notorious economical inequality between the touristic urban zones, and its more rural outskirts, where in various cases, the poorest neighborhoods lack one or more basic services.", "Transparency and corruption", "The lack of political transparency in Mexico has led to bureaucratic corruption, market inefficiencies, and income inequalities. The ability to exercise civil rights has been increasingly displaced by the control of official authorities, including access to vital information that can capture the misappropriation and mis-allocation of funds, and public participation in state and municipal-level decision-making. This opens up a channel for corruption", ". This opens up a channel for corruption. Evidence of this can be derived from the Corruption Perception Index 2010: Mexico received a low score of 3.1, on a scale of 0 to 10 (lower scores represent higher levels of corruption). The result is a diffusion of corruption, from the state to the municipal level, and even right down to local security.", "While it can be difficult to quantify the costs of corruption with pinpoint accuracy, a report from the UN estimates that the cost is about 15 percent of Mexico's GNP, and 9 percent of its GDP. Such higher costs have adversely affected the growth of the economy, for instance deterring foreign investments due to uncertainty and risk. A study by Pricewaterhouse Coopers reveals that Mexico had lost $8.5 billion in foreign direct investments in 1999 due to corruption", ".5 billion in foreign direct investments in 1999 due to corruption. Business companies admit to spend as much as 10 percent of their revenue in bureaucratic bribes. 39 percent is spent on bribing high-ranking policy makers and 61 percent on lower-ranking bureaucratic-administrative office holders. At least 30 percent of all public spending ends up in the pockets of the corrupt.", "Even the domestic impact of corruption is no less severe, incurring additional expenses on firms and households. A family on average pays 109.50 pesos as bribes to authorities; households have also reported paying up to 6.9 percent of their income as bribes. In total, the cost of corruption in terms of GDP was estimated to be about $550bn in 2000.", "The situation is still problematic in spite of recent initiatives by the state to become more transparent to the public. Over the years, there has been an effort by the government to reduce opacity, but even so, these initiatives often do not realize their full potential", ". In June 2003, under Vincente Fox's presidency, the implementation of the Federal Law of Transparency and Access to Public Government Information (IFAI) offered civic organizations and members of the public to acquire previously undisclosed information. This reform has led to the exposure of previous under-the-radar activities, such as the government's misappropriation of 200 million pesos that was intended to combat AIDS", ". And yet, censorship is still prevalent: in 2008, changes were proposed to increase the subjugation of IFAI's decisions to state control, so that the distribution of information would become more centralized. A number of vertical subversions were also carried out at the time, including the merging of offices that handled information requests with less important agencies. This violated the earlier progressive changes to the constitution, including Article 6, so that transparency was threatened.", "Opacity is therefore a major player as a determinant of inequality, especially in effecting the welfare of lower-class households. When resources are misallocated and official funds pocketed by illegitimate parties, the true quality of public services such as healthcare tend to be lower than expected; similarly, the secrecy of the government's budget allocation prevents public scrutiny, so it is difficult to establish financial accountability", ". As well, from a broader perspective, vital infrastructure from projects, especially those aimed at facilitating social mobility, will also have to deal with the potential impediments caused by the overpricing effect and unnecessary risks of corruption, thereby reducing the accessibility of infrastructure for the poor, especially in rural areas where such infrastructure is less established than in urban areas.", "Government and politics (social programs)", "Mexico is a country that has significantly improved in various areas such as access to health, education, life expectancy, GDP, level of exports abroad, infrastructure, labor productivity, among others", ". But it should also be noted that the distribution of income has become increasingly unequal; which is a serious problem because the misallocation and generation of resources inhibits economic competition in societies, leaving important groups of the population without the possibility of really competing in the economic sphere, which is one of the main obstacles to defeat and eradicate poverty of any kind.", "The first time that a social program of collective and voluntary cooperation was launched was under the mandate of Carlos Salinas de Gortari and it was known as the National Solidarity Program (PRONASOL), this had as its main banner to combat conditions of extreme poverty and meet their basic needs, this program sought to foster cooperation through unpaid effort.", "In other words, the government provided goods and inputs to citizens, so that through their efforts and work, they would create the necessary conditions to progress and get out, with government help, from the condition of poverty. At the beginning, this program was highly questioned due to its clientelist utility. For example, there is a record that in the places where it entered with the greatest rigor and resources was in those localities in which the electoral results did not favor that president.", "PRONASOL covered different axes among which were the immediate improvement in living standards, in which the government gave direct government transfers to beneficiaries; solidarity for production, in which employment opportunities and development of productive capacities and resources were offered (investing, generating and developing human capital); solidarity for regional development", ", generating and developing human capital); solidarity for regional development, where infrastructure works of regional impact were built and development programs were carried out in specific regions (generating infrastructure by regions, employing local people)", ".", "This innovative social program achieved a downward conception of poverty rates in the country, and it was also considered a pioneer in the field to such a degree that different countries in Latin America adopted it as the main social policy against poverty. PRONASOL was very well received by Mexican society because it allowed them to observe results and perceive an economic improvement in the very short term, since it was based on a huge amount of government direct transfers.", "Also, its success was based on the improvement and development of human capital; this was evident when, for example, in rural communities the government gave away corn or different seeds so that people (laborers and farmers) could work them and obtain financial and personal benefits from them; Another example is the provision of construction material for people with limited resources, to build a decent home, or if it already exists, to improve it.", "It is important to note that before 2000, there wasn't an official measurement of poverty in Mexico, so it is not possible to speak of concrete figures on poverty prior to this year (all were approximations). It is known that given the distribution of money and direct government transfers to the people benefited by these programs, the situation of many improved, but we do not know for sure aggregate figures", ". After this year, during 2001 and 2002, SEDESOL produced the first official income-based poverty measurement.", "It was not until the end of 2005 that CONEVAL was created, with the main task of measuring poverty, a mission that it carried out on a specific basis until 2009.\n\nReducing poverty \nPoverty aid organizations and social development groups have remained active in Mexico. Despite foreign and national aid programs in the country, the overall level of poverty in the country prevails.", "Concerning the last two six-year terms of Mexican former presidents, it is important to highlight that the poverty figures were slowly decreasing. For example, according to CONEVAL numbers, in 2010 46.1% of the Mexican population was poor, however in the years up to 2016 this figure dropped to 43.6%.", "In addition, during that time 3 million Mexicans were removed from extreme poverty, having gone from 11.3% of Mexicans living in extreme poverty to 7%. One of the main criticisms made of the previous six-year term is that it did indeed reduce the number of people in extreme poverty, but the number of people in moderate poverty increased in a greater proportion.", "A public policy to combat the lack of food was the community kitchens implemented during the administration of Enrique Peña Nieto, which succeeded in decreasing food poverty levels. \nThe community kitchens program sought to improve the nutritional conditions of the population regarding boys and girls from 1 to 11 years of age, pregnant and lactating women, people with disabilities and adults over 65 years of age.", "Government approach \n In 1997, the Mexican government launched PROGRESA (Spanish: Programa de Educación, Salud y Alimentación), an integrated approach to poverty alleviation through the development of human capital.\n In 2002, the Social Development Secretary (SEDESOL) replaced PROGRESA with Oportunidades (English: Opportunities); extending coverage to the urban poor and aiding high school students.", "Transparency Collective", "The Transparency Collective, or El Colectivo por la Transparencia in Spanish, is a non-governmental collective organization that advocates transparency in Mexico. It was first formed by six civil society organizations in 2002 to demand for greater transparency from state agencies, and the right to access information. Currently, it consists of eleven civil society groups with the common goal of strengthening democracy and raising accountability and the transparency of the state", ". The Transparency Collective offers an avenue for locals to seek help in obtaining the right to information by offering manuals and online tutorials teaching the locals how to file a request for information. It also discusses topics like human rights, the legislature and government budgets so that locals will be more informed and aware of their rights", ". For example, Fundar, an NGO which specializes in government budget analysis, runs workshops to educate the public on disseminating information released by government agencies.", "The Transparency Collective has also been working with IFAI (Federal Institute of Access to Information). The civil society was productively engaged in the reform of the constitution. For example, CIDE, an academic focusing on public policy, worked at state level helping states comply with the reform. Fundar also focused on evaluating government responses to information requests, the appeals process and on training groups to analyze information released by the government.", "Despite the organizational size of the Transparency Collective, collectivization has nonetheless been an important factor in its effectiveness. The collective call for greater transparency was one of the reasons for the comprehensive reform of Article 6 of the Mexican constitution in 2007, which heralded a new level of progression for Mexico's right-to-know movement. The reforms guaranteed the public's rights to non-confidential information at all levels of the government", ". State transparency laws also had to be standardized around certain basic principles within a year, and states had to implement electronic information systems.", "However, in spite of this, there is still a considerable way to go to achieve full transparency. The 2008 constitutional amendments, and interference of the judiciary branch with the demanded disclosure of tax information, threatened the FOI laws that were previously established. Nevertheless, this movement has been met with fierce protests from civil society groups, and the Collective continues to appeal to the government to allow for more civil participation.\n\nDemographics", "Mexico's wealth is unevenly distributed among its people where 10 percent of nation's wealthiest have 42.2 percent of all income and 10 percent of the nation's poorest have 1.3 of the remaining income.\n 53.4 percent of the rural population and 36.2 percent of the urban population has education below the 7th grade. 18.9 percent of the rural population and 8.9 percent of the urban population lacks any form of formal education.", "Current figures estimate that at least 44.2 percent of the population lives under poverty. Of those, 33.7 live under a moderate state of poverty and at least 10.5 percent live under extreme poverty.\n States with highest human development: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Colima, Federal District, Nuevo León, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa, Sonora, and Tamaulipas.", "States with lowest human development: Chiapas, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Puebla, Tabasco, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, and Zacatecas.", "World comparison \n*The next comparisons are done between national poverty lines, meaning that each country has a different criteria to set its poverty line, for a comparison among countries under the same criteria see International poverty line \n Mexico is the second largest economy in Latin America, after Brazil; and the second Latin American country with most number of poor, after Brazil as well; given Mexico's population is about 80 million less than Brazil.", "Mexico has the 11th to 13th richest economy in the world and ranks 4th with most number of poor among richest economies.\n Mexico is the 10th to 13th country with the most number of poor in the world.\n Of the ten countries with greater population, Mexico ranks 8th as nation with most number of poor behind the People's Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Bangladesh.", "Of 193 United Nations members, at least 113 nations show higher levels of poverty and decreased social development and at least 55 other nations have less poverty and higher social development.\n Mexico ranks 56th among most developed of the world's nations. It ranks 4th as most developed of Latin American countries, behind Chile.", "Poverty and indigenous communities", "Indigenous communities suffer particularly from poverty, causing them to be marginalized from society. Although \"local and federal governments implemented social protection programs so as to alleviate poverty conditions and interregional disparities, in general, conditions for indigenous people remain unchanged,\" (Gonzales cited World Bank, 2005)", ". Studies have shown that ethnicity is an important cause for inequality in income distribution, access to basic health care services and education, which in turn explain the significant difference in earnings between indigenous and non-indigenous people. According to the World Bank, about three-quarters of indigenous peoples in Mexico are poor and the gap between indigenous and non-indigenous groups is very high; the difference in poverty has been divided into explained and unexplained components", ". The explained components are \"the amount of the gap attributed to observable characteristics such as education, age, occupation, region of residence and so on,\" (World Bank, 2005) which account for three quarters of poverty. The unexplained components are related to the level of discrimination and explain a quarter of the poverty", ". Indigenous people in Mexico are faced to significant disadvantages in economic and social outcomes and although discrimination against them appears to be decreasing, the government needs to improve education and government services to reduce the poverty gap", ". Based on their research, the World Bank suggests the promotion of equal health care access for indigenous peoples \"though the implementation of a head start program that focuses on maternal and child health issues,\" (World Bank, 2005) as well as improving \"data collection efforts related to identifying indigenous populations,\" (World Bank, 2005) to better monitor progress over time.", "See also \n 2011 Mexican protests\nHealthcare in Mexico\n\nReferences", "Further reading \n Kevin J. Middlebrook and Eduardo Zepeda (2003), Confronting Development, Stanford University Press - Assessing Mexico's Economic and Social Policy Challenges.\n Daniel Hernández Franco, Cristina Barberena Rioseco, José Ángel Camacho Prudente, Hadid Vera Llamas (2003) Desnutrición Infantil y Pobreza en México, Secretariat of Social Development(SEDESOL) - Study on child malnutrition and poverty in Mexico.", "Gordon H. Hanson (2005), Globalization, Labor Income, and Poverty in Mexico, National Bureau of Economic Research - Study on globalization and how it affected income and poverty in Mexico.\n Luis Vega Martínez (2005), La Pobreza en México, UNAM - University professor's views and thoughts on poverty in Mexico.", "Gabriela Pérez Yarahuán (2007), Social Development Policy, Expenditures and Electoral Incentives in Mexico, Universidad Iberoamericana-Ciudad de México - Discussions and theories on social development policy in Mexico from 1990s and onward.\n Francis Fukuyama (2008), Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States, Oxford University Press - Collection of essays discussing reasons for development gap between the United States and Latin America.", "Darcy Victor Tetreault. The Evolution of Poverty in Late 20th-Century Mexico. Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d'études du développement Vol. 27, Iss. 3, 2011", "External links \n\n CONEVAL- Government Agency in charge of Social Development Studies \n United Nations Development Programme in Mexico\n Transparency International in the Americas\n Fondo España-PNUD in Latin America and Caribbean - attempts to promote social development policies." ]

[ "Taunton () is the county town of Somerset, England, with a 2011 population of 69,570. Its thousand-year history includes a 10th-century monastic foundation, Taunton Castle, which later became a priory. The Normans built a castle owned by the Bishops of Winchester. Parts of the inner ward house were turned into the Museum of Somerset and Somerset Military Museum. For the Second Cornish uprising of 1497, Perkin Warbeck brought an army of 6,000; most surrendered to Henry VII on 4 October 1497", ". On 20 June 1685 in Taunton the Duke of Monmouth crowned himself King of England in a rebellion, defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor. Judge Jeffreys led the Bloody Assizes in the Castle's Great Hall.", "The Grand Western Canal reached Taunton in 1839 and the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1842. Today it hosts Musgrove Park Hospital, Somerset County Cricket Club, is the base of 40 Commando, Royal Marines, and is home to the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office on Admiralty Way. The popular Taunton flower show has been held in Vivary Park since 1866, and on 13 March 2022, St Mary Magdalene parish church was elevated to the status of Taunton Minster.\n\nHistory", "History\n\nThe town name derives from \"Town on the River Tone or Tone Town. Cambria Farm, which now hosts a park and ride close to the M5 motorway Junction 25, was the site of Bronze and Iron Age settlement and a Roman farm. There was a Romano-British village near the suburb of Holway. Taunton was important in Anglo-Saxon times as a burh with a mint. King Ine of Wessex threw up an earthen castle about 700, but it was levelled in 722 by his queen, Æthelburg of Wessex, to prevent seizure by rebels.", "A monastery was founded before 904. The bishops of Winchester owned the manor, and obtained the first charter for their \"men of Taunton\" from King Edward in 904, freeing them from all royal and county tribute. Some time before Domesday, Taunton became a borough with privileges and a population of some 1,500, including 64 burgesses governed by a portreeve appointed by the bishops", ". Somerton took over from Ilchester as county town in the late 13th century, but declined; the county-town status passed to Taunton about 1366. Between 1209 and 1311 the Bishop of Winchester's manor of Taunton expanded two-and-a-half times. The parishes of Staplegrove, Wilton and Taunton were part of Taunton Deane hundred.", "In 1451, during the Wars of the Roses, Taunton saw a skirmish between the Earl of Devon, and Baron Bonville. Queen Margaret and her troops passed through in 1471 to defeat at the Battle of Tewkesbury. In the Second Cornish uprising of 1497 most Cornish gentry supported Perkin Warbeck's cause and on 17 September a Cornish army some 6,000 strong entered Exeter before advancing on Taunton. Henry VII sent his chief general, Giles, Lord Daubeney, to attack the Cornish", ". Henry VII sent his chief general, Giles, Lord Daubeney, to attack the Cornish. When Warbeck heard that the King's scouts were at Glastonbury he panicked and deserted his army. On 4 October 1497, Henry VII reached Taunton, where he received the surrender of the remaining Cornish army. Ringleaders were executed and others fined a total of £13,000.", "Taunton Castle changed hands several times in the Civil War of 1642–1645, as did the town. During the Siege of Taunton it was defended by Robert Blake from July 1644 to July 1645, and suffered destruction of many medieval and Tudor buildings. On 20 June 1685, the Duke of Monmouth crowned himself King of England at Taunton during the Monmouth Rebellion. In the autumn of that year Judge Jeffreys lived in the town during the Bloody Assizes that followed the Battle of Sedgemoor.", "The town lacked a charter of incorporation until 1627. This was renewed in 1677, but lapsed in 1792 due to vacancies in the corporate body, and was not reincorporated until 1877. The medieval fairs and markets (a weekly market remains) were celebrated for the sale of woollen cloth called \"Tauntons\" made in the town. On the decline of the woollen industry in the west of England, silk-weaving was introduced at the end of the 18th century.", "In 1839 the Grand Western Canal reached Taunton, aiding southward trade, which was enhanced by the arrival of the railway in 1842.\n\nA permanent military presence came to Jellalabad Barracks in 1881.\n\nIn the Second World War, the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal formed part of the Taunton Stop Line, set to curb any advance of a German invasion. Pillboxes can still be seen along its length.\n\nA fire aboard a to London sleeping car train approaching Taunton in 1978 killed 12 passengers and injured 15 others.", "Regeneration\nTaunton was rated \"strategically important\" in the government's Regional Spatial Strategy, allowing Somerset County Council to receive funding for large-scale regeneration projects. In 2006, the council revealed plans dubbed \"Project Taunton\". This would see regeneration of the areas of Firepool, Tangier, the retail town centre, the cultural quarter, and the River Tone, to sustain Taunton as business hub in the South West.", "The Firepool area, just north of the town centre by the main railway station, includes vacant or undeveloped land. The council is promoting sustainable, high-quality, employment-led mixed-use development to attract 3,000 new jobs and 500 new homes.\n\nIn Tangier, a brownfield area between Bridgwater and Taunton College and the bus station, the project proposed to build small offices and more riverside housing.", "The \"Cultural Quarter\" is the area along the river between Firepool and Tangier. The plans are to extend riverside retail and attract smaller, boutique businesses such as those found at Riverside.\n\nPlans for the town centre include more pedestrianisation and greater sizes and numbers of retail units.", "Several sites along the River Tone are set for renovation. Firepool Weir lock, long silted up, was to be dredged in 2011 to allow boats to pass from the navigable section of the Tone through Taunton to the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal. Goodland Gardens received a makeover and a new café, The Shed, opened. Projects to develop Somerset Square (a paved area next to the Brewhouse Theatre) and Longrun Meadow (a country park near Bridgwater & Taunton College) have been put forward.", "Traffic congestion was identified as an obstacle to further economic growth. Part of the strategy was a new road infrastructure consisting of a £7.5 million link road to ease traffic in the town centre (Taunton's \"Third Way\"), completed in 2011, and a Northern Inner Distributor Road linking Staplegrove Road, the station and Priory Avenue at a planned cost of £21 million, opened in 2017.\n\nGovernance\nTaunton is governed by a parish/town council and the unitary authority of Somerset Council.", "Parish / Town Council\nA large part of the town was unparished from the 1974 local government reorganisation until 1 April 2023, when a new Parish Council came into being following a Community Governance Review held by Somerset West and Taunton Council. \n\nWhile the town was unparished, Charter Trustees made up of the district councillors representing wards in the unparished area elected a Mayor and Deputy Mayor.", "The first elections to the new parish council were held on 4 May 2023 with 19 Liberal Democrat councillors and one Conservative councillor being elected to represent 14 wards. The council is expected to formally resolve to adopt the style of a Town Council at its first meeting.\n\nBorough Council", "Taunton was the main settlement and centre of the local government district of Taunton Deane. The district, formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, by merging the municipal borough of Taunton, Wellington urban district, Taunton Rural District, and Wellington Rural District, was granted borough status in 1975, perpetuating the mayoralty of Taunton. The district was named as an alternate form of the Taunton hundred", ". The district was named as an alternate form of the Taunton hundred. Taunton Deane Council, once based at the Municipal Buildings in Corporation Street, moved to modern facilities at Deane House on Belvedere Road in spring 1987.", "Taunton Deane merged with West Somerset to form Somerset West and Taunton in 2019,\nand was abolished on 1 April 2023 when Somerset Council took over.\n\nFormer County Council", "Former County Council\n\nSomerset County Council, which was based at County Hall in Taunton from 1974-2023, consisted of 55 councillors. The town has broadly six electoral divisions, each of which had a single county councillor: Taunton North; Taunton East; Taunton South; Bishop’s Hull & Taunton West; Comeytrowe & Trull, Monkton & North Curry (which includes rural areas).", "On 1 April 2023, Somerset's county council and four district councils were replaced by a single unitary authority called Somerset Council with elections for the new authority's 110 councillors (two per electoral division) having taken place on 5 May 2022.\n\nParliament\nTaunton Deane is a county constituency of the House of Commons. It is based on the town, but extends to Wellington and small villages and parts of Exmoor. The current MP is Rebecca Pow of the Conservative Party.", "Geography\nTaunton lies on the River Tone between the Quantock, Blackdown and Brendon hills. The area is known as the Vale of Taunton. It is surrounded by many other large towns and cities seen on this directional compass:\n\nTaunton is south-west of Bristol, north-east of Exeter, north-east of Plymouth and north-west of Weymouth.", "Geology\nThe Taunton area has Permian red sandstones and breccia outcrop 295250million years old. Rocks of Triassic age (248204million years ago) underlie much of Somerset's moors and levels.", "Nature reserves", "The several local nature reserves in and around Taunton are protected under Section 21 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. South Taunton Streams is an urban wetland. The northern suburbs include the Children's Wood riverside reserve, a movement corridor for animals such as otters along the banks of the Tone", ". Birds include the kingfisher, dipper, grey wagtail, mute swan, grey heron and reed warbler and butterflies the small and large skipper, marbled white, small heath and small copper, along with dragonflies and damselflies.", "Weirfield Riverside, a nature reserve along the River Tone, has alder and willow woodland, bramble, scrub and rough grassland. The wetter, flood-prone areas feature hemlock water-dropwort, and yellow flag. Silk Mills Park and Ride offer landscaping and ponds in three areas by the Tone. The woodland and grassland support aquatic and marginal vegetation, with various birds, bats, reptiles and invertebrates. Frieze Hill Community Orchard has turned from allotments to rough grassland and orchard", ". Frieze Hill Community Orchard has turned from allotments to rough grassland and orchard. Among the apples grown are Kingston Black and Yarlington Mill.", "Climate", "Like most of South West England, Taunton has a temperate climate, wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is about . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme because of the adjacent sea. The summer months of July and August have mean daily maxima of about . In winter, mean minimum temperatures of or are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, but convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the sunshine hours", ". Annual sunshine rates are slightly under the regional average of 1,600hours. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection – in autumn and winter by the former, which are then at their most active. In summer, much rainfall results from the sun heating the ground, leading to convection, showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is about . Some 815days of snowfall are typical. November to March have the highest mean winds and June to August the lightest", ". November to March have the highest mean winds and June to August the lightest. The prevailing wind direction is from the south-west.", "Demography\n\nThe town of Taunton (which for population estimates includes the unparished area or former municipal borough plus the neighbouring parishes of Bishop's Hull, Comeytrowe, Norton Fitzwarren, Staplegrove, Trull and West Monkton) had an estimated population of 61,400 in 2001. Taunton includes Holway, once a village in its own right as one of the Five Hundreds of Taunton Deane, the Infaring division or district of three districts that made up Taunton Deane.", "Taunton is the largest town in the Somerset shire county and forms part of the larger borough of Taunton Deane, which includes the town of Wellington and surrounding villages. This had an estimated population of 109,883 in 2010.\n\nThe figures here are for the Taunton Deane area.", "In 2011, Taunton built-up area had a population of 60,479 and the surrounding borough of Taunton Deane one of 110,187. Of Taunton's residents 91.6 per cent were White British in 2011, compared with 93.4 per cent for Taunton Deane. Taunton's ethnic mix resembles that of South West England – 91.8 per cent White British in the same year. It is also matches other major regional centres like Poole and Plymouth", ". It is also matches other major regional centres like Poole and Plymouth. The larger urban area, extending to Monkton Heathfield, Norton Fitzwarren and Bathpool, had a 2011 population of 64,621.", "Economy\n\nTaunton Deane had low unemployment of 4.1 per cent compared with a national average of 5.0 per cent in 2005.", "Taunton is home to the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO), a Ministry of Defence body responsible for providing navigational and other hydrographic information for national, civil and defence requirements. The UKHO is located on Admiralty Way and has a workforce of about 1100. At the start of the Second World War, chart printing moved to Taunton, but the main office did not follow until 1968. Taunton holds the head offices of Western Provident Association, Viridor and CANDAC", ". Taunton holds the head offices of Western Provident Association, Viridor and CANDAC. Other professional services are based at Blackbrook near the motorway junction.", "The first store of the multinational New Look clothing retailer opened in Taunton in 1969. Taunton is also famed for cider.\n\nLandmarks\n\nGray's Almshouses in East Street, founded by Robert Gray in 1615 for poor single women, are red brick buildings bearing the arms of Robert Gray, dated 1635, and another arms of the Merchant Tailors. A small room used as a chapel has original benches and a painted ceiling. It has been classed by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building.", "St Margaret's Almshouses was founded as a leper colony in the 12th century. Glastonbury Abbey acquired patronage of it in the late 13th century and rebuilt it as almshouses in the early 16th. From 1612 to 1938 the building continued as such, cared for by a local parish. In the late 1930s it was converted into a hall of offices for the Rural Community Council and accommodation for the Somerset Guild of Craftsmen. It later fell into disrepair", ". It later fell into disrepair. The Somerset Buildings Preservation Trust with Falcon Rural Housing purchased and restored it for use as four units of social housing. It is a Grade II* listed building.", "The grounds of Taunton Castle include the Somerset County Museum and The Castle Hotel, which incorporates the Castle Bow archway. With the municipal buildings they form a three-sided group just beyond the Castle Bow archway from Fore Street. The centre of the square is a car park, and a plain brick Mecca Bingo hall fills the west side of it.\n\nThe frontage of the Fore Street Tudor Tavern, now a Caffè Nero branch, dates from 1578, but the rest is thought to be from the 14th century.", "The riverside area north of the centre is edged by Morrisons supermarket, retirement housing and the Brewhouse Theatre. Towards the centre are the Zinc Nightclub, Bridge Street and Goodlands Gardens. A current regeneration programme north of Bridge Street will include redeveloping the County Cricket Ground, which hosted open-air concerts for Elton John in 2006 and 2012 and for Rod Stewart in 2014.", "Shopping\nHankridge Farm, a retail park close to the M5 motorway, has stores that include Currys PC World, Oak Furniture Land, Hobbycraft, Halfords, B&Q, The Range and the town's second Sainsbury's. There is a Venue in the park with restaurants, an Odeon cinema and a Hollywood Bowl bowling alley. It is now known as Riverside Retail Park.", "Taunton has three other such parks. Belvedere is near the town centre. St Johns is just off Toneway, towards the motorway, and consists of two units, occupied by DFS, joined by Go Outdoors in April 2014. Taunton's second largest retail park is Priory Fields in Priory Avenue, with eight units and an anchor store, Wickes. It was redeveloped in 2003 to modernise a rather worn-out retail park and increase retail floor space.", "The Old Market was a farmers' market in the Parade in front of Market House, but then moved to the Firepool area, although cattle trading on the site ceased only in 2008. A large indoor shopping centre to the east of the Parade covers a site that was once a pig market. Although its official name is now Orchard, and before that the Old Market Centre, locals still call it the Pig Market; one existed there from 1614 to 1882.", "County Walk is a small indoor shopping arcade in the town centre with an anchor supermarket, Sainsbury's, and several other large national retailers such as Subway, Costa Coffee, and Savers.\n\nPublic parks", "Taunton's public parks include Vivary Park, Goodlands Park and Victoria Park. The most notable is Vivary, on land that was once a medieval fish farm or vivarium for Taunton Priory and Taunton Castle. Fronted by a pair of cast iron gates from the Saracen Foundry of Glasgow, it contains the Sherford Stream, a Tone tributary that flows through the park, which is near the town centre", ". It has two main open spaces and a war memorial dating from 1922, a miniature golf course, tennis courts, two children's playgrounds, a model railway track added in 1979, and an 18-hole, 4620-yard, par-63 golf course. The park includes trees, rose beds and herbaceous borders, with some 56,000 spring and summer bedding plants used each year. The rose garden includes the Royal National Rose Society Provincial Trial Ground. Taunton Flower Show held annually in the park since the 19th century", ". Taunton Flower Show held annually in the park since the 19th century. It has been described as \"The Chelsea of the West\", and draws some 24,000 visitors over two days. Goodlands Gardens, in the centre of the town, is behind the Debenhams department store and The Castle Hotel.", "Pride Rainbow Path\n\nThe Pride Rainbow Path in Goodland Gardens, Taunton town centre, runs alongside the River Tone. Designed by Jenny Keogh and Liz Hutchin of GoCreate, it opened on 28 June 2021 to mark the anniversary of the Stonewall riots, which served as a catalyst for the gay rights movement. It is believed to be the first such path in the UK. The opening coincided with the first Taunton Pride in July 2021 and the Pride inspired Art Trail.", "The far end of the 62-metre path includes the chevron of Daniel Quasar's \"Progress\" flag, which incorporates the transgender flag and ethnic minorities, while the majority of the path uses the traditional LGBT rainbow. The path has been designed not to require maintenance for 15 years. It was funded by Taunton's Emergency Town Centre Recovery Fund and is intended to reflect Taunton's commitment to inclusivity and diversity.\n\nTransport", "Transport\n\nRail\nTaunton railway station is on the Bristol to Exeter line, the Reading to Taunton line, and the Cross Country Route. It is served and operated by Great Western Railway and served by CrossCountry, with services to Manchester Piccadilly, , , , London Paddington, , and . There is generally a fast and a slow train each hour to Bristol Temple Meads and Exeter St Davids and a train an hour to London Paddington.", "The old rail route to is now a heritage West Somerset Railway with services between and Minehead. The Buses of Somerset route 28 links the stations at Taunton and Bishops Lydeard.\n\nIn 2009, Project Taunton, the authority responsible for Taunton's regeneration project, revealed proposals for Taunton metro rail, under a transport sustainability plan. They were not implemented.", "Road\nTaunton has road links with the M5 motorway junctions 25 (Taunton) and 26 (Wellington) close to the town, and other major roads such as the A38 and A358. The Taunton bypass section of the M5, between the two junctions, opened in April 1974 and relieved the town of heavy holiday traffic on the A38. Taunton Deane services use that motorway section.", "A strong economy increases traffic; in 2011 the County Council foresaw a sharp rise from 2001 levels. Two major roads opened: the Third Way (A3807) linking Bridge Street and Castle Street in 2011, and the Northern Inner Distributor Road (A3087) between Staplegrove Road and Priory Avenue in July 2017.\n\n2011 M5 crash", "2011 M5 crash\n\nOn the evening of 4 November 2011, 34 vehicles met with an accident near junction 25 of the M5 motorway northbound, on the north-eastern edge of the town at West Monkton. Seven people were killed and a further 51 injured.\n\nBuses and coaches", "Buses and coaches\n\nMany local services are provided by The Buses of Somerset: town services and routes to Minehead, Bridgwater, Weston-Super-Mare and elsewhere. Other services are provided by Hatch Green Coaches. Services were also operated by Webberbus until the firm closed on 12 May 2016. Taunton bus station was in Tower Street from 1953 until 2020. Most services now terminate at stops on The Parade or Castle Way.", "A park-and-ride service is run by The Buses of Somerset between the Taunton gateway near the M5 Motorway and Silk Mills on the north-west side of town.\n\nBerrys Coaches, based in Taunton, operates several \"Superfast Services\" to London. National Express Coaches runs long-distance coach services to many destinations.\n\nAir\nThe nearest airports are Exeter and Bristol, both within of Taunton.\n\nTrams", "Taunton Tramway opened on 21 August 1901. Six double-decker cars operated on a gauge line between the railway station and the depot at East Reach. In 1905 the service was withdrawn for two months while the track was improved; the cars were replaced by six single-decker cars and the old double deckers sold to Leamington Spa. A short extension beyond the station to Rowbarton opened in 1909, making the line long", ". A short extension beyond the station to Rowbarton opened in 1909, making the line long. However, the price of its electricity was due to rise in 1928 to a level the firm refused to pay, and it offered to sell out, but this was not accepted. The electricity was cut off on 28 May 1921 and the system closed.", "Canal\nThe Bridgwater and Taunton Canal is a navigable waterway that links Taunton with Bridgwater, opened in 1827. Having been closed to navigation in 1907, it re-opened after restoration in 1994.\n\nEducation", "State secondary schools in Taunton include The Castle School, Heathfield Community School, Bishop Fox's School and The Taunton Academy. Further education is offered by Richard Huish College, The Taunton Academy (sponsored by Richard Huish College) and Bridgwater and Taunton College. Heathfield Community School has a post-16 further education college specialising in performing arts and technical theatre called The SPACE (The Somerset Performing Arts Centre for Education)", ". Heathfield Community School is also a teaching school and the base of Taunton Teaching Alliance. The Taunton campus of Bridgwater and Taunton College is a partner of Plymouth University and includes University Centre Taunton. There are three co-educational private schools: Queen's College, King's College and Taunton School.", "In March 2009, it was found that Jim Knight, Minister of State for Schools and Families, had approved the closure of Ladymead Community School and the nearby St Augustine of Canterbury RC/CoE School in the Priorswood area of Taunton. They gave way in September 2010 to the Taunton Academy.", "Young people with special educational needs are provided for by two special schools and one complex Pupil Referral Unit (PRU). Sky College caters for boys aged 10–18 who have social, emotional and mental-health difficulties. Selworthy School has pupils of 4–19 who have complex and multiple learning difficulties, while the Taunton Deane Partnership College is a complex PRU for children in Key Stages 2, 3 and 4, with a Medical Tuition Service, Outreach & Advisory Service and an Area Access Team.", "Health services\nTaunton is within Somerset Primary Care Trust and home to Musgrove Park Hospital. This is one of two district hospitals in Somerset NHS Foundation Trust, alongside Yeovil Hospital. A Nuffield Hospital also lies in the town, run privately by Nuffield Health. The town has several medical surgeries and a family planning clinic, an occupational health centre and a chiropractic clinic.\n\nReligious sites", "The Taunton Minster Church of St Mary Magdalene, built of sandstone more in the South Somerset style, retains an attractive painted interior, but its prime feature is a 15th and 16th-century tower rebuilt in the mid-19th century. It is one of the country's best examples and a landmark high. It was termed by Simon Jenkins, \"the finest in England. It makes its peace with the sky not just with a coronet but with the entire crown jewels cast in red-brown stone", ".\" It holds 12 bells and 3 bells \"hung dead\" for the clock.", "Close by is the parish church of St James near the centre of Taunton close. The oldest parts are early 14th century; there are fragments of 15th-century glass in the west end. Like St Mary's, it has a sandstone tower, but built to a less impressive design. It too was rebuilt in the 19th century, in this case due to building defects in the original. It backs onto the County Ground.", "The church of St John the Evangelist was built in 1858 to serve the poor of the town. The church of St Andrew, built 1878, serves the area of Rowbarton.", "In the later 17th century, Taunton had two Dissenting places of worship: \"Paul's Meeting\" and the Baptist Meeting. The former was built at the top of Paul Street soon after 1672 on a bowling green behind the Three Cups Inn, now The County Hotel, and rapidly became one of the largest congregations in the county", ". After Mayor Timewell sacked both Paul's Meeting and the Baptist Meeting in 1683, the dissenters were driven to worship in private houses on the outskirts of Taunton, where their assemblies were regularly raided by the Justices of the Peace. Paul's Meeting survived attempts to turn it into a workhouse, and with the coming of William III and Mary II, followed by the Toleration Act 1688, it reopened. Hugh Willoughby, 15th Baron Willoughby of Parham, was educated in early life at Taunton Dissenters' Academy", ". The Baptist Meeting became the Baptist New Meeting, registered in 1691 and rebuilt in 1721 as Mary Street Chapel.", "Taunton Unitarian Chapel, dating from 1721, stands in Mary Street. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, while living at Nether Stowey away, came to the chapel to preach several times. Dr Malachi Blake, who founded the Taunton and Somerset Hospital in East Reach, Taunton, was also a preacher there, attending in 1809 a celebration of the 50th year of George the Third's reign. The chapel retains its original interior, including Flemish oak pillars in Corinthian style. The pews and pulpit are also in oak", ". The pews and pulpit are also in oak. There is an early 18th-century candelabra.", "St George's, the town's Roman Catholic church, dates from the mid-19th century. It was the second Catholic church built in Taunton since the Reformation, replacing a smaller St George's Chapel. The main building is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building, while the clergy house is Grade II listed.", "Culture", "Taunton town centre has the Brewhouse Theatre. It closed in February 2013 due to financial difficulties, but reopened in April 2014 under the Taunton Theatre Association (TTA), which was granted the 61-year lease that Taunton Deane Borough Council had bought on the site and its contents from the administrator. Tacchi-Morris Arts Centre is a professional theatre based at Heathfield Community School, hosting touring theatre, dance and comedy, and productions by South West schools and colleges", ". Tacchi-Morris Arts Centre also runs community classes. The Creative Innovation Centre CIC has an arts and culture venue in the town centre.", "Several concerts a year are held at Taunton's largest church, St Mary Magdalene. In recent years The Sixteen, The Tallis Scholars and Gabrieli Consort have all performed to full audiences. Taunton also has several choirs and orchestras that perform in the town's churches and school chapels. Many music and drama groups are members of the Taunton Association of Performing Arts (TAPA), which produces a diary and calendar of performances in and about the town.", "Taunton has three radio stations: BBC Somerset, Tone FM and Apple FM.\n\nTelevision signals are received from either the Mendip or Stockland Hill TV transmitters. \n\nSince 2001 Taunton has been the base of a domestic violence charity, the ManKind Initiative, to help male victims of domestic abuse.", "Cultural references\nTaunton is mentioned in The Remains of the Day by Kazuo Ishiguro, Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy by John le Carré, and Evelyn Waugh's Scoop. It was given the fictitious name \"Toneborough\" by Thomas Hardy.\n\nSport\n\nTaunton Rugby Football Club (RFC), based in Taunton, currently play in National League 1, having achieved back-to-back promotions in 2009 and 2010 and then again in 2020. It played at Priory Park Sports Ground from 1935 to 2001, before moving to the Commsplus Stadium.", "The County Ground was originally home to Taunton Cricket Club, formed in 1829. It played at the County Ground until 1977, before moving to Moorfields, Taunton, in conjunction with Taunton Vale Hockey Club, since when the County Ground has been solely used by Somerset County Cricket Club (CCC). Somerset CCC was formed in 1875, but did not achieve first-class status until 1891. The County Ground has a capacity of 8,500; the ends are called the River End and the Marcus Trescothick Pavilion End", ". It is the current home of the England women's cricket team. The Somerset Cricket Museum is nearby.", "Taunton Cricket Club has since 2002 been located at the new Taunton Vale Sports Club Ground in Staplegrove, which features two cricket fields. The Taunton Vale ground is also a regular home venue for Somerset's Second XI. Taunton Deane Cricket Club has a ground adjacent to Vivary Park, while Taunton St Andrews Cricket Club is based at the nearby Wyvern Sports and Social Club. All three clubs play in the West of England Premier League or one of its feeder leagues.", "Taunton Town Football Club (FC) plays at Wordsworth Drive. An earlier Taunton Town FC played at Priory Park in the 1930s, however the current team was formed in 1947 by local businessmen as Taunton FC, changing to the current name in 1968, and played its first friendly fixture in 1948. For most of its history, Taunton belonged to the Western League", ". For most of its history, Taunton belonged to the Western League. It spent a six-season spell in the Southern League from 1977, and after a further period in the Western League, returned to the Southern League in 2002, after winning the FA Vase in 2001. The club won the Division One South and West league title in 2017/18 and narrowly missed out on further promotion in 2018/19", ". The club went on to become the 2021/22 champions of the Southern League Premier Division South, securing promotion to the National League South for the first time in the club's history on 23 April 2022.", "Somerset Vikings is a rugby league club formed in 2003 as part of the Rugby Football League's plans to develop the game beyond its traditional north-of-England areas. Initially the side was made up of a mixture of Royal Marines based in Taunton and Exeter with local rugby union players keen to try the 13-man code. It plays at Hyde Park, also home to Taunton RFC.", "The Taunton Tigers is a semi-professional basketball team competing in the English Basketball League Men's Division 1. The team plays its home games at Wellsprings Leisure Centre, which seats 500.", "Taunton Racecourse is close to the Blackdown Hills, about from the centre of Taunton. Although racing had been held in the area before, the first race at thi site was held on 21 September 1927. The Orchard Stand and Paddock Stand provide catering facilities and are used for meetings and conferences on days when racing is not taking place. Greyhound racing was held at the Priory Park Sports Ground and County Cricket ground in the past.\n\nNotable residents\nThe following were born or have lived in Taunton:", "Colin Addison (born 1940), professional footballer and manager born in Taunton\n Jenny Agutter (born 1952), actress born in Taunton\n Joseph Alleine (1634–1668), Nonconformist pastor and author\n William Larkins Bernard (1843–1922), architect born in Taunton\n Pattie Boyd (born 1944), actress and model; former wife of George Harrison, then Eric Clapton\n Jos Buttler (born 1990), England cricketer\n Carole Cadwalladr (born 1969), author and Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist", "Carole Cadwalladr (born 1969), author and Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist\n Arthur C. Clarke (1917-2008), author of 2001: A Space Odyssey, educated at Huish school\n Matt Colton (born 1975), mastering engineer, studied in Taunton\n Deborah Criddle (born 1966), a Taunton-born para-equestrian winner of three golds at the Athens 2004 Summer Paralympics and three medals at the London 2012 Summer Paralympics in London. She currently lives in nearby Trull.\n John Crockford (c. 1823–1865), publisher", "John Crockford (c. 1823–1865), publisher\n William Crotch (1775–1847), composer and Principal of the Royal Academy of Music, is buried at Bishops Hull Church, Taunton.\n Stephen Daldry (born 1960), three times Academy Award nominee and Tony Award-winning stage and film director and producer\n Samuel Daniel (1562–1619) a poet, playwright and historian, born \"near Taunton\".\n Charles George Gordon (1833–1885), UK army general known as Gordon of Khartoum, attended the former Fullands School.", "Sir Benjamin Hammet (c. 1736–1800), businessman, banker and Taunton native, served as its MP in 1782–1800, and as High Sheriff of London. He was elected Lord Mayor of London in 1797 but declined to serve\n Antony Hewish (1924-2021), astronomer and Nobel Prize for Physics winner\n Rebecca Huxtable (born 1981), Taunton-born radio personality and producer, formerly co-producing The Scott Mills Show on BBC Radio 1", "Alexander William Kinglake (1809–1891), barrister, travel writer and historian, was born at Wilton House near Taunton.\n Scott Laird (born 1988), footballer with Scunthorpe United\n Jack Leach (born 1991), Somerset County Cricket Club and England cricketer\n Lee Martin (born 1987), Taunton-born footballer with Millwall F.C.\n Deborah Meaden (born 1959), Taunton-born business mogul, philanthropist and star of the TV series Dragons Den", "William Ellis Metford (1824–1899), Taunton-born engineer known for the Metford rifling in the .303 Lee-Metford service rifle of the late 19th century\n Ciara Michel (born 1985), member of Team GB Olympic volleyball squad, the first to play in the Olympic Games\n John Mole (born 1941), poet and jazz musician born in Taunton\n Frank Montague Moore (1877–1967), Taunton-born painter and first director of the Honolulu Museum of Art\n Alfred B. Mullett (1834–1890), architect to Abraham Lincoln, born in Taunton", "Alfred B. Mullett (1834–1890), architect to Abraham Lincoln, born in Taunton\n James Northcote (born 1987), actor and film producer, was a pupil of King's College, Taunton.\n Justin Pipe (born 1971), professional darts player\n James Purefoy (born 1964), Taunton-born actor, starred in the joint HBO/BBC series Rome''.\n Viv Richards (born 1952), Antiguan-born West Indies cricketer resident in Taunton while playing for Somerset, 1974–1986", "Gary Rhodes (1960–2019), celebrated head chef at the Castle Hotel, Taunton, 1986–1990\n Andy Robinson (born 1964), Taunton-born England rugby union international and head coach, now head coach of Scotland\n Ivor Salter (1925-1991), actor, born in Taunton\n Miranda Shearer (born 1982), author born in Taunton, since resident in Spaxton, Over Stowey and Taunton\n Juno Temple (born 1989), actress", "Juno Temple (born 1989), actress\n Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard (1873–1956), Taunton-born military officer involved in founding the Royal Air Force\n Marcus Trescothick (born 1975), England cricketer, recipient of the Taunton Deane Citizenship Award in 2005\n Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet (1807–1886), Governor of Madras, born in Taunton\n James Turle (1802–1882) an organist and composer.\n Phil Vickery (born 1961), celebrity chef", "James Turle (1802–1882) an organist and composer.\n Phil Vickery (born 1961), celebrity chef\n Frederick Porter Wensley (1865–1949), chief constable of Scotland Yard CID, born in Taunton\n David Henry Wilson (born 1937), writer known for children's stories such as the Jeremy James series\n Jeremy Wright (born 1972), born in Taunton and attending Taunton School, became Attorney General for England and Wales and a Conservative MP", "Twinning\nTaunton is twinned with:\n Lisieux, France – since 1951\n Königslutter, Germany – since 1992\n Taunton, Massachusetts, United States\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Social, economic and political data on Taunton from the Vision of Britain website\n Taunton regeneration \n\n \nCounty towns in England\nMarket towns in Somerset\nTowns in Taunton Deane\nCivil parishes in Somerset" ]

[ "The Kuomintang (KMT) is a Chinese political party that ruled mainland China from 1927 to 1949 prior to its relocation to Taiwan as a result of the Chinese Civil War. The name of the party translates as \"China's National People's Party\" and was historically referred to as the Chinese Nationalists. The Party was initially founded on 23 August 1912, by Sun Yat-sen but dissolved in November 1913. It reformed on October 10, 1919, again led by Sun Yat-sen, and became the ruling party in China", ". It reformed on October 10, 1919, again led by Sun Yat-sen, and became the ruling party in China. After Sun's death, the party was dominated from 1927 to 1975 by Chiang Kai-shek. After the KMT lost the civil war with the Chinese Communist Party in 1949, the party retreated to Taiwan and remains a major political party of the Republic of China based in Taiwan.", "Founded in 1912 by Sun Yat-sen, the KMT helped topple the Qing dynasty and promoted modernization along Western lines. The party played a significant part in the first Chinese first National Assembly where it was the majority party. However the KMT failed to achieve complete control. The post of president was given to Yuan Shikai (1859–1916) as reward for his part in the revolution. Yuan Shikai abused his powers, overriding the constitution and creating strong tensions between himself and the other parties", ". In July 1913, the KMT staged a 'Second Revolution' to depose Yuan. This failed and the following crack down by Yuan led to the dissolution of the KMT and the exile of its leadership, mostly to Japan. Subsequently, Yuan Shikai had himself made Emperor of China.", "In exile, Sun Yat-sen and other former KMT members founded several revolutionary parties under various names but with little success. These parties were united by Sun in 1919 under the title \"The Kuomintang of China\". The new party returned to Guangzhou in China in 1920 where it set up a government but failed to achieve control of all of China. After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, China fractured into many regions controlled by warlords", ". After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, China fractured into many regions controlled by warlords. To strengthen the party's position, it accepted aid and support from the Soviet Union and its Comintern. The fledgling Chinese Communist Party was encouraged to join the KMT and thus formed the First United Front. The KMT gradually increased its sphere of influence from its Guangzhou base. Sun Yat-sen died in 1925 and Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975) became the KMT strong man", ". Sun Yat-sen died in 1925 and Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975) became the KMT strong man. In 1926 Chiang led a military operation known as the Northern Expedition against the warlords that controlled much of the country. In 1927, Chiang instigated the April 12 Incident in Shanghai in which the Chinese Communist Party and Communist elements of the KMT were purged. The Northern Expedition proved successful and the KMT party came to power throughout China (except Manchuria) in 1927 under the leadership of Chiang", ". The capital of China was moved to Nanjing in order to be closer to the party's strong base in southern China.", "The party was always concerned with strengthening Chinese identity at the same time it was discarding old traditions in the name of modernity. In 1929, the KMT government suppressed the textbook Modern Chinese History, widely used in secondary education. The Nationalists were concerned that, by not admitting the existence of the earliest emperors in ancient Chinese history, the book would weaken the foundation of the state", ". The case of the Modern Chinese History textbook reflects the symptoms of the period: banning the textbook strengthened the Nationalists' ideological control but also revealed their fear of the New Culture Movement and its more liberal ideological implications. The KMT tried to destroy the Communist party of Mao Zedong, but was unable to stop the invasion by Japan, which controlled most of the coastline and major cities, 1937–1945", ". Chiang Kai-shek secured massive military and economic aid from the United States, and in 1945 became one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, with a veto. The KMT governed most of China until it was defeated in the civil war by the Communists in 1949.", "The leadership, the remaining army, and hundreds of thousands of businessmen and other supporters, two million in all, fled to Taiwan. They continued to operate there as the \"Republic of China\" and dreamed of invading and reconquering what they called \"mainland China\". The United States, however, set up a naval cordon after 1950 that has since prevented an invasion in either direction", ". The KMT kept the island under martial law for 38 years under rule by Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo (1910–1988). As the original leadership died off, it made a peaceful transition to democracy, with full election of parliament in the early 1990s and first direct presidential election in 1996. After a defeat by the Democratic Progressive Party in 2000, the KMT returned to power in the elections of 2008 and 2012.", "Early years", "The Kuomintang traces its roots to the Revive China Society, which was founded in 1895 and merged with several other anti-monarchist societies as the Revolutionary Alliance in 1905", ". After the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the founding of the Republic of China, the Kuomintang was formally established on 25 August 1912 at the Huguang Guild Hall in Beijing where the Revolutionary Alliance and several smaller revolutionary groups joined to contest the first National Assembly elections", ". Sun Yat-sen, who had just stepped down as provisional president of the Republic of China, was chosen as its overall leader under the title of premier (), and Huang Xing was chosen as Sun's deputy. However, the most influential member of the party was the third ranking Song Jiaoren, who mobilized mass support from gentry and merchants for the KMT on a platform of promoting constitutional parliamentary democracy", ". Though the party had an overwhelming majority in the first National Assembly, President Yuan Shikai started ignoring the parliamentary body in making presidential decisions, counter to the Constitution, and assassinated its parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren in Shanghai in 1913. Members of the KMT led by Sun Yat-sen staged the Second Revolution in July 1913, a poorly planned and ill-supported armed rising to overthrow Yuan, and failed.", "Yuan dissolved the KMT in November (whose members had largely fled into exile in Japan) and dismissed the parliament early in 1914. Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor in December 1915. While exiled in Japan in 1914, Sun established the Chinese Revolutionary Party, but many of his old revolutionary comrades, including Huang Xing, Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming, refused to join him or support his efforts in inciting armed uprising against Yuan Shikai", ". In order to join the Chinese Revolutionary Party, members must take an oath of personal loyalty to Sun, which many old revolutionaries regarded as undemocratic and contrary to the spirit of the revolution. Thus, many old revolutionaries did not join Sun's new organization, and he was largely sidelined within the Republican movement during this period. Sun returned to China in 1917 to establish a rival government in Guangzhou, but was soon forced out of office and exiled to Shanghai", ". There, with renewed support, he resurrected the KMT on 10 October 1919, but under the name of the Chinese Kuomintang, as the old party had simply been called the Kuomintang. In 1920, Sun and the KMT were restored in Guangdong. In 1923, the KMT and its government accepted aid from the Soviet Union after being denied recognition by the western powers", ". Soviet advisers – the most prominent of whom was Mikhail Borodin, an agent of the Comintern – began to arrive in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, establishing a Leninist party structure that lasted into the 1990s", ". The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was under Comintern instructions to cooperate with the KMT, and its members were encouraged to join while maintaining their separate party identities, forming the First United Front between the two parties.", "Soviet advisers also helped the Nationalists set up a political institute to train propagandists in mass mobilization techniques, and in 1923 Chiang Kai-shek, one of Sun's lieutenants from the Tongmenghui days, was sent to Moscow for several months' military and political study", ". At the first party congress in 1924, which included non-KMT delegates such as members of the CCP, they adopted Sun's political theory, which included the Three Principles of the People – nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood.", "War with communists", "Following the death of Sun Yat-sen, General Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the KMT leader and launched the Northern Expedition in 1926 to defeat the northern warlords and unite China under the party. He halted briefly in Shanghai in 1927 to purge the Communists who had been allied with the KMT, which sparked the Chinese Civil War", ". When Kuomintang forces took Beijing, as the city was the de jure internationally recognized capital, though previously controlled by the feuding warlords, this event allowed the Kuomintang to receive widespread diplomatic recognition in the same year. The capital was moved from Beijing to Nanjing, the original capital of the Ming Dynasty, and thus a symbolic purge of the final Qing elements. This period of KMT rule in China between 1927 and 1937 became known as the Nanjing decade.", "In sum, the KMT began as a heterogeneous group advocating American-inspired federalism and provincial independence. However, after its reorganization along Soviet lines, the party aimed to establish a centralized one-party state with one ideology – Three Principles of the People. This was even more evident following Sun's elevation into a cult figure after his death", ". This was even more evident following Sun's elevation into a cult figure after his death. The control by one single party began the period of \"political tutelage,\" whereby the party was to control the government while instructing the people on how to participate in a democratic system", ". After several military campaigns and with the help of German military advisors (German planned fifth \"extermination campaign\"), the Communists were forced to withdraw from their bases in southern and central China into the mountains in a massive military retreat known famously as the Long March, an undertaking which would eventually increase their reputation among the peasants. Out of the 86,000 Communist soldiers that broke out of the pocket, only 20,000 would make the 10,000 km march to Shaanxi province", ". The Kuomintang continued to attack the Communists. This was in line with Chiang's policy of solving internal conflicts (warlords and communists) before fighting external invasions (Japan). However, Zhang Xueliang, who believed that the Japanese invasion constituted the greater prevailing threat, took Chiang hostage during the Xi'an Incident in 1937 and forced Chiang to agree to an alliance with the Communists in the total war against the Japanese", ". The Second Sino-Japanese War had officially started, and would last until the Japanese surrender in 1945. However, in many situations the alliance was in name only; after a brief period of cooperation, the armies began to fight the Japanese separately, rather than as coordinated allies. Conflicts between KMT and communists were still common during the war, and documented claims of Communist attacks upon the KMT forces, and vice versa, abound.", "In these incidents, the KMT armies typically utilized more traditional tactics while the Communists chose guerilla tactics, leading to KMT claims that the Communists often refused to support the KMT troops, choosing to withdraw and let the KMT troops take the brunt of Japanese attacks. These same guerilla tactics, honed against the Japanese forces, were used to great success later during open civil war, as well as the Allied forces in the Korean War and the U.S. forces in the Vietnam War.", "1945–49\nFull-scale civil war between the Communists and KMT resumed after the defeat of Japan. The Communist armies, previously a minor faction, grew rapidly in influence and power due to several errors on the KMT's part: first, the KMT reduced troop levels precipitously after the Japanese surrender, leaving large numbers of able-bodied, trained fighting men who became unemployed and disgruntled with the KMT as prime recruits for the Communists.", "Second, the collapse of the KMT regime can in part be attributed to the government's economic policies, which triggered capital flight among the businessmen who had been the KMT's strongest supporters. The cotton textile industry was the leading sector of Chinese industry, but in 1948, shortages of raw cotton plunged the industry into dire straits", ". The KMT government responded with an aggressive control policy that directly procured cotton from producers to ensure a sufficient supply and established a price freeze on cotton thread and textiles. This policy failed because of resistance from cotton textile industrialists, who relocated textile facilities and capital to Hong Kong or Taiwan around the end of 1948 and early 1949 when prices soared and inflation spiraled out of control", ". Their withdrawal of support was a shattering blow to the morale of the KMT.", "Among the most despised and ineffective efforts it undertook to contain inflation was the conversion to the gold standard for the national treasury and the Gold Standard Script () in August 1948, outlawing private ownership of gold, silver, and foreign exchange, collecting all such precious metals and foreign exchange from the people and issuing the Gold Standard Script in exchange", ". The new script became worthless in only ten months and greatly reinforced the nationwide perception of KMT as a corrupt or at best inept entity. Third, Chiang Kai-shek ordered his forces to defend the urbanized cities. This decision gave the Communists a chance to move freely through the countryside. At first, the KMT had the edge with the aid of weapons and ammunition from the United States", ". At first, the KMT had the edge with the aid of weapons and ammunition from the United States. However, with hyperinflation and other economic ills, widespread corruption, the KMT continued to lose popular support", ". At the same time, the suspension of American aid and tens of thousands of deserted or decommissioned soldiers being recruited to the Communist cause tipped the balance of power quickly to the Communist side, and the overwhelming popular support for the Communists in most of the country made it all but impossible for the KMT forces to carry out successful assaults against the Communists", ". By the end of 1949, the Communists controlled almost all of mainland China, as the KMT retreated to Taiwan with a significant amount of China's national treasures and 2 million people, including military forces and refugees. Some party members stayed in the mainland and broke away from the main KMT to found the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang, which still currently exists as one of the eight minor registered parties in the People's Republic of China.", "After 1949 \n\nIn the early 1950s, defeated KMT forces entered Burma, retreating into the hills of the Wa region. Communist forces pursued them. With support from the United States, the Nationalist forces reorganized and from 1950 to 1952, launched unsuccessful attacks into Yunnan, China. In 1953, Burma's government raised this violation of its sovereignty by the Chinese Nationalists to the United Nations.", "After the KMT guerillas treated into the Kokang region, the Burmese government obtained the assistance of Olive Yang and the Kokang Kakweye to force the guerillas out of Kokang. Yang and the Kokang Kakweye succeeded in 1953, but then collaborated with the Kuomintang in trafficking opium to Thailand throughout the 1950s; the KMT continued to use these opium routes for decades.\n\nIdeology in mainland China (1920s–1950s)", "Ideology in mainland China (1920s–1950s)\n\nChinese nationalism\nThe Kuomintang was a nationalist revolutionary party, which had been supported by the Soviet Union. It was organized on Leninism.", "The Kuomintang had several influences left upon its ideology by revolutionary thinking. The Kuomintang and Chiang Kai-shek used the words feudal and counterrevolutionary as synonyms for evil, and backwardness, and proudly proclaimed themselves to be revolutionary. Chiang called the warlords feudalists, and called for feudalism and counterrevolutionaries to be stamped out by the Kuomintang. Chiang showed extreme rage when he was called a warlord, because of its negative, feudal connotations", ". Ma Bufang was forced to defend himself against the accusations, and stated to the news media that his army was a part of \"National army, people's power\".", "Chiang Kai-shek, the head of the Kuomintang, warned the Soviet Union and other foreign countries about interfering in Chinese affairs. He was personally angry at the way China was treated by foreigners, mainly by the Soviet Union, Britain, and the United States. He and his New Life Movement called for the crushing of Soviet, Western, American and other foreign influences in China", ". Chen Lifu, a CC Clique member in the KMT, said \"Communism originated from Soviet imperialism, which has encroached on our country.\" It was also noted that \"the white bear of the North Pole is known for its viciousness and cruelty.\"", "Kuomintang leaders across China adopted nationalist rhetoric. The Chinese Muslim general Ma Bufang of Qinghai presented himself as a Chinese nationalist to the people of China, fighting against British imperialism, to deflect criticism by opponents that his government was feudal and oppressed minorities like Tibetans and Buddhist Mongols. He used his Chinese nationalist credentials to his advantage to keep himself in power.\n\nConservative influences", "Conservatism in Taiwan is a broad political philosophy which espouses the One-China policy as a vital component for the Republic of China (ROC)'s international security and economic development, as opposed to Taiwanization and Taiwanese sovereignty", ". Fundamental conservative ideas are grounded in Confucian values and strands of Chinese philosophy associated with Sun Yat-sen's teachings, a large centralized government which intervenes closely in the lives of individuals on both social and economic levels, and the construction of unified Sinocentric national identity. Conservative ideology in Taiwan constitutes the character and policies of the Kuomintang (KMT) party and that of the Pan-Blue camp.", "Cross-strait policy", "The relationship between the Republic of China (ROC) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) is Taiwan's main concern in foreign affairs. In a broad sense, the conservative Cross-Strait stance adheres to the notion of One-China, represented by the Kuomintang (KMT). However, the integration of this One-China philosophy into the party line has changed considerably", ". However, the integration of this One-China philosophy into the party line has changed considerably. By the end of Chiang Kai-shek's presidency, the agenda of radical pro-unification via military force has slowly devolved into the desire for peaceful and strategic, albeit competitive coexistence rather than outright contention", ". Over time, the latter strategy has consolidated into the One-China principle as a result of the 1992 Consensus, which proposed a unified entity comprising both Taiwan and the mainland, while leaving the issue of representation open to interpretation. From a comparative standpoint, conservatives derive economic and security benefits from communication with the PRC, while warning against Taiwan's isolation and insecurity implied under Taiwanese sovereignty", ". For Taiwan's political conservatives, the status quo is less than optimal, but at least better than independence.", "Domestic policy", "Conservative domestic policy in Taiwan reflects a strong government at the center of policy and decision-making, in which the state takes initiative for individuals and closely intervenes in their daily lives. This runs counter to Western political conservatism, which supports a small government that operates on the perimeter of social life in order to respect the liberty of citizens", ". As such, conservative KMT policies may also be characterized by a focus on maintaining the traditions and doctrine of Confucian thought, namely reinforcing the morals of paternalism and patriarchy in Taiwan's society. Moreover, conservatism focuses on preserving the safety of the status quo under the One-China principle, which embodies the traditional political thought of the KMT party, as opposed to the uncertainty of change under the opposition parties' associated pro-independence movement", ". On a broader level, political conservatism within Taiwan revolves around building and later, preserving a unified Chinese national identity based on Sinocentrism. Similar to the threat of multiculturalism which governs one primary concern for western conservatives i.e. United States, KMT policies are against the integration of Aboriginal culture into the mainstream Chinese identity.", "Economic policy", "In terms of economic policies, conservatism in Taiwan can be described as highly interventionist. The national economy is centrally planned for the purpose of development and little separation between state and society exists. That opposes the general notion of economic conservatism, where little to no government intervention in the economic affairs is desired. This ideological difference stems from the Confucian roots of Taiwanese conservatism", ". This ideological difference stems from the Confucian roots of Taiwanese conservatism. Following the notion of Confucian paternalism, where the father is the head of the family, conservatives see the state as the head of society. As such, the state has to ensure the well-being of the population by promoting development and interfering in the economic affairs", ". Examples of conservative policies include the 1949-1953 Land Reforms, the 1950-1968 Economic Reforms aimed at encouraging production for export, the Ten Major Construction Projects and the establishment of the Three Direct Links with China.", "Origins and philosophy", "Socioreligious tradition of Confucianism", "There are four basic elements of Confucianism which apply to conservatist governance. The Paternalistic State entails top-down decision making under the notion that the “Father is the head of the house, and likewise, the state the head of society.” Leaders possess, jen, a supreme virtue representing human qualities at their best which determines their right to rule", ". The idea of social order and harmony translates into the assumption of the benevolent state - ren/humaneness, with which civil society works together - shu/reciprocity, rather than oppose, monitor, and scrutinize. The Notion of Patriarchy positions men as leaders, and women as passive. Confucius and Mencius, in the three obediences depict obedience to the father and elder brothers when young, to the husband when married, and to the sons when widowed", ". Finally, collectivity captures the absence of the tradition of celebrating the individual in contrast to the United States. Instead, hierarchy is respected because it reflects naturally ordained positions in society. Moreover, the fulfilment of individual duties in a given position is necessary for the function of society.", "Sun Yat-sen's political perspectives", "Many of the Kuomintang's policies were inspired by its founder Sun Yat-sen’s vision, and his Three Principles of the People: nationalism (民族主義), democracy (民權主義) and people's livelihood (民生主義). These three principles combine to make Taiwan a free, powerful, and prosperous nation, although they are selectively interpreted in a specific context which deviates from Sun Yat-sen's original intent", ". For example, during Chiang Kai-shek's rule and much of Chiang Ching-kuo’s, the authoritarian state overshadowed democracy by censoring the people's voice. However, most of his political ideas which were later adapted by his successors in governing Taiwan included equalization of land ownership, learning Chinese traditional morality through Confucian values, and the regulation of state capital by national corporations", ". Chiang Ching-kuo also moved to end the Kuomintang’s one-party state in his final years, paving the way for the democratization of Taiwan.", "Pan-Blue Coalition \nPolitical Parties\n\nThe Conservative parties in Taiwan or the so-called “pan-blue camp” includes the Kuomintang (KMT), the People First Party (PFP) and the New Party (NP).\n\nKuomintang is the main conservative party and currently it is the largest opposition party in the Legislative Yuan with 35 seats.", "People's First Party is a liberal conservative party, founded by former KMT General Secretary and Taiwan Provincial Governor James Soong after the 2000 presidential elections. It is the main contender with the KMT for the conservative votes. Currently, it holds 3 seats in the Legislative Yuan.", "The New Party was also established as a split from the KMT in 1993, after growing dissatisfaction with President Lee's policies of distancing the party from unification with the mainland. The NP has been a vanishing force in the political landscape, not having won any seats in the Legislative Yuan since the 2008 elections.", "Supporter Base", "Initially, the pan-blue camp and the pan-green camp reflected the ideological differences within society over national identity. Those ideological differences were manifested through the different stances on cross-strait policy - with the blue-camp being pro-unification and the green-camp - pro-independence. Therefore, determining party affiliation was based on ethnicity and the attitude towards the relationship with the mainland", ". As a result, the pan-blue camp supporter base traditionally consisted of people mainly having Chinese identities and pro-unification attitudes.", "Recently however, it has been observed that the alignment with a party has grown beyond these traditional dichotomies. This has been influenced by the growth of a distinct Taiwanese identity, rooted not in ethno-cultural aspect, but in the historical, economic and political development of the island. The change has affected people's preferences, with a growing concern over each party's capability and will to maintain what is being considered Taiwanese identity", ". As a result of this tendency and in attempt to appeal to the growing group of people who identify as Taiwanese, the KMT has lost its idealistic pan-Chinese passion. To avoid marginalization, it has focused rather on practical steps of Sino-Taiwanese cooperation.", "Another major concern for the citizens has become the parties capacity to retain the peace and stability across the Strait, with the majority of people preferring the status quo over unification or independence. This has discouraged politicians from pursuing outright unification or independence, but rather moderate their stance towards maintain status quo. In the 2008 presidential campaign for example, KMT used status quo as a campaign tactics, eventually leading to its candidate Ma Ying-jeou being elected", ". However, in 2016 Taiwan elections, the failure to do so, combined with DPP utilizing the same “status quo strategy” cost the KMT the presidency.", "As a result, from those two tendencies - the growing Taiwanese identity and the steady preference over the maintaining the status quo with the mainland, the characteristics of the supporter base of the conservatives have become less clear cut than before.", "Current status \nParty instability", "Domestically, conservatism within the KMT treads a thin line. The rise of a pan-Taiwanese independence movement with mainly of younger members, that does not acknowledge that existence of the 1992 consensus and hence claims that Taiwan is already independent, has challenged the status quo and called for greater ROC sovereignty in multilateral politics and economics", ". As a result, the return of the KMT into power will likely be predicated on a more careful maintenance of pragmatic diplomacy which foreseeably involves drawing Taiwan closer to the PROC through a variety of methods, such as sharing social spaces in international institutions, making diplomatic visits, signing economic deals. In each case, the KMT must promise to keep a safe distance in order to reflect the beliefs of a vigilant populace", ". To further exacerbating this tension, the KMT has also suffered from undemocratic perceptions, after its evasion of a clause by clause review of the Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement, which prompted the Sunflower Student Movement to damage the party's credibility. In the future, the KMT must improve transparency to rebuild trust between it and the Taiwanese populace.", "Deteriorating relationship with the PRC", "In recent years, the KMT has been gradually falling out of China's favor. Following the KMT election loss of 2016, the KMT began to shift its pro-China policy towards the median to better represent the view of the electorate. In short, they began campaigning under the ideal of multiculturalism, which included both “Chinese” and “Taiwanese” citizens. However, this change in the party line was criticized by China", ". However, this change in the party line was criticized by China. Beijing's preoccupation with the process of “localization” stems from concerns over the ROC's move towards “De-Sinification” which would weaken the PRC's claim that people on both sides of the strait share common bond and heritage", ". Moreover, China views current DPP president Tsai Ing-wen as a dangerous player who threatens the 1992 Consensus, blaming the KMT for mismanagement of domestic and international policy which led to their 2016 election loss. In the future, the KMT must also struggle to balance the preferences of the overall electorate while also treading a thin line with mainland China.", "Fascism", "The Blue Shirts Society, a fascist paramilitary organization within the Kuomintang modeled after Mussolini's blackshirts, was anti-foreign and anticommunist, and stated that its agenda was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China, crush Communism, and eliminate feudalism. In addition to being anticommunist, some Kuomintang members, like Chiang Kaishek's right-hand man Dai Li were anti-American, and wanted to expel American influence", ". Close Sino-German ties also promoted cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Nazi Party (NSDAP).", "The New Life Movement was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The Movement attempted to counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values", ". As such the Movement was based upon Confucianism, mixed with Christianity, nationalism and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. It rejected individualism and liberalism, while also opposing socialism and communism. Some historians regard this movement as imitating Nazism and being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was \"Confucian fascism\".", "Ideology of the New Guangxi Clique\nDr. Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the Republic of China and of the Kuomintang party praised the Boxers in the Boxer Rebellion for fighting against Western Imperialism. He said the Boxers were courageous and fearless, fighting to the death against the Western armies, Dr. Sun specifically cited the Battle of Yangcun.", "During the Northern Expedition, the Kuomintang incited anti-foreign, anti-western sentiment. Portraits of Sun Yatsen replaced the crucifix in several churches, KMT posters proclaimed- \"Jesus Christ is dead. Why not worship something alive such as Nationalism?\". Foreign missionaries were attacked and anti foreign riots broke out.\n\nThe Kuomintang branch in Guangxi province, led by the New Guangxi Clique implemented anti-imperialist, anti-religious, and anti-foreign policies.", "During the Northern Expedition, in 1926 in Guangxi, Muslim General Bai Chongxi led his troops in destroying Buddhist temples and smashing idols, turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters. It was reported that almost all of Buddhist monasteries in Guangxi were destroyed by Bai in this manner. The monks were removed. Bai led an anti-foreign wave in Guangxi, attacking American, European, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for non-natives", ". Westerners fled from the province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents.", "The three goals of his movement were anti-foreign, anti-imperialism, and anti-religion. Bai led the anti-religious movement, against superstition. Huang Shaoxiong, also a Kuomintang member of the New Guangxi Clique, supported Bai's campaign, and Huang was not a Muslim, the anti religious campaign was agreed upon by all Guangxi Kuomintang members.", "As a Kuomintang member, Bai and the other Guangxi clique members allowed the Communists to continue attacking foreigners and smash idols, since they shared the goal of expelling the foreign powers from China, but they stopped Communists from initiating social change.", "General Bai also wanted to aggressively expel foreign powers from other areas of China. Bai gave a speech in which he said that the minorities of China were suffering under foreign oppression. He cited specific examples, such as the Tibetans under the British, the Manchus under the Japanese, the Mongols under the Outer Mongolian People's Republic, and the Uyghurs of Xinjiang under the Soviet Union. Bai called upon China to assist them in expelling the foreigners from those lands", ". Bai called upon China to assist them in expelling the foreigners from those lands. He personally wanted to lead an expedition to seize back Xinjiang to bring it under Chinese control, in the style that Zuo Zongtang led during the Dungan revolt.", "During the Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai the Muslim General Ma Bufang destroyed Tibetan Buddhist monasteries with support from the Kuomintang government.", "General Ma Bufang, a Sufi, who backed the Yihewani Muslims, and persecuted the Fundamentalist Salafi/Wahhabi Muslim sect. The Yihewani forced the Salafis into hiding. They were not allowed to move or worship openly. The Yihewani had become secular and Chinese nationalist, and they considered the Salafiyya to be \"Heterodox\" (xie jiao), and people who followed foreigner's teachings (waidao). Only after the Communists took over were the Salafis allowed to come out and worship openly.", "Socialism and anti-capitalist agitation\n\nThe Kuomintang had a left wing and a right wing, the left being more radical in its pro Soviet policies, but both wings equally persecuted merchants, accusing them of being counterrevolutionaries and reactionaries. The right wing under Chiang Kaishek prevailed, and continued radical policies against private merchants and industrialists, even as they denounced communism.", "One of the Three Principles of the People of the Kuomintang, Mínshēng, was defined as socialism as Dr. Sun Yatsen. He defined this principle of saying in his last days \"it's socialism and it's communism.\". The concept may be understood as social welfare as well. Sun understood it as an industrial economy and equality of land holdings for the Chinese peasant farmers", ". Here he was influenced by the American thinker Henry George (see Georgism) and German thinker Karl Marx; the land value tax in Taiwan is a legacy thereof. He divided livelihood into four areas: food, clothing, housing, and transportation; and planned out how an ideal (Chinese) government can take care of these for its people.", "The Kuomintang was referred to having a socialist ideology. \"Equalization of land rights\" was a clause included by Dr. Sun in the original Tongmenhui. The Kuomintang's revolutionary ideology in the 1920s incorporated unique Chinese Socialism as part of its ideology.", "The Soviet Union trained Kuomintang revolutionaries in the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University. In the West and in the Soviet Union, Chiang was known as the \"Red General\". Movie theaters in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang, at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University Portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls, and in the Soviet May Day Parades that year, Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Karl Marx, Lenin, Stalin, and other socialist leaders.", "The Kuomintang attempted to levy taxes upon merchants in Canton, and the merchants resisted by raising an army, the Merchant's volunteer corps. Dr. Sun initiated this anti merchant policy, and Chiang Kai-shek enforced it, Chiang led his army of Whampoa Military Academy graduates to defeat the merchant's army. Chiang was assisted by Soviet advisors, who supplied him with weapons, while the merchants were supplied with weapons from the Western countries.", "The Kuomintang were accused of leading a \"Red Revolution\"in Canton. The merchants were conservative and reactionary, and their Volunteer Corp leader Chen Lianbao was a prominent comprador trader.", "The merchants were supported by the foreign, western Imperialists such as the British, who led an international flotilla to support them against Dr. Sun. Chiang seized the western supplied weapons from the merchants, and battled against them. A Kuomintang General executed several merchants, and the Kuomintang formed a Soviet inspired Revolutionary Committee. The British Communist party congratulated Dr. Sun for his war against foreign imperialists and capitalists.", "In 1948, the Kuomintang again attacked the merchants of Shanghai, Chiang Kaishek sent his son Chiang Ching-kuo to restore economic order. Ching-kuo copied Soviet methods, which he learned during his stay there, to start a social revolution by attacking middle class merchants. He also enforced low prices on all goods to raise support from the Proletariat.", "As riots broke out and savings were ruined, bankrupting shopowners, Ching-kuo began to attack the wealthy, seizing assets and placing them under arrest. The son of the gangster Du Yuesheng was arrested by him. Ching-kuo ordered Kuomintang agents to raid the Yangtze Development Corporation's warehouses, which was privately owned by H.H. Kung and his family. H.H. Kung's wife was Soong Ai-ling, the sister of Soong Mei-ling who was Ching-kuo's stepmother. H.H", ".H. Kung's wife was Soong Ai-ling, the sister of Soong Mei-ling who was Ching-kuo's stepmother. H.H. Kung's son David was arrested, the Kung's responded by blackmailing the Chiang's, threatening to release information about them, eventually he was freed after negotiations, and Ching-kuo resigned, ending the terror on the Shanghainese merchants.", "The Kuomintang also promotes Government-owned corporations. The Kuomintang founder Sun Yat-sen, was heavily influenced by the economic ideas of Henry George, who believed that the rents extracted from natural monopolies or the usage of land belonged to the public. Dr. Sun argued for Georgism and emphasized the importance of a mixed economy, which he termed \"The Principle of Minsheng\" in his Three Principles of the People.", "\"The railroads, public utilities, canals, and forests should be nationalized, and all income from the land and mines should be in the hands of the State. With this money in hand, the State can therefore finance the social welfare programs.\"\n\nThe Kuomintang Muslim Governor of Ningxia, Ma Hongkui promoted state owned monopoly companies. His government had a company, Fu Ning Company, which had a monopoly over commercial and industry in Ningxia.", "The Kuomintang Muslim Governor of Qinghai, General Ma Bufang was described as a socialist. An American scholar and government advisor, A. Doak Barnett, praised Ma Bufang's government as \"one of the most efficient in China, and one of the most energetic. While most of China is bogged down, almost inevitably, by Civil War, Chinghai is attempting to carry our small-scale, but nevertheless ambitious, development and reconstruction schemes on its own initiative\"", "General Ma started a state run and controlled industrialization project, directly creating educational, medical, agricultural, and sanitation projects, run or assisted by the state. The state provided money for food and uniforms in all schools, state run or private. Roads and a theater were constructed. The state controlled all the press, no freedom was allowed for independent journalists. His regime was dictatorial in its political system", ". His regime was dictatorial in its political system. Barnett admitted that the regime had \"stern authoritarianism\" and \"little room for personal freedom\".", "Corporations such as CSBC Corporation, Taiwan, CPC Corporation, Taiwan and Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation are owned by the state in the Republic of China.\n\nMarxists also existed in the Kuomintang party. They viewed the Chinese revolution in different terms than the Communists, claiming that China already went past its feudal stage and in a stagnation period rather than in another mode of production. These Marxists in the Kuomintang opposed the Chinese communist party ideology.", "Confucianism and religion in ideology\n\nThe Kuomintang used traditional Chinese religious ceremonies. The souls of Party martyrs who died fighting for the Kuomintang and the revolution, and the party founder Dr. Sun Yat-sen, were sent to heaven, according to the Kuomintang party. Chiang Kai-shek believed that these martyrs witnessed events on earth from heaven.", "When the Northern Expedition was complete, Kuomintang Generals led by Chiang Kai-shek paid tribute to Dr. Sun's soul in heaven with a sacrificial ceremony at the Xiangshan Temple in Beijing in July 1928, among the Kuomintang Generals present were the Muslim Generals Bai Chongxi and Ma Fuxiang.\n\nThe Kuomintang backed the New Life Movement, which promoted Confucianism, and it was also against westernization.", "The Kuomintang leaders also opposed the May Fourth Movement. Chiang Kai-shek, as a nationalist, and Confucianist, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. He viewed some western ideas as foreign, as a Chinese nationalist, and that the introduction of western ideas and literature that the May Fourth Movement wanted was not welcome. He and Dr. Sun Yat-sen criticized these May Fourth intellectuals for corrupting morals of youth.", "Imams sponsored by the Kuomintang called for Muslims to go on Jihad to become shaheed (Muslim term for martyr) in battle, where Muslims believed they would go automatically to heaven. Becoming a shaheed in the Jihad for the country was encouraged by the Kuomintang, which was called \"glorious death for the state\" and a hadith promoting nationalism was spread", ". A song written by Xue Wenbo at the Muslim Chengda school, which was controlled by the Kuomintang, called for martyrdom in battle for China against Japan.", "The Kuomintang also incorporated Confucianism in its jurisprudence. It pardoned Shi Jianqiao for murdering Sun Chuanfang, because she did it in revenge since Sun executed her father Shi Congbin, which was an example of Filial piety to one's parents in Confucianism. The Kuomintang encouraged filial revenge killings and extended pardons to those who performed them.", "In response to the Cultural Revolution, Chiang Kai-shek promoted a Chinese Cultural Renaissance movement which followed in the steps of the New Life Movement, promoting Confucian values.", "Modernization", "Historians until the 1990s often portrayed the KMT simply as a band of corrupt leaders who colluded with rich financiers and industrialists and cared little for China's workers and peasants, contrasting it with the supposed broad base of popular support for the communists", ". However, as Bodenhorn (2002) shows, scholars are coming to an appreciation of its efforts to build a vibrant and dynamic state, before it lost on the battlefield to the Communists, but then had a second chance on Taiwan where they did succeed.", "The KMT promoted science and industry, and tried to eradicate such traditional practices as footbinding, and extravagant marriage and funerary customs. The KMT had a complicated relationship to Christian missionary activity. Many high officials (including Chiang) were Christians and American public opinion that favored China was based on the missionaries. At the same time in the villages the KMT criticized missionary activity as an egregious example of imperialism", ". No significant action against the churches was taken but criticizing them was a much safer way to spread the anti-imperialist message of the KMT than taking on foreign firms or the U.S. The anti-Christian movements were important tactically for gaining the support of students and others in society who were angry at the influence of outsiders in China.", "The Kuomintang purged China's education system of western ideas, introducing Confucianism into the curriculum. Education came under the total control of state, which meant, in effect, the Kuomintang party, via the Ministry of Education. Military and political classes on the Kuomintang's Three Principles of the People were added. Textbooks, exams, degrees and educational instructors were all controlled by the state, as were all universities.", "Soviet style military", "Chiang Ching-kuo, appointed as Kuomintang director of Secret Police in 1950, was educated in the Soviet Union, and initiated Soviet style military organization in the Republic of China Military, reorganizing and Sovietizing the political officer corps, surveillance, and Kuomintang party activities were propagated throughout the military. Opposed to this was Sun Li-jen, who was educated at the American Virginia Military Institute", ". Opposed to this was Sun Li-jen, who was educated at the American Virginia Military Institute. Chiang Ching-kuo then arrested Sun Li-jen, charging him of conspiring with the American CIA of plotting to overthrow Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang, Sun was placed under house arrest in 1955.", "Policy on ethnic minorities", "Former KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek considered all the minority peoples of China as descendants of the Yellow Emperor, the semi-mythical initiator of the Chinese civilization. Chiang considered all ethnic minorities in China to belong to the Zhonghua minzu (Chinese nation) and he introduced this into KMT ideology, which was propagated into the educational system of the Republic of China, and the Constitution of the ROC considered Chiang's ideology to be true", ". In Taiwan, the president performs a ritual honoring the Yellow Emperor, while facing west, in the direction of the Chinese mainland.", "The KMT retained the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission for dealing with Mongolian and Tibetan affairs. A Muslim, Ma Fuxiang, was appointed as its chairman.", "The KMT was known for sponsoring Muslim students to study abroad at Muslim universities like Al-Azhar University and it established schools especially for Muslims, Muslim KMT warlords like Ma Fuxiang promoted education for Muslims. KMT Muslim Warlord Ma Bufang built a girls' school for Muslim girls in Linxia City which taught modern secular education.", "Tibetans and Mongols refused to allow other ethnic groups like Kazakhs to participate in the Kokonur ceremony in Qinghai, but KMT Muslim General Ma Bufang allowed them to participate.\n\nChinese Muslims were among the most hardline KMT members. Ma Chengxiang was a Muslim KMT member, and he refused to surrender to the Communists.\n\nThe KMT incited anti-Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang sentiments among Chinese Muslims and Mongols, encouraging for them to topple their rule during the Central Plains War.", "Masud Sabri, a Uyghur was appointed as Governor of Xinjiang by the KMT, as was the Tatar Burhan Shahidi and the Uyghur Yulbars Khan.\n\nThe Muslim General Ma Bufang also put KMT symbols on his mansion, the Ma Bufang Mansion along with a portrait of party founder Dr. Sun Yatsen arranged with the KMT flag and the Republic of China flag.", "General Ma Bufang and other high ranking Muslim Generals attended the Kokonuur Lake Ceremony where the God of the Lake was worshipped, and during the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung, all participants bowed to a Portrait of KMT founder Dr. Sun Yat-sen, and the God of the Lake was also bowed to, and offerings were given to him by the participants, which included the Muslims. This cult of personality around the KMT leader and the KMT was standard in all meetings", ". This cult of personality around the KMT leader and the KMT was standard in all meetings. Sun Yat-sen's portrait was bowed to three times by KMT party members. Dr. Sun's portrait was arranged with two flags crossed under, the KMT flag and the flag of the Republic of China.", "The KMT also hosted conferences of important Muslims like Bai Chongxi, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Liang. Ma Bufang stressed \"racial harmony\" as a goal when he was Governor of Qinghai.", "In 1939, Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent on a mission by the KMT to the Middle Eastern countries such as Egypt, Turkey and Syria to gain support for the Chinese War against Japan, they also visited Afghanistan in 1940 and contacted Muhammad Amin Bughra, they asked him to come to Chongqing, the capital of the Nationalist Government. Bughra was arrested by the British government in 1942 for spying, and the KMT arranged for Bughra's release", ". He and Isa Yusuf worked as editors of KMT Muslim publications. Ma Tianying () (1900–1982) led the 1939 mission which had 5 other people including Isa and Fuliang.", "Anti-separatism \nThe KMT is anti-separatist. During its rule on mainland China, it crushed Uyghur and Tibetan separatist uprisings. The KMT claims sovereignty over Outer Mongolia and Tuva as well as the territories of the modern People's Republic and Republic of China.", "KMT Muslim General Ma Bufang waged war on the invading Tibetans during the Sino-Tibetan War with his Muslim army, and he repeatedly crushed Tibetan revolts during bloody battles in Qinghai provinces. Ma Bufang was fully supported by President Chiang Kai-shek, who ordered him to prepare his Muslim army to invade Tibet several times and threatened aerial bombardment on the Tibetans", ". With support from the KMT, Ma Bufang repeatedly attacked the Tibetan area of Golog seven times during the KMT Pacification of Qinghai, eliminating thousands of Tibetans.", "General Ma Fuxiang, the chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission stated that Mongolia and Tibet were an integral part of the Republic of China, arguing:", "Our Party [the Guomindang] takes the development of the weak and small and resistance to the strong and violent as our sole and most urgent task. This is even more true for those groups which are not of our kind [Ch. fei wo zulei zhe]. Now the people of Mongolia and Tibet are closely related to us, and we have great affection for one another: our common existence and common honor already have a history of over a thousand years. [...] Mongolia and Tibet's life and death are China's life and death", ". [...] Mongolia and Tibet's life and death are China's life and death. China absolutely cannot cause Mongolia and Tibet to break away from China's territory, and Mongolia and Tibet cannot reject China to become independent. At this time, there is not a single nation on earth except China that will sincerely develop Mongolia and Tibet.", "Under orders from Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai-shek, the Hui General Ma Bufang, Governor of Qinghai (1937–1949), repaired Yushu airport to prevent Tibetan separatists from seeking independence. Ma Bufang also crushed Mongol separatist movements, abducting the Genghis Khan Shrine and attacking Tibetan Buddhist Temples like Labrang, and keeping a tight control over them through the Kokonur God ceremony.", "During the Kumul Rebellion, the KMT 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) crushed a separatist Uyghur First East Turkestan Republic, delivering it a fatal blow at the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Muslim General Ma Hushan pledged allegiance to the KMT and crushed another Uyghur revolt at Charkhlik Revolt.\n\nDuring the Ili Rebellion, the KMT fought against Uyghur separatists and the Soviet Union, and against Mongolia.\n\nKMT in Taiwan", "KMT in Taiwan\n\nIn 1895, Taiwan, including the Pescadores, became a Japanese colony, a concession by the Qing Empire after it lost the First Sino-Japanese War. After Japan's defeat at the end of World War II in 1945, General Order No. 1 instructed Japan, who surrendered to the US, to surrender its troops in Taiwan to the forces of the Republic of China Kuomintang.", "Taiwan was placed under the administrative control of the Republic of China by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), and the ROC put Taiwan under military occupation. Tensions between the local Taiwanese and mainlanders from mainland China increased in the intervening years culminating in a flashpoint on 27 February 1947 in Taipei when a dispute between a female cigarette vendor and an anti-smuggling officer triggered civil disorder and protests that would last for days", ". The uprising turned bloody and was shortly put down by the ROC Army in the February 28 Incident.", "Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949, the commanders of the PRC People's Liberation Army believed that Kinmen and Matsu had to be taken before a final assault on Taiwan. KMT fought the Battle of Kuningtou and stopped the invasion. In 1950 Chiang took office in Taipei under the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion", ". The provision declared martial law in Taiwan and halted some democratic processes, including presidential and parliamentary elections, until the mainland could be recovered from the Communists. KMT estimated it would take 3 years to defeat the Communists. The slogan was \"prepare in the first year, start fighting in the second, and conquer in the third year.\" However, various factors, including international pressure, are believed to have prevented the KMT from militarily engaging the Communists full-scale", ". A cold war with a couple of minor military conflicts was resulted in the early years. The various government bodies previously in Nanjing were re-established in Taipei as the KMT-controlled government actively claimed sovereignty over all China. The Republic of China in Taiwan retained China's seat in the United Nations until 1971 .", "Until the 1970s, the KMT successfully pushed ahead with land reforms, developed the economy, implemented a democratic system in a lower level of the government, improved cross-Taiwan Strait relations, and created the Taiwan economic miracle. However KMT controlled the government under a one-party authoritarian state until reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s", ". As a result of the February 28 Incident in 1947, Taiwanese people had to endure what is called the \"White Terror\", a KMT-led political repression. The ROC in Taiwan was once referred to synonymously with the KMT and known simply as \"Nationalist China\" after its ruling party. In the 1970s, the KMT began to allow for \"supplemental elections\" in Taiwan to fill the seats of the aging representatives in parliament", ". Although opposition parties were not permitted, Tangwai (or, \"outside the party\") representatives were tolerated. In the 1980s, the KMT focused on transforming the government from a one-party system to a multi-party democracy one and embracing \"Taiwanizing\". With the founding of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in 1986, the KMT started competing against the DPP in Parliamentary elections", ". In 1991, martial law ceased when President Lee Teng-Hui terminated the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion. All parties started to be allowed to compete at all levels of elections, including the presidential election. Lee Teng-hui, the ROC's first democratically elected president and the leader of the KMT during the 1990s, announced his advocacy of \"special state-to-state relations\" with the PRC. The PRC associated it with Taiwan independence.", "The KMT faced a split in 1994 that led to the formation of the Chinese New Party, alleged to be a result of Lee's \"corruptive ruling style\". The New Party has, since the purging of Lee, largely reintegrated into KMT. A much more serious split in the party occurred as a result of the 2000 Presidential election", ". A much more serious split in the party occurred as a result of the 2000 Presidential election. Upset at the choice of Lien Chan as the party's presidential nominee, former party Secretary-General James Soong launched an independent bid, which resulted in the expulsion of Soong and his supporters and the formation of the People's First Party (PFP). The KMT candidate placed third behind Soong in the elections. After the election, Lee's strong relationship with the opponent became apparent", ". After the election, Lee's strong relationship with the opponent became apparent. In order to prevent defections to the PFP, Lien moved the party away from Lee's pro-independence policies and became more favorable toward Chinese unification. This shift led to Lee's expulsion from the party and the formation of the Taiwan Solidarity Union.", "The Pan-Blue coalition visited the mainland in 2005. As the ruling party on Taiwan, the KMT amassed a vast business empire of banks, investment companies, petrochemical firms, and television and radio stations, thought to have made it the world's richest political party, with assets once estimated to be around US$2–10 billion. Although this war chest appeared to help the KMT until the mid-1990s, it later led to accusations of corruption (see Black gold (politics))", ". After 2000, the KMT's financial holdings appeared to be more of a liability than a benefit, and the KMT started to divest its assets. However, the transactions were not disclosed and the whereabouts of the money earned from selling assets (if it has gone anywhere) is unknown. There were accusations in the 2004 presidential election that the KMT retained assets that were illegally acquired", ". Currently, there is a law proposed by the DPP in the Legislative Yuan to recover illegally acquired party assets and return them to the government; however, since the pan-Blue alliance, the KMT and its smaller partner PFP, control the legislature, it is very unlikely to be passed. The KMT also acknowledged that part of its assets were acquired through extra-legal means and thus promised to \"retro-endow\" them to the government", ". However, the quantity of the assets which should be classified as illegal are still under heated debate; DPP, in its capacity as ruling party from 2000 to 2008, claimed that there is much more that the KMT has yet to acknowledge. Also, the KMT actively sold assets under its title in order to quench its recent financial difficulties, which the DPP argues is illegal", ". Former KMT Chairman Ma Ying-Jeou's position is that the KMT will sell some of its properties at below market rates rather than return them to the government and that the details of these transactions will not be publicly disclosed.", "In December 2003, then-KMT chairman (present chairman emeritus) and presidential candidate Lien Chan initiated what appeared to some to be a major shift in the party's position on the linked questions of Chinese unification and Taiwan independence. Speaking to foreign journalists, Lien said that while the KMT was opposed to \"immediate independence,\" it did not wish to be classed as \"pro-reunificationist\" either.", "At the same time, Wang Jin-pyng, speaker of the Legislative Yuan and the Pan-Blue Coalition's campaign manager in the 2004 presidential election, said that the party no longer opposed Taiwan's \"eventual independence.\" This statement was later clarified as meaning that the KMT opposes any immediate decision on unification and independence and would like to have this issue resolved by future generations", ". The KMT's position on the cross-strait relationship was redefined as hoping to remain in the current neither-independent-nor-united situation.", "In 2005, then-party chairman Lien Chan announced that he was to leave his office. The two leading contenders for the position include Ma Ying-jeou and Wang Jin-pyng. On 5 April 2005, Taipei Mayor Ma Ying-jeou said he wished to lead the opposition Kuomintang with Wang Jin-pyng. On 16 July 2005, Ma was elected as KMT chairman in the first contested leadership in Kuomintang's 93-year history. Some 54 percent of the party's 1.04 million members cast their ballots. Ma Ying-jeou garnered 72", ". Some 54 percent of the party's 1.04 million members cast their ballots. Ma Ying-jeou garnered 72.4 percent of vote share, or 375,056 votes, against Wang Jin-pyng's 27.6 percent, or 143,268 votes. After failing to convince Wang to stay on as a vice chairman, Ma named holdovers Wu Po-hsiung (吳伯雄), Chiang Pin-kung (江丙坤), and Lin Cheng-chi (林澄枝), as well as long-time party administrator and strategist John Kuan (關中), as vice-chairmen; all appointments were approved by a hand count of party delegates.", "There has been a recent warming of relations between the pan-blue coalition and the PRC, with prominent members of both the KMT and PFP in active discussions with officials on the mainland. In February 2004, it appeared that KMT had opened a campaign office for the Lien-Soong ticket in Shanghai targeting Taiwanese businessmen. However, after an adverse reaction in Taiwan, the KMT quickly declared that the office was opened without official knowledge or authorization", ". In addition, the PRC issued a statement forbidding open campaigning in the mainland and formally stated that it had no preference as to which candidate won and cared only about the positions of the winning candidate.", "On 28 March 2005, thirty members of the Kuomintang (KMT), led by KMT vice chairman Chiang Pin-kung, arrived in mainland China. This marked the first official visit by the KMT to the mainland since it was defeated by communist forces in 1949 (although KMT members including Chiang had made individual visits in the past). The delegates began their itinerary by paying homage to the revolutionary martyrs of the Tenth Uprising at Huanghuagang", ". They subsequently flew to the former ROC capital of Nanjing to commemorate Sun Yat-sen. During the trip KMT signed a 10-points agreement with the CPC. The opponents regarded this visit as the prelude of the third KMT-CPC cooperation. Weeks afterwards, in May, Chairman Lien Chan visited the mainland and met with Hu Jintao. No agreements were signed because Chen Shui-bian's government threatened to prosecute the KMT delegation for treason and violation of R.O.C", ".O.C. laws prohibiting citizens from collaborating with Communists.", "On 13 February 2007, Ma was indicted by the Taiwan High Prosecutors Office on charges of allegedly embezzling approximately NT$11 million (US$339,000), regarding the issue of \"special expenses\" while he was mayor of Taipei. Shortly after the indictment, he submitted his resignation as chairman of the Kuomintang at the same press conference at which he formally announced his candidacy for president", ". Ma argued that it was customary for officials to use the special expense fund for personal expenses undertaken in the course of their official duties. In December 2007, Ma was acquitted of all charges and immediately filed suit against the prosecutors who are also appealing the acquittal.", "In 2020 the 48 year old Johnny Chiang was elected chair of the Kuomintang. He replaced Wu Den-yih who resigned due to the party's defeat in the January elections. Chiang faced challenges both with managing the KMT's history and from a variety of structural problems within the party.\nIn September 2021, Kuomintang elected veteran politician Eric Chu as its new leader to replace Johnny Chiang.\n\nChronology of Kuomintang governments\n\nChiang Kai-shek (1945–1975)", "Cross-Strait Policy", "Chiang Kai-shek's retreat to Taiwan following the Chinese Civil War, and the subsequent establishment of the ROC in December 1949, marked the beginning of the One-China party line. In Taiwan, the KMT immediately insisted on its right to maintain the position of the legal representative of all of China", ". The “government in exile”, a term the ROC under Chiang Kai-shek elected to call itself, remained a status recognized by the international community until October 1971, when Taiwan's seat in the UN Security Council was replaced by that of the PRC, and February 1972, which marked Nixon's historical visit to Peking which ended in the Shanghai Communique.", "Initially, the KMT sought to bide time and strength under US assistance and protection in order to retake the mainland. The outbreak of the Korean War prompted President Truman to order the Seventh Fleet to defend Taiwan against the possibility of invasion on June 27, 1950. Although the US overall goal was not to aid Chiang's return to the mainland, but to build Taiwan into a fortress against communism, it allowed Chiang to pursue his military vision of unification.", "As a staunch anti-communist, Chiang pushed his doctrine of pro-unification under the ideology of liberating the mainland from the Communists using force. Hence, the army of civilians, legal specialists, troops, and other skilled workers that came with him viewed Taiwan as a temporary base for building industrial and military strength towards the level necessary to retake the mainland", ". In August 1955, and later in 1958, Chiang demonstrated his commitment for settling KMT-Chinese Communist Party (CCP) representative rivalry with military force by instigating conflict along the Tachen, Kinmen and Matsu islands in the First Taiwan Strait Crisis. The PROC began shelling the islands in response to Chiang's deployment of approximately 60,000 armed troops into the area, which prompted the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis", ". In the 1960s smaller skirmishes were accompanied by unconventional strategies aimed at the liberation of China. Chiang Kai-shek deployed planes which dropped leaflets and sent the air force on reconnaissance and espionage missions i.e. blowing up bridges and infrastructure in the mainland", ".e. blowing up bridges and infrastructure in the mainland. Nevertheless, the 1970s was marked by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758, signaling Taiwan's decline in the international community, and with it, the desire to recapture the mainland was replaced by the necessity to survive under the new unstable status quo.", "Domestic Policy \nThe KMT's One-China policy also influenced its governing policy in Taiwan. Dealing with the island's weakening economy after a long period of prosperity under the Japanese, as well as the residents’ dissatisfaction of KMT's administration, Chiang Kai-shek decided on consolidating his dominance through an authoritarian political system to stabilize Taiwan's internal affairs, opening path for unification with the mainland.", "Structure-wise, the government of Chiang imposed on Taiwan was of little difference than the previous form used to administer mainland China. Almost all of the governmental positions, with the addition of the highest military positions, police, and the educational system, were occupied by mainlanders. Ethnic division in the establishment of the administration system was visible: Hokkien people, the major ethnicity in Taiwan, took control over local governments", ". Meanwhile, the minority Hakka occupied top positions in bodies such as police and railroads, due to their favorability towards mainlanders. The KMT created a separate government for Taiwan, consisting of five municipalities and sixteen counties, where local residents could exercise voting rights.", "A number of progressive social policies were implemented. The government opened more schools and universities, along with organizing a public healthcare plan. The official educational curriculum demanded students learn and speak Mandarin Chinese, while forbidding the use of local languages", ". However, in exchange for social welfare, benefits were freedom and democratic rights: continuing the Martial Law, which granted extensive power to police and military in case of a “Communist rebellion” Chiang's government throughout the 1950s banned all political activities of the Taiwanese, such as forming parties, publishing newspapers and students’ democracy movements", ". There was little transparency inside the government, as the Legislative Yuan was limited from discussing bureaucratic issues, including but not limited to planning and funding.", "The KMT also attempted at maneuvering elections on the local scale: financial assistance and organizational funds were provided for candidates to better run their campaigns. The party pushed forward at least two candidates from different factions in one area, then allowed those factions to take turn holding position in the local bureaucracies. Additional economic advantages were also given to those candidates who agreed to comply with KMT.", "Economic policy", "A representative economic policy during the rule of Chiang Kai-shek was the Land Reforms introduced between 1949 and 1953, which had profound effects not only to the agricultural sector, but to the whole economy. Their goal was to change the Japanese colonial laid rental system which promoted unfair distribution of land and contributed to the gap between rich and poor. The reforms aimed at making all farmers the owners of their own fields. The reforms consisted of three stages", ". The reforms consisted of three stages. First, compulsory reduction of land rent, which limited farm rents to a maximum of 37.5 percent of the annual yield of the main crops. The second stage - sale of public land, that was previously owned and confiscated from Japanese colonists, to actual tenants at a price significantly below market value. The final third stage - the “Land-to-the-Tiller Act”, under which land owned by landlords in excess of 2", ".9 hectares was compulsorily sold to the government, which in turn resold it to tenants. These reforms touched a vast majority of the Taiwanese agricultural population, with 70% of tenant households having their rents reduced in the first stage. The second and third stages also contributed to reducing the land farmed by tenants from 44% in 1949 to 17% in 1953.", "Economically, the reforms were important as with the change of ownership, the incentive framework of the cultivator was transformed - promoting an increase of work efforts, production, investment and adoption of new technologies. This rising productivity was necessary for the subsequent transfer of resources - labor and capital, to other sectors of the economy. The reforms also brought an impact to the income distribution, improving the incomes of tenants and new owners", ". It is argued that such policy of distribution first, and growth later also contributed to the egalitarian growth pattern of the country.", "Chiang Ching-kuo (1975–1988)", "Cross-Strait Policy", "Taiwan under KMT president Chiang Ching-kuo embodied a move towards more flexible Cross-Strait relationship in an era of official diplomatic isolation, launched by the US recognition of the PRC on January 1, 1979", ". While Chiang Kai-shek's original One-China philosophy maintained Taiwan as its sole legitimate representative, a stance at the time recognized by the international community, his son, confronted by Taiwan's declining international status and the rise of China's power and relevance, could no longer maintain the same hard stance and openly hostile policy", ". Thus, the KMT under Kuo shifted its interpretation of One-China to the notion of representative rivalry within its current Cross-Strait relations, which expresses Taiwan's necessity to negotiate for its relevance and its concessions made in other foreign arenas in light of the CPP's competing claim of representation.", "Under the One-China line, Chiang Ching-kuo negotiated for its own security in order to compete with the PRC's growing power. As such, he filled the void of formal diplomatic ties to other countries with unofficial ties, sharing the modern paradigm of Taiwan's foreign relations", ". Chiang Ching-kuo's responded bitterly to the severing of official relations in 1979 and the termination of the Mutual Defense Treaty, causing him to reiterate his five principles with regard to ROC-US relations under the banner of “reality, continuity, security, legality, and governmentality.\" As a result, the United States Congress pushed the Taiwan Relations Act on Oct. 10 the same year", ".\" As a result, the United States Congress pushed the Taiwan Relations Act on Oct. 10 the same year. The act was an unofficial brokerage which allowed the US to deal with external threats to Taiwan and to sell arms for the purpose of defense building.", "In 1979, the “Three Noes”: no contact, no compromise, no negotiation, with the PROC was adopted in response to the ROC's “Three Links” and maintained by president Kuo. However, the hijacking of a Chinese Airline Cargo Plane on May 3, 1986, combined with domestic pressure by citizens demanding to reach the mainland, undid the policy", ". In 1987, an Open Door policy allowed the ROC Red Cross to issue permits for people from Taiwan to travel to their relatives in the mainland, prompting the start of ongoing civilian exchanges between the ROC and the PRC.", "The compromise of “Chinese Taipei” at the 1984 Summer Olympics is a significant example of concessions made during Chiang Ching-kuo's administration. Due to China's complaints regarding the term Chinese Taiwan, and the registering of athletes as Chinese athletes, Taiwan adopted \"Chinese Taipei\" - a term that silently endorsed the One-China principle, and resembled a compromise of representation to which both parties were satisfied", ". This was a pragmatic move toward regaining international space for the ROC, one which embodied a move toward unification.", "Domestic Policy", "In light of growing domestic pro-democracy sentiment, abandonment by the international community - starting from the United States’ decision to not recognize the ROC diplomatically, and China's rising power and international status, Chiang Ching-kuo initiated various strategic, limited democratic concessions in order to consolidate KMT authority against internal and external pressures", ". Doing so would allow the KMT to strategically continue as a strong state under the semblance of democracy, while also enabling the ROC securely allocate attention abroad in negotiating its One-China policy. Ultimately, human rights issues still remained a major controversy in this era, given that Chiang Ching-kuo kept the main policies of his father's reign alive. However, the Martial Law, the product of his father's security concerns of a communist rebellion was eventually lifted in 1987.", "Chiang Ching-kuo's gradual switch from ethnic Chinese conservatism to Taiwanese conservatism began with reshuffling the cabinet to include more ethnically Taiwanese members, albeit on a small scale. The next step in this change was to open the political scene for opposite parties, namely Tangwai which had its root in the Taiwanese people", ". While Chiang Ching-kuo began slowly relaxing restraints on political opposition, “Tang-wai” was already earning large support from local elections in the end of the 1970s; much to the extent that after Kaohsiung Incident in 1979, the KMT initiated stricter surveillance, and capture, of opposition members", ". As political activism in the 1980s attracted more and more Taiwanese, the KMT government started carrying out open policies to encourage participation of the remaining population, such as including new talents and religious people. A prominent example would be Chiang's decision to pick Lee Teng-hui, an original Taiwanese, to be the country's vice-president in 1982. In, 1986, Chiang Ching-kuo did the unthinkable: he flouted the KMT by allowing the illegal formation of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP)", ". These policies demonstrate that Chiang Ching-kuo sought to gain international support in order to strengthen his regime, by taking the moral high ground of democratic legitimacy against the rising threat of China. In doing so, he also sought to appease the United States for finance and security reasons.", "Another element of Chiang Ching-kuo's era represented the continued exclusion of aboriginal people of Taiwan for fear of polluting Sinocentric national identity. Although the DPP was formed, it was never based on the intention of restoring rights of Aboriginals, but rather as a front to dissipate anger and satisfaction", ". Furthermore, there were no policies set in motion to return land stolen under Chiang Kai-shek, lift the ban addressing Aboriginal languages, or provide education in schools to continue Aboriginal culture. Only after democratic consolidation occurred after Chiang Ching-kuo, were aboriginal rights restored", ". In tandem with maintaining a strict Sino-centric identity, as Chiang Ching-kuo and his men were attempting to introduce a new brand of conservatism to the party structure, on the nationwide scale the government was still labeled authoritarian conservative.", "Economic Policy", "The 1970s was period of rapid economic development for the Taiwanese economy. The government realized that the existing infrastructure was reaching its maximum capacity and was no longer able to accommodate the economy's needs. Chiang Ching-kuo became the driving force behind the proposal of the first post war large-scale infrastructure construction, namely the Ten Major Construction Projects", ". They included six projects covering highway, rail, sea and air transportation infrastructure, and others - shipbuilding, oil refining, steel manufacturing and nuclear power generation. The work on the projects started in the early 1970s while Chiang was still a Premier and most of the projects were completed by the end of the decade. The construction significantly contributed to mitigating the effects of the 1973 oil crisis, such as spiking unemployment resulting from factory closures", ". The projects created employment opportunities for 140 000 people and prompted the rapid revival of the economy. They also established a foundation for the Taiwanese increasing export-oriented economy.", "Under Chiang's presidency, the Ten Major Construction Projects were followed by the Twelve Major Construction Projects, which included infrastructure projects and expansion of a steel mill. Next, the Fourteen Major Construction Projects were completed, providing essential materials and infrastructure for the expansion of many small and medium enterprises in the countryside, and therefore promoting growth with equity.\n\nLee Teng-hui (1988-2000)", "Cross-Strait Policy", "In handling Cross-Strait Affairs, President Lee diverges from the traditional KMT line. Thus, his contributions to Conservatism must be carefully limited to the economy sphere. Indeed, throughout his presidency, Lee rejected the “1992” Consensus\" under the claim that China's characterization of Taiwan as a \"renegade province” embodied a straw man argument. Instead, he considered Taiwan as having always remained historically independent, under the observation of the San-Francisco Treaty", ". Such a radical stance worried China to the extent in which military sanctions were used, prompting the outbreak of the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis.", "Domestic Policy", "Due to being regarded as the pioneer of the liberalization of Taiwanese politics, many internal policies under Lee's presidency did not follow the conservative political line traditional to KMT. During his rule, he actively promoted democracy by removing permanent members of the Legislative Yuan - namely the mainlanders in power since 1949, as well as holding free elections afterwards to include more Taiwanese members", ". He emphasized his ethnically Taiwanese identity in his rule, crafting a stronger sense of Taiwanese nationalism following his predecessor Chiang Ching-kuo's steps.", "Economic Policy", "During the 1990s the Taiwanese government actively pursued monitoring and control over the cross-strait investments. Various regulations were implemented, such as requiring all firms that were investing in the mainland to report the amount and the nature of their investments. If they failed to do so, variety of punishments were awaiting - including denying permissions to travel, cutting off credits and exchange operations, denying future investment applications", ". Regulations also prescribed that new investments over US$1 million would require advance approval, further strengthening the government's ability to oversee the mainland related economic activities.", "This period was also marked by a major shift in the Taiwanese investments - from-small scale manufacturing and mostly labor-intensive industries, such as apparel, footwear, food processing, to higher technology production and infrastructure projects. As a result, the value of investments increased greatly, bringing up the government's fears of Taiwan's growing reliance on the mainland", ". In response, President Lee Teng-hui asserted that the country's excessive dependence upon overseas investment, particularly in the PRC, was diverting capital and attention from revitalizing the domestic economy, and the government might have to put a lid on it. One of the new strategies to diversify Taiwanese investments in other less hostile markets, was the “Go South” policy that encouraged outsourcing production in Southeast Asia", ". This policy however didn't produce the needed results and reduce the investments to the mainland.", "Seeing the weaknesses of the “Go South” strategy, the government took another approach introducing the “No Haste, Be Patient” policy. It required case-by-case approvals of Taiwanese investments in high-technology and infrastructure in the mainland. Also, it imposed limits on investments in the PRC - with a maximum investment level of 20 to 40 percent of a firm's total net worth and a ceiling of US$50 million on individual investments", ". A following regulation also banned Taiwanese investment in most large-scale infrastructure and energy projects. It was argued that the policy's objective was not to stop entirely the movement towards the mainland, but to slow and manage the outflow of high-tech firms and give them the opportunity to develop at home. Lee also claimed that as long as Beijing was being hostile towards Taiwan, such unrestrained investments and excessive reliance on the mainland would undermine the national security.", "Lee's policies were met with strong opposition - both from the business levels and the general electorate, which supported closer economic ties with the mainland, in spite of concerns over security threats and pressure from Beijing.\n\nMa Ying-jeou (2008-2016)", "Cross-Strait Policy", "Under the presidency of Ma Ying-jeou, the 1992 consensus carried on, allowing Taiwan to silently maintain its representation of One-China. In the context of this stalemate, Ma then turned towards bolstering Taiwan's security and international position by implementing flexible diplomacy", ". As such, Ma's main vision was to slowly restore the modus vivendi in regard to the growing power and influence of the ROC by scaling down the hostile relationship which had greatly escalated during Lee Teng-hui's and Chen Shui-bian’s presidencies. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs during Ma's presidency, the consensus represented the ROC's principles of “dignity, autonomy, pragmatism, and flexibility” in foreign affairs", ". By downplaying hostility towards the PROC in conformity with the stance of the international community, Taiwan was able to secure material goods and security via bilateral relationships, as well as international room.", "Most notably, on May 18, 2009, the ROC took part in the 62nd World Health Assembly, a move which marked Taiwan's return to participating in UN institutions since 1971. In accordance with reintegrating Taiwan into the international community, Ma's administration also placed the ROC's inclusion in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as top priorities", ". Moreover, since 2009, relations with countries in the Asia Pacific region have also recovered, as evidenced by the Memorandum of Understanding on Aviation Safety Cooperation with Korea and the resumption of deputy minister level economic and trade consultations with Malaysia and the Philippines. The United States, Taiwan's long-standing ally, continued to maintain bilateral relations in the form of assisting in the ROC's national defense: in October 2008, the Bush administration agreed to 6", ".2 billion dollar arms sales, which was repeated during Obama's presidency.", "In June 2013, however, the PRC and the ROC signed the extremely controversial Cross-Strait Services Trade Agreement (CSSTA). Ma administration's efforts of flexible diplomacy, which had not only principally maintained the 1992 consensus, but also brought the PROC and the ROC closer to ever before, induced political backlash as students occupied the National Parliament, demanding a clause by clause review of the agreement", ". General discontent over Ma's Cross-Strait Policy culminated in the election of 2016, which brought the DPP back in power.", "Domestic Policy", "The winner of 2008 Presidential Election, Ma Ying-jeou’s policies embodied a large state which aggressively shaped domestic politics. These policies however large in scale, were largely challenged by Taiwanese citizens in terms of not only their interventionism, but also their poor efficacy. In addition, several key points of Ma's campaign were promises of anti-corruption and moreover, harmony among ethnicities", ". However, neither was kept; in particular, one of the first actions he decided on was the re-opening of Chiang Kai-shek Mausoleum, showing an example of how much the previous president still influenced the newly elected president to support cultivating an exclusive national identity on a Sino-centric basis.", "Taiwan's economic growth during his first term gained him a large amount of support from big names in business for reelection, thanks to his efforts on economic integration with the mainland; but at the same time a growing number of citizens were enthusiastically participating in social movements to oppose various policy changes that Ma's government put forward", ". Some of those controversial moves from the authorities were poor management on dealing with aftermath of 2008 tsunami, the Statute for Farm Village Rejuvenation, media control of public television broadcasting, sexual harassment towards children, and the approvement of establishing a naphtha cracker plant near the coast", ". Furthermore, the government permanently stopped operation of the previous DPP-supported civic and environmental structures, causing the loss of communication channels between the government and the public. All those policies reflected a relatively conservative perspective due to the presence of a large, albeit unpopular state, financed by big business, which in particular during Ma's era, undermined human rights and environmental issues.", "Economic Policy", "Unlike the previous KMT government under the presidency of Lee Teng-hui, which attempted to reduce the mainland related economic activities, Ma Ying-jeou focused on development in cooperation with China to reap trade benefits. Following the growing desires and the increasing pressure from the business community, a few weeks after Ma's inauguration he initiated talks between Taiwan and the mainland regarding the issue of the Three Direct Links", ". These are the three main paths of communication between Taiwan and PRC - via mail, transportation and commerce, which were banned between the two sides for almost six decades. The absence of the three links has been a huge barrier for Taiwanese businesses, increasing shipment costs and obstructing access to a potentially large market, low labor costs and talent pool in the mainland. It also prevented investment and development of multinational companies back in Taiwan.", "Finally, on November 4, 2008, the two sides signed series of agreements regarding each link and Three Direct Links were established. The successful talks mark a historic moment signifying that cross-Strait relations have moved past hostility towards negotiation and cooperation. The opposition has been sceptical, repeatedly claiming that while such move might be economically beneficial for Taiwan, it is compromising the national security with Taiwanese airports being open to PRC aircraft", ". In reality however, because of this development, cross-strait relations have increasingly become oriented towards rapprochement rather than confrontation.", "Another economic policy of Ma's government is the Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement. Signed in 2010, the Agreement aims to reduce tariffs and commercial barriers between the two-sides, with the hope for much-needed boost to Taiwan's economy. Yet, it was not received well by the public, giving start of protests and a fierce public debate over the effects of the agreement", ". Opponents have expressed concerns for the future of the local economy, as Taiwanese workers and small businesses would have to compete with increasing imports of cheaper Chinese goods. At the heart of the protests however, has been the fear that the ECFA might be led to unification with Beijing, which sees the island as a Chinese province", ". The President has asserted that the deal is about economics, not politics, and has affirmed his confidence over Taiwanese democracy and its ability to fend off undue pressure from the PRC.", "Leadership gallery\n\nSee also \n Gexin movement\n History of the Republic of China\n Politics of Taiwan\n List of political parties in Taiwan\n Kuomintang-Nanjing\n\nReferences\n\nSources", "Further reading\n Barnett, A. Doak China on the Eve of Communist Takeover. Praeger, 1963 online edition \n Bedeski, Robert E. State-Building in Modern China: The Kuomintang in the Prewar Period. (1981). 181 pp.\n Bergere, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-Sen (1998), 480pp, the standard biography\n Bodenhorn, Terry, ed. Defining Modernity: Guomindang Rhetorics of a New China, 1920–1970. (2002). 288 pp.", "Boorman, Howard L., ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967–1979). 600 short scholarly biographies excerpt and text search\n Botjer, George. A Short History of Nationalist China, 1919–1949 (1979). 312pp\n Fairbank, John K., ed. The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912–1949. Part 1. Cambridge U. Press, 1983. 1001 pp.", "Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 2. Cambridge U. Press, 1986. 1092 pp.\n Fenby, Jonathan. Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost (2004), 592pp excerpt and text search\n Hille, Kathrin. \"Resurgent KMT must confront its dark past,\" Financial Times 6 December 2007 online\n Hood, Steven J. The Kuomintang and the Democratization of Taiwan. Westview, 1997. 181 pp. online", "Hood, Steven J. The Kuomintang and the Democratization of Taiwan. Westview, 1997. 181 pp. online \n Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945 (1992) online \n Nedostop, Rebecca. \"Two Tombs: Thoughts on Zhu Yuanzhang, the Kuomintang, and the Meaning of National Heroes.\" Chap. 17 in Long Live the Emperor! Uses of the Ming Founder across Six Centuries of East Asian History, ed. Sarah Schneewind, 355–90. Minneapolis: Society for Ming Studies, 2008. .", "Perleberg, Max. Who's Who in Modern China (From the Beginning of the Chinese Republic to the End of 1953): Over Two Thousand Detailed Biographies of the Most Important Men Who Took Part in the Great Struggle for China, Including Detailed Histories of the Political Parties, Government Organisations, a Glossary of New Terms Used in Contemporary Chinese (1954) online \n Pye, Lucian W. Warlord Politics: Conflict and Coalition in the Modernization of Republican China (1971) online", "Rigger, Shelley. Politics in Taiwan: Voting for Democracy (1999) online edition\n Sharman, Lyon. Sun Yat-Sen His Life and Its Meaning: A Critical Biography. (1968) online \n Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s excerpt and text search; complete edition online \n Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China (2011) excerpt and text search", "Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo's Son: Chiang Ching-kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan. (2000). 496 pp.\n Thornton, Richard C. China: A Political History, 1917–1980 (1982) online edition \n Wachman, Alan M. Taiwan: National Identity and Democratization (1994) online edition \n Yu, George T. Party Politics in Republican China the Kuomintang, 1912– 1924 (1966) online \n Zanasi, Margherita. Saving the Nation: Economic Modernity in Republican China. U. of Chicago Press, 2006. 320 pp.", "History by political party\nKuomintang\nPolitical history of China\nPolitical history of Taiwan\nConservatism in Taiwan\nPolitics of the Republic of China" ]

[ "Non-Hispanic cultural diversity in Puerto Rico and the basic foundation of Puerto Rican culture began with the mixture of the Spanish, Taíno and African cultures in the beginning of the 16th century. In the early 19th century, Puerto Rican culture became more diversified with the arrival of hundreds of families from non-Hispanic countries such as Corsica, France, Germany and Ireland. To a lesser extent other settlers came from Lebanon, China, Portugal and Scotland.", "Factors that contributed to the immigration of non-Hispanic families to Puerto Rico included the advent of the Second Industrial Revolution, and widespread crop failures in Europe. All this, plus the spread of the cholera epidemic, came at a time when desire for independence was growing among Spanish subjects of Spain's last two colonies in the Western Hemisphere, Puerto Rico and Cuba.", "As a consequence the Spanish Crown made concessions with the establishment of the \"Real Cédula de Gracias de 1815\" (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they agreed to pay taxes and continue to support the Catholic Church", ". In 1870, the Spanish Courts also passed the \"Acta de Culto Condicionado\" (Conditional Cult Act), a law granting the right of religious freedom to all those who wished to worship another religion other than the Catholic religion.", "In Puerto Rico they adopted the local customs and intermarried with the locals. One of the consequences of the diversification of the cultures is that there are many Puerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent who have non-Hispanic surnames. Puerto Rican surnames are not limited to those from Spain. Puerto Ricans commonly use both their father's and mother's surnames. It is thus not unusual to find someone with a non-Hispanic surname and a Hispanic surname", ". It is thus not unusual to find someone with a non-Hispanic surname and a Hispanic surname. Two examples are Ramón Power y Giralt and Demetrio O'Daly y Puente. Both of these Puerto Ricans have their father's Irish surname and their mother's Spanish surname.", "Other factors, such as the Great Depression and World War II, contributed to the large migration of Puerto Ricans to the United States mainland. Many Puerto Ricans married with non-Hispanics and had children of Puerto Rican descent who were inscribed with non-Hispanic surnames.", "Since 2007, the Government of Puerto Rico has been issuing \"Certificates of Puerto Rican Citizenship\" to anyone born in Puerto Rico or to anyone born outside of Puerto Rico with at least one parent who was born in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican citizenship was first legislated by the United States Congress in Article 7 of the Foraker Act of 1900 and later recognized in the Constitution of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican citizenship existed before the U.S", ". Puerto Rican citizenship existed before the U.S. takeover of the islands of Puerto Rico and continued afterwards.", "The contributions made by non-Hispanics to music, art, literature language, cuisine, religion and heritage, were instrumental in the development of modern-day Puerto Rican culture. The mixture of both the Hispanic and non-Hispanic immigrant cultures are evident in the island's political, commercial and religious structures.\n\nFirst settlers", "The first people from Europe to arrive in Puerto Rico were the Spanish Conquistadores. The island, called Borikén, at that time was inhabited by the Taíno Amerindians. Many Jews also known as \"converso\" came to Puerto Rico as members of the Spanish crews. The Jews who arrived and settled in Puerto Rico were referred to as \"Crypto-Jews\" or \"secret Jews\". When the Crypto Jews arrived on the island of Puerto Rico, they were hoping to avoid religious scrutiny, but the Inquisition followed the colonists", ". The Inquisition maintained \"no rota\" or religious court in Puerto Rico. However, heretics were written up and if necessary remanded to regional Inquisitional tribunals in Spain or elsewhere in the western hemisphere. As a result, many secret Jews settled the island's remote mountainous interior far from the concentrated centers of power in San Juan and lived quiet lives. They practiced crypto-Judaism, meaning that they secretly practiced Judaism while publicly professing to be Roman Catholic.", "Many Spaniards intermarried with Taínos women and much of the Taíno culture was mixed with that of the Spanish culture. Many Puerto Ricans today retain Taíno linguistic features, agricultural practices, food ways, medicine, fishing practices, technology, architecture, oral history, and religious views. Many Taíno traditions, customs, and practices have been continued", ". Many Taíno traditions, customs, and practices have been continued. The Spaniards enslaved the Taínos (the native inhabitants of the island), and many of them died as a result of Spaniards' oppressive colonization efforts. This presented a problem for Spain's royal government, which relied on slavery to staff their mining and fort-building operations. Spain's \"solution\": import enslaved west-Africans. The slaves were baptized by the Catholic Church and assumed the surnames of their owners.", "By 1570, the gold mines were declared depleted of the precious metal. After gold mining came to an end on the island, the Spanish Crown bypassed Puerto Rico by moving the western shipping routes to the north. The island became primarily a garrison for those ships that would pass on their way to or from richer colonies.\n\nThe Africans", "African free men accompanied the invading Spanish Conquistadors. The Spaniards enslaved the Taínos (the native inhabitants of the island), and many of them died as a result of Spaniards' oppressive colonization efforts. This presented a problem for Spain's royal government, which relied on slavery to staff their mining and fort-building operations. Spain's \"solution\": import enslaved west-Africans", ". Spain's \"solution\": import enslaved west-Africans. As a result, the majority of the African peoples who arrived at Puerto Rico did so as a result of the slave trade from many different societies of the African continent.", "A Spanish edict of 1664 offered freedom and land to African people from non-Spanish colonies, such as Jamaica and St. Dominique (Haiti), who immigrated to Puerto Rico and provided a population base to support the Puerto Rican garrison and its forts. Those freemen who settled the western and southern parts of the island soon adopted the ways and customs of the Spaniards. Some joined the local militia, which fought the British in their many attempts to invade the island", ". The escaped African slaves kept their former masters surnames; the free Africans who had emigrated from the West Indies had European surnames from those colonists, too. Such surnames tended to be either British or French. Therefore, it was common for Puerto Ricans of African ancestry to have non-Spanish surnames.", "The descendants of the former African slaves became instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's political, economic and cultural structure. They overcame many obstacles and have made their presence felt with their contributions to the island's entertainment, sports, literature and scientific institutions. Their contributions and heritage can still be felt today in Puerto Rico's art, music, cuisine, and religious beliefs in everyday life", ". In Puerto Rico, March 22 is known as \"Abolition Day\" and it is a holiday celebrated by those who live in the island.", "The Irish", "From the 16th to the 19th century, there was considerable Irish immigration to Puerto Rico, for a number of reasons. During the 16th century many Irishmen, who were known as \"Wild Geese\", fled the English Army and joined the Spanish Army. Some of these men were stationed in Puerto Rico and remained there after their military service to Spain was completed", ". During the 18th century men such as Field Marshal Alejandro O'Reilly and Colonel Tomas O'Daly were sent to the island to revamp the capital's fortifications..\" O'Reilly was later appointed governor of colonial Louisiana in 1769 where he became known as \"Bloody O'Reilly\".", "Among the members of the O'Neill family whose contributions to Puerto Rican culture are evident today are Hector O'Neill, politician and Mayor Ana María O'Neill an educator, author and advocate of women's rights. and María de Mater O'Neill an artist, lithographer, and professor.\n\nThe French", "The French immigration to Puerto Rico began as a result of economic and political conditions in places such as Louisiana (USA) and Saint-Domingue (Haiti). On the outbreak of the French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War (1754–1763), between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its North American Colonies against France, many of the French settlers fled to Puerto Rico", ". In the 1791, Saint-Domingue (Haiti) uprising, slaves were organized into an army led by the self-appointed general Toussaint Louverture and rebelled against the French. The ultimate victory of the slaves over their white masters came about after the Battle of Vertières in 1803. The French fled to Santo Domingo and made their way to Puerto Rico. Once there, they settled in the western region of the island in towns such as Mayagüez", ". Once there, they settled in the western region of the island in towns such as Mayagüez. With their expertise, they helped develop the island's sugar industry, converting Puerto Rico into a world leader in the exportation of sugar", ". French immigration from mainland France and its territories to Puerto Rico was the largest in number, second only to Spanish immigrants and today a great number of Puerto Ricans can claim French ancestry; 16 percent of the surnames on the island are either French or French-Corsican.", "Their influence in Puerto Rican culture is very much present and in evidence in the island's cuisine, literature and arts. The contributions of Puerto Ricans of French descent such as Manuel Gregorio Tavárez, Nilita Vientós Gastón and Fermín Tangüis can be found, but are not limited to, the fields of music, education and science.\n\nRoyal Decree of Graces of 1815", "Royal Decree of Graces of 1815\n\nBy 1825, the Spanish Empire had lost all of its territories in the Americas with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico. These two possessions, however, had been demanding more autonomy since the formation of pro-independence movements in 1808. Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining Caribbean territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815.", "The decree was printed in three languages — Spanish, English and French — intending to attract Europeans of non-Spanish origin, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers.", "Under the Spanish Royal Decree of Graces, immigrants were granted land and initially given a \"Letter of Domicile\" after swearing loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Catholic Church. After five years they could request a \"Letter of Naturalization\" that would make them Spanish subjects. The Royal Decree, was intended for non-Hispanic Europeans and not Asians nor people that were not Christian.", "In 1897, the Spanish Cortés also granted Puerto Rico a Charter of Autonomy, which recognized the island's sovereignty and right to self-government. By April 1898, the first Puerto Rican legislature was elected and called to order.", "Famine", "Many economic and political changes occurred in Europe during the latter part of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Hundreds of farm workers abandoned their work in agriculture and moved to the larger cities with the advent of the Second Industrial Revolution in search of better paying jobs", ". Those who stayed behind and attended their farmlands suffered from diseases like the cholera epidemic, and the consequences of widespread crop failure from long periods of drought and the potato fungus that caused the Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s. Starvation was widespread in Europe. In Ireland, the famine killed over one million Irish people and created nearly two million refugees.", "The Corsicans", "The island of Puerto Rico is very similar in geography to the island of Corsica and therefore appealed to the many Corsicans who wanted to start a \"new\" life. Hundreds of Corsicans and their families immigrated to Puerto Rico from as early as 1830, and their numbers peaked in the early 1900s", ". The first Spanish settlers settled and owned the land in the coastal areas, the Corsicans tended to settle the mountainous southwestern region of the island, primarily in the towns of Adjuntas, Lares, Utuado, Ponce, Coamo, Yauco, Guayanilla and Guánica. However, it was Yauco whose rich agricultural area attracted the majority of the Corsican settlers. The three main crops in Yauco were coffee, sugar cane and tobacco", ". The three main crops in Yauco were coffee, sugar cane and tobacco. The new settlers dedicated themselves to the cultivation of these crops and within a short period of time some were even able to own and operate their own grocery stores. However, it was with the cultivation of the coffee bean that they would make their fortunes. The descendants of the Corsican settlers were also to become influential in the fields of education, literature, journalism and politics.", "Today the town of Yauco is known as both the \"Corsican Town\" and \"The Coffee Town\". There's a memorial in Yauco with the inscription, \"To the memory of our citizens of Corsican origin, France, who in the C19 became rooted in our village, who have enriched our culture with their traditions and helped our progress with their dedicated work - the municipality of Yauco pays them homage", ".\" The Corsican element of Puerto Rico is very much in evidence, Corsican surnames such as Paoli, Negroni and Fraticelli are common.", "The Germans", "German immigrants arrived in Puerto Rico from Curaçao and Austria during the early 19th century. Many of these early German immigrants established warehouses and businesses in the coastal towns of Fajardo, Arroyo, Ponce, Mayagüez, Cabo Rojo and Aguadilla. One of the reasons that these businessman established themselves in the island was that Germany depended mostly on Great Britain for such products as coffee, sugar and tobacco", ". By establishing businesses dedicated to the exportation and importation of these and other goods, Germany no longer had to pay England high tariffs. Not all immigrants were businessmen—some were teachers, farmers, and skilled laborers.", "In Germany, the European Revolutions of 1848 in the German states erupted, leading to the Frankfurt Parliament. Ultimately, the rather non-violent \"revolution\" failed. Disappointed, many Germans immigrated to the Americas and Puerto Rico, dubbed as the Forty-Eighters. The majority of these came from Alsace-Lorraine, Baden, Hesse, Rheinland and Württemberg", ". The majority of these came from Alsace-Lorraine, Baden, Hesse, Rheinland and Württemberg. German immigrants were able to settle in the coastal areas and establish their businesses in towns such as Fajardo, Arroyo, Ponce, Mayagüez, Cabo Rojo and Aguadilla. Those who expected free land under the terms of the Spanish Royal Decree, settled in the central mountainous areas of the island in towns such as Adjuntas, Aibonito and Ciales among others", ". They made their living in the agricultural sector and in some cases became owners of sugar cane plantations. Others dedicated themselves to the fishing industry.", "In 1870, the Spanish Courts passed the \"Acta de Culto Condicionado\" (Conditional Cult Act), a law granting the right of religious freedom to all those who wished to worship another religion other than the Catholic religion. The Anglican Church, the Iglesia Santísima Trinidad, was founded by German and English immigrants in Ponce in 1872.", "By the beginning of the 20th century, many of the descendants of the first German settlers had become successful businessmen, educators, and scientists and were among the pioneers of Puerto Rico's television industry. Among the successful businesses established by the German immigrants in Puerto Rico were Mullenhoff & Korber, Frite, Lundt & Co., Max Meyer & Co. and Feddersen Willenk & Co. Korber Group Inc. one of Puerto Rico's largest advertising agencies was founded by the descendants of William Korber.", "The Chinese", "When the United States enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act on May 6, 1882, many Chinese in the United States fled to Puerto Rico, Cuba and other Latin American nations. They established small niches and worked in restaurants and laundries. The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law that suspended Chinese immigration. After the Spanish–American War, Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States under the conditions established by the Treaty of Paris of 1898", ". Chinese workers in the United States were allowed to travel to Puerto Rico. Some worked in the island's sugar industry, but most worked in re-building Puerto Rico's infrastructure and rail systems. Many of the workers in Puerto Rico decided to settle permanently in the island.", "Various businesses are named \"Los Chinos\" (The Chinese) and a Valley in the town of Maunabo, Puerto Rico is called \"Quebrada Los Chinos\" (The Chinese Stream). The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, has a branch in Puerto Rico.", "Post Spanish–American War", "Puerto Rico was ceded by Spain to the United States at the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898. Almost immediately, the United States began the \"Americanization\" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity. The \"Americanization\" process of the island had an immediate effect on the political, commercial, military and sports culture of the Puerto Ricans", ". Baseball, which has its origins in 18th century England and later developed in the United States, was introduced to the island by a group of Puerto Ricans and Cubans who learned the sport in the United States. The sport was also played by the American soldiers who organized games as part of their training. Puerto Ricans were also introduced to the sport of Boxing and Basketball by the occupying military forces.", "Many non-Hispanic soldiers who were assigned to the military bases in Puerto Rico choose to stay and live in the island. Unlike their counterparts who settled in the United States in close knit ethnic communities, these people intermarried with Puerto Ricans and adopted the language and customs of the island thereby completely integrating themselves into the society of their new homeland.\n\nThe Jews", "Even though the first Jews who arrived and settled in Puerto Rico were \"Crypto-Jews\" or \"secret Jews\", the Jewish community did not flourish in the island until after the Spanish–American War. Jewish-American soldiers were assigned to the military bases in Puerto Rico and many chose to stay and live on the island. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico in the 1930s as refugees from Nazi occupied Europe", ". The majority settled in the island's capital, San Juan, where in 1942 they established the first Jewish Community Center of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico is home to the largest and wealthiest Jewish community in the Caribbean with almost 3,000 Jewish inhabitants. Puerto Rican Jews have made many contributions to the Puerto Rican way of life. Their contributions can be found, but are not limited to, the fields of education, commerce and entertainment", ". Among many successful businesses they established are Supermercados Pueblo (Pueblo Supermarkets), Almacenes Kress (clothing store), Doral Bank, Pitusa and Me Salvé.", "Cuban Revolution", "The Cuban Revolution of 1959, influenced the large immigration of Chinese and Jews to the island. In 1959, thousands of business-minded Chinese fled Cuba, after the success Cuban Revolution led by Fidel Castro. One of the results of the communist revolution was that the state took over private property and nationalized all private-owned businesses. Most of the Cuban Chinese fled overseas and among the places where many of them settled were Puerto Rico, Miami and New York", ". Also, almost all of Cuba's 15,000 Jews went into exile. The majority of them also fled to Miami and Puerto Rico.", "Puerto Rican migration to the United States", "Puerto Ricans were Spanish citizens before Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898. After Puerto Rico was ceded, they became citizens of Puerto Rico. Before 1917, when the U.S. Congress passed the Jones-Shafroth Act, popularly called the Jones Act, which granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. Puerto Ricans who moved to New York were considered immigrants", ".S. citizenship. Puerto Ricans who moved to New York were considered immigrants. Later several factors contributed and led to what became known as \"The Great Migration\" of Puerto Ricans to New York. These were the following: the Great Depression, World War II and the advent of air travel.", "The Great Depression that spread throughout the world also affected Puerto Rico. Since the island's economy depended and still depends on that of the United States, the failure of American banks and industries was strongly felt in the island. Unemployment rose as a consequence and many families fled to the U.S. mainland in search of jobs.", "The outbreak of World War II opened doors to many jobs for migrants. Since a large portion of the male population of the U.S. was sent to war, there was a sudden need for people to fill the jobs they left behind. Puerto Rican men and women found jobs in factories and ship docks, producing both domestic and warfare goods.", "The advent of air travel provided Puerto Ricans with an affordable and faster way of travel to New York. Eventually some Puerto Ricans adopted the mainland United States as their home and married with non-Hispanics. Their children were of Puerto Rican descent who were inscribed with non-Hispanic surnames.", "Puerto Ricans with non-Hispanic surnames", "The cultural impact that immigrants with ancestry from non-Hispanic countries have made in Puerto Rico is also apparent in the non-Hispanic surnames (whether paternal or maternal) of many Puerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent. The following is a list solely of Puerto Ricans or people of Puerto Rican descent with non-Hispanic surnames and is not intended to reflect the ethnicity of the person listed", ". This list also includes people of Puerto Rican descent born in the United States and men and women who adopted Puerto Rico as their homeland.", "Chinese origin\nChen, Nero - boxer.\n Chu, Julie - ice hockey player; plays forward on the U.S. women's ice hockey team.\n Cheng, Guanglou - inventor.\nMoy, Chris - singer.", "Corsican-Italian origin\nAntonini, Ernesto Ramos – politician.\nFuster Berlingeri, Jaime B. – politician.\nBoschetti, Americo – singer, composer.\nBracetti, Mariana – revolutionary.\nBrandi, Kristina – tennis player.\nBraschi, Giannina - poet and novelist.\nCalvani, Mayra – author.\nCapetillo, Luisa – labor leader.\nCarattini, Vicente – singer and composer.\nCroatto, Tony - singer.\nDipiní, Carmen Delia – singer.\nDominicci, Carmen – journalist.\nRibas Dominicci, Fernando L. – military.\nFarinacci, Jorge – politician.", "Ribas Dominicci, Fernando L. – military.\nFarinacci, Jorge – politician.\nGeorgetti, Eduardo - sugar baron, politician.\nGilormini, Mihiel \"Mike\" – military.\nMignucci, Andrés – architect.\nMignucci, Antonio – marine biologist.\n Negroni, Héctor Andrés – military historian.\nNegroni, Joe – singer.\nOlivieri Sánchez, Manuel - Civil rights activist.\nPalmieri, Charlie – bandleader.\nPalmieri, Eddie – bandleader.\nPaoli, Antonio – opera singer.\n García Passalacqua, Juan Manuel – political analyst/commentator.", "Paoli, Antonio – opera singer.\n García Passalacqua, Juan Manuel – political analyst/commentator.\nPierluisi, Pedro R. - politician.\nPietri, Pedro – poet.\nRojas Tollinchi, Francisco, poet, civic leader and journalist.\nSantini, Jorge – Mayor of San Juan.\nSantini, Chay – model.\n Semidei Rodríguez, José - military.\nTeissonniere, Gerardo – pianist.\n Vivoni, Carlos - politician\nVivoni, Miguel - politician.\n Vivoni, Pedro Santos - politician, Mayor.\n Vivoni, Pierre - Judge.", "Vivoni, Miguel - politician.\n Vivoni, Pedro Santos - politician, Mayor.\n Vivoni, Pierre - Judge.\n Vivoni Ramírez de Arellano, José Antonio - politician, mayor.", "Czech origin\nKubecka, Chris - (full name Christina Kubecka de Medina), a Computer Scientist specialist in cyberwarfare.", "French origin \nAlers, Rafael - musician, founder/conductor of a symphonic orchestra, and composer.\nBailon, Adrienne - actress.\nGautier, Alejandrina Benítez de - poet.\nBeauchamp, Elías - Puerto Rican nationalist.\n Beauchamp, Dr. Pedro - Surgeon.\nBeltrán, Carlos - sportsperson.\nBernier, David \"Quique\" - politician, sportsperson.\nBlondet, Giselle - actress.\nBusquets, Anthony M. - scientist.\nCaro, Nydia - singer.\n Chardón, Dr. Carlos E. - educator and scientist.\nRibera Chevremont, Evaristo - poet.", "Chardón, Dr. Carlos E. - educator and scientist.\nRibera Chevremont, Evaristo - poet.\nCuret Alonso, Catalino \"Tite\" - Ballad and salsa composer.\ndel Villard, Sylvia - entertainer.\nDenis, Nelson Antonio - politician and writer.\nFarrait, Rene - singer.\nGautier Benítez, José - poet.\nGeigel de Duprey, Ana Roque - activist, educator.\nGiraud, Joyce - actress.\n Godreau, Miguel - actor, choreographer.\nGuenard, Nidia - professional wrestler.\nGuinot, Luis, Jr. - Ambassador.\nGuiot, Antulio Segarra - military.", "Guinot, Luis, Jr. - Ambassador.\nGuiot, Antulio Segarra - military.\nIthier, Rafael - musician.\nJovet, Carmen - journalist.\nLaporte, Juan - boxer.\nLaFountain, Michele - journalist.\nLaguerre, Enrique - writer.\nLamond, George- singer.\nLaRue, Eva - actress.\nLe Guillou, Teófilo José Jaime María - military.\nLoubriel, Juan Ramón - sportsperson.\nMalaret, Marisol - Miss Universe (1970).\nMarqués, Rene - writer and playwright.\nPlumey, Teófilo Marxuach - military.\nMonclova, René - actor and comedian.", "Plumey, Teófilo Marxuach - military.\nMonclova, René - actor and comedian.\nMonge, Yolandita - singer.\nMonroig, Gilberto - bolero singer.\nMonroig, Glenn - composer, singer.\nMouliert, Joaquin - musician.\nPellot, Victor - sportsperson.\nPerry, Rafael Pérez - businessman.\n Rayffer, Dr. Luis - physician\nRincón de Gautier, Felisa - politician.\nSallaberry, Fernando and Nefty - singers.\nPicon, Joe Sánchez - police officer and author.\nSouffront, Evelyn - singer.\nTangüis, Fermín - businessman and scientist.", "Souffront, Evelyn - singer.\nTangüis, Fermín - businessman and scientist.\nTavárez, Manuel Gregorio - composer.\nVientós Gastón, Nilita - educator.\nVigoreaux, Luis - TV producer and host.\nVigoreaux, Luisito - TV producer and host.\nVigoreaux, Roberto - former senator.\nGerman origin \n Brau, Dr. Salvador - sociologist, historian, novelist, and playwright.\n Colberg Ramírez, Severo - politician.\n Colberg Toro, Jorge - politician.\n Colberg Toro, Severo - politician.\n Degetau, Federico - politician.", "Colberg Toro, Severo - politician.\n Degetau, Federico - politician.\n Edick, Dr. Sixto González - scientist.\n Goderich, Ivonne - actress.\n Herger, Alfred D. - television show host.\n Hertell, Hans - former U.S. Ambassador to the Dominican Republic.\n Kiess, Erwin - politician.\nKlumb, Heinrich - architect.\n Kolthoff-Benners, Erick - judge.\n Kolthoff-Caraballo, Erick - Puero Rico Supreme Court Justice.", "(German origin - continued)\n Korber, William - businessman.\n Kupferschein, Franz von; he was baptized as Francesco Giuseppe Fortunato von Kupferschein (1751–1814) - father of the Puerto Rican pirate Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano.\n Luhring, Andrés G. - architect.\n Magath, Wolfgang-Felix - soccer player and coach.\n Mayer, George E. - military.\n Meyners, Jose Arnaldo - Journalist.\n Miller Jr., Edward G. - lawyer.\n Miller-Rodriguez, Irene - military\n Miller, Orvil - actor and musician.", "Miller-Rodriguez, Irene - military\n Miller, Orvil - actor and musician.\n Miller, Virgil R. - military.\n Mohr, Nicholasa - writer.Heath Anthology bio\n Neumann, Henry - politician.\n Oppenheimer, Isabel Luberza - also known as \"Isabel la Negra\".\nPrinze, Freddie – actor.\nPrinze Jr., Freddie – actor.\n Raschke, Jorge - evangelist.\n Raschke, Kimberly \"Kimmie\" - politician.\n Vélez Rieckehoff, Carlos - Puerto Rican nationalist.\n Rieckehoff Sampayo, Germán - sportsperson.\n Riefkohl, Frederick Lois - military.", "Rieckehoff Sampayo, Germán - sportsperson.\n Riefkohl, Frederick Lois - military.\nRiefkohl, Rudolph W.- military.\nRiefkohl, William- politician.\n Ross, Julita - singer.\n Rivera Schatz, Thomas - politician.\nDr. Schmidt Acosta, Ursula - educator and genealogist.\n Schmidt, Edna - journalist.\n Schmidt, Waldemar - boxing referee.\n Schomburg, Arturo Alfonso - historian.\nSeilhamer Rodríguez, Larry - politician.\n Stahl, Agustín - scientist.\n Stege, Sonia M. - Miss Puerto Rico 1974.\n Thon, Dickie baseball player", "Stege, Sonia M. - Miss Puerto Rico 1974.\n Thon, Dickie baseball player\n Esteves Völckers, Luis R. - military.\n Von Eckhardt, Ursula - columnist.\n Watring, Mark - sportsperson.\n Wiechers, Alfredo - architect.\n Nayoral Wirshing, Lila - First Lady of Puerto Rico from 1973-1977 and 1985-1993.\n Wirshing, Hermán - sugarcane baron.\n Wirshing, Hermán José - U.S. Marshal in Puerto Rico.\nIrish-English-Scottish origin \n Carthy-Deu, Deborah - Miss Universe 1985.\n Class, Jose Miguel - singer.", "Carthy-Deu, Deborah - Miss Universe 1985.\n Class, Jose Miguel - singer.\n Cofer, Judith Ortiz - author.\n Cole, Benjamín - politician\n Conboy, Miguel - Founder of the Puerto Rican tobacco trade.\n Dorough, Howie - singer.\n Evans, Faith - U.S. Marshal.\n Justice, Victoria - actress.\n Kelley, Kevin - boxer.\n Kennedy, Juan - slave trader.\n Lowell, Mike - MLB player.\n Lowry, Desiree - Miss Puerto Rico (1995).\n McClintock, Kenneth - politician.\nMcCreery, Scotty - country singer.\nMigenes-Johnson, Julia - Soprano.", "McCreery, Scotty - country singer.\nMigenes-Johnson, Julia - Soprano.\n O'Daly, Demetrio - military and politician.\nO'Ferrall, Rafael - military.\n O'Neill, Ana María - educator, author and advocate of women's rights.\n O'Neill García, Héctor - politician and Mayor.\n O'Neill, María de Mater - artist, lithographer, and professor.\n Perkins Flores, Ada - Miss Puerto Rico (1978).\nPower y Giralt, Ramón - military and politician.\nRichardson, Carmen Belén - actress.\n Riley, Sharon - actress/singer.", "Richardson, Carmen Belén - actress.\n Riley, Sharon - actress/singer.\n Robinson, Elizabeth - Miss Puerto Rico (1986).\n Rockwell, James - military.\n Scannell, Herb - businessman.\n Simpson, Laurie Tamara - Miss Puerto Rico (1987).\nClemente Walker, Roberto - baseball player.\nWarrington, Otilio \"Bizcocho\" - comedian and actor.\nWilliams, Bernie - former MLB player.", "Jewish origin\nHudes, Quiara Alegría - author, playwright.\nAnderson, Axel – actor/director\n Artime, Jorge - businessman founder of Almacenes Kress.\n Ben-Jochannan, Yosef Alfredo Antonio - Writer and historian.\nBlaine, David - magician.\nBrugman, Mathias – revolutionary.\n Goldman, Max – Civil Rights Commission.\n Helfeld, David – educator.\nKaplan, Julio – chess player.\n Kopel, Israel - businessman, founder of Almacenes Pitusa department stores.\nLeavitt, Raphy – bandleader and composer.", "Leavitt, Raphy – bandleader and composer.\nLehman, Manny - DJ and producer.\nLevins Morales, Aurora - author, poet\n Levy, Hila – military.\n Levy, Teresa - educator and author. \nMeyers, Ari – actress.\nOstow, Micol - author.\nSeijo, Jorge – radio and television personality.\nStarr, Brenda K. – \"salsa\" singer.\nSnyder, Aaron Cecil – Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico.\nTassler, Nina - President of CBS Entertainment.\nTicotin, Rachel – actress.\nTicotin, Sahaj - vocalist/guitarist.", "Ticotin, Rachel – actress.\nTicotin, Sahaj - vocalist/guitarist.\n Toppel, George and Harold - businessmen, founders of Supermercados Pueblo (Pueblo Supermarkets).", "Lebanese origin\n Fas, Antonio - politician.\n Báez Galib, Eudaldo - politician.\n\nSee also", "Puerto Rico\nList of Puerto Ricans\nHistory of women in Puerto Rico\nCulture of Puerto Rico\n Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico\nChinese immigration to Puerto Rico\nCorsican immigration to Puerto Rico\nFrench immigration to Puerto Rico\nGerman immigration to Puerto Rico\nIrish immigration to Puerto Rico\nJewish immigration to Puerto Rico\nRoyal Decree of Graces of 1815\nArt in Puerto Rico\nCinema of Puerto Rico\nCuisine of Puerto Rico\nPuerto Rican literature\nMusic of Puerto Rico\nSports in Puerto Rico\nCrypto-Judaism", "Note\n\nReferences\n\nPuerto Rican culture\nMulticulturalism in the United States" ]

[ "The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), sometimes called the lute turtle, leathery turtle or simply the luth, is the largest of all living turtles and the heaviest non-crocodilian reptile, reaching lengths of up to and weights of . It is the only living species in the genus Dermochelys and family Dermochelyidae", ". It is the only living species in the genus Dermochelys and family Dermochelyidae. It can easily be differentiated from other modern sea turtles by its lack of a bony shell; instead, its carapace is covered by oily flesh and flexible, leather-like skin, for which it is named.", "Taxonomy and evolution\n\nTaxonomy\nDermochelys coriacea is the only species in genus Dermochelys. The genus, in turn, contains the only extant member of the family Dermochelyidae.", "Domenico Agostino Vandelli named the species first in 1761 as Testudo coriacea after an animal captured at Ostia and donated to the University of Padua by Pope Clement XIII. In 1816, French zoologist Henri Blainville coined the term Dermochelys. The leatherback was then reclassified as Dermochelys coriacea. In 1843, the zoologist Leopold Fitzinger put the genus in its own family, Dermochelyidae. In 1884, the American naturalist Samuel Garman described the species as Sphargis coriacea schlegelii", ". The two were then united in D. coriacea, with each given subspecies status as D. c. coriacea and D. c. schlegelii. The subspecies were later labeled invalid synonyms of D. coriacea.", "Both the turtle's common and scientific names come from the leathery texture and appearance of its carapace (Dermochelys coriacea literally translates to \"Leathery Skin-turtle\"). Older names include \"leathery turtle\" and \"trunk turtle\". The common names incorporating \"lute\" and \"luth\" compare the seven ridges that run the length of the animal's back to the seven strings on the musical instrument of the same name", ". But probably more accurately derived from the lute's ribbed back which is in the form of a shell.", "Evolution\nRelatives of modern leatherback turtles have existed in relatively the same form since the first true sea turtles evolved over 110 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. The dermochelyids are relatives of the family Cheloniidae, which contains the other six extant sea turtle species. However, their sister taxon is the extinct family Protostegidae that included other species that did not have a hard carapace.\n\nAnatomy and physiology", "Leatherback turtles have the most hydrodynamic body of any sea turtle, with a large, teardrop-shaped body. A large pair of front flippers powers the turtles through the water. Like other sea turtles, the leatherback has flattened forelimbs adapted for swimming in the open ocean. Claws are absent from both pairs of flippers. The leatherback's flippers are the largest in proportion to its body among extant sea turtles", ". The leatherback's flippers are the largest in proportion to its body among extant sea turtles. Leatherback's front flippers can grow up to in large specimens, the largest flippers (even in comparison to its body) of any sea turtle.", "The leatherback has several characteristics that distinguish it from other sea turtles. Its most notable feature is the lack of a bony carapace. Instead of scutes, it has thick, leathery skin with embedded minuscule osteoderms. Seven distinct ridges rise from the carapace, crossing from the cranial to caudal margin of the turtle's back. Leatherbacks are unique among reptiles in that their scales lack β-keratin", ". Leatherbacks are unique among reptiles in that their scales lack β-keratin. The entire turtle's dorsal surface is colored dark grey to black, with a scattering of white blotches and spots. Demonstrating countershading, the turtle's underside is lightly colored. Instead of teeth, the leatherback turtle has points on the tomium of its upper lip, with backwards spines in its throat (esophagus) to help it swallow food and to stop its prey from escaping once caught.", "D. coriacea adults average in curved carapace length (CCL), in total length, and in weight. In the Caribbean, the mean size of adults was reported at in weight and in CCL. Similarly, those nesting in French Guiana, weighed an average of and measured in CCL. The largest verified specimen ever found was discovered on the Pakistani beach of Sandspit and measured in CCL and in weight", ". A previous contender, the \"Harlech turtle\", was purportedly in CCL and in weight, however recent inspection of its remains housed at the National Museum Cardiff have found that its true CCL is closer to , casting doubt on the accuracy of the claimed weight, as well. On the other hand, one scientific paper has claimed that the species can weigh up to without providing more verifiable detail", ". The leatherback turtle is scarcely larger than any other sea turtle upon hatching, as they average in carapace length and weigh around when freshly hatched.", "D. coriacea exhibits several anatomical characteristics believed to be associated with a life in cold waters, including an extensive covering of brown adipose tissue, temperature-independent swimming muscles, countercurrent heat exchangers between the large front flippers and the core body, and an extensive network of countercurrent heat exchangers surrounding the trachea.", "Mechanical properties", "The carapace of the leatherback sea turtle has a unique design which enables the sea turtles to withstand high hydrostatic pressures as they dive to depths of 1200 m. Unlike other sea turtles, the leatherback sea turtle has a soft, leathery skin which covers the osteoderms rather than a hard keratinous shell. The osteoderms are made up of bone-like hydroxyapatite/collagen tissue and have jagged edges, referred to as teeth", ". These osteoderms are connected by a configuration of interpenetrating extremities called sutures that provide flexibility to the carapace, enabling in plane and out of plane movement between osteoderms. This is important since the lungs, and thus the carapace, expand when taking in air and contract when deep diving.", "The sutures connect rigid elements and flexible joints in a zig-zag configuration, so there is no region where teeth can easily penetrate the carapace. There are two main failure mechanisms for the tires in tension: tooth failure corresponding to mineral-brittle failure; and interfacial failure between teeth corresponding to collagen-ductile failure. The triangular tooth geometry is able to evenly distribute load and absorb energy", ". The triangular tooth geometry is able to evenly distribute load and absorb energy. This leads to a high strength in tension since this geometry takes advantage of the tensile strength of bone and the interface. Additionally, the carapace is tough because sutures prevent crack propagation.  Under load, cracks interact with the sutures which can resist crack growth via crack bridging. This phenomenon was observed in sequential compression of osteoderm samples.", "Physiology", "Leatherbacks have been viewed as unique among extant non-avian reptiles for their ability to maintain high body temperatures using metabolically generated heat, or endothermy. Initial studies on their metabolic rates found leatherbacks had resting metabolisms around three times higher than expected for reptiles of their size. However, recent studies using reptile representatives encompassing all the size ranges leatherbacks pass through during ontogeny discovered the resting metabolic rate of a large D", ". coriacea is not significantly different from predicted results based on allometry.", "Rather than using a high resting metabolism, leatherbacks appear to take advantage of a high activity rate. Studies on wild D. coriacea discovered individuals may spend as little as 0.1% of the day resting. This constant swimming creates muscle-derived heat. Coupled with their countercurrent heat exchangers, insulating fat covering, and large size, leatherbacks are able to maintain high temperature differentials compared to the surrounding water", ". Adult leatherbacks have been found with core body temperatures that were above the water in which they were swimming.", "Leatherback turtles are one of the deepest-diving marine animals. Individuals have been recorded diving to depths as great as .\nTypical dive durations are between 3 and 8 minutes, with dives of 30–70 minutes occurring infrequently.\n\nThey are also the fastest-moving non-avian reptiles. The 1992 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records lists the leatherback turtle moving at in the water. More typically, they swim at .", "Distribution\nThe leatherback turtle is a species with a cosmopolitan global range. Of all the extant sea turtle species, D. coriacea has the widest distribution, reaching as far north as Alaska and Norway and as far south as Cape Agulhas in Africa and the southernmost tip of New Zealand. The leatherback is found in all tropical and subtropical oceans, and its range extends well into the Arctic Circle.", "The three major, genetically distinct populations occur in the Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and western Pacific Oceans. While nesting beaches have been identified in the region, leatherback populations in the Indian Ocean remain generally unassessed and unevaluated.\n\nRecent estimates of global nesting populations are that 26,000 to 43,000 females nest annually, which is a dramatic decline from the 115,000 estimated in 1980.", "Atlantic subpopulation\nThe leatherback turtle population in the Atlantic Ocean ranges across the entire region. They range as far north as the North Sea and to the Cape of Good Hope in the south. Unlike other sea turtles, leatherback feeding areas are in colder waters, where an abundance of their jellyfish prey is found, which broadens their range. However, only a few beaches on both sides of the Atlantic provide nesting sites.", "Off the Atlantic coast of Canada, leatherback turtles feed in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence near Quebec and as far north as Newfoundland and Labrador. The most significant Atlantic nesting sites are in Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana in South America, Antigua and Barbuda, and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean, and Gabon in Central Africa", ". The beaches of Mayumba National Park in Mayumba, Gabon, host the largest nesting population on the African continent and possibly worldwide, with nearly 30,000 turtles visiting its beaches each year between October and April. Off the northeastern coast of the South American continent, a few select beaches between French Guiana and Suriname are primary nesting sites of several species of sea turtles, the majority being leatherbacks. A few hundred nest annually on the eastern coast of Florida", ". A few hundred nest annually on the eastern coast of Florida. In Costa Rica, the beaches of Gandoca and Parismina provide nesting grounds.", "Pacific subpopulation\nPacific leatherbacks divide into two populations. One population nests on beaches in Papua, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands, and forages across the Pacific in the Northern Hemisphere, along the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington in North America. The eastern Pacific population forages in the Southern Hemisphere, in waters along the western coast of South America, nesting in Mexico, Panama, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, as well as eastern Australia.", "The continental United States offers two major Pacific leatherback feeding areas. One well-studied area is just off the northwestern coast near the mouth of the Columbia River. The other American area is located in California. Further north, off the Pacific coast of Canada, leatherbacks visit the beaches of British Columbia.\n\nEstimates by the WWF suggest only 2,300 adult females of the Pacific leatherback remain, making it the most endangered marine turtle subpopulation.", "South China Sea subpopulation", "A third possible Pacific subpopulation has been proposed, those that nest in Malaysia. This subpopulation, however, has effectively been eradicated. The beach of Rantau Abang in Terengganu, Malaysia, once had the largest nesting population in the world, hosting 10,000 nests per year. The major cause of the decline was egg consumption by humans", ". The major cause of the decline was egg consumption by humans. Conservation efforts initiated in the 1960s were ineffective because they involved excavating and incubating eggs at artificial sites which inadvertently exposed the eggs to high temperatures. It only became known in the 1980s that sea turtles undergo temperature-dependent sex determination; it is suspected that nearly all the artificially incubated hatchlings were female", ". In 2008, two turtles nested at Rantau Abang, and unfortunately, the eggs were infertile. Additionally, there are small nesting sites in southern Thailand where 18 turtles nested in 2021.", "Indian Ocean subpopulation\nWhile little research has been done on Dermochelys populations in the Indian Ocean, nesting populations are known from Sri Lanka and the Nicobar Islands. These turtles are proposed to form a separate, genetically distinct Indian Ocean subpopulation.\n\nEcology and life history", "Habitat", "Leatherback sea turtles can be found primarily in the open ocean. Scientists tracked a leatherback turtle that swam from Jen Womom beach of Tambrauw Regency in West Papua of Indonesia to the U.S. in a foraging journey over a period of 647 days. Leatherbacks follow their jellyfish prey throughout the day, resulting in turtles \"preferring\" deeper water in the daytime, and shallower water at night (when the jellyfish rise up the water column). This hunting strategy often places turtles in very frigid waters", ". This hunting strategy often places turtles in very frigid waters. One individual was found actively hunting in waters where temperatures were as low as . Following each foraging dive, the leatherback would return to warmer () surface waters to regain body heat before continuing to dive into near freezing waters. Leatherback turtles are known to pursue prey deeper than 1000 m—beyond the physiological limits of all other diving tetrapods except for beaked whales and sperm whales.", "Their favored breeding beaches are mainland sites facing the deep water, and they seem to avoid those sites protected by coral reefs.", "Feeding\nAdult D. coriacea turtles subsist almost entirely on jellyfish. Due to their obligate feeding nature, leatherbacks help control jellyfish populations. Leatherbacks also feed on other soft-bodied organisms, such as other cnidarians (siphonophores), tunicates (salps and pyrosomas) and cephalopods. They're also believed to feed on small crustaceans, fish (possibly symbiotes with jellies), sea urchins and snails.", "Pacific leatherbacks migrate about across the Pacific from their nesting sites in Indonesia to eat California jellyfish. One cause for their endangered state is plastic bags floating in the ocean. Pacific leatherback sea turtles mistake these plastic bags for jellyfish; an estimated one-third of adults have ingested plastic. Plastic enters the oceans along the west coast of urban areas, where leatherbacks forage, with Californians using upward of 19 billion plastic bags every year", ". Plastic bags were banned in California in 2016.", "Several species of sea turtles commonly ingest plastic marine debris, and even small quantities of debris can kill sea turtles by obstructing their digestive tracts. Nutrient dilution, which occurs when plastics displace food in the gut, affects the nutrient gain and consequently the growth of sea turtles. Ingestion of marine debris and slowed nutrient gain leads to increased time for sexual maturation that may affect future reproductive behaviors", ". These turtles have the highest risk of encountering and ingesting plastic bags offshore of San Francisco Bay, the Columbia River mouth, and Puget Sound.", "Lifespan\nVery little is known of the species' lifespan. Some reports claim \"30 years or more\", while others state \"50 years or more\". Upper estimates exceed 100 years.", "Death and decomposition", "Dead leatherbacks that wash ashore are microecosystems while decomposing. In 1996, a drowned carcass held sarcophagid and calliphorid flies after being picked open by a pair of Coragyps atratus vultures. Infestation by carrion-eating beetles of the families Scarabaeidae, Carabidae, and Tenebrionidae soon followed. After days of decomposition, beetles from the families Histeridae and Staphylinidae and anthomyiid flies invaded the corpse, as well", ". Organisms from more than a dozen families took part in consuming the carcass.", "Life history", "Predation", "Leatherback turtles face many predators in their early lives. Eggs may be preyed on by a diversity of coastal predators, including ghost crabs, monitor lizards, raccoons, coatis, dogs, coyotes, genets, mongooses, and shorebirds ranging from small plovers to large gulls. Many of the same predators feed on baby turtles as they try to get to the ocean, as well as frigatebirds and varied raptors. Once in the ocean, young leatherbacks face predation from cephalopods, requiem sharks, and various large fish", ". Despite their lack of a hard shell, the huge adults face fewer serious predators, though they are occasionally overwhelmed and preyed on by very large marine predators such as killer whales, great white sharks, and tiger sharks. Nesting females have been preyed upon by jaguars in the American tropics. Nesting females in Papua New Guinea are also attacked by saltwater crocodiles.", "The adult leatherback has been observed aggressively defending itself at sea from predators. A medium-sized adult was observed chasing a shark that had attempted to bite it and then turned its aggression and attacked the boat containing the humans observing the prior interaction. Dermochelys juveniles spend more of their time in tropical waters than do adults.", "Adults are prone to long-distance migration. Migration occurs between the cold waters where mature leatherbacks feed, to the tropical and subtropical beaches in the regions where they hatch. In the Atlantic, females tagged in French Guiana have been recaptured on the other side of the ocean in Morocco and Spain.", "Mating", "Mating takes place at sea. Males never leave the water once they enter it, unlike females, which nest on land. After encountering a female (which possibly exudes a pheromone to signal her reproductive status), the male uses head movements, nuzzling, biting, or flipper movements to determine her receptiveness. Males can mate every year but the females mate every two to three years. Fertilization is internal, and multiple males usually mate with a single female", ". Fertilization is internal, and multiple males usually mate with a single female. This polyandry does not provide the offspring with any special advantages.", "Female leatherbacks are known to nest up to 10 times in a single nesting season giving them the shortest internesting interval of all sea turtles.", "Offspring", "While other sea turtle species almost always return to their hatching beach, leatherbacks may choose another beach within the region. They choose beaches with soft sand because their softer shells and plastrons are easily damaged by hard rocks. Nesting beaches also have shallower approach angles from the sea. This is a vulnerability for the turtles because such beaches easily erode. They nest at night when the risk of predation and heat stress is lowest", ". They nest at night when the risk of predation and heat stress is lowest. As leatherback turtles spend the vast majority of their lives in the ocean, their eyes are not well adapted to night vision on land. The typical nesting environment includes a dark forested area adjacent to the beach. The contrast between this dark forest and the brighter, moonlit ocean provides directionality for the females. They nest towards the dark and then return to the ocean and the light.", "Females excavate a nest above the high-tide line with their flippers. One female may lay as many as nine clutches in one breeding season. About nine days pass between nesting events. Average clutch size is around 110 eggs, 85% of which are viable. After laying, the female carefully back-fills the nest, disguising it from predators with a scattering of sand. With the average clutch size being around 110, around 50 percent of the eggs don't even develop into hatchlings", ". This only causes more concern for the species, because it makes management much harder to determine.", "Development of offspring", "Cleavage of the cell begins within hours of fertilization, but development is suspended during the gastrulation period of movements and infoldings of embryonic cells, while the eggs are being laid. Development then resumes, but embryos remain extremely susceptible to movement-induced mortality until the membranes fully develop after incubating for 20 to 25 days. The structural differentiation of body and organs (organogenesis) soon follows. The eggs hatch in about 60 to 70 days", ". The eggs hatch in about 60 to 70 days. As with other reptiles, the nest's ambient temperature determines the sex of the hatchings. After nightfall, the hatchings dig to the surface and walk to the sea. The morphology of offspring has been found to vary with nest incubation temperatures", ". The morphology of offspring has been found to vary with nest incubation temperatures. Higher temperatures resulted in lower mass, smaller appendages, narrower carapace widths, and shorter flipper lengths while lower temperatures resulted in greater mass, wider appendage widths, wider carapace widths, and longer flipper lengths.", "Leatherback nesting seasons vary by location; it occurs from February to July in Parismina, Costa Rica. Farther east in French Guiana, nesting is from March to August. Atlantic leatherbacks nest between February and July from South Carolina in the United States to the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean and to Suriname and Guyana.", "Importance to humans\nPeople around the world still harvest sea turtle eggs. Asian exploitation of turtle nests has been cited as the most significant factor for the species' global population decline. In Southeast Asia, egg harvesting in countries such as Thailand and Malaysia has led to a near-total collapse of local nesting populations. In Malaysia, where the turtle is practically locally extinct, the eggs are considered a delicacy. In the Caribbean, some cultures consider the eggs to be aphrodisiacs.", "They are also a major jellyfish predator, which helps keep populations in check. This bears importance to humans, as jellyfish diets consist largely of larval fish, the adults of which are commercially fished by humans.\n\nCultural significance", "The turtle is known to be of cultural significance to tribes all over the world. The Seri people, from the Mexican state of Sonora, find the leatherback sea turtle culturally significant because it is one of their five main creators. The Seri people devote ceremonies and fiestas to the turtle when one is caught and then released back into the environment. The Seri people have noticed the drastic decline in turtle populations over the years and created a conservation movement to help this", ". The group, made up of both youth and elders from the tribe, is called Grupo Tortuguero Comaac. They use both traditional ecological knowledge and Western technology to help manage the turtle populations and protect the turtle's natural environment.", "In the Malaysian state of Terengganu, the turtle is the state's main animal and is usually seen in tourism ads.", "On the South Island of New Zealand's Banks Peninsula the leatherback turtle has great spiritual significance to the Koukourārata hapū of te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu, as well as wider significance in Te Ao Māori and to the peoples of greater Polynesia according to the protocols of each rohe", ". In 2021, a leatherback sea turtle was laid to rest by New Zealand's Department of Conservation in a hilltop cave on the Peninsula's Horomaka Island dug by hapū and in accordance with their rohe's ley lines, according to New Zealand's state broadcaster, Radio New Zealand.", "Conservation\nLeatherback turtles have few natural predators once they mature; they are most vulnerable to predation in their early life stages. Birds, small mammals, and other opportunists dig up the nests of turtles and consume eggs. Shorebirds and crustaceans prey on the hatchlings scrambling for the sea. Once they enter the water, they become prey to predatory fish and cephalopods.", "Leatherbacks have slightly fewer human-related threats than other sea turtle species, however, turtle-fishery interactions may play a larger role than previously recognized. Their flesh contains too much oil and fat to be considered palatable, reducing the demand. However, human activity still endangers leatherback turtles in direct and indirect ways. Directly, a few are caught for their meat by subsistence fisheries. Nests are raided by humans in places such as Southeast Asia", ". Nests are raided by humans in places such as Southeast Asia. In the state of Florida, there have been 603 leatherback strandings between 1980 and 2014. Almost one-quarter (23.5%) of leatherback strandings are due to vessel-strike injuries, which is the highest cause of strandings.", "Light pollution is a serious threat to sea turtle hatchlings which have a strong attraction to light. Human-generated light from streetlights and buildings causes hatchlings to become disoriented, crawling toward the light and away from the beach. Hatchlings are attracted to light because the lightest area on a natural beach is the horizon over the ocean, the darkest area is the dunes or forest", ". On Florida's Atlantic coast, some beaches with high turtle nesting density have lost thousands of hatchlings due to artificial light.", "Many human activities indirectly harm Dermochelys populations. As a pelagic species, D. coriacea is occasionally caught as bycatch. Entanglement in lobster pot ropes is another hazard the animals face. As the largest living sea turtles, turtle excluder devices can be ineffective with mature adults. In the eastern Pacific alone, a reported average of 1,500 mature females were accidentally caught annually in the 1990s. Pollution, both chemical and physical, can also be fatal", ". Pollution, both chemical and physical, can also be fatal. Many turtles die from malabsorption and intestinal blockage following the ingestion of balloons and plastic bags which resemble their jellyfish prey. Chemical pollution also has an adverse effect on Dermochelys. A high level of phthalates has been measured in their eggs' yolks. Leatherback sea turtles ranging from 1885-2007 were autopsied for the existence of plastic in the gastrointestinal tract", ". It was discovered that 34% of the cases had plastic blockage.", "Due to their diet consisting of gelatinous zooplankton, the leatherback sea turtle consumes high amounts of salt. Different life stages of dead individuals from the western Atlantic Ocean were used to test the concentrations of various contaminants found in the salt glands and red blood cells. These contaminants include arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and selenium. The contaminants were found in higher concentrations in the blood compared to the salt gland secretions", ". The length of the curve in the carapace of a turtle had a direct correlation with cadmium and mercury concentrations. Salt glands and red blood cells are potentially susceptible to high levels of contaminants being found in the oceans.", "Global initiatives\nD. coriacea is listed on CITES Appendix I, which makes export/import of this species (including parts) illegal. It has been listed as an EDGE species by the Zoological Society of London.", "The species is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as VU (Vulnerable), and additionally with the following infraspecific taxa assessments:\n East Pacific Ocean subpopulation: CR (Critically Endangered)\n Northeast Indian Ocean subpopulation: DD (Data Deficient)\n Northwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation: EN (Endangered)\n Southeast Atlantic Ocean subpopulation: DD (Data Deficient)\n Southwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)", "Southwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)\n Southwest Indian Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)\n West Pacific Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)", "Conserving Pacific and Eastern Atlantic populations were included among the top-ten issues in turtle conservation in the first State of the World's Sea Turtles report published in 2006. The report noted significant declines in the Mexican, Costa Rican, and Malaysian populations. The eastern Atlantic nesting population was threatened by increased fishing pressures from eastern South American countries.", "The Leatherback Trust was founded specifically to conserve sea turtles, specifically its namesake. The foundation established a sanctuary in Costa Rica, the Parque Marino Las Baulas.\n\nNational and local initiatives\nThe leatherback sea turtle is subject to different conservation laws in various countries.", "The United States listed it as an endangered species on 2 June 1970. The passing of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 ratified its status. In 2012, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration designated 41,914 square miles of Pacific Ocean along California, Oregon, and Washington as \"critical habitat\". In Canada, the Species at Risk Act made it illegal to exploit the species in Canadian waters. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada classified it as endangered", ". The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada classified it as endangered. Ireland and Wales initiated a joint leatherback conservation effort between Swansea University and University College Cork. Funded by the European Regional Development Fund, the Irish Sea Leatherback Turtle Project focuses on research such as tagging and satellite tracking of individuals.", "Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteer with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called \"Trinidad's Leatherback Sea Turtles\". This program strives to help save the world's largest turtle from extinction in Matura Beach, Trinidad, as volunteers work side by side with leading scientists and a local conservation group, Nature Seekers. This tropical island off the coast of Venezuela is known for its vibrant ethnic diversity and rich cultural events", ". It is also the site of one of the most important nesting beaches for endangered leatherback turtles, enormous reptiles that can weigh a ton and dive deeper than many whales. Each year, more than 2,000 female leatherbacks haul themselves onto Matura Beach to lay their eggs. With leatherback populations declining more quickly than any other large animal in modern history, each turtle is precious", ". On this research project, Dennis Sammy of Nature Seekers and Scott Eckert of Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network work alongside a team of volunteers to help prevent the extinction of leatherback sea turtles.", "Several Caribbean countries started conservation programs, such as the St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, focused on using ecotourism to highlight the leatherback's plight. On the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica, the village of Parismina has one such initiative. Parismina is an isolated sandbar where a large number of leatherbacks lay eggs, but poachers abound. Since 1998, the village has been assisting turtles with a hatchery program", ". Since 1998, the village has been assisting turtles with a hatchery program. The Parismina Social Club is a charitable organization backed by American tourists and expatriates, which collects donations to fund beach patrols. In Dominica, patrollers from DomSeTCo protect leatherback nesting sites from poachers.", "Mayumba National Park in Gabon, Central Africa, was created to protect Africa's most important nesting beach. More than 30,000 turtles nest on Mayumba's beaches between September and April each year.", "In mid-2007, the Malaysian Fisheries Department revealed a plan to clone leatherback turtles to replenish the country's rapidly declining population. Some conservation biologists, however, are skeptical of the proposed plan because cloning has only succeeded on mammals such as dogs, sheep, cats, and cattle, and uncertainties persist about cloned animals' health and lifespans", ". Leatherbacks used to nest in the thousands on Malaysian beaches, including those at Terengganu, where more than 3,000 females nested in the late 1960s. The last official count of nesting leatherback females on that beach was recorded to be a mere two females in 1993.", "In Brazil, reproduction of the leatherback turtle is being assisted by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources' projeto TAMAR (TAMAR project), which works to protect nests and prevent accidental kills by fishing boats. The last official count of nesting leatherback females in Brazil yielded only seven females. In January 2010, one female at Pontal do Paraná laid hundreds of eggs", ". In January 2010, one female at Pontal do Paraná laid hundreds of eggs. Since leatherback sea turtles had been reported to nest only at Espírito Santo's shore, but never in the state of Paraná, this unusual act brought much attention to the area, biologists have been protecting the nests and checking their eggs' temperature, although it might be that none of the eggs are fertile.", "Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 lists D. coriacea as vulnerable, while Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992 lists it as endangered.\n\nSee also\n\n Threats to sea turtles\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "See also\n\n Threats to sea turtles\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nThe Leatherback Turtle: Biology and Conservation. United States, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015.\nRake, Jody Sullivan. Leatherback Sea Turtles. United States, Capstone Press, 2012.\nHirsch, Rebecca E.. Leatherback Sea Turtles: Ancient Swimming Reptiles. United States, Lerner Publishing Group, 2015.\n\nExternal links\n National Geographic\n3D animation of an adult Leatherback sea turtle", "Dermochelyidae\nSea turtles\nTurtles of Africa\nTurtles of Asia\nTurtles of Europe\nTurtles of North America\nReptiles of Oceania\nTurtles of South America\nReptiles of Bangladesh\nReptiles of Canada\nReptiles of the Dominican Republic\nReptiles of Myanmar\nReptiles of Guatemala\nReptiles of Guyana\nReptiles of India\nReptiles of Indonesia\nReptiles of Japan\nReptiles of Malaysia\nReptiles of Mexico\nReptiles of New Zealand\nReptiles of Pakistan\nReptiles of the Solomon Islands\nReptiles of Thailand", "Reptiles of New Zealand\nReptiles of Pakistan\nReptiles of the Solomon Islands\nReptiles of Thailand\nReptiles of Trinidad and Tobago\nReptiles of the United States\nReptiles of West Africa\nReptiles of Western Australia\nFauna of Suriname\nFauna of the Eastern United States\nFauna of the Western United States\nFauna of the San Francisco Bay Area\nArticles containing video clips\nReptiles described in 1761\nCritically endangered fauna of Australia\nEPBC Act vulnerable biota\nNature Conservation Act endangered biota", "EPBC Act vulnerable biota\nNature Conservation Act endangered biota\nVulnerable biota of Africa\nVulnerable fauna of Asia\nVulnerable biota of Europe\nVulnerable fauna of Oceania\nESA endangered species\nTurtles of Australia\nSymbols of California\nHabitats Directive Species" ]

[ "WDAF-TV (channel 4) is a television station in Kansas City, Missouri, United States, affiliated with the Fox network. The station is owned by Nexstar Media Group, and maintains studios and transmitter facilities on Summit Street in the Signal Hill section of Kansas City, Missouri.", "WDAF-TV also serves as an alternate Fox affiliate for the St. Joseph market (which borders the Kansas City market to the north), as the station's transmitter produces a city-grade signal that reaches St. Joseph proper and rural areas in the market's central and southern counties. WDAF previously served as the default NBC station for St. Joseph until it disaffiliated from the network in September 1994 (presently, NBC programming in St", ". Joseph until it disaffiliated from the network in September 1994 (presently, NBC programming in St. Joseph is provided by KNPG-LD), and as the market's default Fox affiliate from that point on until KNPN-LD (channel 26) signed on as an in-market affiliate on June 2, 2012.", "History", "As an NBC affiliate", "On January 30, 1948, The Kansas City Star Co. – the locally based parent company of the Kansas City Star, which operated as an employee-owned entity at the time – submitted an application to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for a construction permit to build and license to operate a television station that would transmit on VHF channel 4. The FCC granted the license for the proposed television station to the Star Co", ". The FCC granted the license for the proposed television station to the Star Co. on the same day; the company subsequently requested to use WDAF-TV (standing for \"Why Dial Any Further?\") as its call letters, applying the base call sign originally assigned to its radio station on 610 AM (now KCSP; on radio, the WDAF calls now reside on 106.5 FM through a September 2003 format change that also saw the former's country music format move from the AM station, which adopted a sports talk format)", ". (Channel 4 is among a handful of U.S. broadcast stations that is an exception to an FCC rule that assigns call signs prefixed with a \"K\" to television and radio stations with cities of license located west of the Mississippi River and call signs prefixed with a \"W\" to stations located east of the river", ". The anomaly in the case of the WDAF television and radio stations is due to the fact that Kansas City was originally located east of the original \"K\"/\"W\" border distinction defined by the FCC at the time that the WDAF call letters were assigned to both stations.)", "The station commenced test broadcasts on September 11, 1949, with a three-day event held at Kansas City, Missouri's Municipal Auditorium on West 13th and Central Streets, which was presented by Kansas City Star Co. president Roy A. Roberts and WDAF-TV-AM general manager H. Dean Fitzer. Channel 4 informally signed on the air on September 29, when it broadcast coverage of President Harry S. Truman's speech at the Municipal Auditorium. WDAF-TV officially commenced regular programming two weeks later at 6:00 p", ". WDAF-TV officially commenced regular programming two weeks later at 6:00 p.m. on October 16, 1949; the station's first broadcast was The Birth of a TV Station, a special 30-minute documentary inaugurating channel 4's launch, which featured speeches from Roberts and Fitzer as well as topical features on the station's development and a film outlining programs that would air on WDAF. It was the second television station to sign on in Missouri (after KSDK in St", ". It was the second television station to sign on in Missouri (after KSDK in St. Louis, which debuted in February 1947 as KSD-TV) and the first to sign on in the Kansas City market. WDAF-TV has maintained studio facilities based at 31st and Summit streets in Kansas City, Missouri's Signal Hill neighborhood since its sign-on; the station originally maintained transmitter facilities on a broadcast tower located atop the building", ". (Since the transmitter facility was relocated to a tower across the street from the Summit Street studios, on Belleview Avenue near West 30th Street, in 1969, the original tower at the studio facility has remained in use for auxiliary transmissions).", "Channel 4 originally operated as a primary affiliate of NBC – an affiliation that was owed to WDAF radio's longtime relationship with the television network's direct predecessor, the NBC Red Network, which it had been affiliated with since 1925 (when the station transmitted on 680 AM) as the network's westernmost affiliate – although it also maintained secondary affiliations with CBS, ABC and the DuMont Television Network", ". Under Star ownership, the station largely utilized WDAF radio employees to staff the television station; among the notable staffers employed with both stations in its early years included Randall Jessee (who served as WDAF-TV's first news anchor), Shelby Storck (who was the station's first weathercaster), and future Hollywood character actor Owen Bush (who served as an on-staff announcer during the early 1950s)", ". Among the local programs that WDAF aired during its early years included the half-hour daytime talk program The Bette Hayes Show, the 90-minute-long daily children's program Dr. Inventor, and a weekly television program on religion hosted by Arthur Otto Ackenbom that ran from 1955 to 1956. For several years, WDAF-TV's daily sign-on and sign-off sequence was accompanied by a recording of Gordon MacRae's rendition of \"The Lord's Prayer.\"", "The station would lose affiliations with three of the networks from which it cherry-picked programs in the late summer of 1953, when WDAF gained its first commercial television competitors in the Kansas City market", ". Programming from CBS and DuMont moved to WHB-TV and KMBC-TV (channel 9; KMBC became the sole occupant of that channel in June 1954), which shared affiliations with the two networks when both stations signed on under a timesharing arrangement between their respective licensees, the Cook Paint and Varnish Company and the Midland Broadcasting Company, on August 2 of that year", ". Channel 4 shared the ABC affiliation with WHB/KMBC until September 27, when KCMO-TV (channel 5, now KCTV) signed on as the network's original full-time Kansas City affiliate (KMBC and KCMO would swap affiliations two years later in September 1955); this left channel 4 as an exclusive affiliate with NBC.", "Also in 1953, the U.S. Department of Justice initiated an antitrust investigation against the Star over its ownership of WDAF radio and WDAF-TV; the investigation was reportedly opened at the behest of President Truman, who had been engaged in a long-standing feud with the newspaper over its opposition to the Kansas City native's presidency and his policy proposals", ". The investigation culminated in the Justice Department filing indictment charges against the Star on the grounds that it engaged in monopolistic practices in its sale of advertising for the newspaper and its television and radio stations. The case was taken to court in 1955, two years after the close of the Truman administration, a federal grand jury found the Star guilty at the end of the one-month restraint-of-trade trial", ". After attempts to appeal the ruling failed, the Star signed a consent decree in 1957 that required it to stop combining advertising and subscription rates for the newspaper and sell off its broadcasting interests. On May 18, 1958, the WDAF stations were sold to National-Missouri Broadcasters, the broadcasting division of National Theaters.", "On July 13, 1960, National-Missouri Broadcasters merged with Buffalo, New York–based Transcontinent Broadcasting. Under Transcontinent ownership, the two stations were joined by an additional sister radio station, WDAF-FM (102.1, now KCKC). Transcontinent merged with Cincinnati-based Taft Broadcasting on February 19, 1964; the transaction was finalized on April 1, 1964.", "On July 13, 1984, as NBC began transitioning away from using microwave relays for distribution of its programs to the more economically efficient downlink method, WDAF-TV became one of the first 20 NBC stations to begin receiving the network's programs via satellite transmission. In 1986, it also became the first television station in Kansas City to broadcast in stereo, initially broadcasting NBC network programs and certain syndicated shows that were transmitted in the audio format.", "On October 12, 1987, company investors completed a hostile takeover of Taft Broadcasting from the family which owned the company; its new owners restructured the group into the Great American Television and Radio Company (also known as Great American Communications)", ". By that year, WDAF-TV had overtaken KMBC as the dominant station in Kansas City, as was the trend during this period at many NBC-affiliated stations, buoyed by the stronger programming slate that helped the network retake first place in the ratings among the Big Three broadcast networks around that time. In December 1993, Great American Communications underwent another financial restructuring following the company's filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy", ". Great American then decided to put most of its television stations up for sale.", "As a Fox station", "New World Communications ownership", "On May 5, 1994, Great American Communications (which would later be renamed Citicasters following the completion of its restructuring) agreed to sell WDAF-TV and three other television stations – CBS affiliate KSAZ-TV in Phoenix, and ABC affiliates WBRC in Birmingham and WGHP in High Point, North Carolina – to New World Communications – for $350 million in cash and $10 million in share warrants; Great American Communications, meanwhile, retained ownership of WDAF radio and sister station KYYS (102", ".1 FM, now KCKC) until the renamed Citicasters merged with Jacor on February 13, 1996, in a $770 million deal (due to FCC rules at the time that restricted broadcasting companies from owning more than twelve television stations nationwide, WBRC – also due to the agency's prohibition of television station duopolies; New World having purchased Birmingham's NBC affiliate, WVTM-TV, through the Argyle deal – and WGHP were placed in a blind trust and then sold directly to Fox's owned-and-operated station group", ", Fox Television Stations, in January 1995)", ".", "On May 23, 1994, as part of an overall deal in which network parent News Corporation also purchased a 20% equity interest in the group, New World signed a long-term affiliation agreement with Fox to switch thirteen television stations – five that New World had already owned and eight that the company was in the process of acquiring through separate deals with Great American and Argyle Television Holdings (which New World purchased one week later in a purchase option-structured deal for $717 million)", ", including WDAF – to the network", ". The stations involved in the agreement – all of which were affiliated with one of the three major broadcast networks (CBS, ABC and NBC) – would become Fox affiliates once individual affiliation contracts with each of the stations' existing network partners had expired", ". The deal was motivated by the National Football League (NFL)'s awarding of the rights to the National Football Conference (NFC) television package to Fox on December 18, 1993, in which the conference's broadcast television rights moved to the network effective with the 1994 NFL season, ending a 38-year relationship with CBS.", "At the time the agreement was signed, the affiliation contracts of WDAF-TV and CBS affiliate WJW-TV in Cleveland were up for renewal as they were set to expire on or shortly after September 1, 1994", ". The timing of New World's purchase of channel 4 and the signing of its affiliation deal with Fox automatically gave NBC only a five-month span until the conclusion of its contract with the station to find another outlet to replace WDAF-TV as its Kansas City affiliate (by comparison, depending on the station, the existing affiliation contracts of most of the other New World stations that were slated to join Fox were not due to expire until as early as December 1994 to as late as September 1996, giving NBC", ", giving NBC, ABC and CBS more time to find a replacement affiliate)", ". The network entered into negotiations with other area stations in the immediate weeks after the Fox-New World deal was announced, as the projected date of WDAF's switch to Fox was now fast approaching.", "NBC first entered into discussions with KCTV for a contract; this concerned CBS, as New World planned to switch several of the network's stronger-performing affiliates in other markets to Fox, which often forced CBS to affiliate with either a former Fox affiliate or a lower-profile independent station", ", as many of the Big Three stations and – with the exception of Dallas–Fort Worth and Phoenix – some higher-rated independents it approached rejected offers to join CBS due to its faltering ratings and the older-skewing programming slate it had at the time", ". To prevent such a situation from happening in Kansas City, CBS decided to approach the Meredith Corporation on a proposal to switch two of KCTV's sister stations – NBC affiliate WNEM-TV in Bay City, Michigan and independent station KPHO-TV in Phoenix – to that network as a condition of keeping the CBS affiliation on channel 5; KMBC-TV was automatically eliminated as an option for NBC as it was in the middle of a long-term affiliation agreement between ABC and that station's owner, Hearst Broadcasting", ". This left existing Fox station KSHB-TV (channel 41) as the only viable option with which NBC could reach an affiliation agreement; the station's owner, Scripps-Howard Broadcasting, would strike an agreement with NBC to affiliate KSHB with the network on August 1, 1994", ", would strike an agreement with NBC to affiliate KSHB with the network on August 1, 1994, agreeing to do so on the condition that it carry as much local news programming as WDAF had aired as an NBC affiliate (Scripps excluded KSHB from the affiliation deal it struck with ABC around the same time – which also renewed affiliation contracts with WEWS-TV in Cleveland and WXYZ-TV in Detroit, both of which were approached by CBS to replace newcomer Fox affiliates WJW and WJBK-TV", ", both of which were approached by CBS to replace newcomer Fox affiliates WJW and WJBK-TV, which had their CBS affiliations displaced through the Fox-New World deal – due to KMBC's existing agreement with the network)", ".", "New World finalized its purchase of WDAF-TV and KSAZ on September 9, 1994; WDAF-TV switched to Fox three days later on September 12, ending its affiliation with NBC after 45 years. The final NBC program to air on channel 4 was an NBC Sunday Night Movie premiere of Other People's Money on September 11, 1994, at 8:00 p.m. Central Time", ". WDAF-TV was the second New World station to switch its network affiliation to Fox through the agreement between the two companies (the first to switch was WJW, which traded affiliations with Cleveland's original Fox affiliate, WOIO, nine days earlier on September 3), and was the only one involved in the deal that had been an NBC affiliate prior to switching networks (WVTM-TV, now owned by Hearst Television and ironically now a sister station to WDAF rival KMBC-TV, and KNSD in San Diego", ", and KNSD in San Diego, both of which New World later sold to NBC outright, remained with the network) – the other New World stations that joined Fox were previously affiliated with either CBS or ABC", ".", "As with most of the other New World-owned stations affected by the affiliation agreement with Fox, WDAF-TV retained its existing branding – in its instance, Newschannel 4, which the station adopted as a universal brand in April 1992 as an NBC affiliate – upon the affiliation switch; branding references to Fox, both visually and verbally, were limited in most on-air imaging, with the exception of on-air IDs (which used the tagline \"in Kansas City, Newschannel 4 is Fox\") that aired until January 1997", ". In addition to expanding its local news programming, the station added additional syndicated talk shows as well as some reality series and off-network sitcoms to fill time periods that were occupied by NBC's daytime and late-night lineups beforehand, as well as syndicated film packages for broadcast in weekend afternoon timeslots on weeks when Fox did not provide sports programming.", "Fox Television Stations ownership", "On July 17, 1996, News Corporation announced that it would acquire New World in an all-stock transaction worth $2", ".48 billion, with the latter company's ten Fox affiliates being folded into the former's Fox Television Stations subsidiary, making them all owned-and-operated stations of the network (the New World Communications name continued as a licensing purpose corporation for WDAF-TV and its sister stations until 2007 under Fox, and from 2009 to 2011 under Local TV ownership); the purchase was finalized on January 22, 1997", ", and from 2009 to 2011 under Local TV ownership); the purchase was finalized on January 22, 1997, making WDAF-TV the first owned-and-operated station of a major network in the Kansas City market since DuMont briefly operated KCTY (channel 25) from December 1953 until it shut down that station in February 1954", ". On January 26, coinciding with Fox's telecast of Super Bowl XXXI, WDAF-TV subsequently changed its branding from Newschannel 4 to Fox 4 under the network's branding conventions (with its newscasts concurrently rebranding as Fox 4 News).", "On June 29, 2001, reports surfaced that Fox Television Stations had reached an agreement to sell WDAF and three of its other owned-and-operated stations – WGHP, WBRC and WHBQ-TV in Memphis, Tennessee (which Fox purchased through a separate agreement with Communications Corporation of America as an ABC affiliate in August 1994) – to New York City-based African American business executive Luther Gatling", ". The deal was reportedly would have been an effort to free ownership cap space (the four stations covered 2.7% of 40.74% of U.S. television households that Fox had access to one of its owned-and-operated stations) to allow Fox to get under the 35% national market reach allowed by any station group and clear enough room to acquire standalone UPN affiliates in four markets that Fox was in the process of acquiring from Chris-Craft Television", ". Although representatives at WDAF and WHBQ confirmed the sale, News Corporation stated on July 3 that it had only received an offer from Gatling and had not entered into formal sale negotiations. Fox ultimately never reached a deal with Gatling, and retained ownership of the four stations after the FCC raised the national ownership cap that restricted broadcast groups from owning television stations which reached a combined total of U.S. households from 35% to 39% following an order by the U.S", ".S. households from 35% to 39% following an order by the U.S. Court of Appeals issued to justify the limit.", "Local TV and Tribune ownership", "On December 22, 2007, Fox sold WDAF-TV and seven other owned-and-operated stations – WJW, WBRC, WGHP, KTVI in St. Louis, WITI in Milwaukee, KDVR in Denver and KSTU in Salt Lake City – to Local TV (a broadcast holding company operated by private equity firm Oak Hill Capital Partners that was formed on May 7 of that year to assume ownership of the broadcasting division of The New York Times Company) for $1.1 billion; the sale was finalized on July 14, 2008", ".1 billion; the sale was finalized on July 14, 2008. On July 1, 2013, the Tribune Company (which in 2008, had formed a joint management agreement involving its Tribune Broadcasting subsidiary and Local TV to operate stations owned by both companies and provide web hosting, technical and engineering services to those run by the latter group) acquired the Local TV stations for $2.75 billion; the sale was completed on December 27.", "Aborted sale to Sinclair Broadcast Group; sale to Nexstar Media Group", "On May 8, 2017, Hunt Valley, Maryland-based Sinclair Broadcast Group announced that it would acquire Tribune Media for $3.9 billion, plus the assumption of $2.7 billion in debt held by Tribune", ".9 billion, plus the assumption of $2.7 billion in debt held by Tribune. If the deal received regulatory approval, WDAF-TV would have been placed under common ownership with Sinclair's existing Missouri-based stations: CBS affiliates KRCG in Jefferson City, KHQA-TV in Hannibal and KTVO in Kirksville, the Cape Girardeau duopoly of Fox affiliate KBSI and MyNetworkTV affiliate WDKA, and ABC affiliate KDNL-TV in St", ". Louis (which was involved in an ownership conflict with WDAF's sister duopoly of KTVI and CW affiliate KPLR-TV, which Sinclair attempted to sell to the Meredith Corporation before rescinding that deal due to KPLR and Meredith-owned CBS affiliate KMOV both falling among the FCC's \"top-four\" ratings threshold for duopolies and the U.S. Department of Justice's Antitrust Division wanting to seek further review of the transaction)", ".S. Department of Justice's Antitrust Division wanting to seek further review of the transaction). Less than one month after the FCC voted to have the deal reviewed by an administrative law judge amid \"serious concerns\" about Sinclair's forthrightness in its applications to sell certain conflict properties, on August 9, 2018, Tribune announced it would terminate the Sinclair deal, intending to seek other M&A opportunities", ". Tribune also filed a breach of contract lawsuit in the Delaware Chancery Court, alleging that Sinclair engaged in protracted negotiations with the FCC and the DOJ over regulatory issues, refused to sell stations in markets where it already had properties, and proposed divestitures to parties with ties to Sinclair executive chair David D. Smith that were rejected or highly subject to rejection to maintain control over stations it was required to sell", ". Had the deal been approved, it would have marked a re-entry into Kansas City for Sinclair, which previously owned KSMO-TV from 1994 to 2005, when it sold that station to Meredith to form a duopoly with KCTV.", "On December 3, 2018, Irving, Texas-based Nexstar Media Group—which had previously owned ABC affiliate KQTV in St. Joseph from April 1997 until January 2017—announced it would acquire the assets of Tribune Media for $6.4 billion in cash and debt", ".4 billion in cash and debt. The deal—which made Nexstar the largest television station operator by total number of stations upon the sale's closure on September 19, 2019—would put WDAF-TV under common ownership with Nexstar's existing virtual clusters in the adjacent markets of Topeka (among NBC affiliate KSNT, Fox affiliate KTMJ-CD and ABC-affiliated SSA partner KTKA-TV) and Joplin (between NBC affiliate KSNF and ABC-affiliated SSA partner KODE-TV)", ". Channel 4 would also retain WHO-DT in Des Moines as a sibling, with Nexstar's current duopoly in that market of WOI-DT and KCWI being sold to Tegna Inc.", "Subchannel history", "WDAF-DT2", "On February 13, 2011, through an agreement between network owner Tribune Broadcasting and then-WDAF-owner Local TV that resulted from the companies' existing management agreement, the station launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 4", ".2, which served as a charter affiliate of the Antenna TV classic television network (which had its official nationwide launch just over one month earlier on January 1, with WDAF being one of only four Local TV-owned stations that did not begin carrying Antenna TV on the date of its launch).", "WDAF-DT3", "On June 22, 2015, WDAF launched a tertiary subchannel on virtual channel 4.3 to serve as an affiliate of This TV (which is also part-owned by Tribune, in conjunction with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer). The network had been absent from the Kansas City market for five months prior to WDAF's assumption of the affiliation, as KCWE ended its five-year relationship with This TV on January 2, in order to affiliate its second digital subchannel (29", ".2) with competing film-focused multicast network Movies! (which is part-owned by former This TV co-founder Weigel Broadcasting).", "In October 2019, subchannel 4.3 flipped to Court TV, with This TV being moved to KCTV-DT3.\n\nIn October 2023, subchannel 4.3 flipped to Rewind TV, with Court TV now airing exclusively on KMCI-DT3.", "Programming", "WDAF-TV currently carries the majority of the Fox network schedule; however, it delays the network's Saturday late night block (currently, as of September 2016, consisting of reruns of Fox prime time reality series) by a half-hour in order to air its 10:00 p.m. newscast", ".m. newscast. Channel 4 has only aired Fox's prime time, late night, news and sports programming since it joined the network in September 1994, with the only content it has aired involving Fox's children's programming having been of fall preview specials and network promotions for those blocks that aired within the network's prime time lineup for the final twelve years that Fox carried programming aimed at that demographic", ". The only notable program preemption outside of the network's children's blocks has been that of the secondary Sunday morning NFL pre-game show Fox NFL Kickoff, of which WDAF had declined carriage for the 2015 regular season (the program moved to Fox from Fox Sports 1 in September 2015), with the station's second digital subchannel airing it instead in its network-recommended time slot; WDAF began clearing Fox NFL Kickoff in September 2016.", "During its first four decades with NBC, WDAF-TV preempted moderate amounts of the network's programming, usually consisting of some daytime shows and an occasional prime time program", ". Among the notable programs that were preempted by channel 4 included Days of Our Lives (which was preempted by the station from its November 1965 debut until 1971), the 1967 reboot of Dragnet (which was dropped by WDAF-TV after the police procedural's first season, before the station decided to re-permit clearance of the program at the start of its third season in September 1969", ", albeit airing on delay on Saturday afternoons; the station eventually began airing the show in pattern on Thursdays towards the end of its run), I Dream of Jeannie (which the station began preempting partway through its first season in 1966, before it resumed carrying the show in the fall of 1968), and The Name of the Game (which it replaced with the country music programs Country Hayride and The Stan Hitchcock Show during its second season)", ". Although NBC had long been less tolerant of affiliates preempting its programming than the other broadcast networks were, it usually did not raise objections to those made by WDAF-TV. The issue was rectified between 1969 and 1971, as most of the NBC shows that the station chose to preempt would air instead on independent station KCIT-TV (channel 50, now Ion Television owned-and-operated station KPXE-TV; the KCIT calls now reside on a Fox-affiliated television station in Amarillo, Texas).", "As with most of its sister stations under its former New World ownership (with the subverted exception of St", ". Louis sister station KTVI), WDAF-TV has always declined carriage of Fox's children's programming; it opted not to run the Fox Kids weekday and Saturday blocks when it affiliated with the network", ", airing children's programs acquired via syndication on Saturday mornings instead (the preemptions of Fox Kids by the New World stations led the network to change its carriage policies to allow Fox stations uninterested in carrying the block the right of first refusal to transfer the local rights to another station, restructuring Fox Kids as a network-syndicated program package; by 2001, affiliates were no longer required to run the Fox Kids lineup even if Fox had not secured a substitute carrier)", ". Fox Kids aired locally on KSMO-TV from 1994 to 1998; KCWE (channel 29, now a CW affiliate) from 1998 to 1999; and finally – along with its successor blocks FoxBox and 4Kids TV – on KMCI (channel 38) from 1999 to 2008. Fox ended its network-supplied children's programming on December 28, 2008, replacing it thereafter with the paid programming block Weekend Marketplace, which is not carried by any Kansas City area station", ". On September 13, 2014, WDAF began carrying Xploration Station, a live-action educational program block distributed by Steve Rotfeld Productions that is syndicated primarily to Fox stations, on Saturday mornings through an agreement involving Tribune's Fox-affiliated stations.", "Sports programming", "WDAF-TV began serving as the unofficial \"home\" television station of the Kansas City Chiefs in 1965, when NBC obtained the television rights to the American Football League (AFL), which was annexed into the National Football League (NFL) – as the American Football Conference (AFC) – when the two professional football leagues merged in 1970", ". The station carried most regional or national Chiefs game telecasts aired by NBC through the 1993 season; the local rights to the Chiefs broadcasts transferred to KSHB after it assumed the NBC affiliation from WDAF in September 1994 and remained there until the network's contract with the AFC expired after the 1997 season (KSHB would resume airing certain regular season games involving the Chiefs in 2006, when NBC obtained the rights to the Sunday Night Football package)", ". The loss of primary broadcast rights to the Chiefs by WDAF – one of two Fox affiliates affected by the New World agreement that is located in an AFC market, alongside WJW, which is located in the home market of the Cleveland Browns – differs from the situations in other former New World markets, mainly where it bought or already owned stations that were previously affiliated with CBS", ", mainly where it bought or already owned stations that were previously affiliated with CBS, in which the affected stations continued their relationships with a local NFL franchise after they switched to Fox (albeit with brief interruptions in these arrangements in cities such as Milwaukee, Atlanta and Dallas, where Fox's assumption of the NFC rights predated some of the stations' affiliation switches by several months)", ".", "As a Fox station, since the network obtained partial broadcast rights to the NFL in 1994, Chiefs game telecasts on WDAF during the regular season have been limited to regionally televised interconference games against opponents in the National Football Conference (NFC), primarily those held at Arrowhead Stadium, and since 2014, cross-flexed games originally scheduled to air on CBS in which the team plays against a fellow AFC team", ". However, Channel 4 held broadcast rights to preseason games involving the team from 1997 to 2001 through a partnership with the Chiefs Television Network; during this period, the on-air production presentation of the locally exclusive telecasts was upgraded to network quality standards by way of WDAF's then-ownership under Fox", ". Currently, most regular season and some preseason games shown over-the-air locally are televised by KCTV, which has served as the Chiefs' preseason broadcaster since 2002, four years after CBS took over the AFC television rights when that station became the team's primary local broadcaster and carrier of analysis and magazine programs produced by the team's production unit. WDAF-TV also carried the Chiefs' victories in Super Bowls LIV (the team's first championship in 50 years) and LVII.", "WDAF-TV also served as the over-the-air flagship station of the Kansas City Royals from 1979 to 1992; this relationship continued long after many Big Three-affiliated stations discontinued regular coverage of local sporting events, including those involving Major League Baseball (MLB) franchises", ". In addition, from 1969 until the network lost the rights to the MLB Game of the Week in 1989 and sporadically during part of the strike-shortened 1994 season, the station also carried certain regular season and postseason games featuring the Royals that NBC televised nationally (it also aired any nationally televised games of the city's first MLB team, the Kansas City A's from 1955 to 1967)", ". Since Fox obtained the partial (now exclusive) over-the-air network television rights to the league in 1996, WDAF has carried certain Royals games that have been regionally televised (and, since 2013, select national telecasts scheduled during prime time) by the network during the league's regular season and postseason", ". Notable Royals telecasts that the station has aired during its tenures with NBC and Fox have included the team's World Series appearances in 1980, 2014 and 2015, the first having been aired by NBC and the two most recent appearances being carried by Fox, the latter of which saw the franchise win its first world championship title since 1985.", "News operation", ", WDAF-TV presently broadcasts 67 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with 11½ hours on weekdays, 4½ hours on Saturdays and five hours on Sundays); in regards to the number of hours devoted to news programming, it is the highest local newscast output among the Kansas City market's commercial television stations. WDAF-TV's Sunday 5:00 p.m", ". WDAF-TV's Sunday 5:00 p.m. newscast is subject to preemption due to network sports coverage, as is standard with Fox stations that carry early-evening newscasts on weekends (though the Saturday 5:00 p.m. newscast is usually delayed to 6:00 p.m. during the baseball or college football seasons, if Fox is only scheduled to air a daytime game telecast)", ". The station operates a Hummer, branded as \"Storm Fox\", which the station primarily uses as a storm chasing vehicle to cover severe weather events affecting its viewing area.", "News department history", "Local news has always maintained an important presence at WDAF-TV throughout its history, an ideology fitting of a station that was founded by a newspaper. Dating back to its NBC affiliation, channel 4 has long battled KMBC-TV (and at times, KCTV as well) for the most-watched local television newscast in the Kansas City market for the better part of four decades", ". During the late 1970s and 1980s, WDAF-TV's newscasts sat in second place in the ratings, behind KMBC; however, coinciding with the rise of NBC's ratings fortunes during that period, it ended the latter decade in first place, overtaking KCTV for the top spot", ". In 1982, WDAF-TV became the first television station in Kansas City to use a helicopter for newsgathering; the helicopter (originally known as \"Chopper 4\" until 1992, then as \"NewsChopper 4\" from 1992 to 1999, and later \"Sky Fox\" thereafter) was used to provide aerial coverage of breaking news and severe weather events, and periodically for traffic reports during its weekday morning and 5:00 p.m", ".m. newscasts; the helicopter was grounded by station management on August 31, 2009, citing budget issues with the leasing of the helicopter.", "Also in 1982, WDAF launched a feature titled \"Thursday’s Child\", a segment that aired weekly during its 10:00 p.m. newscast, which highlighted Kansas City area children in the foster care system who were seeking adoptive families; the segment was produced by the WDAF news department, in conjunction with the Love Fund for Children, a charity founded through a $1,200 endowment from several WDAF-TV employees", ". In September 1984, the station debuted a 20-minute local sports news program within the Sunday edition of its 10:00 p.m. newscast, The Kansas City Sports Machine, which borrowed its title from the syndicated The George Michael Sports Machine, which aired on WDAF from 1982 until it concluded its syndication run in September 2007; the WDAF version lasted until 1999, when it evolved into a conventional sports segment within the Sunday 10:00 p.m. newscast.", "When WDAF-TV adopted the Newschannel 4 brand in April 1992, the station also implemented the \"24-Hour News Source\" concept (which was enforced in the promotional slogan used by the station until 1999, \"Kansas City's 24-Hour Newschannel\")", ". Its iteration of the concept involved both the production of 30-second news updates that aired at or near the top of each hour during local commercial break inserts – even during prime time network and overnight programming – and five-second end-of-break weather updates (consisting of an image of the station's Doppler radar, then known as \"Doppler 4 Radar\"", ", then known as \"Doppler 4 Radar\", usually accompanied by a brief voiceover by one of the station's meteorologists illustrating the short-term forecast or teasing the weather segment in an upcoming newscast), during time periods when the station was not airing its regularly scheduled, long-form newscasts", ". In September 1992, WDAF became the first television station in Kansas City to launch a weekend morning newscast, with the debut of two-hour-long Saturday and Sunday broadcasts that initially aired from 8:00 to 10:00 a.m. (both editions would later move to 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. in September 1997, with the Saturday edition moving one hour earlier on April 23, 2016).", "After WDAF became a Fox affiliate on September 12, 1994, the station underwent a major shift in its programming philosophy that more heavily emphasized its local news programming. It retained a news schedule similar to the one it had as an NBC affiliate, but increased its news output from about 25 hours to nearly 45 hours per week by expanding existing newscasts and adding ones in new time periods (with its weekday news schedule expanding from 3½ hours to seven hours per day)", ". In its early years with Fox, local news programming on the station ran on weekdays from 6:00 to 9:00 a.m., 12:00 to 1:00 p.m. and 5:00 to 6:30 p.m. and nightly from 9:00 to 10:30 p.m., as well as on weekend mornings and early evenings. The station retained the \"24-Hour News Source\" format after the affiliation switch, continuing to offer news updates on an hourly basis during commercial breaks until it discontinued the concept in May 1999", ". With New World Communications heavily investing in the news department's expansion, WDAF increased its news staff from 80 to 120 employees; it hired up to 40 additional employees (including additional reporters and behind-the-scenes staff members) to handle the expanded news coverage that the new news-intensive lineup would allow.", "The weekday morning newscast's expansion from one to three hours – with the addition of a two-hour extension from 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. – and the consolidation of its half-hour weeknight 5:00 and 6:00 p.m. newscasts into a single 90-minute block – although the early-evening block was structured as three separate half-hour broadcasts – filled timeslots vacated by the departures of Today and NBC Nightly News from its schedule as Fox, unlike NBC, does not have daily national news programs", ". The weekday morning newscast would gradually expand over time, eventually attaining its current 5½-hour format with the addition of an hour-long block at 9:00 a.m. on March 24, 2011, and a half-hour early extension at 4:30 a.m. on October 3 of that year. Since Fox does not provide network programming during that hour, Channel 4 also added an hour-long prime time newscast at 9:00 p.m", ".m. – originally titled Newschannel 4 Primetime until January 1997 and then Fox 4 News: Primetime at 9:00 until September 1999, when it was renamed as simply Fox 4 News at 9:00 – to lead into its existing 10:00 p.m", ". newscast (WDAF is one of several Fox stations that offer newscasts in both the final hour of prime time and the traditional late news time slot – as well as one of the few affiliated with the network that runs a nightly newscast in the latter slot – and one of ten that continued its Big Three-era late-evening newscast after switching to Fox); the addition marked the first time WDAF had aired a local newscast at that hour since its days as a hybrid NBC/ABC/CBS/DuMont affiliate", ", when the station aired its late-evening newscast at 9:30 from its sign-on in September 1949 until the program moved to 10:00 p", ".m. after the station became a full-time NBC affiliate in September 1953.", "On January 15, 1996, WDAF-TV reformatted its 5:30 p.m", ". newscast as Your World Tonight, a program focusing primarily on national and international news headlines that was modeled similarly to the national news programs of ABC, CBS and NBC (as with the national newscasts that Your World Tonight competed directly against, the program maintained a single-anchor format, with Phil Witt – who joined WDAF in August 1979 as a weekend evening anchor/reporter, before being promoted to main co-anchor of the weekday evening newscasts in 1981", ", before being promoted to main co-anchor of the weekday evening newscasts in 1981, a role in which he remained until Witt retired from broadcasting on June 20, 2017 – at the helm)", ". Because Fox did not have a news division – and by association, an affiliate news service – at the time WDAF joined the network, the program – as was the case with WDAF's news department as a whole since the September 1994 switch to Fox – initially relied mainly on external video feeds from CNN Newsource for coverage of national and international news stories, although with the associated launch of Fox News Channel that August", ", although with the associated launch of Fox News Channel that August, it also added content sourced from Fox's in-house affiliate video service Fox News Edge", ". The Your World Tonight concept was not successful, and the 5:30 p.m. broadcast was retooled as a traditional local newscast, formatted as an extension of its lead-in 5:00 broadcast, on January 6, 1997.", "Not long after WDAF-TV switched to Fox, KMBC made a short resurgence in news viewership amid viewer confusion caused by the switch, overtaking it for first place among the market's local television newscasts; this situation would further intensify the ratings rivalry between the two stations. Since the late 1990s, WDAF-TV's newscasts have rotated between first and second place with either KMBC or KCTV depending on the time slot, with the station's strongest ratings being logged in the morning and at 9:00 p", ".m., where WDAF regularly finishes at No. 1 (in time periods where that station does not have an absolute hold in that position, WDAF competes for second place with CBS affiliate KCTV). Channel 4 has maintained its status as the ratings leader in the 9:00 p.m", ". Channel 4 has maintained its status as the ratings leader in the 9:00 p.m. hour, even as it has faced added competition in recent years from a KCTV-produced newscast on MyNetworkTV-affiliated sister station KSMO-TV (which premiered on the latter station as a WB affiliate on September 12, 2005) and a KMBC-produced newscast on that station's CW-affiliated sister KCWE (which began as a half-hour program on September 14, 2010).", "In February 2003, WDAF-TV launched an investigative reporting unit, the \"Fox 4 Problem Solvers\", which conduct investigative reports centering on businesses that have ripped off local consumers and uncovers various consumer scams. In April 2007, fellow Fox affiliate KTMJ-CA in Topeka began simulcasting the 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. block of WDAF-TV's weekday morning newscast and its nightly 9:00 p.m", ".m. block of WDAF-TV's weekday morning newscast and its nightly 9:00 p.m. newscast (ironically, the over-the-air signals of WDAF-TV and several other Kansas City area stations adequately cover most of the nearby Topeka market due to the close proximity of the two markets, Topeka being located due west of Kansas City)", ". The simulcasts were dropped in November 2008, when KTMJ's earlier purchase by New Vision Television led to their replacement by locally based newscasts produced by its NBC-affiliated sister station KSNT.", "On October 12, 2010, WDAF-TV became the fourth (and last) television station in the Kansas City market to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition. On April 11, 2011, the station extended its existing pre-Fox-era late newscast, with the debut of a separate 10:30 p.m", ".m. news program on Sunday through Friday nights (Fox late night programming airs on Saturdays during that half-hour); as a result, it became the first Fox station – and one of only a handful of television stations in the Central and Mountain time zones – to expand its 10:00 p.m. newscast to a full hour, a format more common in that timeslot with prime time newscasts aired on Fox stations and non-major-network outlets in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones.", "Notable former on-air staff\n Mark Alford – weekday anchor (1998–2021; now elected to the United States House of Representatives in )\n Owen Bush – station announcer (1950s; deceased)\n Jack Cafferty – news and weather anchor (now a news commentator for CNN)\n Harris Faulkner – evening anchor (1992–2000; now at Fox News Channel)\n Gayle King – anchor/reporter (1978–1981; now at CBS News as co-host of CBS Mornings)\n Stacy Smith – evening anchor (1977–1983; moved to KDKA-TV in Pittsburgh, retired in May 2021)", "Stacy Smith – evening anchor (1977–1983; moved to KDKA-TV in Pittsburgh, retired in May 2021) \n Shelby Storck – weather anchor (1950s–1960s; deceased)\n Bob Wells – announcer and weekend weatherman (1959–1965; later at WJW-TV in Cleveland, now an actor/announcer in the Tampa Bay area)", "Technical information\n\nSubchannels\nThe station's digital signal is multiplexed:", "Analog-to-digital conversion", "WDAF-TV's digital signal was upgraded to full-power high definition on September 23, 2005, increasing its HD signal strength from 1.2 kW to 1,000 kW. The station shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 4, on June 12, 2009, at 9:01 a.m., the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. WDAF continued to transmit its digital signal on its pre-transition UHF channel 34", ". WDAF continued to transmit its digital signal on its pre-transition UHF channel 34. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 4.", "References\n\nExternal links\n \n WDAF-DT2 website\n\nTelevision stations in the Kansas City metropolitan area\nFox network affiliates\nAntenna TV affiliates\nCourt TV affiliates\nTBD (TV network) affiliates\nNexstar Media Group\nTelevision channels and stations established in 1949\nNational Football League primary television stations\nNew World Communications television stations\nTaft Broadcasting\nFormer News Corporation subsidiaries\n1949 establishments in Missouri" ]

[ "The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football franchise that began play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans. The team was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and now play in the National Football League (NFL). The team is not related to the earlier Dallas Texans NFL team that played for only one season in 1952.", "The Texans won the 1962 AFL Championship and relocated to Kansas City, Missouri the following year, becoming the Chiefs. In 1966, the Chiefs won their second AFL title and appeared in the first AFL-NFL World Championship game (later named Super Bowl I) in January 1967, losing to the Green Bay Packers. In 1969, the Chiefs won the final AFL title and went on to defeat the NFL's heavily favored Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV", ". The Texans/Chiefs were the most victorious franchise in AFL history, compiling an 87–48–5 record from 1960 to 1969.", "Fifty years later, the Chiefs won Super Bowl LIV in February 2020 with quarterback Patrick Mahomes, who was named MVP. In Super Bowl LVII in 2023, the Chiefs won again and Mahomes won his second Super Bowl MVP award.\n\nAFL origins", "In 1959, Lamar Hunt, son of oil tycoon H. L. Hunt, began discussions with other businessmen about establishing an American football organization that would rival that of the National Football League. As early as 1958, Hunt had the interest of purchasing an NFL franchise and moving it to Dallas, Texas. His desire to secure a professional football franchise was further heightened after watching the historic 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants", ". The team that Hunt was most interested in buying was the Chicago Cardinals.", "The NFL convinced Hunt to contact Cardinals owner Violet Bidwill Wolfner, and her husband Walter Wolfner eventually agreed to sell Hunt 20 percent of the Cardinals franchise. Hunt declined the opportunity. He then conceived the concept of forming a second league. \"Why wouldn't a second league work\", Hunt recalled", ". \"Why wouldn't a second league work\", Hunt recalled. \"There was an American and National League in baseball, why not football?\" Hunt contacted several other individuals who had expressed interest in the Cardinals franchise—Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, Max Winter and Bill Boyer—and gauged their interest in forming a second league.", "On August 14, the first meeting of the new league was held in Chicago. Charter memberships were issued to six original cities — Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis. The league was officially christened the American Football League on August 22. Ralph Wilson was extended the league's seventh franchise for Buffalo, New York, on October 28 and Billy Sullivan became the league's eighth team's owner for Boston on November 22", ". Minneapolis withdrew its franchise from the AFL in November after receiving an offer for a team in the NFL, and Oakland, California instead joined the AFL as the Oakland Raiders.", "Early years in Dallas", "For the Texans' inaugural season, team owner Lamar Hunt pursued both legendary University of Oklahoma coach Bud Wilkinson and New York Giants defensive assistant Tom Landry to lead his Texans franchise. Wilkinson opted to stay at Oklahoma, while Landry was destined to coach the NFL's franchise in Dallas, to be called the Cowboys. In mid-December 1959 Hunt settled on a relatively unknown assistant coach from the University of Miami, Hank Stram", ". \"One of the biggest reasons I hired Hank was that he really wanted the job\", Hunt explained. \"It turned out to be a very lucky selection on my part.\"", "The Texans were very fortunate to have Don Klosterman as their head talent man. Klosterman had a penchant for luring star talent away from the NFL, and for finding talent otherwise undiscovered.", "Reserved seats at the Cotton Bowl cost USD $4, general admission $2 and high school students paid 90¢ (90 cents) that initial season. Don Rossi served as the team's General Manager until November when he was succeeded by Jack Steadman. The team was headquartered in the Mercantile National Bank Building. The AFL was also headquartered in Dallas.", "The Texans conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. The club embarked on a whirlwind pre-season barnstorming tour that featured road games in Oakland, Tulsa, Boston, Abilene and Little Rock. An announced crowd of 51,000 at the Cotton Bowl witnessed a 24–3 victory against Houston on September 2 as the club concluded a perfect 6–0 preseason record.", "In both teams' inaugural 1960 seasons, the Dallas Texans and Dallas Cowboys competed fiercely for the attention of local football fans. For example, according to the book Ten-Gallon War, the Texans offered discounted tickets at department stores and airline offices, free tickets for fill-ups at certain service stations, and even had free tickets \"stuffed inside helium-filled balloons set loose over the city", ".\" They held a promotion where fans in barber's capes got discounted tickets (under the theory that local barbers were some of the most trusted people in the city) and gave free admission to fans who showed ticket stubs from local high school games played on certain weeks. In competition, the Dallas Cowboys had such promotions as hiring Roy Rogers and Dale Evans for a halftime show.", "In their early years, the Texans had a strong home-state identity with quarterback Cotton Davidson from Baylor, linebacker Sherrill Headrick from TCU and running back Abner Haynes from North Texas. Haynes led the league with 875 rushing yards and nine TDs, as well as combined net yards (2,100) and punt return average (15.4). The Texans also had a flashy, high-scoring club which finished the year at 8–6 as three close losses kept the squad from challenging for the division title", ". The Texans averaged 24,500 for their home games, the highest average in the league. In one attempt to draw more fans to their games, the Texans would offer free tickets to anyone who brought a ticket stub from the previous Friday's high school football game, to counter the NFL Cowboys' playing their home games on Friday night.", "In 1961, the Texans and the NFL's Dallas Cowboys both drafted linebacker E.J. Holub from Texas Tech, described by many scouts as \"the best football player in America.\" Holub decided to play for the Texans, joining three future franchise Hall of Famers—Jerry Mays, Fred Arbanas and Jim Tyrer—as part of the club's draft class", ". The club moved its training camp to Lamar Hunt's alma mater of Southern Methodist University and started the regular season at 3–1 before hitting a six-game losing skid, the longest such streak of Stram's tenure with the franchise. The Texans rebounded to claim wins in three of its final four contests to finish 6–8, marking the club's second straight finish behind the San Diego Chargers in the AFL Western Conference standings.", "In 1962, head coach Hank Stram was named AFL Coach of the Year and running back Curtis McClinton was named the AFL Rookie of the Year. Haynes became the franchise's first 1,000-yard rusher, concluding the season with 1,049 yards and an AFL-high 13 rushing touchdowns.", "The Texans clinched their initial AFL Western Division Championship in November and finished with an 11–3 regular season record. The team won the 1962 AFL Championship when kicker Tommy Brooker connected on a 25-yard field goal during the second overtime of the title game, giving the Texans a 20–17 victory against the Houston Oilers. Spanning an elapsed time of 77:54, the game stands as the third-longest contest in pro football history", ". Until a Christmas Day playoff game in 1971 between the Chiefs and Dolphins, the game was the longest ever played.", "The move to Kansas City", "The Dallas Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in . By the end of the 1962 season, it was apparent that Dallas could not support two teams. Even though the Texans had been far more successful on the field, Hunt investigated opportunities to move his team elsewhere for the 1963 season, including Miami, Atlanta, Seattle and New Orleans", ". Hunt wanted to find a city to which he could commute easily from Dallas, and when he was unable to secure Tulane Stadium because the university didn't want its football program to compete with a pro team, he turned to Kansas City, Missouri, where Mayor H. Roe Bartle persuaded him to move to the Midwest.", "The negotiations in Kansas City were conducted in secrecy. On several occasions Hunt and Jack Steadman were in Kansas City and met with businessmen, without the general public's knowledge. Bartle introduced Hunt as \"Mr. Lamar\" in all the meetings with other Kansas City businessmen. Steadman was introduced as \"Jack X.\"", "The support the team received from the Kansas City community before the team announced the move was extraordinary. Hunt made the move dependent upon the ability of Mayor Bartle and the Kansas City community to guarantee him 35,000 in season ticket sales. Hunt had set this number, being that it was the Texans' average attendance at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas. An ambitious campaign took shape to deliver on Bartle's guarantee to Hunt of tripling the season-ticket base the Texans had enjoyed in Dallas", ". Kansas City's mayor also promised to add 3,000 permanent seats to Municipal Stadium, as well as 11,000 temporary bleacher seats. Along with Bartle, a number of other prominent Kansas Citians stepped forward to aid in the efforts, putting together more than 1,000 workers to sell season tickets.", "Bartle called to his office 20 business leaders and called upon them to form an association later known as \"The Gold Coats\", whose sole objective was to sell and take down payments on the 35,000 season tickets required. \"The Gold Coats\" had to sell season tickets to people without knowing the team name, where it was coming from, who the owner was, which football league they would play in, who the players or coaches were, when the team would play its first game in Kansas City, or where it would play", ". Hunt gave Bartle a four-month deadline to accomplish the sales. Bartle and \"The Gold Coats\" made good in only 8 weeks. Later, Hunt admitted he was really only hoping for 20,000, for which he still would have moved the franchise. On May 22, Hunt announced he was moving the franchise to Kansas City, Missouri.", "Hunt, with a roster replete with players who had played college football in Texas, wanted to maintain a lineage to the team's roots and wanted to name the club the Kansas City Texans. \"The Lakers stayed the Lakers when they moved from Minnesota to California\", he reasoned. \"But Jack Steadman convinced me that wasn't too smart. It wouldn't sell.\" The team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs—one of the most popular suggestions Hunt received in a name-the-team contest", ". Lamar Hunt sent letters dated June 21, 1963, to all the contest entrants who selected the name CHIEFS in the \"Rename the Texans\" contest of whom Mrs. Joan Feuerborn was one of those entrants, and along with their respective guesses as to the number of season tickets sold by May 1. The actual total was 10,808, and based on this the car winner was Mr. E. L. Diemler of Kansas City, Missouri, a warehouse manager who got the idea when making out a bill of lading to Chief Freight Lines", ". Another name also considered at the time for the team was the Kansas City Mules.", "The name, \"Chiefs\" is not only derived from a fan contest, but also from Mayor Bartle, who 35 years prior, founded the Native American-based honor society known as The Tribe of Mic-O-Say within the Boy Scouts of America organization, which earned him the nickname, \"The Chief.\"", "The Chiefs moved into Municipal Stadium, located at 22nd and Brooklyn, which opened in 1923 and had 49,002 seats. The Chiefs shared the facilities with the Kansas City Athletics of Major League Baseball. The first appearance of the Chiefs in Municipal Stadium attracted just 5,721 fans for a 17–13 pre-season victory against Buffalo on August 9.", "The Chiefs' inaugural season in Kansas City began with owner Lamar Hunt's trade of starting quarterback Cotton Davidson to the Oakland Raiders, which landed the number one overall selection in the AFL Draft (which they used to select Buck Buchanan). Ironically, the Raiders would later select Gene Upshaw in 1967 for the express purpose of blocking Buchanan. The Chiefs also selected guard Ed Budde from Michigan State with their other first round pick, and Bobby Bell from Minnesota in the seventh round", ". Buchanan, Budde and Bell all became starters on their way to a combined 526 games with the team and all three of them played their entire careers with the Chiefs.", "Tragedy struck the club when rookie running back Stone Johnson, who was a sprinter in the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome, suffered a fractured vertebra in his neck in a pre-season game against Oakland on August 30 in Wichita, Kansas. He died 10 days later on September 8 and his jersey number 33 was subsequently retired. The Chiefs finished their first season in Kansas City with a 5–7–2 record and failed to reappear in the AFL Championship game for a consecutive year.", "Building a champion, 1964–1969", "In 1964, the Chiefs began the year with a 2–1 mark before dropping three consecutive games as several of the team's best players, including E.J. Holub, Fred Arbanas and Johnny Robinson missed numerous games with injuries. Arbanas missed the final two games of the year after undergoing surgery to his left eye, in which he suffered almost total loss of vision", ". Running back Mack Lee Hill, who signed with the club as a rookie free agent and received a mere $300 signing bonus, entered the starting lineup and earned a spot in the AFL All-Star Game. The club rounded out the season with two consecutive wins to close the season at 7–7, finishing second in the AFL Western Conference behind the San Diego Chargers", ". An average of just 18,126 fans attended each home game at Municipal Stadium, prompting discussion at the AFL owners' meeting about the Chiefs future in Kansas City.", "For the 1965 season, the Chiefs were once again caught in the middle of the AFL and NFL's bidding wars for college talent. Kansas City made running back Gale Sayers from the University of Kansas their first-round draft pick, but Sayers eventually signed with the Bears for less money. Running back Mack Lee Hill suffered torn ligaments in his right knee in the second to last regular season game of the year at Buffalo on December 12", ". Following what was expected to be a routine surgery on December 14 at Menorah Hospital in Kansas City, Hill died from what was termed \"a sudden and massive embolism.\" Hunt called Hill's death \"the worst shock possible.\" Beginning the following year, the club annually bestowed the Mack Lee Hill Award on its top rookie or first-year performer in Hill's honor", ". Just days after Hill's unexpected death, the mourning Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos on December 19 to finish the year with a 7–5–2 record, their first winning season in Kansas City.", "In 1966, the Chiefs were beginning to lay the groundwork for a return to the AFL Championship game and eventual dominance in the later years of the AFL. Team owner Lamar Hunt was publicly negotiating with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle about a possible merger of the two leagues. Defensive end Aaron Brown was highly coveted by many clubs, including the NFL's Steelers, who intended to select him", ". The Steelers couldn't locate Brown on draft day since he was already aboard a flight with Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt, who carried out the first mid-air signing in team history. The Chiefs signed Heisman Trophy-winning running back Mike Garrett in the 20th round of the 1966 AFL Draft. Garrett went on to earn AFL Rookie of the Year honors for the 1966 season.", "The Chiefs started the season at 3–0. A crowd of 43,885 attended the Chiefs home opener against the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills on October 2, the largest ever to witness a sports event in Kansas City at the time. The Chiefs dropped a 29–14 decision to the Bills, but after the contest, Chiefs coach Hank Stram and Buffalo head coach Joe Collier negotiated a trade in the middle of the field. Kansas City received placekicker Mike Mercer for a fifth-round pick", ". Kansas City received placekicker Mike Mercer for a fifth-round pick. Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson led the league in passing, while Otis Taylor became the first 1,000-yard receiver in franchise history, registering 1,297 yards. The Chiefs finished three games in front of Oakland to claim an AFL Western Conference title with an 11–2–1 record, setting the stage for the franchise's second trip to the AFL Championship Game.", "Using a dazzling I-formation offense and a smothering defense, the Chiefs claimed a dominating 31–7 victory in the AFL title game at Buffalo on New Year's Day, 1967. That victory propelled Kansas City to the first AFL-NFL World Championship Game, later known as the Super Bowl. At the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Chiefs met Vince Lombardi's powerful Green Bay Packers of the National Football League on January 15, 1967", ". The Chiefs played the Packers close for a half, trailing 14–10, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35–10.", "For 1967, the club's special teams got a boost with the addition of kicker Jan Stenerud, and kick returner Noland \"Super Gnat\" Smith. The Chiefs' first regular season game against an NFL team resulted in a commanding 66–24 Chiefs victory against the Chicago Bears at Municipal Stadium on August 23. Injuries again hit the club hard during the regular season as the Chiefs clawed their way to a 9–5 record.", "Interest in the team skyrocketed following the team's appearance in the AFL-NFL Championship Game, forcing an increase in seating capacity at Municipal Stadium from 40,000 to 47,000. In June, Jackson County voters approved a $43 million bond issue for construction of a sports complex to be completed by 1972", ". Eastern Jackson County was chosen as the site of the Chiefs and Royals' new stadiums, and groundbreaking ceremonies took place in July with plans calling for a unique \"rolling roof\" design (which was later scrapped).", "The 1968 Chiefs defense allowed a franchise-low 170 points (12.1 ppg). The nucleus of the defensive unit was in its prime, producing six AFL All-Stars, including all three of the squad's linebackers. Offensively, quarterback Len Dawson led the AFL in passing for the fourth time", ". Offensively, quarterback Len Dawson led the AFL in passing for the fourth time. The Chiefs began the season with a 7–1 record and rattled off five straight victories to close the regular season at 12–2, sharing the AFL Western Conference title with the Oakland Raiders and setting up a one-game playoff between the two teams. Kansas City lost a 41–6 decision at Oakland on December 22 as the Raiders advanced to the 1968 AFL Championship Game against the New York Jets", ". The loss to Oakland is considered to be the beginning of the Chiefs' rivalry with the Raiders, one of the NFL's most bitter feuds.", "The Chiefs used the momentum they built during the 1968 campaign by posting a perfect 6–0 record during pre-season play for 1969. The team began the regular season with four consecutive road games for the only time in team history. After a decisive 27–9 win at San Diego on September 14, the club posted a 31–0 shutout at Boston on September 21. During the game, quarterback Len Dawson sustained a knee injury which would sideline him for the following two months.", "The once-optimistic picture for the Chiefs went from bad to worse the following week when back-up quarterback Jacky Lee went down with a broken ankle in a 24–19 loss at Cincinnati on September 28. That injury left the team's most crucial position in the hands of second-year quarterback Mike Livingston, who took just five snaps as a rookie in 1968. However, Livingston engineered a five-game winning streak, while getting plenty of help from the club's defense", ". The team's home opener was played in a day-long deluge referred to as a \"frog-strangler\" by Chiefs radio broadcaster Bill Grigsby. The Chiefs and Houston Oilers combined for 14 fumbles in a 24–0 Kansas City victory on October 12. Len Dawson returned to the starting lineup in a 27–3 win against San Diego on November 9 and guided the club to three wins in the season's next four games.", "The Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos 31–17 on Thanksgiving Day. Trailing 24–17 late in the game, Denver attempted an onside kick that was recovered by linebacker Bobby Bell, who promptly returned that kick for a 53-yard touchdown. Mike Livingston started the following week against Buffalo on December 7 for an again-injured Dawson, who returned for the regular season finale at Oakland on December 13", ". A 10–6 loss against the Raiders gave the Chiefs an 11–3 record, good for second in the AFC Western Conference behind Oakland (12–1–1).", "In an AFL Divisional Playoff Game at New York, Kansas City rode its dominating defense which produced a crucial goal-line stand en route to a 13–6 win over the defending Super Bowl champion Jets to set up a rematch with the Raiders in the final AFL Championship Game. Looking for retribution of the previous losses in the regular season and in the 1968 playoffs, the Chiefs became the league's only three-time champions, defeating the Raiders by a 17–7 count at Oakland on January 4, 1970.", "During the days preceding Kansas City's clash with the heavily favored Minnesota Vikings of the NFL, unsubstantiated media reports associating Len Dawson with a known gambler hounded the Chiefs quarterback. Dawson was later revealed to be mistaken for another man with the same last name. The night before Super Bowl IV, Ed Sabol of NFL Films approached Vikings coach Bud Grant about being wired for sound for the game. Grant declined, but Chiefs coach Hank Stram accepted", ". Grant declined, but Chiefs coach Hank Stram accepted. As both the Chiefs and the cameras rolled, Stram clamored for his team to run \"65 toss power trap\" and to \"keep matriculating the ball down the field.\" Stram became the first-ever coach to be wired for NFL Films, and ironically, as a coach in the rival AFL.", "The Chiefs used the game as a crusade for the American Football League and wore \"AFL-10\" patches honoring the league's 10-year existence. The Chiefs used three field goals from Jan Stenerud and a rushing touchdown from Mike Garrett to take a 16–0 halftime lead. A dynamic 46-yard TD pass from Len Dawson to Otis Taylor in the third quarter sealed the victory as Dawson was named the game's Most Valuable Player", ". Perhaps the grittiest performance of the day came from safety Johnny Robinson, who registered two interceptions and a fumble recovery despite playing with three broken ribs. At approximately 5:20 PM, the final seconds ticked off the clock at Tulane Stadium as the Chiefs were crowned World Champions by claiming a 23–7 victory in the final game between the AFL and NFL. A victory parade ensued upon the club's triumphant return the following day in downtown Kansas City", ". Super Bowl IV was the last championship won by the Chiefs until Super Bowl LIV,", "Alignment to the NFL", "Fall from glory, 1970–1977", "Following their championship win, the NFL-AFL merger placed the Chiefs in the newly created AFC West division with the Chargers, Raiders, and Broncos. The team traded running back Mike Garrett to San Diego in 1970 and replaced him in the lineup with Ed Podolak. Despite a 44–24 win against Baltimore on September 28 in just the second-ever telecast of ABC's Monday Night Football package, the Chiefs owned a 3–3–1 record at the season's midpoint", ". The Chiefs and the Raiders tied a game at 17–17 on November 1 following a controversial play from Oakland. The Chiefs were ahead 17–14 when Len Dawson apparently sealed the win, running for a first down which would have allowed Kansas City to run out the clock. While on the ground, Dawson was speared by Raiders defensive end Ben Davidson in an infamous incident that cost the Chiefs a victory and further inflamed the already heated Chiefs-Raiders rivalry", ". Wide receiver Otis Taylor retaliated and a bench-clearing brawl ensued. Offsetting penalties were called, nullifying Dawson's first down. The Chiefs were forced to punt and Raiders kicker George Blanda booted a game-tying field goal with eight seconds remaining. That tie ultimately cost the Chiefs the opportunity to split the AFC West division title with Oakland as Kansas City finished the year with a 7–5–2 record, while the Raiders went 8–4–2 and reached the conference championship.", "In 1971, the Chiefs were regarded by many as the finest squad ever assembled by the franchise, including team owner Lamar Hunt. The team featured a franchise record 11 Pro Bowlers. Offensively, wide receiver Otis Taylor led the league with 1,110 receiving yards. In just his third pro season, Ed Podolak surpassed Abner Haynes as the all-time leading rusher in team history. The longstanding linebacking trio of Willie Lanier, Bobby Bell and Jim Lynch was the league's best", ". The longstanding linebacking trio of Willie Lanier, Bobby Bell and Jim Lynch was the league's best. The offensive line was headlined by guard Ed Budde and tackle Jim Tyrer, while the defensive front featured a pair of Pro Bowlers in tackles Buck Buchanan and Curley Culp. Both placekicker Jan Stenerud and punter Jerrel Wilson represented the squad in the Pro Bowl, as well.", "After bolting to a 5–1–1 start, the club went 5–2 during the second half of the season to finish the year at 10–3–1. A 16–14 victory against Oakland on December 12 gave the franchise its initial AFC West title. The great promise of the 1971 campaign ended dramatically in the longest game in NFL history, an AFC Divisional Playoff Game played on Christmas Day against the Miami Dolphins", ". It took 82:40 to finish the contest, but a 37-yard field goal from Dolphins kicker Garo Yepremian finally ended this epic as Miami claimed a 27–24 double overtime win in the final football contest played at Kansas City's Municipal Stadium. Chiefs' running back Ed Podolak accounted for 350 combined net yards, a figure that remains an NFL post-season record. The baton of power in the AFC was officially passed to the Dolphins, who went on to appear in three consecutive Super Bowls", ". It would be the Chiefs' last playoff appearance for 15 years, effectively signaling the conclusion of the franchise's glory days.", "In 1972, the last original member of the 1960 Dallas Texans team departed when safety Johnny Robinson announced his retirement at training camp. Meanwhile, starting quarterback Len Dawson ended speculation about his retirement by signing a two-year contract. Franchise owner Lamar Hunt became the first AFL figure to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on July 29.", "After two different construction strikes and a myriad of other delays, Arrowhead Stadium was officially dedicated on August 12 when the Chiefs registered a 24–14 victory against the St. Louis Cardinals. Running back Ed Podolak scored the first touchdown in the facility. Regular season ticket prices for the team's first season at Arrowhead were USD$8 for box seats and $7 for reserved seating.", "On September 17, the Chiefs lost a 20–10 decision against Miami in the first regular season game at Arrowhead in front of a crowd of 79,829. A standing-room-only crowd of 82,094 fans was in attendance for a 27–14 victory against Oakland on November 5, the largest \"in-house\" attendance total for an NFL contest in Arrowhead's history. After a 5–3 start, a three-game losing streak effectively eliminated the club from playoff contention, including an embarrassing home loss to the winless Philadelphia Eagles", ". An 8–6 record was good enough for only a second-place finish in the AFC West behind Oakland. Linebacker Willie Lanier became the first Chiefs player to receive the NFL Man of the Year Award in the offseason.", "For 1973, quarterback Mike Livingston started in a 23–13 Opening Day loss against Los Angeles, but Len Dawson returned to rally the club for three consecutive wins to get the club off to a 3–1 start for a third consecutive year. The aging Len Dawson made his final start of the year in a 23–14 loss at Buffalo on October 29 on Monday Night Football and was replaced for the remainder of the year by Livingston, beginning a string of three straight seasons in which both players split time at the position", ". Livingston led the club to another three straight wins, putting the team in first place in mid-November with a 6–3–1 record. A 1–2–1 ledger over the season's final month ended the club's post-season aspirations as the team finished the year in a second-place tie with Denver at 7–5–2. Len Dawson became the second Chiefs player in as many years to win the NFL Man of the Year Award", ". Len Dawson became the second Chiefs player in as many years to win the NFL Man of the Year Award. Following Super Bowl VIII, The AFC-NFC Pro Bowl was held at Arrowhead Stadium on January 20 with the AFC claiming a 15–13 win thanks to five field goals from Miami placekicker Garo Yepremian.", "While the club's sparkling new facility at Arrowhead Stadium was drawing rave reviews, the Chiefs roster was beginning to show its age in 1974. The result was the team's first losing season in 11 years as the club was unable to string together consecutive victories during the year, a first in franchise history. Most of the team's starters were advancing in age: Len Dawson was 39, Jim Tyrer was 35, Bobby Bell, Buck Buchanan, and Ed Budde were 34, Dave Hill was 33 and Otis Taylor was 32.", "One of the year's few bright spots in the 5–9 season was cornerback Emmitt Thomas, who led the league with a franchise-record 12 interceptions. The final game of the 1974 campaign marked the final time all five of Kansas City's future Hall of Fame players from the club's AFL championship era took the field together with coach Hank Stram. Including Lamar Hunt and five future Minnesota Vikings Hall of Famers, an amazing total of 12 Hall of Fame inductees were involved in that 1974 season finale game", ". That 35–15 loss against Super Bowl-bound Minnesota provided an anticlimactic conclusion to Hank Stram's illustrious coaching career in Kansas City. Stram, the only head coach in franchise history was relieved of his duties on December 27 after compiling a 124–76–10 regular season record with the club.", "San Francisco 49ers defensive coordinator Paul Wiggin was named the second head coach in franchise history on January 23, 1975. Wiggin inherited the unenviable task of rebuilding a squad whose pool of talent had been largely depleted due to age and a number of ill-considered trades that had left the club devoid of first-round draft choices in 1973 and 1975. After an 0–3 start to the season, Wiggin directed the Chiefs to three straight wins, beginning with a convincing 42–10 victory against the Raiders", ". The highlight of the season was a 34–31 upset win at Dallas on Monday Night Football. The club could not maintain the early success; owning a 5–5 record heading into the home stretch of the season, injuries to a number of key players crippled the team. The team dropped its final four contests of the year to finish at 5–9 for the second consecutive season. The regular season finale at Oakland marked the final games in the Hall of Fame careers of Len Dawson and Buck Buchanan.", "By 1976, many of the Chiefs' championship players were on their way out of Kansas City. Buck Buchanan announced his retirement in February, while Dawson announced his own departure on May 1. Off the field, Jack Steadman was promoted to team president and Jim Schaaf was named general manager in August. On the field, Kansas City's fortunes didn't improve in the second year of the Wiggin regime", ". On the field, Kansas City's fortunes didn't improve in the second year of the Wiggin regime. The club dropped three straight home games, including a 27–17 loss to a New Orleans Saints team coached by Stram, before suffering a 50–17 setback at Buffalo on October 3, opening the season at 0–4 for the first time in team history. The team registered a 3–1 record during a successful midseason stretch, but like most of the previous seasons, could not maintain that momentum.", "After lingering in Len Dawson's shadow for eight seasons, Mike Livingston was firmly entrenched as the team's starting quarterback, becoming the first QB to start every regular season game since Dawson in 1968. Although Livingston played well and rallied the squad for wins in two of the season's final three games, the Chiefs still ended the year with their third consecutive 5–9 record", ". Running back MacArthur Lane was the club's top offensive threat, becoming the only player at the time in franchise history to lead the league in receptions (66).", "On the field, the Chiefs suffered their worst season ever in 1977, winning just twice and undergoing a mid-season coaching change. Following three consecutive 5–9 seasons, the team finished with a league worst 2–12 record. An 0–5 start doomed the squad with a 44–7 loss at Cleveland, where Wiggin starred as a defensive lineman during the Browns' glory days, effectively sealing the coach's fate. Wiggin was relieved of his duties on Halloween, marking the only in-season coaching switch in team history", ". Defensive backs coach Tom Bettis was named interim coach and claimed a 20–10 victory against Green Bay in the club's initial contest under his direction, but it was the only victory of his brief head coaching tenure.", "Bettis and the remainder of the coaching staff assembled by Wiggin were relieved on December 19, one day after a 21–20 loss at Oakland in the regular season finale. Marv Levy, the former head coach of the Canadian Football League's Montreal Alouettes, was named the fourth head coach in franchise history the following day. The heart and soul of the Chiefs once-vaunted defense departed when Willie Lanier and Jim Lynch retired following the season.", "Signs of improvement, 1978–1982\nFor 1978, Marv Levy's systematic restocking of a relatively barren defensive roster began with a 1978 draft class that included defensive end Art Still and linebacker Gary Spani. Running back Ed Podolak, who was the club's all-time leading rusher at the time, retired in the offseason on June 15.", "Perhaps Levy's most unconventional tactic in rebuilding the Chiefs was installing the \"Wing-T offense\". \"It was a situation where we took over a team that had the worst defensive record in the history of the National Football League\", Levy explained. \"We wanted to keep that defense off the field, so we ran the ball 60 times a game.\" The 1978 Chiefs team ran and ran often, posting franchise records with 663 rushing attempts and 2,986 ground yards", ". Levy's squad ran the ball a staggering 69 times in a 24–23 Opening Day win at Cincinnati on September 3, the most rushing attempts in an NFL contest since 1948. Five different players had 100-yard rushing games during the year, including running back Tony Reed, who finished the season with 1,053 yards to become the team's first 1,000-yard back since 1967. Despite the squad's Opening Day success, the club lost 10 of its next 11 games, including a pair of overtime decisions", ". However, the team showed signs of improvement with the defense recording a 23–0 shutout against San Diego on November 26 as the club concluded its first 16-game schedule with a 4–12 mark.", "In 1979, Kansas City owned a pair of picks in the first round of the Draft, selecting defensive end Mike Bell and quarterback Steve Fuller. By the season's third game, Fuller had supplanted Mike Livingston as the club's starter.", "With Fuller at the helm, the Chiefs owned a 4–2 record after six games, but a five-game mid-season losing stretch sullied that effort. Despite finishing fifth in the AFC West for a second straight season, Kansas City's 7–9 record was a notable accomplishment considering the fact that the division's other four clubs all posted winning records for a second consecutive season. The Chiefs lost a 3–0 decision at Tampa Bay on December 16 in one of the most water-logged contests in franchise annals", ". As both clubs struggled to move the ball under monsoon-like conditions, a late, fourth-quarter field goal by the Buccaneers averted the NFL's first scoreless tie since 1943.", "In 1980, the Chiefs selected guard Brad Budde in the first round of the Draft, the son of former Chiefs guard Ed Budde, as the team's first-round draft choice, making the Buddes the first father-son combination to become first-round draftees of the same team in NFL history. In a then-controversial move on August 26, the Chiefs released placekicker Jan Stenerud, who at the time was club's all-time leading scorer", ". He was replaced by journeyman Nick Lowery, who had been cut 11 times by eight different teams himself.", "After enduring an 0–4 start, the club rebounded to post a four-game winning streak, starting with a 31–17 victory in Oakland, in which Raiders quarterback Dan Pastorini broke his leg and was replaced by Jim Plunkett, who guided the team to the Super Bowl XV championship. After Steve Fuller was sidelined with a knee injury late in the season, former Miami 12th-round draft choice Bill Kenney became the team's starting quarterback", ". He was so anonymous that when he appeared in that contest, the name on the back of his jersey was inadvertently misspelled \"Kenny.\" Kenney went on to lead the club to a 31–14 victory against Denver on December 7 in his initial NFL start. The defense continued to evolve as defensive end Art Still and safety Gary Barbaro became the first Chiefs defensive players to be elected to the Pro Bowl in five seasons. The Chiefs finished the year at 8–8, the club's highest victory tally since 1972.", "Bill Kenney began the 1981 season as the club's starting quarterback and directed the Chiefs to a 6–2 start, including a 37–33 win over the Steelers on Opening Day. Second-round draft choice, running back Joe Delaney electrified the club's offense by rushing for 1,121 yards, a team single-season record at the time. He was named the AFC's Rookie of the Year and became the first running back to represent the franchise in the Pro Bowl", ". Delaney registered a 193-yard performance in a 23–10 victory against the Oilers on November 15, the best single-game total ever amassed by a Kansas City rookie.", "Owning an 8–4 record with four games remaining, the Chiefs were poised to make the playoffs for the first time in 10 years. However, a three-game losing streak ended the anticipation. Bill Kenney missed the club's final three contests due to injury as Steve Fuller temporarily reclaimed the starting QB position and guided the club to a 10–6 win at Minnesota, in the final contest played at Metropolitan Stadium", ". With the Chiefs winning the game, Vikings fans began dismembering the stadium as early as the second half—taking seats, pieces of the scoreboard and even chunks of sod as souvenirs. The victory assured the Chiefs of a 9–7 record, the club's first winning mark since 1973 as coach Marv Levy increased the club's victory total for a third consecutive year", ". Inspired by the Washington Redskins's \"Hail to the Redskins\", Levy penned a fight song for the Chiefs called \"Give a Cheer for Kansas City\" which never caught on.", "In 1982, running back Joe Delaney underwent surgery to repair a detached retina in his eye, a radical procedure at the time. Optimism abounded at Arrowhead thanks to the club's promising 9–7 record from 1981, but swelling labor unrest from NFL players spelled doom for both the Chiefs and Levy in 1982. The Chiefs split their first two games of the year before a 57-day strike by the NFL Players Association began at midnight on September 20", ". The strike concluded on November 17 after six games were canceled and one was rescheduled, but the Chiefs would never recover, dropping four straight games after their return to the field. Center Jack Rudnay, who had been one of the franchise's most durable and decorated offensive performers over the past decade, announced on December 20 that he would retire after the season", ". Despite wins in two of the season's final three games, the Levy era concluded as the club finished the strike-shortened campaign at 3–6.", "Unbalanced chemistry, 1983–1988\n\n1983", "To begin 1983, the Chiefs fired head coach Marv Levy on January 4 after compiling a 31–42 record. Dallas Cowboys quarterbacks coach John Mackovic was named the fifth head coach in team history on February 2. The 39-year-old Mackovic became the youngest individual ever to hold that post for the club. The Chiefs held the seventh overall pick in the quarterback-laden 1983 NFL Draft and selected Todd Blackledge", ". The five other signal-callers selected in the first round that year included John Elway, Jim Kelly, Tony Eason, Ken O'Brien and Dan Marino.", "Tragedy struck the club on June 29 when Joe Delaney drowned trying to save the lives of three youngsters in Monroe, Louisiana. Delaney was posthumously awarded the Presidential Citizen's Medal by Ronald Reagan on July 13. Linebacker Bobby Bell became the first Chiefs player to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on July 30, providing some solace for the mourning Chiefs fan base following Joe Delaney's death.", "With Kenney and Blackledge both on the roster, starting QB Steve Fuller was traded to the Los Angeles Rams on August 19. Kenney earned a Pro Bowl berth after racking up a franchise-record 4,348 passing yards, while wide receiver Carlos Carson hauled in 80 passes for 1,351 yards. Despite the team's high-flying passing game, head coach John Mackovic had trouble finding a suitable replacement for Joe Delaney and the running back position", ". The highest scoring contest in franchise history took place as the Chiefs and Seattle Seahawks combined for 99 points in a wild, 51–48 overtime loss at the Kingdome. A meager crowd of 11,377 attended the club's season-ending 48–17 win against Denver on December 18, the smallest attendance figure ever for a Chiefs game at Arrowhead as the club finished the year at 6–10.", "1984", "Pro Bowl safety Gary Barbaro became the most notable Chiefs player to defect to the rival United States Football League, signing with the New Jersey Generals on February 2 after sitting out the entire 1983 campaign in a contract dispute. Barbaro's departure and the trade of cornerback Gary Green began a youth movement that produced the most vaunted secondary in team history", ". Cornerbacks Kevin Ross and Albert Lewis, and safeties Deron Cherry and Lloyd Burruss accounted for a combined 13 Pro Bowl appearances for the Chiefs in the years to come.", "All-America defensive tackle Bill Maas and offensive tackle John Alt were both selected in the first round of the 1984 NFL Draft. Maas was named NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year, while Alt eventually became the cornerstone of the club's offensive line later in the decade. Kansas City's defense registered a team-record 11.0 sacks in a 10–6 win against Cleveland on September 30, coming one sack shy of the NFL single-game record.", "Quarterback Bill Kenney suffered a broken thumb during the preseason and was sidelined until the season's seventh week. Second year back-up QB Todd Blackledge opened the first six contests of the season and had the club at 3–3. Kenney returned to the starting lineup against the New York Jets on October 21, but inconsistency marked the rest of the season as the club dropped four of first five contests after his return. However, the team rattled off three consecutive wins to conclude the year at 8–8.\n\n1985", "The Chiefs got off to a flying start in 1985 with a 47–27 win at New Orleans, while safety Deron Cherry tied an NFL record by registering four interceptions in a 28–7 win against Seattle on September 29 as the club boasted a 3–1 record four games into the season. The club was then confronted with a seven-game losing streak that wasn't snapped until QB Todd Blackledge was installed as the starter against Indianapolis on November 24", ". The team rebounded to win three of its final five contests of the year with Blackledge under center, further inflaming a quarterback controversy that continued into the 1986 season.", "One of the few remaining bright spots in a disappointing 6–10 season came in the regular season finale against San Diego when wide receiver Stephone Paige set an NFL record with 309 receiving yards in a 38–34 win, breaking the previous mark of 303 yards set by Cleveland's Jim Benton in 1945. Paige's mark was subsequently surpassed by a 336-yard effort by Flipper Anderson (L.A. Rams) in 1989.\n\n1986", "Former linebacker Willie Lanier was enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 2. On the field, the pieces started coming together for head coach John Mackovic. His offense displayed plenty of scoring punch, while the club's defense and special teams became increasingly effective. With the team sitting at 3–3, Bill Kenney replaced Todd Blackledge for the second half of the season in a game against San Diego, guiding the club to a 42–41 victory", ". That win was the first of four consecutive triumphs with Kenney at the helm, the club's longest winning streak since 1980. Poised with a 7–3 record after 10 games, three straight losses in November put the Chiefs playoff chances in jeopardy. Two December wins gave Kansas City a 9–6 mark, putting the Chiefs on the verge of their first postseason berth in 15 years.", "The defining moment of the season came in the regular season finale at Pittsburgh on December 21. Despite being outgained in total yardage by a 515-to-171-yard margin, the Chiefs were able to notch a 24–19 victory as all of the team's points came via special teams on a blocked punt return, a field goal, a kickoff return and a blocked field goal return. With a 10–6 record the Chiefs earned an AFC Wild Card berth, winning a tiebreaker with Seattle", ". With a 10–6 record the Chiefs earned an AFC Wild Card berth, winning a tiebreaker with Seattle. Bill Kenney was injured in the fourth quarter of the Steelers contest, meaning Todd Blackledge would draw the starting assignment for the club's first playoff contest since 1971, a 35–15 loss at New York.", "1987", "One of the most tumultuous weeks in franchise history took place following the club's playoff loss against the Jets. Assistant head coach and special teams coach Frank Gansz, resigned his position on January 7 in order to pursue opportunities as an NFL offensive coordinator. The following day, the Chiefs announced in an impromptu press conference that John Mackovic was relieved of his duties as head coach on January 8", ". A popular figure among Chiefs players, Gansz was reinstated on January 10 and was named the sixth head coach in franchise history.", "Former quarterback Len Dawson became the third Chiefs player inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 8, while injuries forced the retirement of the club's all-time leading tackler Gary Spani. A duo of rookies made a splash in a 20–13 win on Opening Day against San Diego as running back Paul Palmer returned a kickoff for a TD and Christian Okoye dashed for 105 yards. A 24-day players strike began on September 22, effectively canceling the club's contest against Minnesota", ". Replacement players participated in games for the next three weeks. Much like Marv Levy five years earlier, Gansz's grip on the club's coaching reins was crippled by the labor unrest.", "Kansas City's replacement squad consisted primarily of players cut in training camp. One of the few bright spots among this motley crew was running back Jitter Fields, who remained on the active roster following the strike. The Chiefs strike squad received an ominous welcome in Los Angeles when in the early morning hours of October 4, the day prior to a contest against the Raiders, an earthquake rattled Southern California. The shaken Chiefs lost a 35–17 decision later that day", ". The shaken Chiefs lost a 35–17 decision later that day. The low point of the year came the following week at Miami in the first regular season game played at what then was known as Joe Robbie Stadium. Chiefs replacement QB Matt Stevens was injured early in the contest, forcing into duty QB Alex Espinoza, a player who had never taken an NFL snap", ". The result was a 42–0 Dolphins victory, setting the stage for an 0–3 performance by Kansas City's replacement unit, giving the Chiefs a 1–4 record before the club's regular roster returned at San Diego on October 25. Five straight losses followed, giving the Chiefs a team-record nine-game losing skid. For the only time in team history, five different players started games at quarterback for the club. Behind Kenney, Kansas City won two of its last three games to conclude the strike-shortened 4–11 campaign.", "1988", "The spring was marked by several notable trades as the club jockeyed to improve on its 4–11 finish in 1987. Todd Blackledge was traded to Pittsburgh on March 29 and 12-year veteran quarterback Steve DeBerg was acquired from Tampa Bay on March 31. The Chiefs moved up one spot in the first round of the draft to select defensive end Neil Smith with the third overall pick. Bill Kenney opened the team's initial two games at quarterback, but was replaced by DeBerg for the second half against Seattle", ". DeBerg guided the team to a 20–13 win against Denver in his initial start as a member of the Chiefs. However, six losses and a tie followed as Kenney and DeBerg jostled for the QB job.", "As the season drew to a close, it became apparent the winds of change were blowing across the organization. President Jack Steadman resigned on December 8, while general manager Jim Schaaf was relieved of his duties the same day. Steadman was later named chairman of the board. On the field, the Chiefs finished the year at 4–11–1 as questions swirled regarding Gansz's future and who would fill the club's leadership void", ". One day after the season's conclusion, former Philadelphia Eagles and USFL executive Carl Peterson was named the club's president/general manager and chief operating officer on December 19.", "A change of face\n\n\"Martyball\", 1989–2000", "After compiling an 8–22–1 record in two seasons, Frank Gansz was relieved of his duties as head coach on January 5, 1989. General manager Carl Peterson's selection as Gansz's successor would be former Cleveland Browns head coach Marty Schottenheimer, who was named the seventh head coach in Chiefs history on January 24. The first draft choice of the Peterson era set the tone for the next decade as the club selected linebacker Derrick Thomas with the fourth overall selection", ". Thomas paired with defensive end Neil Smith to form one of the most feared pass-rushing duos in NFL history, compiling a combined 212.5 sacks during their illustrious Chiefs careers. The Peterson-Schottenheimer era got off to an inauspicious start in a 34–20 loss at Denver on September 10 as quarterback Steve DeBerg's first pass attempt was intercepted and returned for a TD", ". The club won just four times in its next 10 games as former Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Ron Jaworski and Steve Pelluer, who was acquired in a trade from Dallas, each opened three games apiece during that span. DeBerg regained the starting job for the final five weeks of the season, generating four wins that put the Chiefs just out of post-season qualification at 8–7–1. A 34–0 shutout win against Houston highlighted the club's stretch run", ". A 34–0 shutout win against Houston highlighted the club's stretch run. Running back Christian Okoye became the first Chief to lead the NFL in rushing with 1,480 yards, while Derrick Thomas won consensus NFL Rookie of the Year honors.", "1990", "The foundation for the club's formidable offensive line of the 1990s gathered two key ingredients when center Tim Grunhard and guard Dave Szott were acquired in the 1990 NFL Draft. Construction began on the club's indoor practice facility at the Truman Sports Complex, giving the Chiefs an 80-yard indoor field and weight room facilities upon its completion. Former defensive tackle Buck Buchanan was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 4", ". Former defensive tackle Buck Buchanan was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame on August 4. In the pre-season, The Chiefs made their initial overseas appearance, losing a 19–3 American Bowl decision against the Los Angeles Rams at Olympic Stadium in Berlin, Germany. Schottenheimer's club got out of the starting gate quickly, winning three of their first four games. The club then struggled, splitting its next six contests.", "Free agent running back Barry Word produced a team-record 200-yard rushing outburst in a 43–24 victory against Detroit on October 14. Kansas City led the NFL with a franchise-record 60.0 sacks, including a team-record 20.0 by Derrick Thomas. Thomas established an NFL single-game record with 7.0 sacks in an inspiring Veterans Day performance against Seattle, a game the Seahawks miraculously won, 17–16, on a last-second, 25-yard TD pass to wide receiver Paul Skansi", ". That loss brought on the furious stretch run which saw the club record victories in six of its last seven outings. Behind DeBerg's offensive leadership (23 TD passes with just four interceptions) Kansas City finished the year with a franchise-best +26 turnover differential. The Chiefs clinched their first post-season berth since 1986 with a 24–21 win at San Diego and finished the year at 11–5, marking the franchise's best finish since 1969", ". The Chiefs suffered a heart-breaking, 17–16 loss at Miami on January 5, 1991, in an AFC wild card game as placekicker Nick Lowery's potential game-winning 52-yard field goal fell short with 0:56 remaining.", "1991\n\nOn July 27, former placekicker Jan Stenerud became the first of his position to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Chiefs moved their training camp to the University of Wisconsin–River Falls after spending the previous 28 summers at William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri. On September 1, the Chiefs defeated the Atlanta Falcons 14–3 in front of a sold-out crowd at Arrowhead Stadium.", "The Chiefs were featured on Monday Night Football three times, including a 33–6 victory over the defending AFC Champion Buffalo Bills before a raucous crowd at Arrowhead on October 7, marking the club's first home Monday Night Football contest in eight years. The club finished the regular season at 10–6, marking the first time since 1968–69 that the franchise had qualified for the playoffs in consecutive seasons", ". A 27–21 victory against the Los Angeles Raiders in the regular season finale gave the Chiefs the right to host the Raiders just six days later in the inaugural post-season game in Arrowhead's history, and the Chiefs' first home playoff game in 20 years. Thanks to six Los Angeles turnovers, the Chiefs registered their first post-season victory since Super Bowl IV with a 10–6 win in an AFC Wild Card Game on December 28", ". The following week, the Chiefs lost a 37–14 decision at Buffalo on January 5, 1992, in an AFC Divisional Playoff match-up as the Buffalo Bills' dynamic offense proved to be too much for the Chiefs.", "1992", "A longtime nemesis with Seattle, \"Plan B\" free agent quarterback Dave Krieg was signed as the club's starter on March 19. A melancholy off-season awaited the Chiefs, who mourned the passing of Player Personnel Director Whitey Dovell on May 22 and Hall of Fame defensive tackle Buck Buchanan on July 16. Both Dovell and Buchanan lost courageous battles with cancer. Six-time Pro Bowl safety Deron Cherry announced his retirement in July after registering 50 interceptions in 11 seasons with the franchise", ". The Chiefs retired the jerseys of former players Buck Buchanan (#86), Willie Lanier (#63) and Jan Stenerud (#3) in a ceremony prior to a pre-season contest against Buffalo.", "First-round draft pick, cornerback Dale Carter won the Bert Bell Trophy as the NFL's Rookie of the Year. The very first time Carter touched the ball in an NFL contest, he registered a 46-yard punt return touchdown in a 24–10 win at San Diego on September 6. Running back Christian Okoye surpassed Ed Podolak as the all-time leading rusher in team history against Seattle on September 13", ". Injuries eventually made the 1992 campaign Okoye's last with the Chiefs after he compiled 4,897 rushing yards with the franchise. The club got off to a 3–1 start, but was faced with a 4–4 record at the season's midpoint. Despite four consecutive victories, the club's post-season hopes still came down to the season's final contest", ". Owning a 9–6 record and needing one more victory to secure a playoff berth, the Chiefs defense tallied three touchdowns, while Dave Krieg tossed a pair of scoring passes as Kansas City claimed a 42–20 win against Denver to finish the season at 10–6. Despite the big win against Denver, the Chiefs made a quick exit from the playoffs as Krieg was sacked 7 times in a 17–0 AFC Wild Card loss at San Diego on January 2, 1993.", "1993", "The Chiefs spent the off-season installing the \"West Coast offense\" under the direction of new offensive coordinator Paul Hackett, who at one time served as quarterbacks coach to Joe Montana in San Francisco. On April 20, the Chiefs traded for Joe Montana, who directed the 49ers to four Super Bowl victories in the previous decade", ". Guard Will Shields was selected with the club's third-round draft choice, rounding out the \"law firm\" of Grunhard, Szott and Shields which anchored the interior of Chiefs offensive line for most of the decade.", "On June 9, the club signed unrestricted free agent running back Marcus Allen, who had spent 11 seasons tormenting the Chiefs as a member of the rival Los Angeles Raiders. Montana and Allen made their debuts in a 27–3 win at Tampa Bay on September 5, marking Montana's first Opening Day appearance since 1990. Shields initiated a franchise-record streak of 175 consecutive starts the following week at Houston. Thanks to a pair of Monday Night Football wins at Arrowhead, the club owned a 6–2 mid-season record", ". Before taking the field in a Sunday night contest at Minnesota on December 26, the team learned it had clinched its first AFC West title since 1971 thanks to a Raiders loss earlier in the day. The team finished the season with an 11–5 regular season record, marking the club's fourth consecutive year with a double-digit victory tally. Linebacker Derrick Thomas was named the NFL's Man of the Year following the season", ". Linebacker Derrick Thomas was named the NFL's Man of the Year following the season. Thomas, who founded \"The Third and Long Foundation\", received the honor in large part due to his efforts in promoting children's literacy.", "Kansas City got its first true taste of \"Montana Magic\" as the Hall of Fame passer engineered a brilliant comeback in a 27–24 OT win in an AFC Wild Card thriller against Pittsburgh on January 8, 1994. Next, the Chiefs traveled to the Astrodome to face the red-hot Oilers, who had won 11 straight games to conclude the regular season. The heavily favored Oilers opened up a 13–7 lead in the fourth quarter, but once again, Montana conjured a comeback, guiding the club to a 28–20 victory", ". The Chiefs playoff journey ended as the club made its initial AFC Championship Game appearance at Buffalo on January 23. Montana was knocked out of the contest early in the second half as Buffalo claimed its record fourth straight AFC title by a score of 30–13. The win over the Oilers marked the last time the Chiefs won a playoff game until 2015, and the win over the Steelers marked the last time until 2018 that they won a playoff game at Arrowhead Stadium.", "1994", "While the previous off-season saw the Chiefs stockpile several key free agents, a number of familiar faces departed following the 1993 season, most notably cornerbacks Albert Lewis and Kevin Ross, as well as placekicker Nick Lowery. Quarterback Steve Bono was acquired in a trade with San Francisco on May 2 to serve as Joe Montana's backup, a job he previously held when both were with the 49ers. A grass playing field was installed at Arrowhead Stadium, replacing the previous AstroTurf surface", ". A grass playing field was installed at Arrowhead Stadium, replacing the previous AstroTurf surface. The club made its second American Bowl appearance in the pre-season, meeting Minnesota in Tokyo, Japan.", "On September 11, Steve Young and the San Francisco 49ers came to Arrowhead to play against Joe Montana and the Chiefs in a highly anticipated matchup. The Chiefs prevailed over the 49ers and Montana's successor by a 24–17 count before a crowd of 79,907, the second-largest \"in-house\" attendance in Arrowhead history", ". After starting the season 3–0, the Chiefs dropped back-to-back games before snapping an 11-game losing streak against Denver at Mile High Stadium on October 17 in a memorable Monday night contest. Montana orchestrated a masterful comeback, connecting with WR Willie Davis for a five-yard TD with 0:08 remaining to give the Chiefs a 31–28 triumph. A late-season, three-game losing skid put the club's playoff hopes in jeopardy", ". A late-season, three-game losing skid put the club's playoff hopes in jeopardy. The Chiefs found themselves at 8–7 faced with a do-or-die regular season finale against the Raiders in the final NFL contest (to date) played at the Los Angeles Coliseum and in Los Angeles until 2016. Marcus Allen had his finest game as a Chief, ironically against his former team, rushing 33 times for 132 yards en route to a 19–9 win. At 9–7, Kansas City qualified for the playoffs for a fifth straight season", ". At 9–7, Kansas City qualified for the playoffs for a fifth straight season. However, the Chiefs made a rapid departure from the playoffs in Montana's final professional contest at Miami on New Year's Eve. Montana and Dolphins' quarterback Dan Marino conducted a masterful first-half duel that ended deadlocked at 17–17, but Miami eventually prevailed by a 27–17 count.", "1995", "Joe Montana announced his retirement from football after 16 years in the NFL on April 18 and Steve Bono was promoted to the starting job. Immediately, so-called media experts predicted much gloom and doom for the 1995 Chiefs under Bono, leading Schottenheimer to quip during training camp that his club had been picked \"sixth in a five-team division.\" Led by Bono, who merited a Pro Bowl berth, Kansas City posted an NFL-best 13–3 record with unblemished 8–0 marks in the AFC West and at Arrowhead", ". The Chiefs led the NFL in rushing offense (138.9 ypg), scoring defense (15.1 ppg) and turnover ratio (+12). A 24–3 win at Arizona on October 1 featured a surreal, 76-yard TD run on a bootleg by Bono as the Chiefs initiated a seven-game winning streak, the franchise's longest since 1969", ". In a Monday Night Football classic against San Diego on October 9, wide receiver Tamarick Vanover returned a punt for an 86-yard TD to provide the winning points in a 29–23 victory, the team's third straight home win in overtime.", "The club's defense began to flex its muscle, beginning with a 21–7 win at Denver on October 22. The contest, played in a Rocky Mountain snowstorm, featured the 100th rushing TD of Marcus Allen's career. The Chiefs won a home game for the third time on a last-second return score that concluded in Arrowhead's west end zone when cornerback Mark Collins scooped up a fumble for a 20–13 win against Houston", ". Kansas City clinched a division title with a 29–23 victory at Oakland on December 3 en route to a franchise-best 13–3 regular season record and a team-record sixth consecutive postseason berth. The Chiefs were represented by seven players in the Pro Bowl, more than any other AFC team. In the playoffs, the Chiefs dropped an AFC Divisional Playoff Game against the underdog Indianapolis Colts on January 7—a blustery afternoon with the temperature at 11 degrees and a wind chill of −9", ". Three interceptions and three missed field goals from placekicker Lin Elliot contributed to the 10–7 loss at Arrowhead.", "1996", "Kansas City entered the 1996 campaign with essentially the same lineup as the club boasted in 1995 and were featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated along with Green Bay as pre-season Super Bowl favorites. Kansas City made its third American Bowl appearance, this time against Dallas in Monterrey, Mexico. The club started the season with a 4–0 record for the first time in team history, but the season's lofty expectations came crashing down as the squad lost three of its next four games", ". A three-game winning streak, including a victory over the eventual Super Bowl champion Packers, put the club back in post-season contention at 8–3.", "That rosy picture quickly crumbled in a 28–14 loss against San Diego on November 24 as Steve Bono was relieved in the second half by back-up quarterback Rich Gannon. Gannon assumed the starting reins for a 28–24 win in a Thanksgiving Day game at Detroit as Marcus Allen registered his 111th career rushing TD to surpass Walter Payton as the NFL's all-time leader in that department, a mark that was later broken by Emmitt Smith", ". Needing just one more win to qualify for the playoffs, the Chiefs dropped their next two games as an injury-hampered Gannon was sidelined for good in the second quarter of a 24–19 loss against Indianapolis. Faced with a must-win situation in a frigid regular season finale at Buffalo, the club's post-season hopes hinged on Bono. Despite a 20–9 loss to the Bills, the Chiefs still had a shot to slip into the playoffs if Atlanta could secure a win at Jacksonville", ". However, Atlanta placekicker Morten Andersen's 30-yard field goal attempt went wide left with 0:04 remaining, preserving a 19–17 win and the AFC's final Wild Card spot for the Jaguars, who won a tiebreaker with Kansas City. The Chiefs finished with a 9–7 record, missing the postseason for the first time since 1989.", "1997", "Kansas City dramatically retooled its roster in 1997, beginning with the signing of free agent quarterback Elvis Grbac on March 17. In addition to Grbac, the Chiefs lineup featured 11 new starters, including wide receiver Andre Rison, who won team MVP honors after becoming the club's first Pro Bowl receiver in a decade. On defense, the club's top four picks from the 1996 Draft, safeties Jerome Woods and Reggie Tongue, defensive end John Browning and linebacker Donnie Edwards, all emerged as starters.", "Tackle John Alt announced his retirement at training camp in River Falls, Wisconsin on July 21. All the new faces quickly formed a cohesive unit as the Chiefs posted a 13–3 record, an 8–0 Arrowhead record and their second AFC West title in three years. The club engineered several dramatic finishes, the first of which came in a Monday Night Football thriller at Oakland on September 8 when Elvis Grbac connected with Andre Rison on an improbable 32-yard TD pass with just 0:03 remaining to cap a 28–27 win", ". Six days later, Kansas City's defense produced a remarkable goal-line stand to preserve a 22–16 victory at Arrowhead vs. Buffalo. After posting a 6–2 record during the season's first half, Kansas City's good fortune appeared to run out against Pittsburgh when Grbac suffered a broken clavicle. However, Rich Gannon led the team to a 5–1 mark in their next six outings.", "Placekicker Pete Stoyanovich provided one of the year's most memorable moments, connecting on a line-drive 54-yard field as time expired to give Kansas City a 24–22 win against Denver on November 16. San Francisco entered Arrowhead boasting an 11-game winning streak, the team departed after suffering a 44–9 defeat. The Chiefs' vaunted defensive unit pitched a 30–0 shutout vs. Oakland on December 7. The Chiefs led the NFL in scoring defense, allowing a mere 14.5 points per game", ". The Chiefs led the NFL in scoring defense, allowing a mere 14.5 points per game. The 232 total points permitted by the Chiefs in 1997 were the lowest tally ever allowed in a 16-game season in team history. Kansas City also broke a 63-year-old mark owned by the 1934 Detroit Lions by not permitting a second-half TD in 10 consecutive games. Grbac returned for the regular season finale against New Orleans on December 21 as the squad finished the year with six consecutive victories, a first in team history.", "The Chiefs' 13–3 record gave them home field advantage throughout the AFC Playoffs. However, their playoff run was short-lived, as Kansas City lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos 14–10 in the Divisional round.\n\n1998\n\nThe following year, with Elvis Grbac back at the helm, the Chiefs fell to 7–9 in 1998. Marty Schottenheimer took much of the blame for his failed attempts in the playoffs and conservative style of coaching (\"Martyball\"), and resigned following the 1998 season.\n\n1999", "1999\n\nSchottenheimer left as head coach, replaced by his defensive coach Gunther Cunningham. In two years, Cunningham showed little improvement, going 9–7 and 7–9. After the loss of Derrick Thomas, the collapse of the defense was unmistakable. The Chiefs' wins were mostly made by a high scoring offense rather than a powerful defense.\n\n2001-2017: The Chiefs in the early 21st century\n\nAn explosive offense, 2001–2005\n\n2001", "2001-2017: The Chiefs in the early 21st century\n\nAn explosive offense, 2001–2005\n\n2001\n\nAfter coaching the St. Louis Rams to the Super Bowl and retiring, Dick Vermeil was lured out of retirement and took over as head coach in 2001. It was noted that Vermeil would have the team ready for the Super Bowl \"within three years\", while in fact Vermeil would stay in Kansas City for the next five.", "The first move the team made was forced after quarterback Elvis Grbac voided his contract, forgoing an $11 million bonus, leaving to lead the Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens. Vermeil replaced him with his primary pick for the Rams' quarterback, Trent Green.", "Another notable replacement was Priest Holmes at running back, who had served as back-up to Baltimore's Jamal Lewis in their Super Bowl season. Additions to the offensive line, including left tackle Willie Roaf from New Orleans, Casey Wiegmann at center, Brian Waters at guard, and John Welbourn from Philadelphia helped create the Chiefs' high powered offense. Holmes would go on to break Marshall Faulk's record of 26 touchdowns in a season on December 27, 2003.", "Vermeil brought many elements of \"The Greatest Show on Turf\" from St. Louis to Kansas City's own offense, but much like the Schottenheimer era in the 1990s, the offense didn't win any playoff games.\n\n2003", "The Chiefs went 13–3 in 2003 and their offense, considered by many as one of the most powerful of all time, helped make Kansas City again a favorite to win Super Bowl XXXVIII. After starting 9–0, the Chiefs lost to the Cincinnati Bengals in their tenth game following a \"guarantee\" by Bengals wide receiver Chad Johnson. The Chiefs' dream season of 2003 began to lose momentum by November, but they still managed to gain the number two seed in the 2004 playoffs", ". The mighty homefield advantage of Arrowhead Stadium and their high-powered offense wouldn't lead the Chiefs to glory and the Chiefs lost to the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional playoffs in an offensive shootout in which neither team punted, an NFL playoffs first. The Chiefs' defense came under fire immediately after the loss, and Greg Robinson, the team's defensive coordinator, resigned in disgrace after the season.", "2004\n\nAs with the loss to the Broncos in 1997, this loss led to a poor following season. The Chiefs managed to finish the 2004 season with a 7–9 record. In 2004, Gunther Cunningham was brought back as the defensive coordinator. However, the defense showed little improvement. The offense, unable to record the same high scores as the previous year, was unable to bring in the wins as they had the previous year.\n\n2005", "2005\n\nFor their 2005 campaign, the Chiefs brought in several new players to boost a defense that had finished among the worst units the past three years. The year also saw Larry Johnson start at running back in place of an injured Priest Holmes. But despite winning ten games, the Chiefs became just the fourth team in NFL history to go 10–6 and not reach the playoffs.\n\nRebuilding a contender, 2006–2012\n\n2006", "Rebuilding a contender, 2006–2012\n\n2006\n\nA tearful head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement before the final game of the 2005 season. Within two weeks, then-New York Jets head coach Herman Edwards had signed a new 4-year contract to coach the Chiefs. The 2006 Chiefs returned to the playoffs for the first time in three seasons, only to lose 23–8 in the wild-card round against their playoff nemesis, the Indianapolis Colts.", "Meanwhile, Chiefs owner and founder Lamar Hunt died on December 13, 2006, due to complications brought on by a ten-year battle with prostate cancer. Hunt was remembered throughout the remainder of the 2006 season all throughout the NFL with moments of silence and ceremonies in Kansas City. Hunt's four children inherited ownership of the Chiefs. His oldest son, Clark, became chairman and CEO of the Chiefs, and the public face of the ownership group", ". He represents the Chiefs at owner meetings, and has the final say in team operations.", "2007\n\nThe Chiefs' 2007 off-season began with turmoil over the contract of Tony Gonzalez, and the long-term career of Trent Green in Kansas City. Backup quarterback Damon Huard was signed to a three-year contract in February and Green was not only asked to restructure his contract but offered in trades to other teams.\n\nOn June 5, the Chiefs agreed to trade Green to the Miami Dolphins for a conditional fifth round pick in the 2008 NFL Draft, pending a physical from Green.", "The Chiefs' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO/NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks: Training Camp with the Kansas City Chiefs The series premiered on August 8, 2007.", "After a strong 4–3 start, the Chiefs' offensive woes slowed the team down. Five different running backs were used after Larry Johnson was injured in week 9 against Green Bay. The team also had no stability at quarterback with Huard and Brodie Croyle, while their offensive line depleted in the absence of their former Pro Bowl guard Will Shields.\n\nThe season ended with a nine-game losing streak, the team's first since 1987, and a 4–12 record. It was the Chiefs' first season with 12 losses since 1978.", "Head coach Herman Edwards continued to build upon the Chiefs' roster with young players, mostly on defense, and attempted stabilize a once record-setting offensive line. The Chiefs continue to rebuild a defense that may quietly creep its way back to respectability.\n\nTo honor their late owner Lamar Hunt, the Chiefs wore a special American Football League patch on their uniforms with the initials \"LH\" emblazoned inside the logo's football.", "2008–2012\nIn the 2008 season opener at New England, Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was hit in the leg by Chiefs safety Bernard Pollard, tearing his ACL and removing him from action for the rest of the year. Other than that, there was little else of note about the season, which saw Kansas City fall to a franchise-worst 2–14 record.", "During the next offseason, the team made news by acquiring quarterback Matt Cassel (who had filled in for Brady during the previous year) and veteran linebacker Mike Vrabel from New England for a second-round draft pick, which was used to obtain LSU defensive end Tyson Jackson. The Chiefs were also awarded the 256th and last player in the draft for the first time since 1970, South Carolina kicker Ryan Succop. Also, Scott Pioli was hired as general manager, yet another acquisition from New England", ". Also, Scott Pioli was hired as general manager, yet another acquisition from New England. On January 23, 2009, head coach Herm Edwards was fired. On February 6, 2009, former Arizona Cardinals offensive coordinator Todd Haley was hired as the team's 11th head coach.", "There was little apparent sign of improvement as the Chiefs began 2009 by losing five games in a row before a victory over the Washington Redskins in Week 6. However, the team did manage to inflict an overtime defeat on the defending Super Bowl Champion Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 11, and closed out the year with a 4–12 record by overpowering Denver and preventing the Broncos from going to the playoffs. In that game, second-year running back Jamaal Charles set a franchise record by rushing for 259 yards.", "The Chiefs got off to a 3–0 start in 2010, first by beating San Diego 21–14 on Monday Night Football. This was their first MNF win in a decade, in addition to their first home win over the Chargers since 2006. They followed up the next week with a 16–14 win in Cleveland, followed by a 31–10 thrashing of the San Francisco 49ers at home. The Chiefs entered their bye week as the only remaining undefeated team, but as most experts predicted, fell to Indianapolis 19–9 in Week 5", ". They lost a close game with the Houston Texans (35–31) in Week 6, beat Jacksonville in Week 7, and then won a razor-thin game against the winless Buffalo Bills. After going into overtime with a 10–10 score, neither team was able to score anything until Ryan Succop kicked a 35-yard field goal just as the clock reached 0:00 and avoiding a tie. Then came losses to Oakland and Denver, three straight wins over Seattle, Arizona, and Denver, a loss in San Diego, and wins over St. Louis and Tennessee", ". Louis and Tennessee. Losing the final game at home versus Oakland, the Chiefs finished 10–6 and won their first division title since 2003. However, the team's lack of postseason experience showed up as they were buried 30–7 by the Baltimore Ravens in the wild card round of the playoffs.", "Kansas City began 2011 by losing its first three games, including blowout losses at home against Buffalo and at Detroit, where the Chiefs lost Jamaal Charles for the remainder of the season due to a torn ACL. However, the Chiefs were able to rebound from the slow start, winning their next four contests, including a thrilling overtime victory over San Diego on Monday Night Football", ". Unfortunately, the Chiefs would lose all momentum the following week when they were stunned at Arrowhead by the winless Miami Dolphins, losing quarterback Matt Cassel for the season with a hand injury. After losing four of the next five, the Chiefs fired head coach Todd Haley less than one year removed from a division title", ". With interim head coach Romeo Crennel and recently acquired quarterback Kyle Orton at the helm, the Chiefs were able to knock off then-undefeated Green Bay, and at 6–8, still had a shot at the division crown. The Chiefs would fall just short, however, losing 16–13 in overtime to arch-rival Oakland. The Chiefs would finish the 2011 season with a road win versus eventual AFC West champion Denver, finishing the season at 7–9.", "The Chiefs hit rock bottom in 2012, with a passing game that was one of the worst of all time. Cassel was benched twice in favor of Brady Quinn, but neither quarterback could perform well enough to win more than one game each. Despite having a roster that produced five Pro Bowlers and a 1,500-yard rushing season from Charles, the Chiefs stumbled to a 1–9 record.", "Kansas City's 2012 season took a tragic and bizarre turn on December 1 when linebacker Jovan Belcher murdered his girlfriend in an argument. He then drove to Arrowhead Stadium, where he got into a confrontation with Crennel and several other Chiefs employees in the parking lot. They attempted to calm him down, after which Belcher thanked them and immediately shot himself dead.", "With the team scheduled to play against Carolina the next day, there was considerable controversy as to whether the game should go on, but in the end it was decided not to move or cancel it. In a half-empty stadium, the Chiefs won the emotional match 27–21.\n\nAfter the Chiefs' victory over Carolina, the team did not win again in the 2012 season, only averaging 5.75 points per game in their final four games, and finished the season on a four-game losing streak and with a 2–14 record on the season.", "Following the 2012 season, both head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli were fired from their positions. On January 4, the Chiefs signed former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid, who had been fired after coaching the Eagles for the past fourteen years, and on January 13 of the same year the Chiefs hired John Dorsey to be their general manager.\n\nThe Andy Reid era, 2013–present\n\n2013", "The Kansas City Chiefs, due to their 2–14 record in the season prior, received the #1 pick in the 2013 NFL Draft, which was the first time in franchise history that team had the #1 pick in the NFL Draft that was not acquired in a transaction. However, about eight weeks prior to their first selection in the 2013 NFL Draft, the Chiefs traded for quarterback Alex Smith, who the year prior had been benched in favor of Colin Kaepernick on the San Francisco 49ers", ". The Chiefs were able to acquire Smith by trading their second round picks in 2013 and 2014. While this move did end up bringing the quarterback for the Chiefs for the next five years to Kansas City, the selection was only supported by a plurality of Chiefs fans at the time of the trade", ". After an offseason that brought players such as Sean Smith and Geoff Schwartz, the Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first pick in the 2013 NFL Draft, as well as selecting future four time Pro Bowler Travis Kelce in the third round of the same draft. In the 2013 season, the Chiefs started the season with an incredible start, tying the 2003 team as the best start in franchise history and being the last team undefeated in the 2013 season, starting out with a 9–0 record", ". However, due a more difficult second half of the Chiefs schedule and somewhat of a regression by the Chiefs defense, the team faltered down the stretch, going 2–5 in their final seven games.", "Even though the team struggled near the end of the season, the Chiefs still clinched a playoff berth as a wildcard and played the Indianapolis Colts in the first round of the 2013–14 NFL playoffs. It seemed that the Chiefs would be able to win their first playoff game in twenty years and go on to the divisional round, but even though the Chiefs took a 38–10 lead in the early portion of the third quarter, the Chiefs were unable to contain the Colts offense and lost the game by only one point, 45–44.\n\n2014", "2014\n\nEntering the 2014 season, the Chiefs had the twenty-second pick in the 2014 NFL Draft, and selected linebacker Dee Ford out of Alabama, as well as future starting right guard Laurent Duvernay-Tardif with the 200th pick of the same draft.", "Unlike the 2013 season, the Chiefs were unable to get out to a good start on the year, as the Chiefs lost their first two and three out of their first five games. However, after a bye week in week 6, the Chiefs went on a tear, as they won their next five games, dominating the St. Louis Rams and the New York Jets, as well as beating the eventual Super Bowl participant Seattle Seahawks to put the team at a 7–3 record after ten games.", "However, disaster struck as the team suffered a devastating loss to the winless 0–10 Oakland Raiders, who were able to upset the Chiefs on Thursday Night Football. This led to a three-game losing streak, which put the Chiefs at 7–6 on the season and desperately needing to win out for a chance to play in the NFL playoffs. This did not occur, as the Chiefs lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 16 and eventually missed the playoffs with a 9–7 record.", "One bright spot was LB Justin Houston, who set a franchise record with 22.0 sacks, only 0.5 sacks short of the NFL record set by Michael Strahan.\n\n2015", "2015\n\nEntering the 2015 season, the Chiefs had the 18th pick in the 2015 NFL Draft, and selected cornerback Marcus Peters out of Washington, who would become the eventual Defensive Rookie of the Year and a two time Pro Bowler for the Kansas City Chiefs. In the same draft, the Chiefs also selected future starters such as Mitch Morse, Chris Conley, and Steven Nelson.", "While the Chiefs were able to win their first game against the Houston Texans and in their second game of the season, they held a 24–17 lead with only two minutes to play against the Denver Broncos, who had won the past four AFC West championships, the Chiefs allowed a touchdown and then fumbled with less than 30 seconds remaining, sealing a victory for the Broncos. This loss was the first of five consecutive losses, and the team seemed to be spiraling out of control with a record of 1–5.", "Thankfully for the Chiefs, the team overall began to play better and began an extremely improbable eleven game winning streak, beating the eventual Super Bowl Champion Denver Broncos in their third game of the streak, and this streak was able to give the Chiefs the push they needed to make the 2015–16 NFL playoffs, as they clinched in Week 16, and even had a chance to win the AFC West in Week 17 if the Broncos lost and the Chiefs won", ". While the Chiefs were able to beat the Oakland Raiders and uphold their end of the scenario, the San Diego Chargers fell short and were unable to beat the Denver Broncos, and the Broncos clinched the division and home-field throughout the AFC Playoffs.", "In the Chiefs first game of the postseason, they matched up against the 9–7 Houston Texans, and after a 22-year drought, the Chiefs were finally able to win a playoff game as the Chiefs walloped the Texans 30–0. This victory was the first time the Chiefs had won a playoff game since 1993, and gave the Chiefs the chance to make the AFC Championship Game for only the second time in team history, if they could beat the New England Patriots on the road", ". The Chiefs were unable to beat the Patriots, as injuries and losing the turnover battle sealed the loss for the Chiefs, and they were unable to beat the Patriots and lost 27–20 in the divisional round.", "One notable achievement during this season was the first award given to the Chiefs in the Andy Reid era, as Marcus Peters won the Defensive Rookie of the Year award, and Eric Berry also won the comeback Player of the Year award after beating his battle with cancer and playing well with the Chiefs in his first year after his treatment.", "2016\n\nIn the 2016 NFL Draft, the Chiefs traded back out of the first round and instead drafted with the 37th pick in the draft, and used this selection to draft Chris Jones. As well as drafting Chris Jones, the Chiefs selected eventual three-time Pro Bowler Tyreek Hill in the fifth round of the same draft.", "The Chiefs start to the season was no more than mediocre, and the before their bye week the Chiefs were destroyed by the Pittsburgh Steelers 43–14, which put the Chiefs on 2–2 for the year. After the bye week, however, the Chiefs won their next five games and were sitting at 7–2 on the season until an upset occurred as the Tampa Bay Buccaneers were able to eek out a two-point victory against the Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium, as the Bucs won 19–17", ". The Chiefs experienced an almost identical game against another team that missed the postseason, losing 19–17 to the Tennessee Titans at home. This loss put the Chiefs at 10–4 and the dream of a division title was in jeopardy. Heading into Week 17, the Chiefs were 11–4 and their rival, the Oakland Raiders, were 12–3 but the Raiders did not have the tiebreaker on the Chiefs. In order for the Chiefs to clinch the division, similar to the 2015 season, the Chiefs needed a win and the division leader to lose", ". Unlike 2015, however, the division leader lost as the Oakland Raiders were unable to start their quarterback, Derek Carr due to an injury and the Raiders lost to the Broncos. The Chiefs were able to pick up a crucial victory over the San Diego Chargers (which would also be their final game in San Diego) and clinch the division and a first-round bye.", "Heading into the 2016-17 NFL playoffs, the Chiefs were 12–4 and claimed the second seed in the AFC. After the Pittsburgh Steelers were able to defeat the Miami Dolphins in the Wildcard Round, it was confirmed that the Chiefs would have to play the same team that beat them by 29 points fifteen weeks prior", ". While the Chiefs were able to hold Pittsburgh from scoring any touchdowns in their divisional round game, the Chiefs were only able to put up 16 points of offense and the Steelers' six field goals were enough to put the Steelers into the AFC Championship Game and once again give a devastating playoff loss to the franchise.", "2017", "In the 2017 NFL Draft, the Chiefs decided to trade up into the draft, giving up their first round selections in 2017 and 2018 as well as their third round pick in 2017 in order to move up to #10 in the draft. With this selection, the Chiefs selected Patrick Mahomes, their first quarterback drafted in the first round since 1983", ". While Mahomes would only start one game in the 2017 season, he was pegged to become the future of the franchise as the Chiefs had to trade a significant amount of draft capital in order to secure the quarterback. As well, during the offseason John Dorsey was fired and Brett Veach was promoted to become the Chiefs next general manager.", "The Chiefs were able to start the season strong, and after five games the Chiefs were 5–0 on the season. However, the Chiefs were unable to keep the winning streak alive and instead started a streak in the other direction, losing six of seven and four in a row. This put the Chiefs at 6–6 on the season and they desperately needed a win against the Los Angeles Chargers to put themselves in a good position to win back to back AFC West titles. The Chiefs were able to beat the Chargers and move to 7–6", ". The Chiefs were able to beat the Chargers and move to 7–6. The Chiefs were able to win their next two games and clinch the AFC West in Week 16, which was the first time in team history that they had won consecutive division titles. With the Chiefs being locked into the #4 seed in the AFC, the Chiefs rested most of their starters and Patrick Mahomes started his first game of his career. While his numbers were not incredibly impressive, he showed raw talent with several impressive throws", ". He was also able to win this game, and the Chiefs finished the year at 10–6 and with the #4 seed in the AFC.", "In the 2017–18 NFL playoffs, the Chiefs were matched up with the 9–7 Tennessee Titans, led by Marcus Mariota. The Chiefs were able to get out to an early 21–3 lead, but the offense and defense faltered down the stretch and the Chiefs lost another close playoff game as the final score was 22–21 Titans. One bright spot for the team was rookie sensation Kareem Hunt, who led the NFL in rushing yards and was selected to the Pro Bowl as well as being named Co-Offensive Rookie of the Year, along with Alvin Kamara", ".", "2018–present: The Reid/Mahomes era\n\n2018: First AFC Championship Game in 25 years\n\nIn the same month as the playoff loss to the Tennessee Titans, a trade was announced between the Chiefs and the Washington Redskins, and after five years of starting at least 15 games in each year, Alex Smith was traded to the Redskins. In return, the Chiefs received Kendall Fuller and a third-round pick.", "In the 2018 NFL Draft, the Chiefs did not have a first-round selection due to their trade to acquire the selection to draft Patrick Mahomes, but they traded up to select Breeland Speaks in the second round of the NFL Draft. This draft also demonstrated the emphasis on improving the defense as the Chiefs only selected defensive players in the draft.", "Identically to 2017, the Chiefs started out the season 5–0 and then lost their following game to an AFC juggernaut, this time to the New England Patriots in primetime. During this stretch, Patrick Mahomes threw ten touchdown passes in his first two games and four more over the next three", ". This was the start of an incredible campaign for the 23-year-old, as he finished the season with over 5,000 yards and 50 touchdowns, being the second quarterback in NFL history to accomplish that feat, only behind Peyton Manning. After the Chiefs fell to the Patriots, they then won their next four to sit at 9–1 heading into their game against the also 9–1 Los Angeles Rams", ". While Patrick Mahomes threw six touchdown passes and led his team to over 50 points, he also had five turnovers and the Chiefs became the first team in NFL history to lose a game while also scoring 50 points or more, as the Chiefs lost 54–51. The Chiefs then won their next two games to clinch a playoff berth in Week 14 as they were able to beat the Baltimore Ravens in overtime and sit at 11–2 on the season", ". Only needing a victory to secure a first-round bye and a third consecutive AFC West title, the Chiefs fell short against the Los Angeles Chargers and fell to 11–3 on the season as they lost 29–28. After the Chargers lost the following Saturday to the Baltimore Ravens and the Houston Texans lost to the Philadelphia Eagles, the Chiefs only needed to beat the Seattle Seahawks to clinch the #1 seed in the AFC and an AFC West title. The Chiefs, however, fell short and lost 38–31", ". The Chiefs, however, fell short and lost 38–31. Now sitting at 11–4 and only needing to beat the Oakland Raiders to clinch the #1 seed in the AFC but also having the risk of falling all the way to the #5 seed, the Chiefs walloped the 4–11 Oakland Raiders 35–3, and clinched their third consecutive AFC West title and the #1 seed in the AFC for the first time since 1997.", "Heading into the 2018–19 NFL playoffs, the Chiefs were sitting at 12–4 and were the #1 seed in the AFC. After the Indianapolis Colts were able to beat the Houston Texans on the road, the Colts came to Kansas City to play the Chiefs in a divisional round matchup. The Colts to this point were 4–0 against the Chiefs in the playoffs and had given them plenty of trouble in the past", ". However, the Chiefs continued their stellar season with an impressive victory over the Colts, as the Chiefs won 31–13 and did not falter down the stretch like some of their previous postseason games in the Andy Reid era. This win came on a combination of four rushing touchdowns and a defense that only allowed six points, as the other seven came on a blocked punt that was recovered for a touchdown", ". With this victory, the Chiefs were able to host the AFC Championship Game for the first time in team history, and this was the first time ever that Kansas City had hosted a conference championship or a championship game in the AFL or NFL. After the New England Patriots beat the Los Angeles Chargers, the matchup was set: Patriots at Chiefs for the AFC Championship.", "In the AFC Championship Game, the Chiefs started out slow and were shut out in the first half, and the Patriots were leading 14–0. By the fourth quarter, however, the Chiefs were winning 21–17. The teams traded blows during the fourth quarter, where the two teams combined to score 38 points in the quarter. Down 31–28 with one timeout and only 39 seconds to go, the Chiefs were able to drive down the field and kick a field goal to send the game into overtime", ". However, the Chiefs did not win the coin toss and the Patriots received the ball to begin overtime. The Chiefs were able to get the Patriots into three 3rd down and 10 to go situations, however the Patriots converted on all of them and eventually scored a touchdown to win the game by a score of 37–31. It was the third consecutive year where the Chiefs had lost a playoff game by six points or less.", "The 2018 Chiefs also became the first team in NFL history to score at least 26 points in all of their games.\n\n2019: First Super Bowl in 50 years", "Heading into the 2019 offseason, the Chiefs had many key players that they cut, traded, or allowed to become free agents. Some of these players included Dee Ford (traded after being franchise tagged), Mitch Morse, Chris Conley, Allen Bailey, Justin Houston, Eric Berry, and more. The Chiefs also had to find a new defensive coordinator after the firing of Bob Sutton following the collapse against New England in the AFC Championship game", ". The Chiefs would hire Steve Spagnuolo as their defensive coordinator on January 24, 2019.", "Kansas City enjoyed a 4–0 start before losing to the Indianapolis Colts and Houston Texans. Patrick Mahomes suffered a dislocated kneecap during the next game, a win over the rival Denver Broncos, missing the next two weeks", ". After an upset loss to the Tennessee Titans, the Chiefs would win their remaining games, including a Monday night game against the Los Angeles Chargers in Mexico City and a 23–16 win over the defending Super Bowl champions New England Patriots in Foxboro, to finish the season at 12–4, clinching the AFC West title and a first-round bye in the playoffs for the second consecutive season.", "In the Divisional round of the playoffs, Kansas City faced a rematch against the Houston Texans, falling behind 24–0 in the second quarter. However, the Chiefs then scored 41 unanswered points, including 28 in the second quarter, on the way to crushing the Texans 51–31. It was the first time in NFL postseason history that a team came back from a deficit of 20 or more points to win by 20 or more points. The Chiefs then faced a rematch against the Tennessee Titans in the AFC Championship game", ". The Chiefs then faced a rematch against the Tennessee Titans in the AFC Championship game. They once again found themselves behind early as Tennessee took a 10–0 lead, but Kansas City took the lead by halftime, thanks to two passing touchdowns from Mahomes to Tyreek Hill and a Mahomes touchdown run. The Chiefs ultimately won 35–24, avenging another regular season loss and clinching their first Super Bowl appearance in 50 years.", "In Super Bowl LIV, the Chiefs were down 20-10 in the 4th quarter only to come back and win 31-20 to get their first Super Bowl in 50 years and second Super Bowl overall. Patrick Mahomes was named Super Bowl MVP for his 285-yard, 2-TD performance.\n\n2020: Return to the Super Bowl", "2020: Return to the Super Bowl\n\nAfter their huge 2019 campaign, the Chiefs were ready to build up. However, running back Damien Williams opted out of playing the 2020 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This did not matter much, however, as the Chiefs used their first-round draft pick on star LSU running back Clyde Edwards-Helaire.", "The 2020 season was a dominant season for the Chiefs, as they managed to enjoy their fourth straight 4–0 start, an NFL record. They also managed to break the franchise record for longest winning streak in history (previously held by the 2015 Chiefs) at 12 after a 34–20 week 3 win at Baltimore. Their first loss came at the hands of the Las Vegas Raiders, who beat them in Kansas City for the first time since the Chiefs' miserable 2012 season; the loss ended the Chiefs' franchise-record winning streak at 13", ". The Chiefs then went on to win ten straight games on their way to a league-high and franchise-best 14–2 record.", "In the postseason, the Chiefs started off against the Cleveland Browns, who had just acquired their first playoff win in a quarter-century. The Chiefs held on to a 19–3 lead before Patrick Mahomes went down with a minor concussion. After that, the Browns attempted a comeback, trailing 22–17 in the final minutes. That's when Chiefs backup quarterback Chad Henne hit Tyreek Hill perfectly on fourth and inches in one of the gutsiest play calls in NFL history, to seal the victory", ". In their third straight AFC Championship Game at home (an NFL record), the Chiefs played the Buffalo Bills, who, like the Browns, had also just overcome a quarter-century playoff win drought. Despite trailing 9-0 in the first quarter, the Chiefs would remind fans of 2019 by scoring three straight touchdowns on their way to a thrilling 38–24 victory, to win their second straight Lamar Hunt trophy.", "Super Bowl LV against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers was the fifth meeting between Mahomes and Tom Brady. The series was 2-2 heading into the game. What was supposed to be a battle for the ages instead became a domination. The Chiefs could not get anything going right, not scoring a single touchdown in the game for the first time in Mahomes' career, as the Buccaneers crushed them 31–9", ". With the loss, the Chiefs were denied a second straight NFL title, which would have ended the streak at 15 for consecutive years without repeat world champions; the 2004 New England Patriots are the most recent team to do so.", "Chiefs quarterbacks\n\nThroughout the Chiefs' six-decade existence, there have been 12 starting quarterbacks to lead the team. Among the most prolific include Hall of Famers Len Dawson and Joe Montana, as well as quarterbacks like Trent Green.", "In the past few decades, the Chiefs have relied on veteran quarterbacks to lead their team. The last quarterback to be drafted by Kansas City that later went on to claim the starting position was Bill Kenney in 1980. Since Kenney's retirement in 1988. the Chiefs never drafted their own quarterback to develop until Brodie Croyle, whom started some games in 2007 and 2008, was drafted in 2006", ". When head coach Herman Edwards arrived in 2006, he stated that he was looking towards implementing younger players into his gameplan, and he was arguably looking to start at the quarterback position. The Chiefs acquired Matt Cassel in a trade with the New England Patriots in the 2009 offseason after a breakout performance with the Patriots in 2008 in place of the injured Tom Brady. Cassel was widely expected to be the team's franchise quarterback but was released in 2013.", "The Chiefs have also had a repeated history of backup quarterbacks that steal the spotlight. Mike Livingston led the Chiefs to the playoffs in their 1969 season after starting quarterback Len Dawson was injured for the majority of the year. Most recently, Rich Gannon took over for the injured Elvis Grbac in the 1997 season, but was revoked of the job in favor of Grbac's return for the playoffs. The Chiefs lost in the playoffs to the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos", ". The Chiefs lost in the playoffs to the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos. A similar incident occurred in the 2006 season and playoffs when Trent Green and the Chiefs' offense failed to get a first down in the first 42 minutes of the game. Backup quarterback Damon Huard, who led the Chiefs on a 5–2 record in Green's absence, never played a down in the playoff loss to—coincidentally—the eventual Super Bowl champion Indianapolis Colts.", "Head coaches\n\n† = Interim head coach\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Kansas City Chiefs – Official site\n Year by Year Statistics (pdf)\n Texans/Chiefs page on the American Football League Website\n Sports E-Cyclopedia.com\n\nDallas Texans\nKansas City Chiefs\nKansas City Chiefs" ]

[ "John Lynch (c. 1812 – 22 April 1842) was an Irish-born Australian serial killer who confessed to the killing of ten people between 1836 and 1842. He is possibly the most prolific individual serial killer in Australian history.", "Lynch arrived in Australia as a convict, assigned to a farm in the Berrima district. He murdered a fellow assigned convict in 1836 but was acquitted of the charge. After a period in a convict gang he absconded, and by July 1841 he had made his way back to the Berrima district. On two occasions Lynch murdered carriers along the road between Berrima and Camden, stealing their drays and teams", ". In the latter half of 1841 Lynch murdered the farmer John Mulligan and his family, and took possession of their farm in the Berrima district using the name John Dunleavy. He was convicted in March 1842 of the murder of Kearns Landregan, sentenced to death and executed by hanging in April 1842.", "Early life and transportation\n\nJohn Lynch was born in about 1812 in Cavan, county Cavan, Ireland, the son of Owen Lynch.\n\nLynch's older brother Patrick was tried and convicted at Cavan in July 1831 for sheep-stealing, sentenced to transportation for life. He was transported to Sydney aboard the Captain Cook, arriving in April 1832.", "John Lynch and his father Owen were both tried and convicted at Cavan in October 1831. John Lynch, aged 19 years, was convicted of “obtaining goods under false pretences”, for which he received a life sentence; his father, a widower aged 55 years, was convicted of “having stolen goods in possession”, receiving a sentence of transportation for seven years", ". Lynch and his father were transported to the colony of New South Wales aboard the Dunvegan Castle, which departed from Dublin on 1 July 1832 and arrived at Sydney on October 16. Upon their arrival John Lynch, recorded as a ploughman, was assigned to James Atkinson at 'Oldbury Farm' in the Bong Bong district near Berrima. Owen Lynch was assigned to Richard Brownlow, a publican of Sydney.", "Lynch's father, Owen Lynch, died on 26 February 1834 in the Gaol Hospital at Sydney, aged about 58 years.\n\nThe murders\n\nThe 'Oldbury Farm' murder", "In about January 1836 George Barton, the overseer of ‘Oldbury Farm’, was waylaid on a district road \"by ruffians, supposed to be bushrangers\", who robbed him, tied him to a fence and whipped him. It was suspected that the perpetrators were a gang of bushrangers operating in the area led by John Wales (alias Watt)", ". In mid-February 1836 Watt was captured, along with another gang member Timothy Pickering, after a shoot-out with the police on the Cowpasture River, during which a third gang member (John Carpenter) was killed. In early May Watt and Pickering were tried for an armed robbery committed previous to their apprehension, found guilty and sentenced to hang. The sentence was carried out eight days later when both men were hanged", ". The sentence was carried out eight days later when both men were hanged. The status of George Barton, the overseer, changed in February 1836 when he became the master of ‘Oldbury Farm’ after marrying Charlotte Atkinson, widow of James Atkinson (who had died in April 1834).", "On Friday, 12 August 1836, two of Barton's assigned convicts, John Lynch and John Williamson, were tried in the Sydney Supreme Court before Justice Burton for the “wilful murder” of Thomas Smith (or Smyth), another of Barton's assigned servants. Smith had been murdered on 4 March 1836; his body was discovered after several days in the hollow of a fallen tree about a mile from the convict huts at ‘Oldbury Farm’. Two heavy pieces of wood “clotted with blood and human hair” were found nearby", ". Two heavy pieces of wood “clotted with blood and human hair” were found nearby. Barton's overseer gave evidence that, prior to his murder, Smith had been held in the Bong Bong watch-house in order to be examined by the district magistrates on a charge of having lost or stolen a saddle and bridle belonging to his master", ". The overseer had turned up at several court days in order to prosecute the case but on each occasion the magistrates failed to attend, after which it was decided to release Smith, in consideration of the punishment he had already undergone and the inconvenience of the loss of his services. Smith returned to his hut after his release and was found to be missing the next morning, with his body being discovered several days later.", "The case against Lynch and Williamson rested primarily on the testimony of Michael Hoy, another convict at ‘Oldbury Farm’, who lived in the same hut as Smith, Lynch and Williamson. Hoy claimed that Lynch and Williamson had lured Smith from the hut the evening of his disappearance", ". Hoy maintained the motive for the murder was a suspicion that Smith had provided information that Lynch was one of those involved in the previous robbery and assault of Barton (this being the purported reason Smith was released)", ". After the discovery of Smith's body, Hoy asserted he had had a conversation with Lynch, in the presence of Williamson, when Lynch was supposed to have said “that the master had come to the knowledge that he (Lynch) was one of the men that assisted Watts to flog him about three months before, which he could not have done if Smith had not told him something about it, and therefore he was glad he (Lynch) had put him out of the way”", ". When Hoy was cross-examined by the prisoners it was elicited that as a consequence of \"some dealing in cattle\" between Hoy and Smith, Hoy himself may have had reason to murder Smith. At the very least Hoy's testimony was significantly discredited. Barton, the master, was called to the stand, but his evidence \"was rejected in consequence of his appearing 'to have dined'\". As well as dismissing his evidence, Justice Burton fined Barton £50 for coming into the witness-box in a drunken state", ". In summing up the judge explained to the jury that, with the absence of corroborative evidence, the case rested solely on the credibility of the witness Hoy, which he considered to be “a person tainted with crime, and therefore liable to suspicion”. The jury returned a verdict of not guilty for both men. Six years later, on the day before he was to hang, Lynch confessed to Smith's murder.", "At the conclusion of the trial the Crown Solicitor claimed that other charges were pending, and Lynch and Williamson were remanded until further information could be filed against them. Both men were sent to Hyde Park Barracks “to be disposed of there”, with the Attorney General suggesting they should be sent to the Bong Bong magistrates “to be dealt with summarily for certain acts of misconduct”.\n\nConvict gang", "The period of John Lynch's life between the August 1836 trial and his reappearance in the Berrima district in the second half of 1841 was summarised by the Berrima correspondent to the Sydney Herald after the murderer's arrest in February 1842: \"He has been a long time in irons in different parts, and he is now a runaway\". For at least part of that time Lynch was part of a convict stockade gang in Newcastle", ". For at least part of that time Lynch was part of a convict stockade gang in Newcastle. On the night of 27 June 1839 at Newcastle, Lynch received a stab wound after being attacked (as he claimed) by three other inmates of his hut. According to a story he concocted, he was attacked by Thomas Barry, Thomas Bolson and Charles Wilson in retribution for a complaint he had made about the three men making straw hats and bartering them to the stockade cook in exchange for extra rations", ". Lynch maintained he was sleeping when the three covered his head with a blanket, and Bolson and Wilson held him while Barry stabbed him in the chest and side. The three convicts were convicted in August 1839 in the Supreme Court in Sydney and sentenced to death. In September 1839 the sentences of death passed upon the three men was commuted to transportation to a penal settlement", ". Lynch's confession immediately prior to his execution in April 1842 included an admission that, when at Newcastle in an iron-gang, he was instrumental in having three men transported from the colony for stabbing him, for which crime they were innocent as the wounds were self-inflicted as revenge against the men.", "In his confession Lynch claimed that his \"life\" sentence, as listed in the convict indents, was an error and \"that his proper sentence was seven years\". Sometime after serving seven years he claimed to have \"applied at Hyde Park Barracks for his freedom, and was kept for about a fortnight without getting any satisfactory answer, when he departed without it, and came to the Berrima district, where he had been formerly assigned\"", ". However, the most likely explanation for Lynch's re-appearance in the Berrima district is that he absconded from captivity.", "The Razorback murders", "John Lynch returned to the Berrima district in about July 1841. He firstly proceeded to John Mulligan's farm at Wombat Brush, south-west of Berrima about ten miles along the old Goulburn road. He had a relationship of long-standing with Mulligan, an emancipated convict, who had previously acted as a ‘fence’ when Lynch had committed robberies in the district. Lynch hoped to obtain his share of the proceeds of property he had previously left with Mulligan, though his former associate was not forthcoming.", "After leaving Mulligan's Lynch paid a surreptitious visit to the 'Oldbury Estate', where he had previously been assigned, now under the possession of Thomas Humphrey. At ‘Oldbury’ Lynch stole eight bullocks from a paddock and began to drive them towards Sydney, with the intention of selling them. When he got to the Razorback Range, between Stonequarry and Camden, he met with a carrier named Edmund Ireland (a ticket-of-leave holder) and his helper, an Aboriginal boy", ". Ireland was in charge of a dray, \"laden with produce\", and its team of bullocks, which were owned by the pastoralist, Thomas Cowper. At this point, according to Lynch's later confession, \"he began to form the plan of destroying the men, and possessing himself of the dray and property\". The following morning Lynch firstly killed the boy, and then Ireland, each of them by the blow of a tomahawk on the back of the head", ". He dragged the bodies about a hundred yards into the bush and put them in a rocky cleft and covered the bodies with stones.", "Lynch remained at the Razorback campsite for a couple of days, where he was joined by two other teams driven by men named Lee and Leggs. The three teams then made their way towards Sydney. At Dog Trap Road, leading towards Parramatta, Lynch departed from the two carriers, and continued towards Sydney", ". He was met on the Liverpool road by Thomas Cowper, the owner of the dray; to explain the situation Lynch told him his bullock-driver had broken his leg and the boy had gone with him to the hospital at Parramatta. Accepting this explanation Cowper then proceeded on to Sydney to await the arrival of his dray. After his departure Lynch contrived to arrive in Sydney sooner than his expected appearance, which he did by driving the team night and day", ". When he arrived at his destination Lynch met a man, who he described as being “half drunk”, which he paid to \"carry the things about to sell\".", "The Fraser murders", "After he had disposed of the stolen goods Lynch headed back with Cowper's dray and team towards Berrima. Near Razorback he met a horse team, belonging to Samuel Bawtree, and being driven by William Fraser and his son William (aged about 20 years), and decided to travel in their company. They camped for the night at Bargo Brush. Later they were joined at the camp by with two men and a woman travelling in a cart", ". Later they were joined at the camp by with two men and a woman travelling in a cart. During the night, as Lynch lay under the dray and the others were dozing around the fire, a police constable on horseback arrived and “made particular enquiries for Mr. Cowper’s dray, describing it very minutely, and related the whole circumstance of the men being missing, &c.”", ".”. Lynch (as described in his confession) “lay listening and trembling with fear” until he heard one of the Frasers say “they had not seen such a dray”, after which the constable departed towards Berrima. This incident caused the murderer to contemplate abandoning Cowper's dray and to “destroy the two Frazers, and possess himself of the dray in their charge”. As these thoughts “were running in his head” Lynch claimed he “prayed to the Almighty to assist me!”", ". In the morning Lynch, while pretending he was retrieving his bullocks, instead drove them away into the bush. By this time the cart had left and Lynch told the Frasers he could not find his team and was certain they were making their way home towards Berrima. He parked the stolen dray in the bush, transferred his few possessions on the Frasers’ dray and accompanied them as they set off along the road.", "They camped for the night at Cordeaux's Flat, about two and a half miles from Berrima. The next morning, 16 August 1841, he accompanied the younger Fraser to look for the horses. Hiding the tomahawk inside his coat, Lynch waited for his opportunity and struck the young man a single blow that felled him “like a log of wood”. He returned to the campsite with one horse, telling Fraser his son was still looking for the others", ". The murderer watched for his chance and as Fraser stooped, he struck him one blow to the back of the head “and the unhappy man fell dead”. Dragging the body into the surrounding bush, he got a spade and buried both the father and son. By the time he had finished it was late in the day, so he remained at Cordeaux's Flat for the night.", "The murders at Mulligan's farm", "The next day Lynch passed through Berrima with the stolen horse team, on his way to Mulligan's farm at Wombat Brush. Living at the farm were John Mulligan (aged about 61), his de facto wife, Bridget Macnamara (aged about 50) and Bridget's children, John (aged 18) and Mary (aged 13 years). When Lynch arrived on 18 August 1841 he again asserted that Mulligan owed him money, making a claim for £30, but being offered only £9", ". Lynch then went to Gray's Black Horse Inn, about three miles from Mulligan's, to purchase two bottles of rum. On his return with the rum he “treated the whole family, taking care not to drink much himself”. Shortly afterwards, as it was a cold night, the murderer proposed to go and cut some barrow-loads of wood if young John \"would wheel them in\". Lynch and the young man then left the hut", ". Lynch and the young man then left the hut. After cutting the wood Lynch took his opportunity and gave his axe \"a backhanded swing\", hitting John Macnamara on the back of his head. He threw some bushes over the body and returned to the hut, telling them that John had taken Lynch's horses “into the bush-paddock”.", "After some time had elapsed and the young man had not returned Bridget Macnamara grew uneasy. They went outside and 'coo-eyed', but with no response; by now Bridget Macnamara's suspicions were aroused and she told Mulligan to get his gun. As Mulligan was walking in front of the hut with the gun, Lynch retrieved his axe from the dray on the pretext of tying up a dog. In the meantime Bridget had gone out at the back of the hut towards where the body of her son lay", ". In the meantime Bridget had gone out at the back of the hut towards where the body of her son lay. Realising there was “no time to lose”, Lynch contrived to get behind the old man and struck him with the axe. He then went to meet the woman, who he knew had found her son's body. As she passed him Lynch tripped her with his foot; as she staggered he hit her with the axe, killing her. He then returned to the hut where the young girl Mary Macnamara was", ". He then returned to the hut where the young girl Mary Macnamara was. Lynch asserted in his confession, “he did not wish to kill her, but he knew that if he did not, she would hang him”. He claimed he gave the thirteen year-old “10 minutes to pray for her soul” and then, “horrible to relate, he first violated her, and then murdered her!”.", "Lynch then gathered the bodies of his victims together, piled them up and burned them. He remarked during his confession: \"I never seen anything like it – they burned as if they were so many bags of fat\". The next morning he gathered the remains and buried them in another part of the farm and then burned most of the clothing he found in the hut", ". Lynch then locked the door of the hut and travelled to Sydney, where he called at the office of the Sydney Gazette newspaper and paid for a notice in the name of John Mulligan that was published on September 9. The notice stated that Mulligan's wife had “absconded… without any provocation, and taking some money with her” and cautioned the public that Mulligan would not be accountable for any debts she may incur", ". He also wrote several letters, as though from Mulligan, to those about Berrima to whom he knew the deceased farmer was indebted, stating he (Mulligan) had left the farm. Lynch then proceeded to the residence of the owner of the farm, William Smith of the Angel Inn near Parramatta on the Liverpool road. Calling himself Dunleavy, he repeated the story that Mulligan had left the farm at Wombat Brush and obtained a transfer of the lease into his name, but at an increased rental", ". Lynch next proceeded to Appin where he engaged Terrence Barnett and his wife Catherine to work as a labourer and house-keeper, and brought them to the farm at Wombat Brush. The Barnett's had previously known Lynch under his real name, but were told to refer to him as Dunleavy. Lynch claimed in his confession that “his reason for engaging these people was, he knew them to be great simpletons, and that he would be perfectly safe with them”.", "After Lynch's return a man named Gordon, who resided near Mulligan's farm, went to the Mulligan's house and was greeted by Catherine Barnett. He enquired if anyone was at home, to which she replied \"yes, the boy\". The housekeeper then went outside and 'coo-eyed', \"upon which Lynch came from a large fire in the neighbourhood\". Gordon was surprised, expecting to see young John Macnamara, and enquired of his whereabouts", ". Gordon was surprised, expecting to see young John Macnamara, and enquired of his whereabouts. Lynch replied that the young man \"was in some trouble at Goulburn, and that the others had gone up there to see about it\". This satisfied Gordon, who then left. After Lynch's arrest Gordon provided information to the police regarding his visit to the farm, and a subsequent search revealed human remains.", "By December 1841 the colonial authorities were certain that the carriers, Edmund Ireland and the unnamed Aboriginal boy, as well as William Fraser, junior and senior, had been murdered (even though no bodies had been found). By then Cowper's dray had been found “secreted in the bush”", ". By then Cowper's dray had been found “secreted in the bush”. A reward of twenty-five pounds was offered to any free person (or a conditional pardon in the case of a prisoner of the Crown) who may provide information leading to the conviction “of the party or parties by whom the drays may have been robbed, and any of the parties in charge of them murdered”.", "The Landregan murder", "Some time later Lynch, calling himself John Dunleavy, travelled to Sydney in a horse and cart on business. On his return he met Kearns Landregan, aged 27, along the road in the vicinity of the Razorback Range. Landregan had been living at Berrima in the service of an innkeeper and a few days previously had left to go to Stonequarry (Picton) to visit his brother Patrick, an assigned convict", ". Lynch offered to engage Landregan for £14 for six months to do fencing on the Wombat Brush farm, which Landregan accepted and the two travelled together towards Berrima. Along the way Lynch claimed he “regretted having hired him, and therefore determined, if possible, to get rid of him in some manner”. It was reported that Landregan, described as \"a sober man, quiet,", "and of saving habits\", had forty pounds in cash in his possession when he had left Berrima to visit his brother. The two men camped near the Ironstone Bridge over the Wingecarribee River, about seven miles from Berrima. The next morning, 20 February 1842, while Landregan was sitting on a log near the fire, Lynch struck him twice on the head with the back of a tomahawk", ". He dragged the body into the nearby bush, covered it with vegetation and proceeded to Wombat Brush, intending to return later on to bury the body.", "The following morning George Sturges, a labourer for the carrier Hugh Tunney, was driving bullocks back from a creek when he discovered Landregan's body, covered with broken bushes. The Berrima police were notified, who attended the scene. Landregan had “several severe wounds” to his head and was dressed in only a shirt, with a “temperance medal attached to a string” around his neck. The body was brought to Berrima where it was identified as Landregan", ". The body was brought to Berrima where it was identified as Landregan. On Friday, 25 February 1842, the publican, John Chalker, arrived at Berrima and provided information about a man who had stopped at his inn north of Berrima in company with the deceased. The two had taken dinner at Chalker's Woolpack Inn the day before the murder and afterwards proceeded towards Berrima in a horse and cart. Chalker told the police he \"could find the man\" who had murdered Landregan", ". Chalker told the police he \"could find the man\" who had murdered Landregan. He accompanied Sergeant Freer and Chief Constable Chapman to a district farm and identified the man, claiming to be John Dunleavy, as the person seen in company with Landregan. Dunleavy was taken into custody and questions began to be raised about the Mulligan family, previous occupants of the farm who were supposed to have suddenly left \"and never having been heard of since\"", ". Constable Chapman later returned to the farm with Landregan's brother who identified a belt found there as belonging to the deceased. A search of the residence revealed stolen property and it was further discovered that the prisoner's real name was John Lynch, “well known in the district as a most notorious character” who had been tried in Sydney in 1836 for a murder at 'Oldbury Farm'.", "Kearns Landregan was buried on 24 February 1842 at the All Saints Anglican church at Sutton Forest.\n\nApprehension and execution\n\nInvestigation", "At the time of his arrest John Lynch was described as standing five feet three inches tall, “very small whiskers (dark)” and “rather good looking”. By early March Lynch's identity was fully established and he had been formally indicted for the murder of Kearns Lanregan. Furthermore, he was suspected of murdering the Edmund Ireland and the Aboriginal boy, with three men having sworn they had seen him driving Cowper's team in the vicinity of Razorback", ". He was also being examined on suspicion of murdering the Frasers (father and son). Enquiries were also underway regarding the fate of John Mulligan and his family. The Berrima correspondent to the Sydney Herald commented: “We doubt whether there ever existed in this Colony a man so deep in crime as this man, and yet his appearance is not in the least such as would lead one to suppose he was a murderer”.", "After Lynch's arrest, Mulligan's neighbour named Gordon reported his meeting with the prisoner, who had been attending a fire at Mulligan's farm. The Police Magistrate and several policemen attended the location of the fire, pointed out by Gordon. After digging up a “considerable quantity of potatoes” they found several human bones and a tooth “apparently that of a young female”", ". When Lynch was informed of the discovery, he replied “that no one could swear they were Mulligan’s bones, or even that they were the bones of a white man”.", "On 11 March 1842 Lynch underwent an examination at the Berrima Police Office on a charge of being implicated in the murders of Ireland and the “native black boy”, servants of Thomas Cowper. Cowper swore that a double-barrelled gun found in Lynch's possession was his property. One of Cowper's men also identified a velveteen coat and a waistcoat as being the same as those worn by Ireland", ". Cowper at first could not swear the prisoner was the same man he had met driving his team in the Liverpool road, but later, as Lynch passed him, he recognised him as the same man. He explained that when he first met him the man had stood sideways to him, \"but on seeing his side face as he was proceeding to the gaol, he instantly recognised him\". This prompted a “long tirade of abuse” by Lynch, directed at Cowper. The prisoner was then remanded in custody.", "Trial and sentencing", "When the Berrima Circuit Court began its round of sittings on 17 March 1842 the Chief Justice of New South Wales, Sir James Dowling, was asked to consider an affidavit from Lynch requesting “such portion of the prisoner’s property… as might be necessary to defray the cost of his defence, to be given up to him for that purpose”. The affidavit stated that the value of the property was £276, inclusive of a field of potatoes Lynch had planted which he valued at £100", ". Dowling directed that the prisoner be brought to the Court, after which he enquired if the prosecutor, Roger Therry, the acting Attorney-General of New South Wales, had any objection to the application. Therry pointed out that the property being claimed by the prisoner could not be considered bona fide as it was supposed to belong to the very persons for whom Lynch was under investigation for having murdered", ". Furthermore, Therry also observed that Lynch was a convict under sentence of transportation for life, and as such, was unable to own property, whether real or personal. In the end the Court decided it was unable to accede to Lynch's application to fund his legal defence.", "John Lynch, alias John Dunleavy, was tried in the Berrima Circuit Court on Monday, 21 March 1842, before a jury and Justice Dowling. Lynch was charged with the wilful murder of Kearns Landregan, to which he pleaded not guilty. From the outset the prisoner, addressing the judge, “expressed a hope that His Honor would allow him to have a full and fair trial, as there had been a general prejudice created against him by the numerous crimes laid to his charge”", ". Dowling replied that \"the respectability of the Jury was ample security that the prisoner would have justice done him\". A range of witnesses gave evidence in a trial that lasted twelve hours, during which the court was crowded, with many who attended having travelled \"upwards of thirty miles\". It was reported that \"a considerable number of females were present during the whole day\"", ". It was reported that \"a considerable number of females were present during the whole day\". The prisoner cross-examined most of the witnesses, endeavouring to cast doubt on their testimony; it was reported that Lynch \"questioned the witnesses with a degree of ability far beyond the expectations of those who saw him\". At ten o’clock in the evening, after retiring for a few minutes, the jury returned a verdict of guilty against the prisoner.", "Two days after the trial, on Wednesday, 23 March 1842, the Court assembled for the sentencing of the prisoner, John Lynch", ". Justice Dowling “put on the black cap” and addressed the prisoner, beginning with: “John Lynch, the trade in blood which has so long marked your career, is at last terminated, not by any sense of remorse or the sating of any appetite for slaughter on your part, but by the energy of a few zealous spirits, scared into activity by the frightful picture of atrocity which the last tragic passage of your worthless life exhibits”", ". During his discourse Dowling concluded that “avarice seems to have been the sole motive”, observing that “neither age nor youth has been spared in gratifying the sordid lust of gain”. Dowling concluded his address by sentencing Lynch to death by hanging. After being sentenced, Lynch, \"with considerable emotion\", said that the Barnetts, who had been held in custody during the investigation and court processes, were innocent of having anything to do with the charge for which he had been convicted", ". He further claimed that “any thing that was done at his house” was done before the Barnetts were engaged as his servants. As he was being removed from the bar, Lynch “expressed his determination to reveal nothing”.", "George Barton, who had been the master at ‘Oldbury Farm’ in 1836 at the time of Lynch's indictment for the murder of Thomas Smith, had been the subject of disparaging newspaper comments when the full scope of Lynch's crimes was revealed in March 1842. An editorial in the Sydney Herald claimed that Lynch had been acquitted of Smith's murder “through the drunkenness of a principal witness”", ". This was a reference to Barton's testimony at the 1836 trial being rejected by Justice Burton for having appeared in court in a drunken state, for which appearance Barton received a fine. In a letter to the editors of the Sydney Herald two days before Lynch was to hang, Barton denied he had been drunk, claiming to have been exhausted from the journey to Sydney and “in a very weak state of health”", ". He also challenged the statement that he was “the principal witness”, claiming his evidence was “very immaterial” to the case. Barton enclosed copies of affidavits with his letter (also published) from several doctors and other witnesses to his condition, which had been submitted to Justice Burton through Barton's barrister to request remission of the fine (to which Burton had responded that “he has seen no cause for changing his opinion”).", "Confession and execution\n\nIn mid-April Matthew Ashe of the Sheriff's Office in Sydney travelled to Berrima to supervise the execution of Lynch and Patrick Kleighran (or Clearahan), who had been convicted on a separate murder charge. As the gallows was fitted to hang only one person, it was planned to hang the criminals one after the other, one hour apart.", "After his apprehension and throughout his trial Lynch had maintained his innocence and had “expressed a determination of not making a public confession of his crimes”. However, on the day before he was to hang, the prisoner made a full confession to Rev. Summers, who had been attending him, and afterwards \"freely confessed\" to the Police Magistrate George Bowen. Extensive details of his confession were published after his execution", ". Extensive details of his confession were published after his execution. Even though Bowen had already located human remains on the farm, after Lynch had confessed he was taken to Mulligan's farm on the evening previous to his execution, where he confirmed the spot where he had buried the remains of Mulligan and his family.", "John Lynch was executed by hanging on the temporary gallows at the back of the new gaol at Berrima on Friday morning, 22 April 1842. Lynch's demeanour on the scaffold was described as one who \"betrayed not the least fear of death\". It was noted that, though his lips moved, \"it seemed more from mechanical agency than from any inward feeling of repentance and contrition for his previous dreadful life\".\n\nAftermath", "Aftermath\n\nThe bodies of the Frasers, father and son, were found in the vicinity of Cordeaux's Flat near Berrima, as described in the murderer's confession. William Fraser and his son William were buried on 4 May 1842 in the All Saints Anglican churchyard at Sutton Forest. Also buried there, on the same day, were those remains that could be retrieved of John Mulligan, Bridget Macnamara and her two children, Mary and John.", "The Berrima Police Magistrate, George Bowen, proceeded to the Razorback locality to search for the remains of Ireland and the Aboriginal boy, but initially no trace could be found. It was presumed “the native dogs must have got at them”. However, a further search was made and bones were found on 10 May 1842, described in the Register of Coroners’ Inquests and Magisterial Inquiries as “Bones of a white man and Abor[iginal] Black… supposed to be the Bones of Mr", ". Cowper’s Dray Man & Black Boy – murdered by Lynch al[ias] Dunleavy at Razorback!”.", "In 2019 the Berrima District Historical and Family History Society installed a plaque in the graveyard of All Saints Anglican church at Sutton Forest to mark the graves of six of the local victims of John Lynch (Thomas Smith, John and Bridget Mulligan, Bridget's two children John and Mary, and Kearns Landregan). The plaque was unveiled on 8 September 2019.\n\nThe victims", "Thomas Smith (or Smyth) – a convict ploughman, assigned to James Atkinson at ‘Oldbury Farm’ (probably in the late 1820s); participated in a Sutton Forest Ploughing Match in June 1829; murdered by Lynch (probably in association with John Williamson) on 4 March 1836 at 'Oldbury Farm'.", "An Aboriginal boy – identified only as “an aboriginal native” or “a black boy”, he was Edmund Ireland's offsider in his work as a carrier driving a bullock team for Thomas Cowper; murdered by Lynch in late July or early August 1841 in the vicinity of the Razorback Range.", "Edmund Ireland – born in about 1796 at Reigate, county Surrey (south of London); occupation: \"farmersman & shepherd\"; tried and convicted of highway robbery at the Surrey Assizes at Guildford on 17 July 1826 and sentenced to transportation for life; transported aboard the Champion", ", departed in May 1827 and arrived at Sydney in October; in November 1838 Ireland was granted a ticket-of-leave by the Braidwood Bench of Magistrates; worked as a carrier driving a bullock team for Thomas Cowper; murdered by Lynch, aged 45 years, in late July or early August 1841 in the vicinity of the Razorback Range", ".", "William Fraser – born in about 1821, the son of William Fraser; from the Illawarra region; murdered by Lynch on 16 August 1841 at Cordeaux's Flat, near Berrima, aged about 20 years.\n William Fraser – born in about 1791; from the Illawarra region; murdered by Lynch on 16 August 1841 at Cordeaux's Flat, near Berrima, aged about 50 years.\n John Macnamara – born in 1823, son of Bridget Macnamara; killed by John Lynch at Mulligan's farm at Wombat Brush, near Berrima, aged 18 years.", "John Mulligan – born in about 1780 in county Monaghan, Ireland; convicted at the Louth Assizes, Dundalk, in July 1817, sentenced to 14 years transportation; transported aboard the Tyne, departed from Cork in July 1818 and arrived at Sydney in January 1819; granted a ticket-of-leave on 2 February 1826 in the Argyle district; received his Certificate of Freedom in January 1832; murdered at his farm by Lynch, aged about 61 years.", "Bridget Macnamara – born in about 1791; described as Mulligan's \"reputed wife\"; murdered by Lynch, aged about 50 years.\n Mary Macnamara – born in 1828, daughter of Bridget Macnamara; raped and murdered by Lynch, aged 13 years.", "Kearns Landregan – born in 1815 in Ireland; his older brother Patrick was convicted of manslaughter at Tipperary, transported for life to New South Wales aboard the Blenheim", ", transported for life to New South Wales aboard the Blenheim, arriving in November 1834; Kearns Landregan married Mary (surname not known) and the couple immigrated to New South Wales in about 1839; in service at Raymond Terrace and then George Harpur's farm at Stonequarry; in late 1841 Landregan left his wife at Harpur's (in Mary Landregan's words) “to do the best for us; I stopped there in hopes he would get another place and come back”; worked for several months in the service of Bryan McMahon", ", innkeeper at Berrima, and left on 15 February 1842 to visit his brother at Stonequarry; murdered by Lynch on 20 February 1842 near Berrima, aged 27 years", ".", "References", "1813 births\n1836 murders in Australia\n1841 murders in Australia\n1842 deaths\n19th-century Irish people\nAustralian mass murderers\nAustralian murderers of children\nAustralian people convicted of murder\nAustralian people of Irish descent\nConvicts transported to Australia\nExecuted Australian serial killers\nIrish mass murderers\nExecuted mass murderers\nFamily murders\nIrish people executed abroad\nPeople convicted of murder by New South Wales\nPeople executed by Australian colonies by hanging", "People convicted of murder by New South Wales\nPeople executed by Australian colonies by hanging\nPeople executed by New South Wales\nPeople from County Cavan\nExecuted people from County Cavan\nMassacres in 1841\nMassacres in Australia" ]

[ "Visarion Puiu (; sometimes Bessarion in French; born Victor Puiu on 27 February 1879 in Pașcani, Romania – 10 August 1964 in Paris or Viels-Maisons, France) was a metropolitan bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Church. During World War II, at a time when Romania was an ally of Nazi Germany, he served as the leading Eastern Orthodox clergyman in occupied Transnistria, a territory where several hundred thousand Jews were murdered. In August 1944, when Romania switched sides, he took refuge in Nazi Germany.", "After the war, he lived in Italy and Switzerland before finally settling in France. In 1946, he was sentenced to death in absentia by the Bucharest People's Tribunal. He created the Romanian Orthodox Diocese of Western Europe under the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia, and for a few years played an important role in the Romanian diaspora. The in Bucharest defrocked Puiu in 1950, but posthumously restored him among its clergy in 1990", ". The in Bucharest defrocked Puiu in 1950, but posthumously restored him among its clergy in 1990. Puiu's connections to the Iron Guard, as well as his responsibility in the Holocaust, have been the subject of scholarly publications in the post-communist era.", "Early life and monastic career", "Victor Puiu was born on 27 February 1879 in Pașcani, Romania. He attended a local primary school before pursuing an education in seminaries in Roman (1893–1896) and Iași (1896–1900). He graduated from the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Theology in 1905 and became a monk in Roman on 22 December 1905. He took the monastic name Visarion and was ordained a deacon three days later. From January 1907 to July 1908, he studied at the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy in Kyiv, in the Russian Empire", ". From 1905 to 1908, he was a deacon within the in Roman and in 1908 he transferred to the in Galați. There, on 6 December 1908, he was ordained a priest, being elevated to the dignity of Archimandrite on 1 January 1909. Three months later, he was named director of the Galați Theological Seminary and Vicar of the Archbishopric of the Lower Danube. On 1 September 1918, he became director of the Chișinău Theological Seminary in Bessarabia and, two months later, exarch of the province's monasteries.", "On 17 March 1921, Puiu was elected Bishop of Argeș. He was consecrated in that position on 25 March by Metropolitan of Wallachia Miron Cristea in the Bucharest Metropolitan Cathedral and invested into the office that day by King Ferdinand. Two days later, he was installed in the episcopal chair at the Curtea de Argeș Cathedral; he remained there for two years. In 1923 he moved to Bălți as bishop of Hotin, where he remained until 1935.", "The political situation in Romania in the late 1920s and early 1930s was marked by the rise of a fascist movement known as the Legion of the Archangel Michael. The Legion was founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as a breakaway group from A. C. Cuza's far-right antisemitic party called the National-Christian Defense League. Throughout the late 1920s and the early 1930s, the Legion steadily increased its membership among students, peasants, workers and tradesmen, but also among priests", ". The term \"Iron Guard\", often used nowadays as an alternative name for the Legion, only appeared in 1930 and originally designated the paramilitary branch of the organization.", "In 1935, Puiu appointed Archimandrite Antim Nica exarch in charge of the monasteries in his Bishopric of Hotin. In the following years, under Puiu's influence, Nica would become a member of the Iron Guard and a teaching assistant of Iuliu Scriban. Scriban, Nica and Puiu would all three be involved in the future Romanian Orthodox Mission in Transnistria.", "Metropolitan of Bukovina", "Following the death of Nectarie Cotlarciuc, Visarion Puiu was elected Archbishop of Cernăuți (Chernivtsi) and Metropolitan of Bukovina on 17 October 1935. He was enthroned on 10 November, thus taking charge of a very wealthy metropolis. Prior to his appointment, the various assets were under secular management and no discrimination based on ethnicity was practiced. Under Puiu's leadership, however, contracts with businesses owned by Jews were terminated", ". Under Puiu's leadership, however, contracts with businesses owned by Jews were terminated. He also started restricting the employment of ethnically non-Romanian individuals. The first press article supporting such policies of discrimination published in a periodical of the Bukovina Metropolis also appeared just weeks after Puiu's enthronement.", "Puiu tended to refrain from explicit, public, political statements. He allowed antisemitic articles to be published in the Romanian Orthodox Church's periodicals in Bukovina and would do the same later-on in Transnistria, but the only time he penned a political text himself was in September 1936, in Cuvântul preoțesc (\"The Priestly Word\"), when he published The Church Facing the Communist Danger. Puiu's article endorsed the thesis of Judeo-Bolshevism and attacked other Christian denominations", ". Puiu's article endorsed the thesis of Judeo-Bolshevism and attacked other Christian denominations. One paragraph read: \"It is very true that the majority of the xommunists are alien to our people, mainly Yids, but it is also true that their destructive ideas have lured a great number of unaware Romanians too. Some of them, especially peasants, are attracted by the communist enchantment through the sects which, without exception, are encouraged by the foreigners in order to destroy the Church.\"", "Puiu's support for the Iron Guard materialized when he used his private funds to support one of the organization's \"work camps\" in Tămășești. Moreover, in 1937, he defied the Romanian Government and held special religious services for the Iron Guard's leader Ion Moța and his fellow legionnaire Vasile Marin. The two had been killed in the Spanish Civil War fighting on the nationalist side. The same year, King Carol II began pressuring the Orthodox Church to depose Puiu", ". The same year, King Carol II began pressuring the Orthodox Church to depose Puiu. According to historian Ion Popa (historian), the king's actions were due to \"Puiu's anti-Semitic, pro-Iron Guard, and pro-German policies\".", "After campaigning against \"foreign\" banks, Puiu ended-up creating a new one altogether, named the Northern Bank, in 1938. The Romanianization of the metropolis' workforce, finance and business was practically complete at this time.\n\nApart from his Iron Guard connections, Puiu's time in the metropolitan seat of Bukovina was also marred by accusations of mismanagement and embezzlement, conflict with local academic and political elites and even the revolt of a part of the lower clergy.", "On 10 February 1938, King Carol II suspended the Romanian constitution, banned all political parties and appointed Patriarch Miron Cristea, the head of the Romanian Orthodox Church, as Prime Minister. This was the beginning of the \"Royal Dictatorship\". In March 1939, Cristea died, leaving the Patriarchal seat vacant. Puiu publicly withdrew from the race for succession in June, likely under pressure from King Carol II", ". The monarch sought to avoid the election of a pro-German Patriarch in the person of either Puiu or Nicolae Bălan. In May 1940, Puiu was forced to resigned from his position as Metropolitan of Bukovina. He was replaced by Tit Simedrea.", "Meanwhile, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had joined Nazi Germany's leader Adolf Hitler in the attack and partition of Poland, had occupied the Baltic states and defeated Finland in March 1940. This reinforced the position of the Romanian politicians who had been advocating for closer ties with Nazi Germany. Then, in June 1940, following a Soviet ultimatum, Romania ceded Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union without any kind of military resistance", ". King Carol II's acceptance of the Second Vienna Award, which ceded parts of Transylvania to Hungary, further weakened his regime and on 6 September 1940, Carol was forced to abdicate.", "An openly pro-German coalition of the military, headed by marshal Ion Antonescu, and the Iron Guard took over. The head of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nicodim Munteanu, reacted cautiously and his September 1940 address was unenthusiastic. Puiu on the other hand benefited from the regime change as he was quickly reinstated as Metropolitan of Bukovina", ". According to Popa, this entails that Simedrea had not been properly seated as Metropolitan, or, at least, that was the pretext invoked by the Iron Guard to return Puiu to his old position.", "The Legion's cooperation with Antonescu ended violently in January 1941. Indeed, seeking full control of the Government, the legionnaires organized an insurrection known as the Legionnaires' rebellion. However, the coup failed and in the aftermath, Puiu was once more replaced as Metropolitan of Bukovina by Simedrea.", "Several hundred legionnaires, including Horia Sima and other leadership figures, managed to escape to Nazi Germany. Puiu would join this émigré Iron Guard community in the final stages of World War II.\n\nExarch of Transnistria", "On 22 June 1941, German armies with Romanian support attacked the Soviet Union. After initial military success, Romania regained control over Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and, following an agreement between Antonescu and Hitler, also occupied the territory between the rivers Dniester and Bug. The name given to this province was Transnistria, and it would become the scene of mass murder", ". The name given to this province was Transnistria, and it would become the scene of mass murder. Under Antonescu's regime, 146,423 Jews from Bessarabia and Bukovina were deported to Transnistria, with at least 75,000 of them dying; 25,500 Roma were also deported there, of which 11,000 survived. Moreover, at least 130,000 local Ukrainian Jews were murdered under the Romanian occupation.", "On 15 August 1941, under the assumption that the Soviet atheist rule had destroyed the Russian Orthodox Church in Transnistria, the decided to establish a mission and \"re-evangelize\" the locals. The main architect of the enterprise was Archimandrite Iuliu Scriban", ". The main architect of the enterprise was Archimandrite Iuliu Scriban. Antonescu's decree of 19 August 1941, which made the occupation of Transnistria official, explicitly stated that the churches which had been closed by the Soviets were to be re-opened and efforts were to be made to return the local population to its spiritual traditions. The Government pressured the Romanian Orthodox Church to extend its authority over the occupied territories and establish a regular bishopric", ". Initially, the Church resisted since the plan went against canon law, as the Russian Patriarchate still held nominal authority over the region.", "In November 1942, Puiu was called back from retirement to take over Scriban's duties in Transnistria. Puiu received the official title of \"Bishop of Odesa and all Transnistria\", but his ecclesiastic province was, under canon law, a temporary exarchate of military nature. Nonetheless, he was once again a member of the Holy Synod. Furthermore, aside from Transnistria, he was also granted authority over the neighboring Metropolis of Bessarabia", ". Puiu's plan for the exarchate included an evolution of Odesa into a metropolitan see, with two suffragan bishoprics in Balta and Tulchyn. This was partially successful since, indeed, Balta and Tulchyn were raised to bishopric status while Puiu was in office, but no bishop was ever appointed because of the Axis retreat.", "Before the end of 1942, Puiu sent a report from the occupied territories to the Holy Synod. He wrote: The document would become evidence at Puiu's trial after the war.", "The Romanian effort to restore Eastern Orthodox Christian life in the occupied territories was genuine. Under Soviet rule, by 1941, only 1 out of 891 churches which had been standing before the Russian Revolution was still open; 363 had been closed down, 269 partially demolished, 258 completely demolished and no functioning monasteries or convents remained. By the end of the Romanian occupation, 600 churches were operating (plus 135 \"prayer houses\"), as well as twelve monasteries and two seminaries", ". However, many churches and monasteries were rebuilt and refurbished employing Jews as slave labor. This had been enabled by Antonescu's Directive 23 of November 1941. Moreover, many of the missionaries were former affiliates of the Iron Guard seeking rehabilitation after the 1941 insurrection against Antonescu. Some came with a history of antisemitic violence. They vilified Jews in their sermons and, in some cases, some of them were perpetrators of various crimes committed against deported and local Jews.", "As far as the non-Jewish local population was concerned, there was some enthusiasm for the Christian revival brought by the Romanians, at least in the first two years of the occupation, but the behavior of the Romanian clergy undermined the mission's credibility. Cases of embezzlement, corruption, extortion and various forms of abuse antagonized the local population to the point where officers of the Romanian Gendarmerie in Transnistria complained in writing, with one report reading \"priests [..", "...] manage to destroy what the Bolsheviks had failed to destroy, concerning faith in God. This is due to their engaging in illicit business transactions and committing actions which compromise the dignity of their office.\" The sexual conduct of the Romanian clergy was also a source of public outrage, and Puiu, pressured by both Government and Church authorities, was forced to issue stricter guidelines", ". Another source of resentment was the fact that ethnic Romanian priests were paid three times more than local ones.", "There was an effort on Puiu's part to appeal to the local Orthodox population. Less radical in his approach to\"Romanianization compared to his predecessor Scriban, he occasionally held religious services in Church Slavonic or gave sermons in Russian.", "On 1 December 1943, Puiu sent a letter of resignation to Marshal Antonescu requesting that he be allowed to return to the Neamț Monastery. He argued that preparations were made for the evacuation of the province, that he had insufficient human and financial resources to run the mission and complained that he had waited six months to receive a printing press and was facing difficulties with the paper supply. The tide of the war was turning and, arguably, Puiu was being cautious", ". The tide of the war was turning and, arguably, Puiu was being cautious. Between January and August 1944, he stayed at the Neamț Monastery, and then traveled to Bucharest.", "Exile\n\nVoyage to Croatia and exile in Nazi Germany", "In August 1944, Patriarch Germogen Maximov of Croatia decided to place Spyridon Mifka on the episcopal seat of Sarajevo. Maximov's autocephalous Croatian Orthodox Church was a creation of the pro-Nazi Ustaše regime, and, by enthroning a bishop in Sarajevo, it sought to extend its influence over modern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Per canon law, the ceremony required a co-consecrator and the Romanian Orthodox Church ended up providing one in the person of Puiu", ". The fact that Romania and Croatia were both Axis countries at the time likely played an important part in the move. Puiu left Romania on 10 August, held a press conference in Zagreb on 14 August, paying his respects to Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić, and participated in the ceremony on 15 August. Maximov and Mifka would be executed after the war, but for Puiu, the timing of this voyage proved very fortunate", ". He was still abroad on 23 August when, following the 1944 Romanian coup d'état by King Michael I, Romania changed sides and joined the war against Nazi Germany. Puiu decided not to return to Romania and went into exile.", "Meanwhile, the Nazis were setting up an Iron Guard-led Romanian government in exile. , a rival of Horia Sima, suggested General as head of government, and, when the latter was discarded, Puiu. Sima, on the other hand, actively sought to undermine Puiu's candidacy. When the Nazis ultimately favored Sima, Ștefan Palaghiță and other legionnaires from the rival faction proposed the creation of an Eastern Orthodox episcopate headed by Puiu in Nazi Germany", ". The plan was opposed by Sima, who suggested that Puiu join his government instead. According to historian Paul A. Shapiro, Puiu initially accepted but then wavered and, finally, declined. Popa, however, citing intelligence service reports, argues that when Radio Donau finally aired the announcement about the creation of Horia Sima's government in exile in December 1944, Puiu was listed as a member", ". Popa's argument is based on the fact that the communists had not targeted Puiu for arrest until 14 December 1944, after the Radio Donau broadcast, when the clergyman's name appeared on a list designating him as Religious Secretary of the Iron Guard Government in exile.", "Puiu's presence in the Kitzbuhel camp in Austria, in American custody, in May 1945, is documented. Chaplain (Colonel) Herbert E. MacCombie of the 36th Infantry Division reported on his encounter with the Romanian clergyman: \"He (i. e., Puiu) told me that the Germans had been paying him several hundred marks a month, plus food and lodgings to support their cause. He asked what I thought the Americans would pay him to switch sides", ". He asked what I thought the Americans would pay him to switch sides. Since he had not been much help to the Germans, I did not think the Americans would pay him anything. I arranged quarters and rations for him. He had his 'niece' with him. I arranged separate quarters for her.\" Colonel MacCombie's account is important because it proves Puiu had been receiving special treatment from the Nazi authorities along with other exiled legionnaires. The woman accompanying Puiu was, indeed, his niece.", "Another notable clergyman involved with Sima's exiled legionnaires and connected to Puiu was priest Vasile Boldeanu. Boldeanu had joined the Iron Guard early, had held a number of mid- and upper-middle-level positions reaching the rank of legionary commandant at the time of the National Legionary State and had officiated during the religious service held at the exhumation of Codreanu's body in November 1940", ". Arrested after the rebellion, he had spent two years in prison before escaping to the German-occupied Serbian Banat. Involved in the legionary movement underground, he was arrested by the Nazi authorities in June 1944 and sent to join the other Iron Guard refugees. Both Puiu and Boldeanu would play a significant role in the Romanian Orthodox community in Paris after the war.", "Exile in Italy and trial for war crimes\nPuiu's whereabouts in the first years after the war are uncertain. While a document trail exists, it is hard to establish a chronology. His presence in Italy between 1945 and 1947 is confirmed, however his exact locations are subject to debate. Some sources cite the as Puiu's place of refuge, under the protection of Pope Pius XII and Cardinal Tisserant, but Puiu's surviving correspondence seems to indicate this was not a permanent place of residence.", "Meanwhile, in Romania, the People's Tribunal were set up to prosecute perpetrators of the Holocaust, members of Antonescu's government and prominent legionnaires. Out of 2,700 defendants, only 668 were convicted. The others were released for lack of evidence. Furthermore, of those convicted, many would benefit from an amnesty in 1950. Prosecutors focused more on establishing links with the previous regime rather than thoroughly investigating genocide accusations", ". This was also true for the clergy involved in crimes committed in Transnistria. Thus, many Romanians came to see these trials as a result of Soviet occupation rather than as an attempt to carry out justice in matters of mass murder.", "Tried by the People's Tribunal in Bucharest, Puiu was sentenced to death in absentia on 21 February 1946. Two charges were pressed against him: having \"encouraged, from his position, the terror actions in Bessarabia and Transnistria\" and having placed \"himself in the service of Hitlerism, and selling off the country's interests by occupying the Religions' Secretary office, as it is made clear by a news dispatch broadcast by the German Radio Donau on 14 December 1944, at 0.30 a.m", ".30 a.m.\" The prosecution also mentioned another Radio Donau broadcast, dated New Year 1945, when Puiu allegedly incited Romanians to disobey Soviet orders. According to Popa, it was the second charge that the prosecution and the court focused on, the sentence designating Puiu as Bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Church in Germany by \"a decree signed by Horia Sima, in his position as head of the traitor government in Germany\"", ". At no point do court documents mention the suffering of Jewish victims in Transnistria. Nonetheless, argues Popa, the prosecution was aware of the crimes committed during Puiu's tenure and seemed to imply that the Metropolitan's 1942 report was incriminating.", "The ambiguous wording of the Tribunal's sentence is, according to Popa, a source of confusion as to the exact reasons for which Puiu was convicted to death. The final paragraph in the original court document reads: \"[c]onsidering that by the deeds mentioned above he committed the crime of bringing about the country's disaster, through committing the war crime outlined by Article No. 2, Letter J and punished by Article No", ". 2, Letter J and punished by Article No. 3, Paragraph 11, from Law 312/1945; For these motives the People's Tribunal, in the name of the Law decides: It condemns the defendant, Romanian, adult, today disappeared, for the [war] (i. e", ". e., the word war is deleted in the original) crime of bringing about the country's disaster and by committing the war crime, consisting in the fact that he left the national territory, he put himself in the service of Hitlerism attacking the country through writing, through speech, as outlined by the articles mentioned above, we condemn him to death.\"", "On 30 January 1947, Puiu sent a memoir to the Prime-president of the Romanian Court of Cassation addressing the charges for which he had been convicted. He claimed that he had been utterly unaware of any \"actions of terror\" committed in Transnistria during his tenure and furthermore stated that had he heard rumors of such actions, he would have informed the king", ". Puiu went on to comment on his 1942 report arguing that as a leading clergyman, he only focused on matters of the soul and peaceful activities, as opposed to other authorities. The latter, he argued, could carry-out police-style actions or even surgical actions against rebellious elements when required", ". Finally, Puiu outright denied any connection to the Iron Guard government in exile, despite all the compelling evidence, and requested an annulment of his sentence which would have allowed him to return to Romania.", "Bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Diocese of Western Europe\n\nBy May 1948, Puiu had reached Switzerland and was trying to obtain identification allowing him to cross into France. The initially issued a voyage document; then, becoming aware of the clergyman's problematic past, withdrew it before conceding to grant him some form of temporary ID that allowed him to leave Switzerland. Puiu crossed into France, and his immigration status there, at least until 1955, is unclear.", "In 1948, the Eastern Orthodox Romanian figures in Paris chose to break communion with the Patriarchate in Bucharest and in the following year, Puiu created the Romanian Orthodox Diocese of Western Europe. In this new position, he put legionnaire priest Boldeanu in charge of the largest Parisian congregation. Sima, who had survived the war and remained the leader of a now exiled Iron Guard, recognized the importance of émigré Orthodox Church structures and re-established contact with Puiu in 1949", ". Other former Romanian politicians in exile, such as Nicolae Rădescu, also visited him in Paris at that time. Puiu behaved as a leader of the Romanian diaspora in Western Europe and embodied an element of resistance to the new Church hierarchy in Bucharest.", "The period between 1949 and 1953 was marked by legal and canonical conflict over the situated in Rue Jean de Beauvais in Paris. The forceful removal of superior Martinian Iovanovici in 1949 was due to his close relationship with the former king Carol II. The opposition to Iovanovici was led by Puiu's protégé, Boldeanu, who had gained the community's trust and would retain it over the years", ". The communist government in Bucharest failed to obtain legal control over the edifice, which, by 1953, was secured by the local association of worshipers. However, under Eastern Orthodox canon law, the situation of the parish was problematic. A long-term solution was finally found in 1954 when Puiu entered in communion with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the parish council officially recognized Puiu's authority on 11 April.", "The Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church defrocked Puiu in 1950. The Holy Synod's decision, written by Metropolitan Bălan, labeled him \"an agent of the Vatican\" and was taken under pressure from the communist authorities. The latter felt threatened by Puiu in the context of a major crisis in the Romanian diaspora in the United States", ". The bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Episcopate of America, based in Detroit, , had traveled to Bucharest in 1939 and had been unable to return to the United States because of the outbreak of World War II. Still in Romania in 1948, he was deposed by the new regime. The Holy Synod in Bucharest elected Andrei Moldovan to the vacant seat in 1950, but the local worshipers refused to accept him, favoring Valerian Trifa, a well known Iron Guard member, instead", ". Trifa had been involved in the 1941 rebellion and had also served for a time as Puiu's secretary during his exile. Declassified documents prove that Puiu had sent letters to both Moldovan and Trifa and the authorities in Bucharest were aware of the correspondence and thus of the danger the former Metropolitan's influence represented. By having him defrocked, they sought to limit that influence.", "Paradoxically, in 1951, the Romanian secret service (the Securitate) began planning to reach out to Puiu in order to recruit him. The elaborate strategy involved making contact through Orthodox clergymen, blackmailing Puiu's brother and niece, using agents within the Church or members of the Holy Synod. On 20 August 1955, Puiu sent a letter to the Romanian Legation in Paris requesting repatriation", ". On 20 August 1955, Puiu sent a letter to the Romanian Legation in Paris requesting repatriation. According to Popa, the possibility that this was Puiu's initiative, independent from the Securitate's plan, cannot be ruled out. Romania had just joined the United Nations and was taking steps to repatriate fugitives. However, Popa notes that things moved very fast. Terms were drafted by the Ministry of Internal Affairs as early as 29 August, with a Romanian agent paying a visit to Puiu's home on 26 October.", "Negotiations between the clergyman and the Romanian authorities continued over the next months. According to an archive document dated November 1955, Puiu asked the communist leader, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, for the full restoration of his clerical rank and requested that he be named Metropolitan of Moldavia. The demands were so unreasonable that in 1956, the authorities concluded that Puiu was not genuinely interested in returning to Romania", ". By that time, his influence in the Romanian Orthodox diaspora in Paris had dwindled and the final years of his life were marked by poverty and isolation.", "Final years and death\nTeofil Ionescu succeeded Puiu in 1958 as Bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Diocese of Western Europe. In 1972, Ionescu would restore the communion with the Patriarchate in Bucharest, causing the main parish in Rue Saint Jean de Beauvais and most of the Romanian Orthodox worshipers in Paris to pass under the authority of the ROCOR metropolitan of New York.", "There is evidence that in 1963, Puiu reached out one more time to the Romanian Embassy in Paris to negotiate repatriation. If so, no decisive steps were taken and Puiu died in France in 1964. Popa and Leustean indicate Paris as the place of death, but Orthodox priest and professor Mircea Păcurariu cites Viels-Maisons, west of Paris, where Puiu was first interred. His current resting place is in Montparnasse Cemetery.\n\nPosthumous evaluation", "Posthumous evaluation\n\nIn the aftermath of the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Orthodox circles began re-evaluating Puiu's legacy. On 25 September 1990, the Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church voted to reverse its 1950 decision to defrock Puiu and posthumously reinstated him among the clergy.", "Over the following decades, Puiu's popularity grew, particularly in Romanian Moldavia, where, according to Ion Popa, it reached cult proportions with conferences and symposiums often organized to honor his memory. Articles printed in the national press often presented Puiu in a favorable light, and in 2003, a member of the Parliament of Romania publicly called for Puiu's body to be returned to Romania. His memory is particularly glorified by Orthodox groups with antisemitic views", ". His memory is particularly glorified by Orthodox groups with antisemitic views. Generally speaking, sources close to radical Orthodox groups portray Puiu as a hero, a martyr, a victim of King Carol II and, most often, a victim of communism.", "Streets in Bălți, Moldova, and Ciohorăni, Romania, are named after him. As recently as 2021, the Romanian news outlet G4 Media reported that a bust of Puiu was on public display at Putna Monastery in violation of national legislation on convicted war criminals.", "The question of Puiu's role in the crimes committed in Transnistria was addressed in Holocaust scholarship by Ion Popa and Ionuț Biliuță. The latter estimates that it was Puiu's duty as exarch to correctly inform the Patriarchate in Bucharest on the situation of the province and he deliberately failed to do so. Biliuță writes: \"Puiu was aware that the \"surgical\" policies of the \"civil administration and the Army\" would have to precede this \"spiritual renewal", ".\" Nevertheless, by ascribing — albeit implicitly — the killing of the Jews solely to state authorities Puiu's official correspondence veiled the participation of any of his clergy in murder and robbery. His silence protected not just friends such as Antim Nica, but others irrespective of any personal relationship. To this day official Church historiography leaves out the brutal behavior even of the Army, let alone the clergy, in Transnistria.\"", "Popa argues that Puiu \"supported German propaganda against Judeo-Bolshevism\" and rejects the possibility that Puiu was unaware of the antisemitic crimes that were being committed on the territory of his exarchate. He notes that \"in July 1943, in the middle of Visarion Puiu's mandate as Metropolitan of Transnistria, Jews (men, women, and children) were used as slave labourers, under the supervision of the Gendarmerie, for road works in preparation for the upcoming inauguration of the Balta cathedral", ". Most of them died of hunger and exhaustion, or were executed.\" and concludes that \"he was not a victim of Communism in the way most recent writings try to portray him. Moreover, he was not a martyr of the Orthodox dignity, and even less so a saint. He had to be tried for his actions during the war. The trial and the sentence, although problematic, were a necessary step in analysing the attitude of the Romanian Orthodox hierarchs involved in the policies of hatred", ".\" Moreover, Popa judges that \"it is a problematic fact that only Visarion Puiu was tried. Many other high hierarchs were involved in encouraging Ion Antonescu's policies.\"", "Notes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n Statement regarding Puiu dated 11 March 2003 in the Romanian Chamber of Deputies by Member of Parliament Pavel Târpescu.", "1879 births\n1964 deaths\nPeople from Pașcani\nUniversity of Bucharest alumni\nKyiv-Mohyla Academy alumni\nRomanian Orthodox metropolitan bishops\nRomanian theologians\nEastern Orthodox clergy convicted of crimes\nEastern Orthodoxy and far-right politics\nRomanian anti-communist clergy\nRomanian expatriates in the Soviet Union\nRomanian people convicted of war crimes\nPeople convicted by the Romanian People's Tribunals\nThe Holocaust in Transnistria\nRomanian expatriates in France\nBurials at Montparnasse Cemetery" ]

[ "Aluminium (or aluminum) metal is very rare in native form, and the process to refine it from ores is complex, so for most of human history it was unknown. However, the compound alum has been known since the 5th century BCE and was used extensively by the ancients for dyeing. During the Middle Ages, its use for dyeing made it a commodity of international commerce", ". During the Middle Ages, its use for dyeing made it a commodity of international commerce. Renaissance scientists believed that alum was a salt of a new earth; during the Age of Enlightenment, it was established that this earth, alumina, was an oxide of a new metal. Discovery of this metal was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted, whose work was extended by German chemist Friedrich Wöhler.", "Aluminium was difficult to refine and thus uncommon in actual usage. Soon after its discovery, the price of aluminium exceeded that of gold. It was reduced only after the initiation of the first industrial production by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856", ". Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the Bayer process developed by Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer in 1889. These processes have been used for aluminium production up to the present.", "The introduction of these methods for the mass production of aluminium led to extensive use of the light, corrosion-resistant metal in industry and everyday life. Aluminium began to be used in engineering and construction. In World Wars I and II, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. World production of the metal grew from 6,800 metric tons in 1900 to 2,810,000 metric tons in 1954, when aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper.", "In the second half of the 20th century, aluminium gained usage in transportation and packaging. Aluminium production became a source of concern due to its effect on the environment, and aluminium recycling gained ground. The metal became an exchange commodity in the 1970s. Production began to shift from developed countries to developing ones; by 2010, China had accumulated an especially large share in both production and consumption of aluminium", ". World production continued to rise, reaching 58,500,000 metric tons in 2015. Aluminium production exceeds those of all other non-ferrous metals combined.", "Early history", "The history of aluminium was shaped by the usage of its compound alum. The first written record of alum was in the 5th century BCE by Greek historian Herodotus. The ancients used it as a dyeing mordant, in medicine, in chemical milling, and as a fire-resistant coating for wood to protect fortresses from enemy arson. Aluminium metal was unknown", ". Aluminium metal was unknown. Roman writer Petronius mentioned in his novel Satyricon that an unusual glass had been presented to the emperor: after it was thrown on the pavement, it did not break but only deformed. It was returned to its former shape using a hammer. After learning from the inventor that nobody else knew how to produce this material, the emperor had the inventor executed so that it did not diminish the price of gold", ". Variations of this story were mentioned briefly in Natural History by Roman historian Pliny the Elder (who noted the story had \"been current through frequent repetition rather than authentic\") and Roman History by Roman historian Cassius Dio. Some sources suggest this glass could be aluminium. It is possible aluminium-containing alloys were produced in China during the reign of the first Jin dynasty (266–420).", "After the Crusades, alum was a commodity of international commerce; it was indispensable in the European fabric industry. Small alum mines were worked in Catholic Europe but most alum came from the Middle East. Alum continued to be traded through the Mediterranean Sea until the mid-15th century, when the Ottomans greatly increased export taxes. In a few years, alum was discovered in great abundance in Italy", ". In a few years, alum was discovered in great abundance in Italy. Pope Pius II forbade all imports from the east, using the profits from the alum trade to start a war with the Ottomans. This newly found alum long played an important role in European pharmacy, but the high prices set by the papal government eventually made other states start their own production; large-scale alum mining came to other regions of Europe in the 16th century.", "Establishing the nature of alum", "At the start of the Renaissance, the nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus recognized alum as separate from vitriole (sulfates) and suggested it was a salt of an earth. In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius demonstrated that alum and green and blue vitriole were formed by the same acid but different earths; for the undiscovered earth that formed alum, he proposed the name \"alumina\"", ". German chemist Georg Ernst Stahl stated that the unknown base of alum was akin to lime or chalk in 1702; this mistaken view was shared by many scientists for half a century. In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann suggested that the base of alum was a distinct earth. In 1728, French chemist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire claimed alum was formed by an unknown earth and sulfuric acid; he mistakenly believed burning that earth yielded silica", ". (Geoffroy's mistake was corrected only in 1785 by German chemist and pharmacist Johann Christian Wiegleb. He determined that earth of alum could not be synthesized from silica and alkalis, contrary to contemporary belief.) French chemist Jean Gello proved the earth in clay and the earth resulting from the reaction of an alkali on alum were identical in 1739", ". German chemist Johann Heinrich Pott showed the precipitate obtained from pouring an alkali into a solution of alum was different from lime and chalk in 1746.", "German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized the earth of alum by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and adding potash in 1754. He realized that adding soda, potash, or an alkali to a solution of the new earth in sulfuric acid yielded alum. He described the earth as alkaline, as he had discovered it dissolved in acids when dried. Marggraf also described salts of this earth: chloride, nitrate and acetate. In 1758, French chemist Pierre Macquer wrote that alumina resembled a metallic earth", ". In 1758, French chemist Pierre Macquer wrote that alumina resembled a metallic earth. In 1760, French chemist Théodore Baron d'Hénouville expressed his confidence that alumina was a metallic earth.", "In 1767, Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman synthesized alum by boiling alunite in sulfuric acid and adding potash to the solution. He also synthesized alum as a reaction product between sulfates of potassium and earth of alum, demonstrating that alum was a double salt. Swedish German pharmaceutical chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that both alum and silica originated from clay and alum did not contain silicon in 1776", ". Writing in 1782, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier considered alumina an oxide of a metal with an affinity for oxygen so strong that no known reducing agents could overcome it.", "Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius suggested the formula AlO3 for alumina in 1815. The correct formula, Al2O3, was established by German chemist Eilhard Mitscherlich in 1821; this helped Berzelius determine the correct atomic weight of the metal, 27.\n\nIsolation of metal", "In 1760, Baron de Hénouville unsuccessfully attempted to reduce alumina to its metal. He claimed he had tried every method of reduction known at the time, though his methods were unpublished. It is probable he mixed alum with carbon or some organic substance, with salt or soda for flux, and heated it in a charcoal fire. Austrian chemists Anton Leopold Ruprecht and Matteo Tondi repeated Baron's experiments in 1790, significantly increasing the temperatures", ". They found small metallic particles they believed were the sought-after metal; but later experiments by other chemists showed these were iron phosphide from impurities in the charcoal and bone ash", ". German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth commented in an aftermath, \"if there exists an earth which has been put in conditions where its metallic nature should be disclosed, if it had such, an earth exposed to experiments suitable for reducing it, tested in the hottest fires by all sorts of methods, on a large as well as on a small scale, that earth is certainly alumina, yet no one has yet perceived its metallization", ".\" Lavoisier in 1794 and French chemist Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau in 1795 melted alumina to a white enamel in a charcoal fire fed by pure oxygen but found no metal. American chemist Robert Hare melted alumina with an oxyhydrogen blowpipe in 1802, also obtaining the enamel, but still found no metal.", "In 1807, British chemist Humphry Davy successfully electrolyzed alumina with alkaline batteries, but the resulting alloy contained potassium and sodium, and Davy had no means to separate the desired metal from these. He then heated alumina with potassium, forming potassium oxide but was unable to produce the sought-after metal", ". In 1808, Davy set up a different experiment on electrolysis of alumina, establishing that alumina decomposed in the electric arc but formed metal alloyed with iron; he was unable to separate the two. Finally, he tried yet another electrolysis experiment, seeking to collect the metal on iron, but was again unable to separate the coveted metal from it. Davy suggested the metal be named alumium in 1808 and aluminum in 1812, thus producing the modern name", ". Other scientists used the spelling aluminium; the former spelling regained usage in the United States in the following decades.", "American chemist Benjamin Silliman repeated Hare's experiment in 1813 and obtained small granules of the sought-after metal, which almost immediately burned.", "In 1824, Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted attempted to produce the metal. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal that looked similar to tin. He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825. In 1826, he wrote, \"aluminium has a metallic luster and somewhat grayish color and breaks down water very slowly\"; this suggests he had obtained an aluminium–potassium alloy, rather than pure aluminium", ". Ørsted placed little importance on his discovery. He did not notify either Davy or Berzelius, both of whom he knew, and published his work in a Danish magazine unknown to the European public. As a result, he is often not credited as the discoverer of the element; some earlier sources claimed Ørsted had not isolated aluminium.", "Berzelius tried isolating the metal in 1825 by carefully washing the potassium analog of the base salt in cryolite in a crucible. Prior to the experiment, he had correctly identified the formula of this salt as K3AlF6. He found no metal, but his experiment came very close to succeeding and was successfully reproduced many times later. Berzelius's mistake was in using an excess of potassium, which made the solution too alkaline and dissolved all the newly formed aluminium.", "German chemist Friedrich Wöhler visited Ørsted in 1827 and received explicit permission to continue the aluminium research, which Ørsted \"did not have time\" for. Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium. (Wöhler later wrote to Berzelius, \"what Oersted assumed to be a lump of aluminium was certainly nothing but aluminium-containing potassium\".) He conducted a similar experiment, mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium, and produced a powder of aluminium", ". After hearing about this, Ørsted suggested that his own aluminium might have contained potassium. Wöhler continued his research and in 1845 was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some of its physical properties. Wöhler's description of the properties indicates that he had obtained impure aluminium. Other scientists also failed to reproduce Ørsted's experiment, and Wöhler was credited as the discoverer for many years", ". While Ørsted was not concerned with the priority of the discovery, some Danes tried to demonstrate he had obtained aluminium. In 1921, the reason for the inconsistency between Ørsted's and Wöhler's experiments was discovered by Danish chemist Johan Fogh, who demonstrated that Ørsted's experiment was successful thanks to use of a large amount of excess aluminium chloride and an amalgam with low potassium content", ". In 1936, scientists from American aluminium producing company Alcoa successfully recreated that experiment. However, many later sources still credit Wöhler with the discovery of aluminium, as well as its successful isolation in a relatively pure form.", "Early industrial production\n\nSince Wöhler's method could not yield large amounts of aluminium, the metal remained uncommon; its cost had exceeded that of gold before a new method was devised. In 1852, aluminium was sold at US$34 per ounce. In comparison, the price of gold at the time was $19 per ounce.", "French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville announced an industrial method of aluminium production in 1854 at the Paris Academy of Sciences. Aluminium chloride could be reduced by sodium, a metal more convenient and less expensive than potassium used by Wöhler. Deville was able to produce an ingot of the metal. Napoleon III of France promised Deville an unlimited subsidy for aluminium research; in total, Deville used 36,000 French francs—20 times the annual income of an ordinary family", ". Napoleon's interest in aluminium lay in its potential military use: he wished weapons, helmets, armor, and other equipment for the French army could be made of the new light, shiny metal. While the metal was still not displayed to the public, Napoleon is reputed to have held a banquet where the most honored guests were given aluminium utensils while others made do with gold.", "Twelve small ingots of aluminium were later exhibited for the first time to the public at the Exposition Universelle of 1855. The metal was presented as \"the silver from clay\" (aluminium is very similar to silver visually), and this name was soon widely used. It attracted widespread attention; it was suggested aluminium be used in arts, music, medicine, cooking, and tableware", ". The metal was noticed by the avant-garde writers of the time—Charles Dickens, Nikolay Chernyshevsky, and Jules Verne—who envisioned its use in the future. However, not all attention was favorable", ". However, not all attention was favorable. Newspapers wrote, \"The Parisian expo put an end to the fairy tale of the silver from clay\", saying that much of what had been said about the metal was exaggerated if not untrue and that the amount of the presented metal—about a kilogram—contrasted with what had been expected and was \"not a lot for a discovery that was said to turn the world upside down\". Overall, the fair led to the eventual commercialization of the metal", ". Overall, the fair led to the eventual commercialization of the metal. That year, aluminium was put to the market at a price of 300 F per kilogram. At the next fair in Paris in 1867, visitors were presented with aluminium wire and foil as well a new alloy—aluminium bronze, notable for its low cost of production, high resistance to corrosion, and desirable mechanical properties.", "Manufacturers did not wish to divert resources from producing well-known (and marketable) metals, such as iron and bronze, to experiment with a new one; moreover, produced aluminium was still not of great purity and differed in properties by sample. This led to an initial general reluctance to produce the new metal. Deville and partners established the world's first industrial production of aluminium at a smelter in Rouen in 1856", ". Deville's smelter moved that year to La Glacière and then Nanterre, and in 1857 to Salindres. For the factory in Nanterre, an output of 2 kilograms of aluminium per day was recorded, with a purity of 98%. Originally, production started with synthesis of pure alumina, which was obtained from calcination of ammonium alum. In 1858, Deville was introduced to bauxite and soon developed into what became known as the Deville process, employing the mineral as a source for alumina production", ". In 1860, Deville sold his aluminium interests to Henri Merle, a founder of Compagnie d'Alais et de la Camargue; this company dominated the aluminium market in France decades later.", "Some chemists, including Deville, sought to use cryolite as the source ore, but with little success. British engineer William Gerhard set up a plant with cryolite as the primary raw material in Battersea, London, in 1856, but technical and financial difficulties forced the closure of the plant in three years. British ironmaster Isaac Lowthian Bell produced aluminium from 1860 to 1874. During the opening of his factory, he waved to the crowd with a unique and costly aluminium top hat", ". No statistics about this production can be recovered, but it \"cannot be very high\". Deville's output grew to 1 metric ton per year in 1860; 1.7 metric tons in 1867; and 1.8 metric tons in 1872. At the time, demand for aluminium was low: for example, sales of Deville's aluminium by his British agents equaled 15 kilograms in 1872. Aluminium at the time was often compared with silver; like silver, it was found to be suitable for making jewelry and objéts d'art", ". Price for aluminium steadily declined to 240 F in 1859; 200 F in 1862; 120 F in 1867.", "Other production sites began to appear in the 1880s. British engineer James Fern Webster launched the industrial production of aluminium by reduction with sodium in 1882; his aluminium was much purer than Deville's (it contained 0.8% impurities whereas Deville's typically contained 2%). World production of aluminium in 1884 equaled 3.6 metric tons", ". World production of aluminium in 1884 equaled 3.6 metric tons. In 1884, American architect William Frishmuth combined production of sodium, alumina, and aluminium into a single technological process; this contrasted with the previous need to collect sodium, which combusts in water and sometimes air; his aluminium production cost was about $16 per pound (compare to silver's cost of $19 per pound, or the French price, an equivalent of $12 per pound)", ". In 1885, Aluminium- und Magnesiumfabrik started production in Hemelingen. Its production figures strongly exceeded those of the factory in Salindres but the factory stopped production in 1888. In 1886, American engineer Hamilton Castner devised a method of cheaper production of sodium, which decreased the cost of aluminium production to $8 per pound, but he did not have enough capital to construct a large factory like Deville's", ". In 1887, he constructed a factory in Oldbury; Webster constructed a plant nearby and bought Castner's sodium to use it in his own production of aluminium. In 1889, German metallurgist Curt Netto launched a method of reduction of cryolite with sodium that produced aluminium containing 0.5–1.0% of impurities.", "Electrolytic production and commercialization", "Aluminium was first produced independently using electrolysis in 1854 by the German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Deville. Their methods did not become the basis for industrial production of aluminium because electrical supplies were inefficient at the time. This changed only with Belgian engineer Zénobe-Théophile Gramme's invention of the dynamo in 1870, which made creation of large amounts of electricity possible", ". The invention of the three-phase current by Russian engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky in 1889 made transmission of this electricity over long distances achievable. Soon after his discovery, Bunsen moved on to other areas of interest while Deville's work was noticed by Napoleon III; this was the reason Deville's Napoleon-funded research on aluminium production had been started", ". Deville quickly realized electrolytic production was impractical at the time and moved on to chemical methods, presenting results later that year.", "Electrolytic mass production remained difficult because electrolytic baths could not withstand prolonged contact with molten salts, succumbing to corrosion. The first attempt to overcome this for aluminium production was made by American engineer Charles Bradley in 1883. Bradley heated aluminium salts internally: the highest temperature was inside the bath and the lowest was on its walls, where salts would solidify and protect the bath", ". Bradley then sold his patent claim to brothers Alfred and Eugene Cowles, who used it at a smelter in Lockport and later in Stoke-upon-Trent but the method was modified to yield alloys rather than pure aluminium. Bradley applied for a patent in 1883; due to his broad wordings, it was rejected as composed of prior art. After a necessary two-year break, he re-applied. This process lasted for six years, as the patent office questioned whether Bradley's ideas were original", ". When Bradley was granted a patent, electrolytic aluminium production had already been in place for several years.", "The first large-scale production method was independently developed by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process. Electrolysis of pure alumina is impractical, given its very high melting point; both Héroult and Hall realized it could be greatly lowered by the presence of molten cryolite. Héroult was granted a patent in France in April and subsequently in several other European countries; he also applied for a U.S", ".S. patent in May. After securing a patent, Héroult could not find interest in his invention. When asking professionals for advice, he was told there was no demand for aluminium but some for aluminium bronze. The factory in Salindres did not wish to improve its process. In 1888, Héroult and his companions founded Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft and started industrial production of aluminium bronze in Neuhausen am Rheinfall. Then, Société électrométallurgique française was founded in Paris", ". Then, Société électrométallurgique française was founded in Paris. They convinced Héroult to return to France, purchased his patents, and appointed him as the director of a smelter in Isère, which produced aluminium bronze on a large scale at first and pure aluminium in a few months.", "At the same time, Hall produced aluminium by the same process in his home at Oberlin. He applied for a patent in July, and the patent office notified Hall of an \"interference\" with Héroult's application. The Cowles brothers offered legal support. By then, Hall had failed to develop a commercial process for his first investors, and he turned to experimenting at Cowles' smelter in Lockport. He experimented for a year without much success but gained the attention of investors", ". He experimented for a year without much success but gained the attention of investors. Hall co-founded the Pittsburgh Reduction Company in 1888 and initiated production of aluminium. Hall's patent was granted in 1889. In 1889, Hall's production began to use the principle of internal heating. By September 1889, Hall's production grew to at a cost of $0.65 per pound. By 1890, Hall's company still lacked capital and did not pay dividends; Hall had to sell some of his shares to attract investments", ". During that year, a new factory in Patricroft was constructed. The smelter in Lockport was unable to withstand the competition and shut down by 1892.", "The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into the metal. Austrian chemist Carl Josef Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina in 1888 at a textile factory in Saint Petersburg and was issued a patent later that year; this is now known as the Bayer process. Bayer sintered bauxite with alkali and leached it with water; after stirring the solution and introducing a seeding agent to it, he found a precipitate of pure aluminium hydroxide, which decomposed to alumina on heating", ". In 1892, while working at a chemical plant in Yelabuga, he discovered the aluminium contents of bauxite dissolved in the alkaline leftover from isolation of alumina solids; this was crucial for the industrial employment of this method. He was issued a patent later that year.", "The total amount of unalloyed aluminium produced using Deville's chemical method from 1856 to 1889 equaled 200 metric tons. Production in 1890 alone was 175 metric tons. It grew to 715 metric tons in 1893 and to 4,034 metric tons in 1898. The price fell to $2 per pound in 1889 and to $0.5 per pound in 1894.", "By the end of 1889, a consistently high purity of aluminium produced via electrolysis had been achieved. In 1890, Webster's factory went obsolete after an electrolysis factory was opened in England. Netto's main advantage, the high purity of the resulting aluminium, was outmatched by electrolytic aluminium and his company closed the following year. Compagnie d'Alais et de la Camargue also decided to switch to electrolytic production, and their first plant using this method was opened in 1895.", "Modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes. It was further improved in 1920 by a team led by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Söderberg. Previously, anode electrodes had been made from pre-baked coal blocks, which quickly corrupted and required replacement; the team introduced continuous electrodes made from a coke and tar paste in a reduction chamber. This advance greatly increased the world output of aluminium.\n\nMass usage", "Prices for aluminium declined, and by the early 1890s, the metal had become widely used in jewelry, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, and many everyday items. Aluminium cookware began to be produced in the late 19th century and gradually supplanted copper and cast iron cookware in the first decades of the 20th century. Aluminium foil was popularized at that time", ". Aluminium foil was popularized at that time. Aluminium is soft and light, but it was soon discovered that alloying it with other metals could increase its hardness while preserving its low density. Aluminium alloys found many uses in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For instance, aluminium bronze is applied to make flexible bands, sheets, and wire, and is widely employed in the shipbuilding and aviation industries. Aviation used a new aluminium alloy, duralumin, invented in 1903", ". Aviation used a new aluminium alloy, duralumin, invented in 1903. Aluminium recycling began in the early 1900s and has been used extensively since as aluminium is not impaired by recycling and thus can be recycled repeatedly. At this point, only the metal that had not been used by end-consumers was recycled. During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes. They often subsidized factories and the necessary electrical supply systems", ". They often subsidized factories and the necessary electrical supply systems. Overall production of aluminium peaked during the war: world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons; in 1916, annual production exceeded 100,000 metric tons. The war created a greater demand for aluminium, which the growing primary production was unable to fully satisfy, and recycling grew intensely as well. The peak in production was followed by a decline, then a swift growth.", "During the first half of the 20th century, the real price for aluminium fell continuously from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). There were some exceptions such as the sharp price rise during World War I. Aluminium was plentiful, and in 1919 Germany began to replace its silver coins with aluminium ones; more and more denominations were switched to aluminium coins as hyperinflation progressed in the country", ". By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday lives, becoming an essential component of housewares. Aluminium freight cars first appeared in 1931. Their lower mass allowed them to carry more cargo. During the 1930s, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material used in both basic construction and building interiors. Its use in military engineering for both airplanes and tank engines advanced.", "Aluminium obtained from recycling was considered inferior to primary aluminium because of poorer chemistry control as well as poor removal of dross and slags. Recycling grew overall but depended largely on the output of primary production: for instance, as electric energy prices declined in the United States in the late 1930s, more primary aluminium could be produced using the energy-expensive Hall–Héroult process. This rendered recycling less necessary, and thus aluminium recycling rates went down", ". This rendered recycling less necessary, and thus aluminium recycling rates went down. By 1940, mass recycling of post-consumer aluminium had begun.", "During World War II, production peaked again, exceeding 1,000,000 metric tons for the first time in 1941", ". Aluminium was used heavily in aircraft production and was a strategic material of extreme importance; so much so that when Alcoa (successor of Hall's Pittsburgh Reduction Company and the aluminium production monopolist in the United States at the time) did not expand its production, the United States Secretary of the Interior proclaimed in 1941, \"If America loses the war, it can thank the Aluminum Corporation of America\"", ". In 1939, Germany was the world's leading producer of aluminium; the Germans thus saw aluminium as their edge in the war. Aluminium coins continued to be used but while they symbolized a decline on their introduction, by 1939, they had come to represent power. (In 1941, they began to be withdrawn from circulation to save the metal for military needs", ". (In 1941, they began to be withdrawn from circulation to save the metal for military needs.) After the United Kingdom was attacked in 1940, it started an ambitious program of aluminium recycling; the newly appointed Minister of Aircraft Production appealed to the public to donate any household aluminium for airplane building. The Soviet Union received 328,100 metric tons of aluminium from its co-combatants from 1941 to 1945; this aluminium was used in aircraft and tank engines", ". Without these shipments, the output of the Soviet aircraft industry would have fallen by over a half.", "After the wartime peak, world production fell for three late-war and post-war years but then regained its rapid growth. In 1954, the world output equaled 2,810,000 metric tons; this production surpassed that of copper, historically second in production only to iron, making it the most produced non-ferrous metal.\n\nAluminium Age", "Earth's first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, consisted of two joined aluminium hemispheres. All subsequent spacecraft have used aluminium to some extent. The aluminium can was first manufactured in 1956 and employed as a container for drinks in 1958. In the 1960s, aluminium was employed for the production of wires and cables. Since the 1970s, high-speed trains have commonly used aluminium for its high strength-to-weight ratio. For the same reason, the aluminium content of cars is growing.", "By 1955, the world market had been dominated by the Six Majors: Alcoa, Alcan (originated as a part of Alcoa), Reynolds, Kaiser, Pechiney (merger of Compagnie d'Alais et de la Camargue that bought Deville's smelter and Société électrométallurgique française that hired Héroult), and Alusuisse (successor of Héroult's Aluminium Industrie Aktien Gesellschaft); their combined share of the market equaled 86%", ". From 1945, aluminium consumption grew by almost 10% each year for nearly three decades, gaining ground in building applications, electric cables, basic foils and the aircraft industry. In the early 1970s, an additional boost came from the development of aluminium beverage cans. The real price declined until the early 1970s; in 1973, the real price equaled $2,130 per metric ton (in 1998 United States dollars)", ". The main drivers of the drop in price was the decline of extraction and processing costs, technological progress, and the increase in aluminium production, which first exceeded 10,000,000 metric tons in 1971.", "In the late 1960s, governments became aware of waste from the industrial production; they enforced a series of regulations favoring recycling and waste disposal. Söderberg anodes, which save capital and labor to bake the anodes but are more harmful to the environment (because of a greater difficulty in collecting and disposing of the baking fumes), fell into disfavor, and production began to shift back to the pre-baked anodes", ". The aluminium industry began promoting the recycling of aluminium cans in an attempt to avoid restrictions on them. This sparked recycling of aluminium previously used by end-consumers: for example, in the United States, levels of recycling of such aluminium increased 3.5 times from 1970 to 1980 and 7.5 times to 1990. Production costs for primary aluminium grew in the 1970s and 1980s, and this also contributed to the rise of aluminium recycling", ". Closer composition control and improved refining technology diminished the quality difference between primary and secondary aluminium.", "In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the London Metal Exchange, the world's oldest industrial metal exchange, in 1978. Since then, aluminium has been traded for United States dollars and its price fluctuated along with the currency's exchange rate", ". The need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and fast increasing input costs of energy, but also bauxite, as well as changes in exchange rates and greenhouse gas regulation, increased the net cost of aluminium; the real price grew in the 1970s.", "The increase of the real price, and changes of tariffs and taxes, began the redistribution of world producers' shares: the United States, the Soviet Union, and Japan accounted for nearly 60% of world's primary production in 1972 (and their combined share of consumption of primary aluminium was also close to 60%); but their combined share only slightly exceeded 10% in 2012", ". The production shift began in the 1970s with production moving from the United States, Japan, and Western Europe to Australia, Canada, the Middle East, Russia, and China, where it was cheaper due to lower electricity prices and favorable state regulation, such as low taxes or subsidies. Production costs in the 1980s and 1990s declined because of advances in technology, lower energy and alumina prices, and high exchange rates of the United States dollar.", "In the 2000s, the BRIC countries' (Brazil, Russia, India and China) combined share grew from 32.6% to 56.5% in primary production and 21.4% to 47.8% in primary consumption. China has accumulated an especially large share of world production, thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli; it also increased its share of consumption from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010. The only other country with a two-digit percentage was the United States with 11%; no other country exceeded 5%", ". In the United States, Western Europe and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.", "In the mid-2000s, increasing energy, alumina and carbon (used in anodes) prices caused an increase in production costs. This was amplified by a shift in currency exchange rates: not only a weakening of the United States dollar, but also a strengthening of the Chinese yuan. The latter became important as most Chinese aluminium was relatively cheap.", "World output continued growing: in 2018, it was a record 63,600,000 metric tons before falling slightly in 2019. Aluminium is produced in greater quantities than all other non-ferrous metals combined. Its real price (in 1998 United States dollars) in 2019 was $1,400 per metric ton ($2,190 per ton in contemporary dollars).\n\nSee also\n\nList of countries by primary aluminium production\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nAluminium\nHistory of chemistry\naluminium" ]

[ "The following is a list of recurring or notable one-off strips from the British adult spoof comic magazine Viz. This list is by no means complete as with each issue new characters/strips/stories are introduced.", "A–E \nAbel Unstable – A man convinced he will suddenly catch fire at any moment, but never does. The strip often ends with someone else spontaneously combusting or exploding, leading Abel to grumble and remark \"lucky sod\" or similar.\n Acker Bilk – See Jimmy Hill.\n Abraham Lincoln - A strip about the 16th president of the USA feeling so envious about Isambard Brunel having a taller hat than him.", "Abraham Linked-in - A strip about Abraham Lincoln constantly getting messages on his smartphone from the app LinkedIn.\n Adam and the Aunts - Adam Ant receives help from his four elderly aunts.\n Afternoon tea with Mr Kiplin – About Mr Kiplin (a parody of cake manufacturer Mr Kipling) inviting someone over for tea but because he eats so much cake, he eventually vomits for the whole night.\n Aladdin and his Magic Tramp - A parody of Aladdin with a homeless person instead of a genie.", "Aladdin and his Magic Tramp - A parody of Aladdin with a homeless person instead of a genie.\n Albert Einstein – About Albert Einstein and the antics of his three nephews, Hughlich, Dewlich and Loulich (a parody of Huey, Duey and Louie from Walt Disney's Ducktales).\n Albert Gordon - Traffic Warden – A strip from the Big Hard Number Two annual about a corrupt traffic warden who assaults members of the public and gives them fines for the most extraordinary reasons.", "Albert O' Balsam and his Magic Hat – A man who claims his hat has magic powers, but who annoys everyone he sees.\n Alcan Foil Wrapped Pork Stock Warrior – a young boy who becomes a \"superhero\" (in reality, completely useless) with the aid of tinfoil and pork stock.", "Aldridge Prior – a pathological liar whose lies are ludicrous, such as The Nolan Sisters living in his fridge or he is related to some very famous person. Prior is instantly recognizable for his unfashionable dress, usually a tartan jacket with a sheepskin collar and a pair of uncomfortable-looking platform shoes.", "Alexander Graham Bell-End – a crazy inventor who continually rubs his penis on things and then tricks his assistant into touching them with his hands or mouth, at which point Alexander laughs uproariously whilst exclaiming \"I TOTALLY rubbed my bell-end on that!\" A pun on Alexander Graham Bell.", "Anna Reksik – a model who repeatedly vomits in order to keep her thin shape. Most strips involve Anna resorting to extreme lengths to lose weight (encouraged by her friend Belle Emia, a fellow model); only to unwittingly eat something (usually very small, such as a potato crisp) that causes her to instantly put on an unrealistically huge amount of weight. The strip attracted press controversy because of the strip's portrayal of eating disorders and cocaine addiction.", "Archie McBlarter – Everyday Farting Dilemmas – A newer strip featuring a middle-aged and rather obese man who has almost permanent trouble with his guts (Not to be confused with Johnny Fartpants (which see)). He is his own worst enemy, as he loves the various types of food which cause extreme flatulence, such as scotch eggs, curries, beans, etc", ". (often referred to as 'musical food') Sometimes he comes to grief in the most extreme way, for example, he has a giant fart at the same time a bolt of lightning hits his house, and the fart explodes spectacularly, destroying the home and he ending up in hospital. The last frame has him ordering his breakfast – scotch eggs.", "Arse Farm – About a farmer who cultivates human buttocks on his land.\n Arsehole Kate – One-off parody of Keyhole Kate in which Kate instead likes to look up people's bottoms.\n As If By Tragic - A parody of Mr Benn, in which the shopkeeper dies of a heart attack while Mr Benn is on the moon, leading to astronauts finding his body fifty-years later wondering how he got there.", "Auntie Cockwise – An old lady who can tell the size of a man's penis just by looking at him, much to the amusement of her little nephew.\n Bad Bob, the Randy Wonder Dog – About a policeman who visits a retirement home on Christmas Day with his Jack Russell terrier Bad Bob, who proceeds to have sex with one of the resident's legs causing him to have a heart attack (with Bad Bob doing the same to the thigh of the matron who bends down to try and revive him).", "Bad Girl Ballet Borstal at the Bottom of the Sea – A girl is sent to an underwater borstal and forced to do ballet lessons all day. She discovers that the establishment is part of an elaborate scheme to send the borstal inmates to a zoo as food for tigers. The girl attempts to raise the alarm, but is trapped by the homicidal ghost of Rudolf Nureyev, with the strip abruptly ending on an explanation that had it continued she would have been miraculously rescued by police in a submarine.", "Badly Drawn Man – a poorly drawn character.\n Badly Overdrawn Boy – a parody of the pop singer Badly Drawn Boy, who is seen busking outside his local bank because he is broke (issue 126)", "Balsa Boy – a take on Pinocchio, in which a lonely old pensioner makes a \"son\" from balsa wood. While Balsa Boy does have dialogue, all the speech bubbles unambiguously emanate from the old man. The strip ends with the old man being sent to a mental institution after burning down the house while trying to dry off Balsa Boy in front of the fire, but by the last frame he is busy working on making another \"boy\" out of scones.", "Barbara Cartland's ... – Barbara Cartland pays a visit somewhere (such as a farmyard or barber salon) and ends up inadvertently foiling criminals.\n Barnaby's Spelling Bees – A strip about a boy called Barnaby Bixby who owns a swarm of African Killer Bees who can sting anyone if their owner says a word beginning with the second letter of the English alphabet.\n Barny the Complete Bastard - A strip featured in The Big Stiff One annual about some guy getting falsely accused of doing bad things for no reason.", "Barney Brimstone's Biscuit Tin Circus – a boy who owns a miniature circus inside a biscuit tin.\n Barry the Cat – a one-off parody of The Beanos acrobatic crimefighter Billy the Cat. Unlike his Beano equivalent, Barry is incompetent, hopelessly uncoordinated, and is immediately recognised despite his \"cat-suit\" disguise. The final panel shows him in hospital, suffering from multiple injuries, being told that he has acted \"very foolishly\".", "Bart Conrad – a store detective who takes his job far too seriously.\n Bassey Come Home – in which a young boy who lives on a farm has Shirley Bassey as a pet, and must fight to keep her from being sold when the farm falls on hard times.", "(Sir) Baxter Basics – an extremely amoral, self-serving and sexually deviant right-wing Conservative (and later Labour) MP who first appeared at around the same time as John Major's Back to Basics campaign, and a transparent statement on the hypocrisy of politicians. Drawn by Simon Thorp.", "Becky Thump – a girl from the North of England who hates southerners so much she even assaults a supermarket delivery man for bringing her southern fried chicken. Is also shown reading a book entitled '1001 reasons to hate Southerners'. Her name is a parody of the Northern expletive 'Ecky-Thump!'.\n Beddley Wetterton - A strip about a man who attempts to wet his bed, but his various flatmates keep preventing him to do so.", "Beeny of the Lamp – An Aladdin parody in which Sarah Beeny comes out of a magic lamp to help a young couple wishing for advice on buying a property.\n Ben and the SpaceWalrus – a one-off strip centred on a fat kid named Ben who finds a SpaceWalrus and eats his dog Bunny.", "Benny's Hedges – a one-off strip featuring a boy who walked round with two hedges on wheels, helping various members of society. This included a peeping tom who used the hedges to hide behind, and leer at passing ladies. Benny also created a \"maze\" to entertain two unruly children, one of which exclaimed \"Tee-hee, help, I'm lost!\" The name is a play on words of the cigarette brand Benson and Hedges.", "Bert Midler, Biddy-Fiddler – a pervert with a fetish for very elderly women. After he finally gets a date with a 92-year-old, he is disappointed to be told that she has died; only to cheer up again when he is invited to her funeral with all her friends of similar age.", "Bertie Blunt (His Parrot's A Cunt) – a boy who owns an extremely violent, foul-mouthed parrot that insults everyone and encourages him to commit suicide. When the parrot kills Bertie's grandmother, who leaves them all her money, Bertie fights back by spending his inheritance on a microwave oven which he then uses to cook the parrot alive", ". Chris Donald, creator of Viz, has said that in the early days of the magazine he would not permit the \"c word\" to be used, until an outside artist (Sean Agnew) sent him this strip which he found to be so good he decided to use it anyway.", "Bicycle Bellend – a man on a bicycle berating drivers for \"showing him disrespect\" even though he is actually the dangerous road user (often not looking and causing accidents, and at one point he rides the wrong way up a one-way street), getting his comeuppance when he tells off a burly driver who subsequently beats him up.", "Biffa Bacon – An icon of Viz, featuring Biffa (shortened from Bifferidge) and his family – Mutha and Fatha (real names Vermintrude (née Haystacks) and Billy or Basha Bacon) – hail from the Tyneside region of North East England and speak in the Geordie dialect. Biffa is constantly subjected to abuse by his parents – even being kicked in the groin by both of them. Biffa is a visual parody of the character Bully Beef from The Dandy. His mother, who is rough-looking and masculine, resembles Desperate Dan", ". His mother, who is rough-looking and masculine, resembles Desperate Dan. The characters were allegedly inspired by a real family observed by Viz editor Chris Donald in Newcastle upon Tyne city centre, where the son began an unprovoked assault on another boy; the parents, rather than intervening, began shouting encouragement to their child. As soon as it appeared the victim of the assault was able to defend himself, the father joined in the attack, ceasing only when police officers intervened", ". Some characters who have extended the Bacon family include Biffa's new baby brother Basha and a dog called Knacka (a pun on Dennis The Menace's dog Gnasher and the slang word \"knacker\"), Biffa's uncle Dekka, Biffa's grandfather (on his father's side) who is bald, and also Biffa's grandma.", "Big Fuckin' Dave – a big, burly and mentally unstable man with his name often tattooed across his forehead, sometimes back-to-front, who beats people up for being 'queeahs' because he believes they are drinking only a half-pint of beer, not drinking the full ten pints before having a slash or smoking less than full-strength cigarettes. Usually egged on by his much smaller, trouble-making (unnamed) friend (\"Come on Dave - I just seen a guy in the lounge drinkin' halves!\" \"THE BLOODY QUEEAH!!\")", ". Has been part of other strips, notably Sid the Sexist.", "Big Jobs – a one-off strip in which Steve Jobs unveils the iPoo, a portable toilet which he demonstrates by defecating and vomiting into it. It is revealed that the waste is sent to another dimension (rendered, unusually for Viz, in full colour) where it is eaten by the inhabitants who do not care where it comes from since it is free.", "Big Vern – an East End gangster. Almost every strip follows the same story, in which Vern and his friend Ernie will begin an ordinary activity but with Vern convinced they are actually committing a criminal 'job', believing Ernie's protests that they are not is just a cover story", ". At some point, a person will make an innocent remark which makes Vern shoot the person in the head believing he is the police (while shouting something along the lines of \"No bastard copper's gonna take me alive!\" or \"Get dahn, Ernie, he's going for his piece!\") before then shooting Ernie (sometimes believing Ernie 'grassed' him up, while other times doing it to save him from prison) and occasionally others, and finally himself", ". The shootings are always shown in an extremely graphic fashion (blood, gore and goodness-knows what-else in every direction - but because the strip is in black-and-white much of the impact is lost!), but despite this both are always resurrected for the next issue. Vern's second name is Dakin, a reference to the notably violent 1971 British crime thriller Villain, whose anti-hero (played by Richard Burton) is named Vic Dakin.", "Bill WeetaBixby - a one-off parody of The Incredible Hulk about Bill Bixby who turns into a violent piece of Weetabix when he' is confronted by muggers, only for them to promptly step on him. \nBilly Banana Head - An early strip about a man with said fruit for a head.", "Billy Banana Head - An early strip about a man with said fruit for a head.\n Billy Bloater – an extremely fat and greedy schoolboy whose gut is so vast that it distorts gravity and pulls stray bank notes into his reach, allowing him to indulge in an 'all you can eat' feast which increases his density until he effectively becomes a black hole and the artist realises that he does not know how to complete the strip.", "Billy Bottom and his Zany Toilet Pranks – a literal toilet humour strip, based around a somewhat obese man and his attempts to defecate whilst various factors and circumstances conspire to prevent him from doing so. The first strip carried a spoof certificate of the type given to films by the BBFC, classifying the strip as \"puerile\". One of the latest has him as a caveman who is caught by the incoming Ice-Age, and is frozen solid for two million years", ". He is eventually freed by two archaeologists but the stink is so atrocious that he advises them 'I'd leave it for ten minutes if I were you!' Conceived by Tom Bambridge.", "Billy Bound (It's Always His Round) – a man whose friends constantly trick him into offering to buy the next round of drinks.\n Billy's Bollocks – A one off strip from The Big Hard Number 2 annual about a person called Billy Baxter who found a pair of large spherical fossils in a rubbish bin outside a natural history museum and uses them for a game of Conkers. He ends up throwing them into some man's car and gets ten pounds from him and then flies away using his balls as a helicopter to escape a bully.", "Billy Britain – a right-wing ultra-nationalist resembling Enoch Powell who appeared in two very early strips. Chris Donald considers him an early prototype of Major Misunderstanding. He also made a one-off reappearance in the September 2002 issue satirising the issue of asylum seekers, where after he spends the strip making several futile attempts to round up illegal immigrants, the local authorities turn his home into a detention centre for refugees.", "Billy Bumble Beard – A man who has a beard of bees, who consequently cannot attract ladies. The one lady he finally got off with was Marjorie Wasp-Fanny, but ended up with a large bandage on his private area for obvious reasons.", "Billy the Fish – A very long-running and iconic VIZ strip featuring Billy who is half man, half fish, he is a star footballer despite being drawn with no legs (he does apparently own a pair of football boots, but it is not clear why). The strip is a satire of, or homage to, the popular football comics of the 1960s and 1970s such as Roy of the Rovers, and also satirises topical football incidents. Starred in a spinoff cartoon, voiced by Harry Enfield", ". Starred in a spinoff cartoon, voiced by Harry Enfield. According to Viz cartoonist Graham Dury, \"half the readers thought [the strip] was shit, and the other half thought it was really shit.\" Undaunted, Viz cheerfully called one installment \"Billy the Shit\". Each episode ends with an 'on the brink' promising to resolve in the next publication...but never does.", "Billy No-Mates – a miserable, asocial teenage boy who spends most of his time alone in his dark room playing video games. If anyone disturbs him he becomes extremely irritated. He also has an obsession with masturbating, collecting large numbers of pornographic magazines and calling sex hotlines.\n Billy Quiz – a man who constantly acts like a game show host in everyday situations.\n Bipolar Bear – a polar bear who suffers from severe bipolar disorder.", "Bipolar Bear – a polar bear who suffers from severe bipolar disorder.\n Biscuits Alive! – some biscuits that mysteriously come to life to help their boy owner out of some trivial problem.\n Black Bag – \"The faithful border bin liner\". A black bin liner which lives the exciting life of a sheepdog; a parody of The Dandy's Black Bob and the anthropomorphism of animals. Black Bag was drawn by Graham Murdoch, under the pen name of Snoddy (his cat). Black Bag rescued Brotherhood of Man from a well.", "Bo and Luke Brummell – A parody of The Dukes of Hazzard in which the two main characters are Regency-era dandies.\n Bob-a-Mob - A man who becomes violently enraged and attacks others he perceives as paedophiles, always due to some kind of misunderstanding or his own paranoia.\n Bob-Faced Betty of the Biscuit Shop Ballet - A young ballerina who, after plastic surgery gone wrong, is stuck with the face of TV presenter Bob Holness.", "Bob Mortified - One-off strip in which Bob Mortimer goes fishing with Paul Whitehouse. After failing to catch a single fish, Mortimer is so embarrassed he bursts into tears; while Whitehouse decides he'd rather fish with Harry Enfield instead.\n Bodley Basin – \"He's On The Square\". The adventures of a \"strict Freemason\". This one-off strip ended with the apparent murder of the cartoonist.\n Boswell Boyce - He Throws His Voice - An incompetent ventriloquist who repeatedly tries and fails to become famous.", "The Bottom Inspectors – based on the traffic wardens of Newcastle. The Bottom Inspectors were also influenced by a single editorial comment made by John Brown, the original publisher of Viz Comic: \"The only editorial comment I ever made\", explains Brown, \"was in the early days, when I told Chris that I thought one issue was particularly 'bottomy'. He didn't say much at the time, but The Bottom Inspectors appeared for the first time in the next issue", ".\" Considerable overtones of Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-four as well as more than a hint of the Nazis (their ranks sound very Nazi: 'Herr Oberbottomführer!', etc.).", "Boy Scouse – a gang of delinquent schoolboys from Liverpool who earn Boy Scout badges for mugging pensioners, spraying graffiti and other such antisocial activities. MP Louise Ellman complained that it set a bad example and petitioned to have it banned.\n Boyz R Uz - A stereotypical boy band who are constantly being ripped off by their handler. They do not sing or dance - only mime.", "Brian's Bannister – An early strip about a boy who owned a bannister who tries to take it to the local park, only to find out that bannisters are not allowed in public.\n Brian Cunt – a representative from a gas supply company, who, when called out to a suspected gas leak, does nothing to help and instead pressures the customer to buy a new central heating system they do not need, resulting in the house blowing up.\n Britpop Pop Bri - A man obsessed with nineties Britpop (especially Oasis).", "Britpop Pop Bri - A man obsessed with nineties Britpop (especially Oasis).\n The Broon Windsors – a parody of the Royal Family in the style of The Broons and referring to Brown Windsor soup.", "Brown Bottle – a reporter (sometimes a bank clerk) who thinks he becomes a superhero when he is drunk on Newcastle Brown Ale. In reality, all that happens is that he becomes viciously drunk and passes out, but the twist in the story is that he manages to save the day anyway, by sheer accident. The character is based on Davey Graham, a musician friend of Chris Donald's, who made a similar transformation under the influence", ". Brown Bottle's enemy Ciderwoman (a \"supervillain\" who gets her powers from drinking cider) appeared in this strip and her own occasional strips in the magazine.", "Brucey's Magic Flying Carpet – A strip about Bruce Forsyth who goes around on his magic flying carpet helping some guy with his thatched cottage roof.\n Buffalo Jill – a strip narrated in the style of 1950s–60s girls' comics, where a typical heroine from such comics (politely spoken and pony-loving) becomes a stagecoach robber in the Wild West, earning a vicious gang's respect by gorily shooting several people in the head. A reference to Buffalo Bill.", "Busted – who, until they disbanded in 2005, occasionally appeared in strips (as well as spoof interviews and other features in the magazine) portraying them as pyromaniacs/arsonists who would set anything on fire \"for a laugh\". James Bourne would always be referred to by the wrong name, making fun of his status as the \"least famous\" of the group.", "Buster Gonad and his Unfeasibly Large Testicles – An iconic VIZ strip featuring a boy who somehow manages to always solve people's problems with his ridiculously large testicles. Featured regularly in early editions, but since has faded out, however still appears every now and then.\n Buz - A parody of Kes where the titular kestrel is replaced with a bluebottle fly.", "Buz - A parody of Kes where the titular kestrel is replaced with a bluebottle fly.\n Camberwick Greggs – a very bleak parody of Camberwick Green, where Mickey Murphy the baker is driven out of business after a branch of Greggs opens across the road. See also 'Trumptown'\n Calvin and the Chipmunks – A rip-off of a very famous chipmunk trio strip featuring John Calvin and some mischievous chipmunks who get him into trouble with King Henry VIII.", "Captain Morgan and his Hammond Organ – a pirate who sails round the Caribbean inviting people to sing along with him as he plays a Hammond organ. His character was cut when legal action was threatened over the copyright of some of the songs; according to creator Chris Donald in his book, he did not think that making the character sing royalty-free hymns or nursery rhymes would have quite the same comedic effect.", "Captain Captured – the man who's constantly caught. At the start of each strip, Captain Captured would get captured in a mysterious Bond villain-like fashion. He would then escape only to get captured again, and again, and again, and...\n Captain Magnetic – A strip about a man who claims to be a superhero with magnetic powers, only to find out his powers are useless.", "Captain Oats – a one-off strip lampooning the real Antarctic explorer Captain Lawrence Oates. An explorer obsessed with pornography and masturbation, he is depicted skiing across the icy wastes, dragging a wardrobe on its own set of skis upon which is hidden his stash of pornographic magazines. However, his efforts to masturbate are continually frustrated by the presence of his companions", ". However, his efforts to masturbate are continually frustrated by the presence of his companions. Eventually he gives his famous line \"I'm just going outside, I might be some time', and ends up in the latrine with his fingers freezing off.", "Captain Unreliable – A superhero who fails to save the day because of oversleeping, his car breaking down, etc.\n Careless McKenzie – A strip about a man who does all kinds of jobs in a reckless way.\n Cilla Blackbeard – a strip portraying Cilla Black as a vicious pirate captain who evades and defeats the Royal Navy, led by Admiral Noel Edmonds and his crew of rival TV presenters.", "Chadwell O'Cheese and his Cormorants of Futility - A strip about a boy who keeps cormorant birds and tries to save the mayor's balloon which got stuck in a tree, only to have him change his mind and so Chadwell hangs himself from the branch of the tree where the balloon is.\n Champion the Wonder Arse – Young Chip McCain had befriended a magnificent wild hairy arse named Champion, which roamed the plains around the little town of Windy Creek in Arizona.", "Charitable Chester – an unintelligent boy who constantly tries to raise money for charity, but either fails or raises very little, leaving his father (who has to foot the bill for either damages to a dairy or catering for a pop concert) seriously out of pocket.\n Charlie and the Sportswear Factory - A parody of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory where Charlie Buckett and his Grandpa Joe are hereby invited to Mickey Wonga's Sportswear factory where the workers are treated very cruelly.", "Charlie and Chubby Telly Voyeurs - a pair of security guards who misuse the CCTV cameras to leer at women rather than look for any wrongdoing - during which a robbery takes place.\n Charlie Christ - A one off strip about Charlie Chaplin depicted as Jesus Christ.\n Chester Thing – The comic character with no attribute.", "Chester Thing – The comic character with no attribute.\n Christ on a Bender – a strip which depicts Jesus as a family man who keeps trying to escape the house to get \"crucified\" with his friends but is thwarted at every turn by his wife forcing him to stay home with her and look after their children.\n Christ on a Bike – a strip which depicts Jesus's life riding a magical bicycle. Pontius Pilate has him crucified due to envy since Pilate only has a girl's bike.", "Christ School – A parody of the Bash Street Kids depicted as Jesus Christ.\n Cindy Francis and her Kitty Cat Majorettes - A woman who thinks she has trained a team of cats to perform as majorettes. In reality, the cats just attack her or run away when she tries to get them to perform.\n Closet Casey Jones - A strip about an American train driver who fancies married women but secretly fancies muscular men.", "Cockney Wanker – a swaggering, bigoted Londoner who speaks in rhyming slang which is often concocted in his speech. The character is based on actor Mike Reid. He wears much cheap gold jewellery or Argos bling and East End gangster dark glasses, and is often seen smoking a cigar", ". Wanker's speciality is the buying and selling of cars, often buying one, selling it back to the same person at the same price and then waving his wad of cash declaring the transaction to have been \"a nice little earner\", although he has appeared in a considerable number of other enterprises, some of which actually work - at least for a while. He is the personification of the 'Northerners' impression of the -'London/Southern' personage", ". He is the personification of the 'Northerners' impression of the -'London/Southern' personage. His name, as it contains an obscenity, is \"spoonerised\" whenever featured on the front page of an issue of Viz, as it would be easily read by children who are otherwise not entitled to buy the magazine. Hence he becomes \"Wockney Canker\", or it's covered by a picture element.", "Colin the Amiable Crocodile – strips centred on a small crocodile named Colin. In one strip he was shot by a birdwatcher because he said \"hello\" to the man. The character also appeared later on front covers of other issues, such as with a skinhead who tells people to buy the comic or he shoots the croc. Overtones of Loopy De Loop\n Colin and his Conker – a boy obsessed with playing conkers.", "Colin and his Conker – a boy obsessed with playing conkers.\n The Conference Kids - two children who work with their father in organising business conferences on mundane subjects.\n Cop Her Knickers – an elderly woman's dealings with a gang of policemen who are constantly, and inexplicably, trying to steal her underwear (issue 126)", "Copper Kettle – quoted as \"The PC who loves his PG\" (PG meaning tea brand PG Tips), the strip follows the life of the policeman and his futile attempts to obtain some tea – his favourite beverage – while on his beat.", "Corky the Twat - a cat that is hired by Viz to get up to amusing comic-style antics and make readers laugh. Unfortunately, Corky is a normal cat and would rather scratch the furniture or hunt mice than do anything funny. The editor ends up taking him back to the pet shop to ask for something \"more anthropomorphic.\" The strip is a parody of Korky the Cat.", "Courier of the Track - One-off strip about a parcel delivery courier who is recruited for the Olympics when a coach sees how fast he runs back to the van after posting a 'Sorry we missed you' card through his letterbox.\n Crap Jokes – a diverse range of verbal and visual puns or one-liners, usually deliberately corny or old-fashioned. The best known of the Crap Jokes are seemingly endless \"Doctor, Doctor\" gags, with the reader's sympathy drawn to the endlessly hapless straight man Doctor.", "Crawford Crayon – He's Quick On The Sketch – a one-off story about a brilliant and mischievous quick-sketch artist, whose 'harmless fun' leads to the death of the hapless Bully Smith.", "The Critics – pretentious and shallow high-culture critics who lampoon the perceived elitism of the \"chattering classes\". They work for The Sunday Chronicle, though they have done freelance work with the BBC and Channel 4, writing elitist and sometimes sycophantic articles on contemporary art. The artists they admire are all fictional but are clearly inspired by real-life artists such as Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin", ". A frequent plot device involves Natasha and Crispin mistaking some everyday object – like a fire extinguisher, puddle of vomit or even some public toilets – as a piece of modern art. In other episodes, they do not grasp the concept of art at all. They once received a booby prize at the Critics' Awards for bringing the reputation of critics into disrepute for writing a review that was not only positive, but actually made sense!", "Crypto Nige – A man who tries to get his uninterested friends and family to invest in cryptocurrency, only to end up losing all his money.\n The Cuckoo Clock Chalet Ballet School – one-off strip about a group a ballerinas attending a dance school in the Swiss Alps shaped like a cuckoo clock working together to prevent Tim Martin from buying the building and turning it into a Wetherspoons.", "Daley Starr – a schoolboy aspiring to be a journalist, who turns his family's and classmates' misfortunes into exaggerated \"scoops\". His name is a play on the Daily Star tabloid newspaper.\n Danny Davis and the Robot Pimp – a young boy whose best friend is an android pimp from outer space.", "Danny's District Council – a one-off story parodying General Jumbo of The Beano, in which a young boy commands his own electronic radio-controlled district council. The tiny robotic council workers are all lazy, corrupt and incompetent and eventually switch their allegiance to the villains. The comic occasionally features other parodies of General Jumbo, including \"Jimbo Jumbo's Robo Jobos\", \"Oliver's Army\" and \"Drill-Sergeant Jumbo\".", "Darren Dice – a young man who is obsessed with gambling. Sadly, he often chooses to gamble with the wrong crowd. The character is allegedly based on, and bears a remarkable resemblance to, retired Scottish footballer Darren Jackson. Jackson spent a couple of seasons at Newcastle United in the late 1980s and became a familiar face in bookmakers' shops in the city.", "D.C. Thompson The Humourless Scottish Git – created in retaliation after D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd threatened legal action over a variety of Viz spoofs based on characters from The Beano and The Dandy, including Biffa Bacon, Black Bag, \"Roger the Lodger\", \"Wanker Watson\", \"Arsehole Kate\" and many more", ". The title character was portrayed as a miserly stereotypical Scotsman (complete with tam o’shanter, kilt and sporran) who goes about looking for breaches of copyright he can report, such as threatening to sue a woman who calls her son Dennis a \"menace\" in his earshot, and demanding that a pet shop owner remove an advertisement for \"Three Bears for the Price of Two\" from the shop window. Eventually, he becomes so enraged that he urinates in his kilt", ". Eventually, he becomes so enraged that he urinates in his kilt. Not to be outdone, The Dandy responded by resurrecting an old strip The Jocks and the Geordies – representing the Scottish-based D.C. Thomson and Newcastle upon Tyne-based Viz. In the strip, the rival gangs of schoolboys are asked to produce a comic. The Jocks' comic is better, of course, but the underhand Geordies decide to copy them. Viz responded in kind by parodying Korky the Cat as \"Corky the Twat\" in the next issue.", "Debt of Honour – a Mafia hitman is tasked with buying cement from a DIY store for a mob assassination, but fails due to the unhelpful shop staff, problems with the self-checkout, etc.\n Dench's Benches – A strip where Dame Judi Dench lounges all over a pair of park benches and chases away a man who wanted to sit on one of them.\n Denis Helium – a boy who believes he is as light as a feather, but is in fact quite obese.\n Dennis the Red Menace – a Communist-themed parody of Dennis the Menace.", "Dennis the Red Menace – a Communist-themed parody of Dennis the Menace.\n Derek's Boots – A one off strip about a boy called Derek Hobson who wore a big pair of Doctor Marten boots and went around and kicked everyone, only to get a new pair of smaller shoes and then get kicked by the people he once harmed.\n Desert Island Desk – a dialogue-free strip about an office desk which has been marooned on a desert island; the title refers to Desert Island Discs and the Topper comic story Desert Island Dick.", "Desert Island Teacher – a teacher stranded on a windswept rock. He has decided that \"once a teacher, always a teacher\", and inflicts monotonous lectures on the seagulls and molluscs. A major feature of the strip is that he never actually says anything of any academic value, but instead spends all his time saying iconic teacher's statements like \"Face the front\" and \"I will not start until I have absolute quiet\"", ". He is rescued by a navy search and rescue team, only to admonish them as if they were a delinquent pupil, saying: \"You think you're so clever, being able to fly a helicopter, but it's not going to help you in the real world.\" The rescue crew throw him off the helicopter for insulting them.", "Desperately Unfunny Dan – parody of barrel-chested Desperate Dan who tries too hard to amuse people with his superhuman feats of strength.\n Diane Abbott and Costello – A strip where Diane Abbott and Lou Costello are guest presenters of Question Time, but argue over the seating plan, with Costello constantly misunderstanding Abbott's instructions in the style of his famous routine Who's on First?", "Dickie Beasley – a schoolboy who wants to be an ad executive. His attempts to advertise or improve something menial (e.g. a church jumble sale) and fails because he puts too much thought and planning into it (treating as something more complex).\n Dickie's Disappointing Grandpa - A one off strip about a boy whose grandfather is an inventor who makes the most boring contraptions ever.", "Doctor Poo – a spoof of Doctor Who depicting the title character, utterly desperate to move his bowels, unable to find a toilet in the whole of space–time. He eventually relieves himself in Davros's \"private shitehouse\" on the planet Skaro. The story was animated with the Dr Who theme incorporating considerable farts in the notes.", "Doctor Poolittle – a spoof of Doctor Dolittle depicting the title character severely constipated and attempting to learn how to defecate from zoo animals. After a lion roars at him, he soils his trousers.\n Doctor Sex – \"He has the power of all sex.\"\n Doctor Theodore Gray and his Fantastic Growth Ray – A one off strip about a scientist who invented a formula to make things increase in size. However, when he tries it on a local policeman, it all backfires.", "Doctor Wholittle - a parody of Doctor Who and Doctor Dolittle where the Doctor travels back in time to speak to dinosaurs before their extinction.\n Dom and Jerry – a once-only parody of Tom and Jerry where a BDSM-obsessed cat is trying to catch the mouse to perform his twisted sexual acts on it.", "Door Matt - A one-off strip featuring a man (Matthew) and his relationship with his...fiancée? who has him utterly under her thumb and is carrying on with other people, not even trying to hide it. At one point she leaves him waiting in the car at the airport and takes off to Ibiza with his credit card, lives the high-life, and on returning (while he has been waiting all this time and reasoning that she must be held up!) treats him like muck", ". A friend tries to reason with him, but fails badly, ending up in bed with the girl in question, who tells Matt to go away and leave them to it - which he does. Sad, but one feels that there are indeed poor misbegottens like Matt in the world.", "Drake's Cake - He's Got a Cake For Heaven's Sake - A strip about Sir Francis Drake trying to protect a cake.\n Driving David Beckham or Driving Mister David – a spoof of Beezer and (later) Beano comic strip \"The Numskulls\" in which we see the inner thought processes – or lack thereof – of David Beckham. The title is based on the film Driving Miss Daisy.\n Drooly-Doo - a parody of Scooby-Doo set during the Russian Revolution.", "Drum Miner – a drummer who can only play in confined spaces, made redundant by the closure of his local coal mine. He attempts to find work, but fails due to his niche abilities and finally commits suicide by jumping off his bass drum with a noose around his neck. Tragically, an eccentric millionaire appears minutes later looking to offer permanent employment to someone who can play drums inside his cupboard. A spoof of the films of Ken Loach.", "Drunken Bakers – a darkly-hilarious, long-running strip about two alcoholic bakers who, because of their affliction, hardly ever manage to bake anything, and if they actually do it is almost always spoiled by one of them vomiting over it. Their shop is run down, and is often burnt down due to a left-on stove, and has few customers; the pair sometimes look back to more prosperous, happier times, but are always brought back to their dismal present-day reality. See the link for a fuller description.", "Eight Ace – A long-running and iconic strip featuring an alcoholic who drinks \"Ace\" beer (eight cans for £1.49) and struggles to stay on the right side of his wife and many children. Because of his alcoholism, he is not allowed to live in the house and ends up in a shed in the front garden. Many of the strips involve Ace being entrusted with or somehow managing to acquire exactly £1.49 which he inevitably uses to buy \"Eight Ace\" from Patel's \"Twenty-four-hour nano-mart\"", ".49 which he inevitably uses to buy \"Eight Ace\" from Patel's \"Twenty-four-hour nano-mart\". His real name has been mentioned as \"Octavius Tinsworthy Federidge Ace\", the \"Federidge\" in his name being derived from the now-defunct Federation Brewery which brewed \"Ace\" lager, and \"Octavius\" being derived from octo, Latin for \"eight\". The \"Tinsworthy\" refers to the cans (or \"tins\") of beer. Hence his name parallels \"eight tins of Federation Ace\". He has been unofficially voted the \"Patron Saint of Dead Losses\".", "Eight Ball Joe – An early strip from the early 1980s where the titular character is portrayed with no intelligence.\n Electric Space Copter Kid – A boy who thinks he is a superhero with an \"electric space copter\" that is actually just a space hopper. He accidentally stops a fleeing robber (who crashes his getaway vehicle, distracted by the space hopper) and wins an award from the police.", "Elton John's... – a series of strips have the pop star portrayed as a petty scamster. The strips typically open with Elton engaged in a stereotypical celebrity activity like launching a new album, being interviewed for a celebrity magazine, or partying with fellow A-listers. But they soon descend into the surreal when, despite his enormous wealth and fame, John embarks on a small-scale con to make trivial amounts of cash", ". Scams include Baccy Run, Dole Fiddle, Hooky Videos, Electrical Goods Scam, Bandit Beater, Lottery Syndicate Diddle (consisting of himself, Bono, Phil Collins and Paul McCartney), Roofing Racket, Marked Note Con, Window Cleaning Scam and Compen Con. At the end of each strip John, having been rumbled through bad luck or incompetence, (or both) is normally shown to have been beaten at his own game by other celebrities, often in disguise, mostly his \"enemies\", e.g", ".g. David Bowie, The Bee Gees, Rod Stewart, Diana Ross and the Supremes or \"the surviving members of Queen\", who are shown launching more successful small-scale scams of their own, often singing iconic lines from their own songs.", "Embarrassing Wife – One-off quarter-page strip featuring a two-faced husband attending a party with his wife. Just as they ring the bell the husband warns the wife 'not to do anything stupid'", ". Just as they ring the bell the husband warns the wife 'not to do anything stupid'. He then goes on to behave disgustingly, drinking to excess, slobbering over another female party-goer, vomiting in the flowers, bashing the host and finally ending up with his trousers around his ankles and a lamp-shade on his head, dead drunk, and with the wife carefully saying (probably in a whisper) 'I think maybe its time we made tracks dear", ".' He responds with heavy sarcasm, 'DO you!' In the car back home he berates her: 'I hope you're satisfied! You made me look like a right fool back there!'", "Eminemis The Menace – starred in a one-off strip, a cross between Eminem and Dennis the Menace.\n Eric Daft – \"His IQ is less than 2\" – An early Terry Fuckwitt prototype.", "F–J", "Farmer Palmer – a paranoid, money-grabbing farmer with an inbred son and daughter (who go on to marry each other) whose catch phrase is \"Get orf moi laaaand!\". He frequently berates and physically threatens (usually with a double-barrelled shotgun) innocent members of the public for encroaching on his property, yet he hypocritically treats the countryside with complete disdain. He has a habit of shooting every dog he sees with a shotgun, claiming \"'Ee wuz worrying moi sheep.\" or words to that effect", ".\" or words to that effect. In one extreme example, the dog's owner claimed his dog was on public property and thus well within its right to be there. Farmer Palmer then had his son Jethro transport the dog to his own farm with a tractor, to get an excuse to shoot it. Farmer Palmer and Jethro later appear in an episode of The Fat Slags animated series. Often he will go out of his way to make someone's life miserable, such as waiting until a car nears the gate at which his tractor is parked", ". He gets Jethro to stop the car while he drives out in front, then with Jethro on board he drives away very slowly, with a sign saying 'No Overtaking for the Next 25 miles' showing in the last frame", ". Twice he has hosted a huge music festival just like Max Yasgur who hosted the original Woodstock, once in a full two-page feature, which as you look at it, it becomes obvious that it is nothing but a money-grabbing venture, and in the other he introduces Snoop Dogg as the star, only to go backstage and grab his gun", ". As Snoop is introducing his first song, Palmer shoots him with the usual phrase \"E were worrying moi shizzles!\" (Snoop is a 'dog' after all!) Then he stands in the middle of the stage and thunders to the enormous but now silent crowd, \"Now Get Orf Moi Laaand!\"", "Farting Dilemmas with Archie McBlarter - see \"Archie McBlarter\"\n Father McFiddly – \"He Loves Diddling Kiddies\" - about the antics of a priest trying to peek up the altar-boys' cassocks, etc. A skit on the Catholic sex abuse cases scandal.\n The Fat Slags – A long-running and iconic strip featuring two enormous sluttish women living in Mansfield. San (Sandra Burke) and Tray (Tracey Tunstall), have huge appetites for both sex and food. Starred in a spinoff cartoon and a live-action movie.", "Fat Sod – a one-off greedy character who steals a large pie from the windowsill of one Farmer Palmer (possibly the same character described above, despite physical dissimilarity), only to be ruthlessly shot dead and baked in a pie by Palmer, who hides inside the false pie initially stolen to do so.\n Father Christmas – a man so obsessed with Christmas he believes that it is the festive season in the middle of August.", "Fatty and Skinny, Susannah and Trinny – A strip portraying Susannah Constantine and Trinny Woodall as school bullies who ridicule classmates for their unfashionable clothes, only to end each cartoon forced to wear a horrendously uncomfortable outfit for detention or gym class. This strip prompted legal action from Woodall and Constantine themselves.", "Feet and Two Reg – Two neighbours (who as the title suggests are called Reg) who are due to enter a competition where their diseased feet are to be judged where one of them trying to ruin the other's chances by curing his bad feet, but failing.", "Felix and his Amazing Underpants – a boy with underpants which he believes have amazing powers. They are in fact completely ordinary, albeit being a bizarrely large size. Occasionally, he manages to do good deeds with his underwear in order to help out someone in need, for example, using his underpants as a container for a French salesman's onions", ". Often he removes his underwear and appears naked, but is never done for obscenity; fig-leaved by a lifted leg, his rather large stomach, or picture element, or turned away from the viewer. The comic strip was created by editor Chris Donald, but is now drawn by Lew Stringer.", "Ferdinand the Foodie – a self-proclaimed culinary expert and restaurant critic.", "Finbarr Saunders and his double entendres – a boy with a good ear for homophones. The strip almost always revolves around his liaisons with his neighbour, Mr Gimlet, whose manner of speech is always interpreted by Finbarr as graphically sexual in nature (in fact, it is deliberately scripted this way), usually when Gimlet is reminiscing about everyday situations with Saunders' mother", ". However, at the end of each strip, Mr Gimlet and Finbarr's mother invariably do end up having sex and make blatantly obvious verbal references to their doing so, but Finbarr interprets these as being nothing untoward. Finbarr's creator, Simon Thorp, described the character as a cross between a small boy and Sid Boggle (Sid James) from Carry On Camping", ". He is sometimes visited by his mother's Russian friend, Sergei, whose English pronunciation is very bad, which results in his sentences being corrupted in often lewd ways (for instance, \"Your mother wants me to fetch her aerosol\" becomes \"Your mother wants me to felch her arsehole\").", "Fixed-Odds Betty – a sombre one-off strip depicting a woman selling her possessions and emptying her bank account to buy her grandson a bike for his birthday, only to end up being waylaid by his mother and spending it all at a fixed-odds betting machine in a bookmakers while the boy waits outside in the rain. This strip guest-starred the main character from fellow Viz strip \"We ...\"\n Flash Harry – a man who is constantly trying to indecently expose himself to women but regularly fails.", "Foodie Bollocks – a man obsessed with artisan food who goes into a fish and chip shop or bakery or other very ordinary shop and asks a string of annoying questions about the food as if he is ordering from a Michelin-starred restaurant. One strip has him ordering an ice-cream from an ice cream van wanting to know about the story of all the ingredients and getting punched in the face by the man behind the queue as he is taking ages to decide - a happening which is by no means unique", ". One edition had him refusing to go back to work post-lockdown because 'his regime (to make sourdough bread) is at a critical phase'.", "The Folkie - a man who tends to sing everything like a folk song annoying everybody (even other folk singers), even having an appearance of a folk singer (sporting a beard, wearing clogs and a thick woollen jumper).\n Foul-Mouthed Super-Obese Mobility Scooter Woman – a lazy, benefit-dependent woman who blames her total lack of work ethic on her morbid obesity; which requires her to use a mobility scooter.\n Friar Fuck – a monk with Tourette's syndrome.", "Friar Fuck – a monk with Tourette's syndrome.\n Frankenstein's Cock – a parody of Frankenstein in which the scientist has created a giant, sentient penis which comes to life and is hunted through the town by the traditional torch-wielding mob. Prompted follow-ups and sequels in the comic including \"Frankenstein's Turd\" and \"Frankenstein's Cock Must Be Destroyed\".\n Frankie Feel - an early strip featuring a man who is always grabbing women's breasts.", "Frankie Feel - an early strip featuring a man who is always grabbing women's breasts.\n Frugal Sharkey - a miser who goes to extreme lengths to cut costs. His name and appearance are based on the singer Feargal Sharkey.\n Fru T. Bunn – a \"Master Baker\" who makes his own sex dolls out of gingerbread and then attempts to have sex with them. Often he actually succeeds, only to be discovered in the last frame by his wife and daughter (Little Chelsea - ref to the Chelsea Bun)!!", "Garry and Barry the Identical Twins – a boy convinced that a tree in his garden is actually his identical twin brother.\n George Best is a Cinema Pest – a one-off strip featuring George Best prematurely disclosing the final twists of notable movies such as The Sixth Sense and The Usual Suspects to incensed cinema goers.", "George Bestial – a George Best lookalike who, as his name implies, enjoys committing bestiality. After the death of the real Best, the strip was redesigned so that it became longer (full-page), the title character looks less like Best, and his zoophilia is merely the most obvious symptom of his clearly very disturbed mind.", "Genie Loophole - One-off strip about a man who finds a lamp containing a genie in his attic and, dismayed to find he only gets one wish instead of the usual three, wishes to live his life over again with his memories intact so he can accumulate knowledge and experience in order to find the lamp again and make the best wish he can. After doing this a couple of times he finally makes his wish... asking which horse will win the 3:30 at Chepstow.", "Gilbert Ratchet – a boy who can invent anything, usually to solve people's bizarre \"problems\" as he comes across them. However, his inventions invariably cause far more problems of their own. Usually, the entire premise of the strip turns out to be a highly contrived misunderstanding. Gilbert's creator, Davey Jones, describes the character as \"like (the Dandy's) Screwy Driver—only with more genital mutilation of vicars\".", "Gin Damon – A man who is obsessed with gin yet fails to realise how much he has drunk.\n God Save the Queen – A one off strip about God trying to watch a football match when he keeps getting interrupted by an old woman because her Queen Elizabeth II clones roam rampant on a building site and he has to save them.\n God, You're Embarrassing – A strip which depicts God, embarrassing his son, Jesus in front of his disciples.", "Goldfish Boy – a schoolboy who lives in a goldfish bowl and is raised by the Reverend Brown.\n Gordon's Grandad – one-off strip about a boy who believes his perfectly ordinary grandfather has magical powers. The strip ends with the death of the grandfather, devastating Gordon who believes that Grandad was about to build him a time machine.", "Gordon Zola and Cheddar George – they get up to various pranks involving cheese, until a policeman beats them to death with a giant smoked cheese \"for all the cheese-related trouble you've caused\"\n Graffiti Art - a young man desperately trying to offend others with obscene graffiti but only succeeds in being recognised as a talented street artist pushing boundaries.", "Grandfather Clock - A strip about a senile old man who insists on living inside a grandfather clock, much to his grandson's dismay. The clock is stolen by burglars, and the police retrieve Grandpa, who moves into a cuckoo clock instead.\n Granny Smith - an old woman who has a habit of murdering people.", "Grassy Knollington – a nerdy, bespectacled schoolboy conspiracy theorist who would spend every strip putting together and explaining long, complicated and outlandish theories (mostly lasting the whole strip) behind certain events (such as 9/11 and the death of Princess Diana) often to the exasperation of his friends/mother", ". Typically, at the end of the strip, it would be revealed that Grassy was actually correct!! His name is a pun based on the 'Grassy Knoll' where it is said a gunman was hiding who shot JFK.", "The Green Grass – a one-off, quarter-page strip where Orville the Duck is caught and destroyed by a Government respond unit during a bird flu epidemic after being betrayed by Cuddles the Monkey who is identified in the final frame.\n Guy's Pie - A strip about a person called Guy with a pie which gets stolen by Low Self Esteem Larson the neighbourhood bully, only to find out the pie maker put teeth in it.", "Harold and Fred - they make ladies dead! – A one-off strip in which serial killers Harold Shipman and Fred West compete to be the first to murder a new female neighbour; only to discover that she is actually Ed Gein wearing the skin of one of his victims. This strip created controversy in the media, including complaints from the families of some of Shipman's victims.\n Harry Quartz, Para-Dental Hygienist – A dental hygienist who patrols a war zone and drags injured soldiers away to have dental work done.", "Helpful Herbert – A boy whose good deeds always land him in big trouble.\n Hector the collector and his metal detector – strips about a boy named Hector who finds big and small things with his metal detector. In one strip he found a key that according to a passing rich man opened up a chest with gold inside and gave him £500. The character later returned in the 30th edition comic.", "Hell Below Zero – One-off strip depicting a man on a zero-hours contract called in by his boss first thing in the morning and made to wait around all day while only being paid for 37 minutes of work. This same concept was used as an episode of 'We...' and a separate although related strip, 'My Workfare Lady' (which see).", "Hen Cabin – A takeaway run by two scruffy, dishonest men who cut corners by making their takeaways from chicken utterly unfit for consumption or using easily obtained birds (such as pigeons or in one episode, seagulls!) instead of chicken. Their product is quite unpalatable, but they keep doggedly on making it. Often, they go out of their way to make their opposite numbers (on the same street or very close by) to appear worse than themselves. Mostly they fail.", "Hermit the Frog - A one-off three-panelled strip about Kermit the Frog from The Muppet Show living in a shed with the curtains closed.\n High Wire Building Society – A strip about a building society located in a circus.\n Hikaru Nikkoro – A Japanese businessman attempting to steal women's used underwear.", "Hikaru Nikkoro – A Japanese businessman attempting to steal women's used underwear.\n The Hippopotamus Man – A paedophile who believes he is a hippopotamus. He infuriates everyone around him by informing them that he is a hippopotamus, while continuing to try to abuse children. This strip guest starred The Parkie (which see)\n Honour-Bound – A strip about a Samurai trying to defecate.", "Hubble and Bubble - \"They're looking for trouble\". This strip portrays two policemen, one appearing normal and the other a caricature of a pig. They are out to make as much trouble as possible, even concocting situations for their own 'entertainment'. One episode has an elderly lady bewailing her cat up a tree. H & B come on the scene and immediately accuse her of using the tree ('This big lump of wood') to attack them. Both woman and cat finally are murdered, and the two 'cover their badges' and leave.", "Hugh Phemism – He is unable to communicate in anything other than circumlocutory language, leading to predictable misunderstandings.\n Hugo Hall - He Makes Things Small - A strip about a kid who discovered a unique shrinking device with which he was able to reduce objects in size.\n Hula-Hoop Emergency Ward – A one off strip about surgeons who attempt to save a man's life while at the same time, whirling hula hoops around their waists.", "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame's Got Talent – A strip where \"Quasiboylo\" (a cross between Quasimodo and Susan Boyle) fights to win a talent contest (playing a washboard!) and gain the honour of performing at the King's wedding.\n Hurricane Heather (She Changes the Weather) – A girl who has a magic ring that is supposed to change the weather, but actually transports her to a desert island, while her ring ends up in the clutches of a fish (which Heather says is silly and ends the strip there.)", "Ignatius Manatee's Dixieland Jazz Band - A group of manatees who are a jazz band but are often having their gigs stolen by a group of Ragtime playing dugongs, but always get the last laugh.\n Il Duce, Old Duce – A strip featuring Benito Mussolini who wants the people of the town to bow down to his fascist dictatorship, but his hippie father keeps ruining his day.", "Incontinent Boxing Tortoise Hero – a senile old man who believes he is a superhero with tortoise-themed powers. In reality he fails to defeat a gang of robbers and wets himself again.\n Insane Clown Posse and the Church Jumble Sale Mystery – a strip in which Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope investigate theft at a church jumble sale.", "The Intern - A strip telling the story of Tom Golightly, who dreams of being an advertising executive and in 1981 manages to get himself a one-year unpaid internship. The internship ends up lasting decades, as Tom waits to get a paid position at his firm even as he is constantly passed over for jobs (despite making the company a fortune with successful advertising campaigns, with his bosses taking all the credit) due to nepotism", ". Finally in March 2020 Tom's patience pays off and he is finally given a paid job at the firm, albeit as a mere teaboy. Unfortunately on the day Tom is due to begin his actual employment with the company at which he has worked at unpaid for almost 40 years (which is also his 61st birthday) he is told he is being furloughed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the firm folding a couple of months later.", "International Plywood Are Go - a parody of Thunderbirds where the Tracy family step in to help a construction company that doesn't have enough plywood to finish a housing project.", "Ivan Jelical – an evangelistic fundamentalist Christian whose proselytising is spectacularly unsuccessful. He is only ever happy when he is God-bothering, \"comforting\" grieving widows with descriptions of their husbands' (supposed) sufferings in Hell and getting himself beaten up in the process. On one occasion, after failing to convert a single person all day he hung himself (though this did not stop him reappearing alive in a new strip a few months later)", ". He (and his fellow evangelists) are often portrayed with \"spinning\" eyes, a display of their unawareness of the real world.", "Ivor the Skiver – \"His dad's a bad driver\". One-off strip in which a boy begs his father for a lift as he is too lazy to walk to school. Due to Ivor's dad having poor road sense, they are involved in a crash and end up seriously injured in the hospital, where they are reminded that it was Saturday and Ivor did not have to go to school anyway.", "Jack Black and his dog Silver – a young amateur detective staying with his Aunt Meg on an eternal school holiday. Often gets well-meaning people, who have done nothing wrong, arrested (or worse) on a minor technicality or obscure law for his own benefit, sometimes with another awful crime being committed right under his nose which he completely fails to notice. The first strip was apparently \"traced by Chris Donald\", according to fellow Viz cartoonist Davey Jones, \"out of an old copy of Whizzer and Chips\"", ". As the strip has progressed, Jack has been increasingly portrayed as a racist and a xenophobe among other major faults. Jack's adventures are regularly drawn in the style of other comics (such as Tintin or Asterix), taking place in other countries (such as a manga-style strip relocating the action to Tokyo) and even in different time periods (including the Victorian era, the French Revolution, the Future Space Era and the Stone Age).", "Jack in the Box – A strip about the titular character who sets about doing cardboard box related pranks, only to be involved in a car accident.\n Jasper the Gasper – A homeless man who is desperate for a cigarette.", "Jasper the Gasper – A homeless man who is desperate for a cigarette.\n Jamie Bond 007 – A child parody of James Bond. Rather than go with the plot that Jamie is just a regular child who is delusional about his secret agent alter ego and that his next door neighbour is not really a global villain out for world domination. The latter is indeed revealed to be one, whose plot Jamie foils and then makes his escape with the story's Bond girl.", "Jarvis Cocker's Quest for Knockers – A one-off strip in which Jarvis Cocker is a pervert desperately trying to look for a pair of breasts to ogle.\n Jellyhead – The girl with no brain. A one-off superhero parody about a girl born with lime jelly instead of a brain. Jellyhead spends her entire time in this story in a catatonic state, yet still manages to foil an armed robbery. The one-off strip was the work of Charlie Higson.", "The Adventures of Jeremy Clarkson, the Petrolhead Motormouth – One-off strip featuring former Top Gear presenter Jeremy Clarkson talking extensively about cars to an uninterested Big Issue salesman.\n Jeremy Futcher - His Dad's a Butcher – - A strip about the titular boy who goes around solving problems with his father's select cuts of meat, only to have him being butchered.", "Jimbo Jones – a parody of General Jumbo where a boy owns a different army of remote-control robots in every strip, from Jehovah's Witnesses to beauty pageant contestants.\n Jimmy Hill – The bespectacled and bearded television presenter. He has become something of a cult following as his caricature has turned up in all shapes and sizes, hiding in many of the strips, and often spotted by write-ins, claiming money for discovering him.", "Joe, 90 - A once-only spoof of the iconic character. The World Intelligence Agency decides to recruit Joe for a new mission, despite the fact he is now in his 90s and extremely frail. He is briefed on the dangerous mission (despite such a venture obviously being both physically and mentally beyond him) and placed in the 'Big Rat', only for him to die while his abilities are transferred. The strip ends with the agency deciding to call International Rescue.", "Joe Blogs – a teenager trying, and spectacularly failing, to become famous from his online blog.\n Joe Robinson Crusoe – a thinly disguised parody of flamboyant Newcastle pub and nightclub operator Joe Robertson.", "John Logie Baird – A strip about the Scottish inventor who makes a machine that spouts out faeces. His rival from next door, the Italian inventor known as Guglieimo Marconi, is envious, so tries to outdo the Scottish inventor by making a machine that spouts out testicles. The strip ends with the two surprised by the English inventor Tim Berners-Lee and his machine that spouts out male and female reproductive systems.\n Johnny Condor - A boy who thinks he can fly, but invariably cannot.", "Johnny Fartpants – An iconic and long-running strip about a boy afflicted with extreme flatulence. (Not to be confused with Archie McBlarter) Tagline: There's always a commotion in his trousers. He suffers from extreme, excessive flatulence which is not only offensive to the nose and ears, but destructive to those around him. His gaseous emissions have been known to destroy houses and other hard-surfaced articles, as well as injure people", ". He is always apologetic, and constantly reminds people that his colonic expulsions are beyond his control - despite his insistence on \"keeping to a strict pump diet\", which often includes beans, brussels sprouts and \"cabbage water\". In Viz 166 (June/July 2007), Johnny was forced by his father to attend a lecture on global warming, presented by none other than Al Gore, so that he would learn about the impact his farting was having on the environment", ". When Johnny intentionally farted during the applause for Gore (so that nobody would hear it), the former Vice President became violently ill, causing Johnny to observe that Gore was now \"greener\" than his environmental message. On another occasion, while attending the funeral of Margaret Thatcher, he is warned by his father not to attempt any such shenanigans, but then the vicar informs them that the bugler who was to perform 'The Last Post' has fallen ill", ". Johnny immediately volunteers for the job and promptly performs a ripping rendition of 'Shave and a Haircut'!", "Jonathon Ringpiece - A one off strip about a man who wants to cause controversy.\n Jump Jet Fanny and her Hawker-Siddeley Twat – A woman who can perform VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) with her vagina. Other strips using the same premise included \"Hawker Siddeley Harriet\" and \"Colin Concorde Cock\".\n June and Terry Sitcom - A parody of Terry and June where a couple constantly find themselves in very contrived sitcom-style situations.", "Junior Cop - a boy who acts like a policeman, informing a mother that her son has died (annoying her as it's not true, as her son is watching TV in the other room) and battering a confession out of his own mother (with the support of his father who is actually a policeman himself).", "Just Williams – a parody of the Just William stories by Richmal Crompton, with Archbishop Rowan Williams in the place of Crompton's boy-hero. Williams steals buns from the kitchen and allows his pet mice to escape during a General Synod meeting, whilst maintaining a William-esque self-justificatory monologue.", "K–O \n Kewl Chix – shallow, vacuous and materialistic teenage girls, whose names often end in IX, such as Bix, Vix, etc. who only care about their social life and public image. Initially presented as bimbo/dumb blonde caricatures but in recent years the strip has primarily served as a satire of social networking sites and text messaging. Often their observed lives have nothing to do with reality, which leads to considerable clashes with their surrounds.", "Kid Politician – a child who speaks and behaves like a politician (for example, producing dubious statistics to \"prove\" that he was not late for school.)\n The Kipling Kid and his Cake Trolley of Justice – a tea boy with a secret identity as a superhero. Despite not actually having any powers, he foils a masked villain who turns out to be Barry White. White is sentenced to play a benefit concert so he can repay the townspeople; and spends over £100 on cake, to the delight of the Kipling Kid.", "Kiss and the Kingdom of the Robot Ants - A strip about the rock band Kiss travelling into the future to stop a colony of robotic ants by playing their music.", "Krystle's Big Chance – an American teenage girl bullied for having one very slightly crooked front tooth; until she goes to an orthodontist, whereupon her classmates award her prom queen and hail her as beautiful despite her now wearing huge, ungainly dental braces. A parody of Americans who aspire to orthodontics while stereotyping British people as having bad teeth.", "The Lager Lads – somewhat like the Real Ale Twats, these are a group of clean-cut, upstanding beer aficionados who like lager more than anything. Inevitably, barmen tell them to \"piss off\" or urinate in their beer. The Lads never seem to notice there's anything wrong with their drinks after this happens, both highlighting the weak flavour of lager compared to other beer and showing the Lads up to be idiots", ". The strips were inspired by a series of advertisements for McEwan's lager, in which - Chris Donald noted - a group of smiling, happy young men drink copious amounts of lager but never \"got pissed or glassed anybody\".", "Large-Breasted Wet T-shirt Pneumatic Drill Girl – A masked superheroine, dressed for a wet T-shirt contest, who works at the roadside with a pneumatic drill and fights crime.\n Larry Ladd and his Ambitious Dad – A boy whose father aggressively pushes him to become famous, forcing him to play different sports and try out for a drama school. When that fails, the father sells Larry to a producer who promises to make him a \"film star\"; unaware that it is for a company making pornographic snuff films.", "Last Tan&Go in Powys – Bleak one-off strip about a young woman who develops an addiction to indoor tanning and subsequently dies from skin cancer after her friends make fun of her pale appearance. The title is a pun on Last Tango in Paris.", "Laurie Driver – the schizophrenic long-distance driver of an articulated lorry, who murders female hitchhikers and dumps their bodies by the roadside. Initially the strip focused on Laurie's serial killing, but later strips show him having other vices such as drinking on the job or involvement in people smuggling.", "Last-Minute Man – One-off strip where a man, despite having months to prepare, does not start Christmas shopping until 3:45pm on Christmas Eve resulting in him giving his family presents that he bought in a local garage.", "Lazy Disinterested [sic] 16-Year-Old Photo Shop Girl – a teenage girl who works in a local photo supply shop. She has a very unenthusiastic attitude and is unhelpful to her customers; preferring to chew bubblegum and text on her mobile phone for hours on end", ". Similar strips have the \"Lazy Disinterested 16-Year-Old\" working in a supermarket, a shoe shop and a chip shop - the latter seeing her rather talk to a friend (possibly her boyfriend) than serve anyone, and being extremely slow and deliberately uninterested when she does serve someone. Later strips have corrected the title to \"Lazy Uninterested 16-Year-Old\"", ". Later strips have corrected the title to \"Lazy Uninterested 16-Year-Old\". Her equally unhelpful counterparts are sometimes featured, including \"Ugly Miserable Butch Bus Driver Lady\" and \"34-Year-Old Obsessive War Workshop Assistant\" (an older man so obsessed with role-playing games that when a boy tries to buy two sets of figures from different sets, he will only sell one or the other, but not both as they \"are from different scenarios\").", "Lenny Left – a one-off strip featuring a \"radical\" left-wing alternative comedian whose hackneyed \"street theatre\" routines about Thatcherism arouse complete non-interest from the public. Lenny eventually sells out, and the last frame of the strip shows him doing a sexist and homophobic stand-up routine in a Conservative club.\n Lidl Richard - A middle-aged man who goes shopping but always come back with useless junk, much to his wife's frustration.", "Little Big Daddy – A schoolboy who thinks he is 1970s wrestler Big Daddy.\n Little Old Man – A young boy who acts like a stereotypical elderly man and at the end of the strip ends up being taken to a retirement home. He was introduced as the counterpart of Playtime Fontayne, but, unlike Playtime, he has so far only been a one-off strip.\n Little Plumber – Spoof of Beano comic strip Little Plum, in which the American Indian is a jobbing plumber.", "Lonely Sidney Sidebottom – A one off strip from the early 1980s (also featured in The Big Hard One annual) about a single man who has difficulties talking to women.", "Lord Shite and Nanny No-Dumps – a one-off strip which draws upon the urban myth that the aristocracy do not poo. It's about an aristocrat who wishes to defecate \"like common people\" and his former nanny who is determined to stop him", ". After several rather blunt episodes the strip finishes with him locking Nanny in a cage and downing his pants, intending to have a 'really big smelly shite!' Unfortunately he has kept his load in his guts for so long that it has solidified into a big (and uninteresting) diamond, and Nanny is shown in fits of laughter!", "Lucky Frank – A young boy who seems to have bad luck turned into good luck. An earlier (and later revived) version of Spawny Get.\n Luke O'Like - He is One – A strip about the titular character who gets mistaken for someone else.\n Lumberjack Veterinarian – A lumberjack takes on the duty of making people's pets better, only to get fired for murdering them.", "Luvvie Darling – a melodramatic and self-important thespian who is completely talentless. He presents himself as an A-list actor but is only offered very minor (and ultimately humiliating) roles. Darling is depicted as an exaggerated parody of old-school British Shakespearian stage actors: pompous, bombastic, profligate and pretentious in his use of literary quotes, and habitually referring to famous, real-life actors in familiar terms (such as \"Dear old Larry\" for Sir Laurence Olivier)", ". Darling's name is a pun on the insincere and over-affectionate terms, \"luvvie\" and \"darling\" that actors and actresses are stereotyped as employing with each other. (for a good example see 'Absolutely Fabulous' starring Joanna Lumley and Jennifer Saunders) Each Viz episode begins with Luvvie \"resting between jobs\" - a showbiz term for being out of work", ". His manager Louie is as useless as himself, drives (very badly) in a big American car, smokes a huge cigar, and drinks from a bottle marked \"Eau de Tap\" (pig French for \"Tap Water\") - obviously unable to afford anything stronger. Darling is in his forties, dresses in a Hamlet-style period costume with embroidered tunic, frilled collar and cuffs, high boots and short ornamental cape. He has an Errol Flynn moustache and pointed goatee beard to offset his receding hairline", ". He has an Errol Flynn moustache and pointed goatee beard to offset his receding hairline. His appearance is based on stereotypical images of Shakespeare. Darling auditions constantly for roles which are often completely unsuited to him. In one strip a director casting for Romeo and Juliet was hard-put to convince Luvvie that the role of Romeo required a man half his age", ". Darling's ludicrous ham acting style and overbearing personality result in him gaining only bit (walk-on) parts at best; at worst, his only theatre employment is cleaning the theatre's toilets. In several episodes, Darling ends up having to perform in pornographic films, yet he often has trouble remembering his lines and so has the need for a prompt from a lowly stage hand", ". In one episode, to his delight he is offered the \"leading role\" in \"Cyrano de Bergerac\", and goes all out to produce himself as the ideal leading man, complete with a huge nose. However, when he appears it turns out that the \"role\" he thought he was in is actually to play the opening \"roll\" on the kettledrum for the opening announcement", ". He passionately believes in promoting the cultural value of theatre, is ecstatic at any chance to show off his self-proclaimed (and utterly non-existent) acting talent (once even in a prison, where he comes (horribly) to grief). In another episode he is interviewed by \"Michael Perkinson\" (a blatant reference to another very famous interviewer) and with every question he reveals more and more how much of a total and utter failure he is.", "Major Misunderstanding – As his name suggests, he almost always misunderstands situations, and is seemingly unable to interpret incidents in their own context, instead viewing them through the prism of his own prejudices, typically centred on inter-war upper-class values. For example, he once believed that a blood donor van was a chip van, and berated the nurse operating the van for trying to bring \"unwanted custom\" (i.e. proles) to his \"close-knit community\"", ".e. proles) to his \"close-knit community\". The Major has mistaken hooded monks for Asbos and vendors at a church fete for asylum seekers. He is apparently a retired major who dresses in the regimental blazer, cravat, slacks and has a bushy walrus moustache and proudly wears his medals on his chest for all to see; characteristics which suggest a very pompous individual. He walks with a stiff upper back, and displays signs of senility in his disregard of others opinions and actions", ". This satire of an old school gentleman soldier set in his ways emphasises his ranting against anything that he believes goes against his dearly held traditionalist right wing moral values. He reads the Daily Mail and is always drawn by the cartoonists with his fists tightly clenched at his waist. The major's personality and manner is similar to that of earlier Viz characters, including the early Billy Britain and Victorian Dad", ". He has never been shown with his family, and like Victorian Dad, is often presented as dogmatic, but ultimately as a hypocrite with no self-awareness or idea of his own position as a social relic.", "The Male Online – A middle-aged (as-yet unnamed) man who spends most his time in his study looking at and posting on the Daily Mail website. He always believes and endorses everything the Daily Mail says, often screaming an extended version of \"GAAAAAAH\" before ranting about health and safety, foreigners coming to Britain and other right-wing paranoia to his long-suffering wife Beryl, who will occasionally try and reason with him (always to no avail) but will inevitably just walk away exasperated", ". The Male will also spend his time on the website looking at (and often masturbating to) revealing photos of female celebrities with an appropriate comment (\"Yes, she certainly is all grown up\", \"Ooh, you shouldn't go around in public like that!\" etc.)", ".). A very recent episode has him on his (newly acquired) smartphone trying to refute Titus Appleton's party on Twitter; only to have his wife, after noting he has no followers (three zeros under his name!) reply on her cell, calling him a 'Dickhead', to the accompaniment of the usual 'GAAAAAAH!'", "Max Power – a breakdown mechanic who, instead of repairing cars, rebuilds them into hot-rods. His name is a parody of Max Power magazine, which is aimed at people who are into \"pimping\" up cars.", "Maxwell Straker – Record Breaker. Maxwell spends most strips making increasingly futile attempts to appear in the Guinness World Records, only to end up in a bad situation where he inadvertently gets his wish: such as falling into the world's longest coma, getting the longest ever prison sentence, or breaking the record for \"the world's daftest cunt\".", "Max's Plank – Max is constantly plagued by pranks that are carried out by a simple plank, that always appears inanimate. Eventually he takes it to a factory to be made in to matchsticks. However, the matchsticks return to further plague him by ringing his doorbell. The title is a pun on physicist Max Planck.", "Meddlesome Ratbag – a series of strips featuring a pinch-faced, headscarf-wearing middle-aged woman (Mrs Ratbag). She takes great delight in delivering nagging lectures to complete strangers about minor breaches of social etiquette, and will go to extreme lengths to engineer a situation where she can make such a complaint", ". One strip began with her seeing a TV news item about the Rio de Janeiro carnival, whereupon she immediately flew to that city and booked a hotel room overlooking the carnival procession, purely in order to complain about the noise. Another strip was set during a minute's silence for a \"some terrible tragedy or other\" and saw her desperately (and unsuccessfully) trying to find someone who was breaking the silence, in order to remonstrate with them", ". She finally achieved her aim by breaking into a maternity ward and rebuking an exhausted birthing mother for the \"disrespect\" of failing to silence her newborn baby's cries. Another episode has her reading about NASA receiving radio transmissions from a planet many light-years away. She buys lengths of piping which she fits together and after a huge length is constructed it reaches for the alien planet. She uses it to bang on the planet with the shout, \"Keep the noise down!\"", "Melinda Text Messenger - A strip about a girl who likes to send text messages on her mobile phone.", "A Meter Inspector Calls - A satire on the 2021–present United Kingdom cost of living crisis. In a take on An Inspector Calls, the Inspector berates the Birling family as wasteful for normal energy usage, such as using a tumble drier (despite it being the middle of winter, when it's difficult to air-dry clothes) and even using the internet, which supposedly has a high carbon footprint. The strip ends with a sarcastic admonition that rising costs of living are always the public's fault.", "Mickey's Miniature Grandpa – a senile old man, convinced that he is four inches tall. This causes trouble for his grandson Mickey, whose mother refuses to acknowledge Grandpa's obvious insanity. Grandpa's delusion usually leads to him getting beaten up, involved in a fatal accident, injuring Mickey, or (in some cases) managing to convince others that he really is four inches tall. The strip is ostensibly a parody of Peter's Pocket Grandpa.", "Mickey's Monkey Spunk Moped – a motorised scooter which uses simian semen as fuel. In the character's first appearance, his moped runs out of simian love fuel a few panels into the story, and the story revolves around attempts to avail himself of fresh supplies so he can continue on his journey", ". In a final twist, Mickey eventually realises his monkey spunk moped is probably not the most practical means of transport, and so he exchanges it for a car which runs on leopard's fanny batter, which is not much easier to obtain. In a slight non-sequitur to the original storyline, Mickey and the Monkey Spunk Moped are reunited for the character's second appearance in the 197th (August 2010) issue of Viz, as the last cartoon in that issue", ". In this second story, Mickey decides to modify the moped to run on renewable energy, as he fears additional running costs of a government increase in fuel tax. Mickey made a third appearance in the November 2018 issue where he attempts to have the moped converted to electric power in order to reduce fuel emissions.", "Mickey the Martian – An early strip featured in Viz The Big Hard One annual, which features a martian consisting of a head with three eyes and one foot.\n Mike Smitt the Patronising Git – A strip about a man who goes around pestering everyone much to their annoyance.", "Millie Tant – A caricature of the militant feminist, Millie thinks of herself as a champion of \"Wimmin's\" rights but is often self-centred and dismissive of the feelings of others. She rants, raises her fist in the air and foams at the mouth. She often refers to men as \"phallocrats\" and \"potential rapists\" or just \"rapists\", referring to other women as \"fellow lesbians\" regardless of their actual orientation. Most of the storylines seem to indicate sexual frustration", ". Most of the storylines seem to indicate sexual frustration. She often complains that various phenomena are actually metaphors for the suppression of women: fireworks are actually \"big explosive penises\" that \"skewer and rape the virgin female sky\". She refuses to make a snowman, instead offering to make a snow-black-lesbian-rape-victim-in-a-wheelchair: she plays cards with an old woman and ends the game by calling her a homophobe because she said \"straight flush\"", ". In the end she often forgets her feminist stance and is shown asking a man to get rid of a mouse while she is standing on a chair, or knitting baby clothes with a simper.", "Miss Demeanour and her Concertina – A girl who tries to get up to antics with a concertina, only to find out said instrument is completely useless, so she gets a vacuum cleaner instead and changes the title of her strip to \"Miss Demeanour and her Vacuum Cleaner\" and whacks a policeman in the face.\n Mobile Dick – A man who refuses to put his phone down under any circumstances.", "Mobile Dick – A man who refuses to put his phone down under any circumstances.\n Morbid O'Beesley – A very obese middle-aged man who pushes his wife to cook very unhealthy food for him, while commenting aloud about the damage it will do to his body.", "The Modern Parents – and their long-suffering children, Tarquin and Guinevere. The two, Malcolm and Cressida, are middle-class, left-wing, self-absorbed and sanctimonious, often waxing lyrical about issues such as environmentalism. Their two sons, Tarquin and Guinevere (who was given a girls' name as his parents did not want to conform to gender stereotypes) are more down-to-earth, with Tarquin often, usually unsuccessfully, trying to reason with his parents.", "Morris Day: Sexual Pervert - A moustachioed, jumper-wearing middle-aged man who is obsessed with pornography, ignoring his attractive wife who waits for him in their bedroom. The character is based upon soul star and Prince protege Morris Day.\n Mr. \"Eating\" Charlesworth – An early strip featured in The Big Hard One annual, which features a gluttonous man who eats too much.", "Mr Logic – (\"such is my name, therefore one may infer that this strip is in some way about me\") - a serious and humourless young man with no real empathy for other people. He uses highly technical and over-elaborate language rather than straightforward speech and takes everything people say to him literally. The strip usually ends with Logic becoming the victim of his misunderstandings with others. Mr", ". The strip usually ends with Logic becoming the victim of his misunderstandings with others. Mr. Logic was inspired by Chris Donald's own brother, Steve, who was much later diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome. Early versions of the character used the monikers \"doodle duck dandy\" and Hello World before arriving on Mr Logic.", "Mr Rudewords – a one-off strip about a man with coprolalia, who shouts allegedly rude words such as \"toilet seats!\" at socially inappropriate times.", "Mrs Brady Old Lady – Iconic and long-time strip about an old woman who spends all her time exaggerating her age and complaining about young people of today and how things were different in her time. Mrs Brady constantly talks about her ailments; she is forgetful, inattentive, bigoted while always referring to her youth and how life was so much simpler and clear back then", ". She could also be seen as an object of pathos, she typically misunderstands what other people are telling her and so appears as rude, spiteful and self-absorbed - when a friend of hers is dying she seems unable to notice and only talk about her own ailments. In one episode she completely fails to realise that the friend she is talking to has been dead for over a year, and the corpse is decomposing horribly in front of the heater. Mrs Brady's full name is Ada Florence Agnes Pankhurst Brady", ". Mrs Brady's full name is Ada Florence Agnes Pankhurst Brady. She is widowed and often fondly refers to her late husband, Sidney (however, according to a game on the Viz website that featured Mrs Brady shoplifting (something she did very often in the early strips) Sidney is not dead - he just left her because he \"couldn't stand the old cow\" and moved to Carlisle)", ". She is often portrayed as being a hypocrite as in most episodes complains about how immoral the modern world is and how values have gone down, while also talking of happy memories of doing the same sort of things herself in her youth because \"you had to in them days\". She is a hypochondriac, and particularly obsessed with her bowel movements", ". She is a hypochondriac, and particularly obsessed with her bowel movements. During a \"convention\" strip where multiple characters met each other in an anniversary issue Postman Plod was surprised by Mrs Brady who revealed herself to be an intelligent and witty lady, who was \"just playing a part\".", "Mrs Cedd, Her Anthony's Dead – a bereaved mother who constantly grieves for her dead son Anthony. When her husband points out that she herself murdered Anthony, she kills him too and then publicly bemoans being a widow.", "Mrs Clean – a woman obsessed with having a clean house. In most strips she ends up killing or mutilating her children to keep them from making a mess in the house (e.g. stuffing and mounting them; or flaying them alive after hearing that dust mites live in skin particles). This strip appeared in several other comics around the same time.", "Mrs Maybe and her Crazy Baby – strips about a fat lady called Mrs Maybe, who makes suggestions to her baby on such matters as to where to go out to: the baby's usual response is \"Let's fuck a coppa!\" Very similar in premise to Rude Kid from the same comic.", "My Workfare Lady – a young woman horribly exploited on a workfare scheme until she finally snaps and walks out. The unscrupulous employer, undeterred, cheerfully phones the local authorities to accuse her of walking out having stolen stuff while under drugs, have her child taken into care and request an attractive female replacement. Considerable overtones of 'We...' and 'Fixed-Odds Betty' (which see)", "Nan Dare – a strip in which Dan Dare is asked to take care of his senile grandmother for the day, but forced to bring her on an urgent mission into space to rescue an alien ambassador. The villain never shows up, as he has been delayed by his grandmother.\n The Nancy Boys – a parody of The Hardy Boys where a pair of boy detectives go around causing trouble for innocent people (such as getting a homeless man arrested for vagrancy.)", "Nash Gordon – a futuristic benefits cheat who eventually gets found out when he goes to the benefits office planet instead of a driving range as a result of a dodgy sat-nav.\n Nobby's Piles – a very long-running strip featuring a man with incredibly bad haemorrhoids. He continually finds himself stricken by situations beyond his control which exasperate the situation horribly!", "Norbert Colon – an old miser. In one strip, Colon shared top billing with hopeless ventriloquist Boswell Boyce (\"he throws his voice\") and wound up in a lunatic asylum; in another strip he went on a blind date only to find the dating agency had fixed him up with his own mother (\"Oh turds! It's that tightwad son of mine!\"), a dead ringer for Norbert only wearing a (clearly labelled) NHS wig", ". One strip featured a parody of A Christmas Carol involving his ancestor Ebenezer Colon, who is exactly like him; suggesting Norbert's miserly ways are hereditary.", "Norman the Doorman - a strip about a violent doorman named Norman who works at the cinema, and then can be found in the most inopportune places such as a funeral, challenging everyone who attempts to enter. He even appears as a 'Santa's Elf' at one point, refusing entrance to a little boy and his father, before turning on Santa himself, fists flying as he shouts \"Who let you in here with a hat on, sunshine?\"", "Norman's Knob – the puerile tale of Norman, who thinks if he rubs his brass doorknob that he keeps in his pocket, magic things will happen to him. Norman rubs his doorknob a lot at inappropriate moments and indeed things do happen for him - in the form of arrests from irate policemen.", "Nosferatu, Driving Instructor – a vampire who works night shifts as a driving instructor. At the end of the strip he is killed with a stake by a vampire hunter, who promptly offers to take over as the student's new instructor.\n Nude Motorcycle Girl – a heroic female biker who solves crimes - naked except for a crash helmet, bikini pants and motorcycle boots.", "Nudge Dredd – a single-shot parody of an overenthusiastic (and grossly overweight) security guard who ridiculously patrols a seaside amusement arcade, harassing customers over minor infringements and otherwise making a nuisance of himself but treated as a hero. Based on Century 2000's 'Judge Dredd' and the comics and films of the same name.\n The Numnuts - A parody of the Beano comic, the Numskulls.\n Odd Job Bob-a-Job Bob – A boy who does unusual tasks for his neighbours in return for one shilling (\"bob\")", "On Das Buses – A slightly dark parody of the 1970s sitcom On the Buses where both the driver (Hitler) and conductor (unknown, but bearing a resemblance to Himmler) who addresses the Hitler-figure as 'Mein Stan' tend to kill passengers who do not agree with them", ". Various wartime characters appear (Stalin and Churchill) driving other buses and picking up non-Aryan passengers - one a very obvious orthodox Jew - which finally give the Nazis enough fury to commit suicide! In another episode the two are driving in a blizzard which gets steadily worse. Two of the passengers want to get off, and are executed by Hitler, who then proclaims they will push on 'to final victory', but then is informed by Himmler that they are out of fuel. They all freeze to death.", "One Cut Wally – a gents' barber who gives all his customers exactly the same haircut even when they asked for something else.\n One Man and his God – A one off strip featuring a shepherd praying to God to round up the sheep by striking thunder and lightning at them.\n Only Fools and Norses – a Viking-themed parody of the BBC comedy Only Fools and Horses.\n Orson Cart, He Comes Apart – A kid who can remove his body parts thanks to once receiving a blast of radioactivity.", "Our Neighbours are Bastards – a man (later his wife after he dies of heart failure) who makes his neighbours' life hell by complaining about their behaviour (which it appears he has created himself in order to have some to complain about).\n Out Comes Stanley – a man who slashes people with a Stanley knife at the most trivial of provocation (issue 124)", "Outcast of the Pony Ballet School – a parody of the comic strips in the 1970s/1980s style of teenage girl's magazine such as Pony School and Bunty, in which Steve McFadden, for no apparent reason, attends a private school for girls where all his classmates are eleven or twelve years old. The wealthy students bully him for being poor and having a shabby-looking pony, until it is discovered at the end of the story that he is really a princess", ". The title may be based on \"Outcast of the Pony School\", a real comic strip which ran in the girls' comic Bunty.", "P–S", "Page 3 School – An all-teenage-girl school where the students are required to attend topless (much to the arousal of all men they encounter, with the exception of their male teachers). They are often inspected at the gate by a teacher to ensure their nipples are erect and up to school standard. They later compete in a polo game against a rival girls' school who instead go full nude", ". They later compete in a polo game against a rival girls' school who instead go full nude. As the title implies, the strip parodies topless female posers who appear on the 3rd page of various tabloid newspapers, particularly The Sun. And, like their pictures, the comic strip was printed on the third page of the issue it was published in.", "The Parkie – An extremely angry, to say nothing of cruel and sadistic, park keeper who extremely viciously abuses people that seem like they are breaking park rules, when in fact they are not - he even creates his own rules just so that he can abuse them. Early strips carried satirical introductions like \"Totally Dodgy Cartoons Present...\" and \"A social comment (why not?)\".\n Pat-a-Cake Pete – a boy in World War II who is recruited by the British Government to deliver spy messages iced onto cakes.", "Pathetic Sharks – (sometimes called the Crap Sharks). An occasional strip featuring a group of sharks, much feared not for their ferocity, but their mind-numbingly boring and pathetic behaviour and conversational style. Instead of hunting for prey, they ask people on the beach for crisps, ice cream and toffee, except for one shark who claims to be \"lactose intolerant\"", ". Generally the strip consists of some sort of shipwreck or holiday-by-the-seaside theme; the initial apprehension at the sighting of shark fins turns into abject horror: \"Oh no! Crap sharks!\". In one strip a group of WWII shipwreck survivors blow themselves up with a hand grenade rather than face the Crap Sharks.", "Paul Chandler, Baggage Handler - A thieving and incompetent airport baggage handler.", "Paul Whicker, the tall vicar – A deliberately crudely drawn cartoon of a misanthropic vicar. In one strip, he commits insurance fraud to maintain church funds by gambling (which he then appropriates for his own use). He is often challenged by his superior, Bishop Bloggs, who tries to thwart Whicker's schemes. At one point, he is about to be arrested by police only to tell the bishop and the arresting officer that he won a bet on the horses and the parish funds are five thousand pounds up as a result", ". Although amoral, Whicker has ironically been known to expose the hypocrisy of his superiors. Especially as Whicker uses \"missionary work\" as an excuse for drug trafficking after being shunted from parish to parish, covering up his misdeeds (sleeping with the bishop's wife and daughter). He has even been known to have connections to corrupt officials, such as a customs officer. One early strip has a frame with a skinhead and media studies lecturer sitting on the bench where Whicker plans on getting drunk", ". The media studies lecturer gives his thoughts on the strip as an indictment of pious hypocrisy, whereas the skinhead thinks he is \"A fuckin' magic violent Vikka (sic)\". Another one-off character is Pat Berger, the Fat Verger. At some point, Whicker is made a bishop as he is seen drinking with Roger Mellie following Roger's rather dreadful attempt to present a religious programme having subsequently got drunk on communion wine and relieved himself in the church font.", "PC Blouse – a police officer who is ineffective at his job because he is weak and cowardly and is also not taken seriously by the public.\n PC Hopper, Bent Copper – a corrupt police officer who often takes bribes and is frequently shown beating a confession out of a suspect.\n PC Plod – a police officer who carries a woven bag, wears sandals and is more concerned with the criminal's human rights than arresting them.\n PC Rea - The Cop That's Queer – A one off strip about a homosexual police officer.", "PC Rea - The Cop That's Queer – A one off strip about a homosexual police officer.\n PC Victor Foxtrot - The Strictly No Nonsense Copper – A one off strip about a corrupt policeman who causes harm to various members of the public, such as swearing at elders and confiscating children's playthings.\n Percy Posh – Early strip featuring a boy bullied by Biffa Bacon. He seems to have been replaced by Cedric Soft in later strips.", "Pete's Portable Prison – A one off strip about a boy called Pete Pentonville who owns a prison cell on wheels and attempts to stop the antics of the bully known as Sneaky Simpson.\n Peter Kayveman - A one off strip about Peter Kay as a caveman telling prehistoric jokes.\n Peter Pretend – A one off strip about a boy who pretends to do things, such as faking illnesses and getting struck by a car.", "Peter the Slow Eater – a man who, as the title suggests, takes his time eating meals much to the frustration of his family, especially his kids whom he will not allow to leave the table \"until everyone has finished eating\"", ". Another scenario has him with two mates in the pub (as a slow drinker) insisting on buying a round when his pint is untouched, and letting everyone else get served before him, much to the frustration of his drinking buddies (who discreetly drink his pint and order two pints for themselves without looking and by the time he gets back to the table they have gone).", "Phil's Spectre – A strip about a young boy who believes he can see a \"ghost\", in reality an escaped convict hiding underneath a white sheet. The strip is very similar in premise to Zip O'Lightning (see below). The title appears to be a pun on Phil Spector's name.\n The Pie-Eyed Piper – A parody of The Pied Piper of Hamelin where the titular piper is so drunk he even makes the rats get drunk.", "The Pirates of Ben's Pants – A one-off strip featuring a young boy named Benjamin whose underpants are home to a crew of miniature pirates (the name being an obvious play on The Pirates of Penzance).", "Playtime Fontayne – a middle-aged bank clerk who lives with his Mum and behaves like a primary school-aged child. He made his first appearance in the comic along with his opposite \"Little Old Man\", a more short-lived character of a young boy who acts like the stereotype of an elderly man. Often the other members of the bank are also portrayed as children, especially when their boss is away sick. Word play on Fine Time Fontayne", "Pop Shot – Real name: Gerald. A man who is almost always naked, although not showing anything - he always 'fig-leaf's' himself - sporting a stereotypical 1970s pornstar moustache, afro and chest hair, who always finds himself accidentally slipping into the language of a porn film while performing everyday activities, much to the annoyance of his wife. The strip always ends with his wife spontaneously having sex with a complete stranger, with Gerald left out of the proceedings.", "Pope-eye the Pontiff Man – A parody of Popeye the Sailor depicted as the pope.\n Pope Benedict the Dodger - A parody of Roger the Dodger featuring Pope Benedict XVI.\n Poppy Bullshit and Araminta Bollocks, Art Makers – Two women who try and create modern forms of art from basic situations but always fail through lack of foresight - for example they set up a trap to lure a mouse, which turns out to be a rat.", "Posh Street Kids – A parody of the Bash Street Kids from The Beano. In this one-off strip, these schoolkids annoy their teacher by leaving their butlers lying about in the playground, smoking high-priced Cuban cigars behind the bike shed and having food fights in the canteen with caviar, strawberries and champagne", ". In the end, they do get dealt with, but they craftily prevent painful canings on their backsides by slipping thick literary works of art \"worth thysands of pynds\" down the backs of their trousers, though the teacher seems not to notice the extra padding as he administers their punishment.", "Postman Plod, \"The Miserable Bastard\" – a mean-spirited postman with a serious attitude problem and a highly questionable work ethic. Plod is bone idle and lethargic and frequently takes extended periods off work with questionable excuses that only hold water because they are supported with notes from his doctor who is just lazy as he is. The pair of them often concoct some excuse for time off work so that they can go and play golf", ". The pair of them often concoct some excuse for time off work so that they can go and play golf. Whenever he turns up for work at all Plod is completely lacking in any work ethics, and often enjoys opening and reading the post he is meant to be delivering", ". He is not even bothered about hiding this activity, and after reading someone's bank statement, either mocking or embarrassing that person for their poor financial situation (another example is when he exposes a resident's arrival of brown-enveloped \"jazz mags\" to the whole street)", ". The other post office staff are also shown to be lazy and dissatisfied with their jobs and spend most of the time sitting and playing cards (with the exception of the post office manager who tries desperately in vain to run a tight ship). In the lead up to Christmas once, Plod and all his fellow postmen opened up all the parcels at the sorting office and stole whatever they wanted to save having to buy their own presents", ". On one occasion he even just threw all the post he was meant to deliver in a hedge and went home early. In another Christmas feature he took part in the poem 'The Night Mail' (This is the Night Mail, crossing the boarder, bringing the cheque and the postal order...) which was specially re-written for him, and displayed his uselessness, heartlessness and ruthlessness for all to see", ". He was eventually chucked off the train and the final frame had him, drunk and lying in the snow, wishing the reader a 'Merry <hic> Christmas'!", "The Princess Who Would be King – a strip portraying Mervyn King as a fairytale princess who secretly wants to be the Governor of the Bank of England.\n Professor Fuck – The weekly professor who answers awful questions, supposedly submitted by readers.\n Professor Piehead – an inventor of amazing inventions which always go wrong and normally kill the Professor or his lab assistant, Tim (whom the Professor always addresses as Joe, for unknown reasons of his own).", "Puce and Pasty – two detectives with heart disease, who try to investigate crime despite frequently passing out or having heart attacks because of their illness.\n Quentin Tarranteeny – a parody portraying Quentin Tarantino as an extremely foul-mouthed baby who speaks as if delivering a monologue in one of Tarantino's films.\n Question Mime – a mime artist using his act to ask questions during a political debate.", "Question Mime – a mime artist using his act to ask questions during a political debate.\n Raffles, Gentleman Thug – a late 19th-century aristocrat who behaves like a stereotypical 21st-century thug.", "Rainbrow – a violent and adult-themed parody of Rainbow (minus Geoffrey) that sees an abusive Zippy and gullible Bungle meet with kidnappers to pay for George's ransom. During the exchange, Zippy upon learning how meager the ransom was, boasts how he and the gang are worth far more than what the kidnappers wanted, causing them to then kidnap and ransom him to a reluctant George and Bungle.", "Randall and Diana (Deceased) – a controversial one-off parody of Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased) with Diana, Princess of Wales taking the place of Hopkirk to become \"the people's ghost private detective\". She and Randall investigate the claims of a man who believes his wife is having an affair, only to discover that the woman is in fact selling landmines to Africa; at which Diana promises \"Dead or alive, I'm determined to put a stop to it", ".\" The strip attracted press controversy because of the real Princess Diana's then-recent death.", "Randy Old Dog - A strip about a dog called Jeremy who copulates with a human leg, but when he sees his wife (who is another human leg), he tries to explain what happened, only to copulate with a blow-up doll of a human leg.", "Rat Boy – a pre-teen repeat offender and drug addict, characterised by a permanent \"tail\" of excrement protruding from his backside - his every strip involves burglary, vandalism, assault and/or substance abuse, with minimal reprisals by the police because he is a child. He is the brother of Tasha Slappa", ". He is the brother of Tasha Slappa. The inspiration of his character is from that of the real-life career criminal, Tommy Laws, who was nicknamed Spiderboy by the police and the media due to his habitual climbing onto roofs and high places in order to evade capture. Most of his adventures involve breaking and entering, vandalising a place and taking anything of value, then usually either evading the law, or getting off very lightly", ". When arrested at one house which he ransacked he is sent on a \"self-esteem building for young offenders\" programme, which turns out to be a holiday in Spain. After another crime spree, he is put on trial by remote TV link to a detention cell (intended to be less traumatic than a courtroom trial); the kindly judge allows him to go free, whilst Rat Boy has already escaped through a sewer, somehow taking the TV with him, and is busy selling it as a stolen good", ". He was once subject to house arrest, enforced by electronic tagging on his ankle - unable to remove the tag, he gnaws his own leg off (like a real rat would) and hops outside to quickly rob several more houses. (Needless to say, his loss of limb is forgotten in subsequent comics.) He even once managed to steal the Crown Jewels", ".) He even once managed to steal the Crown Jewels. In another episode he stole an old cruise ship used as a floating nightclub off the Newcastle coast and abandoned it (burnt-out and balanced on bricks, like a stolen car) in Amsterdam, where he got arrested for seeking drugs and underage sex. His punishment, ironically, was to be used as a lab rat in a drugs testing clinic, which he found delightful...", "Ravy Davey Gravy – a young man into rave culture who breaks out into strange dances whenever he hears any kind of repetitive everyday noises, including car alarms and road drills, and even, at one point, a friend who had consumed an obviously badly-made Spanish Paella, defecating with considerable noise! His name possibly derives from Wavy Gravy.", "Raymond Porter and his Bucket of Water – a boy who carries around a bucket of water which he uses to solve all sorts of problems. It appeared only in early episodes of the comic and may have been shelved to make way for the similarly themed \"Felix and his Amazing Underpants\".\n Raymond the Large Caterpillar – A one off strip from the early 1980s about a caterpillar who takes up all the panels of the comic.", "Real Ale Twats – three rather pompous men, of whom only one has lines, speaking in an affected style. They only drink real ale, and the speaker even going so far as to keep extensive \"reviews\" of all the real ales that they have supped, along with the ABV (alcohol content) of the ale, the place where he supped and the name of the barman. This often branches into other items, such as if he was beaten up or had a glass in the face. He is also known to criticise lager drinkers", ". He is also known to criticise lager drinkers. A parody of the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA). Many times, his boring speeches, or his attitude to those around them result in dreadful injuries. It is also made clear that in some cases they are not made welcome when they enter a pub (one barmaid saying, \"Oh God!\" when seeing them) likely due to their previous behaviour when they have been there", ". Often, they will enter a full bar, only to be shown in the next frame that the far has emptied completely! Several times they have been seduced into trying something stronger, like a small shot of home-brewed whisky, which has the effect of turning the speaker extremely belligerent and causing much mayhem, which is imbued with a certain irony given the tendency of the speaker to extol the virtues of sensible, sociable drinking, of which he considers himself to be a shining example", ". The speaker is also divorced, and is known to engage in pedantry on various other topics such as steam locomotives or Star Trek.", "Restless Spirit - A strip about a ghost who tries to get some sleep, but various noises keep waking him up.\n Reverend Milo's Lino Rhino – a vicar who travels around on a rhinoceros distributing rolls of linoleum and \"converting\" carpet users.\n Reverend Ramsden's Ringpiece Cathedral – A strip about a vicar who claims to have a church up his bottom.\n Rex Box - A boy convinced he is living in a video game.", "Rex Box - A boy convinced he is living in a video game.\n Robbie on the Run – A story in the style of Oliver Twist, where a plucky young orphan boy runs away from a foster mother who is using him as \"slave labour\" (in reality, a perfectly ordinary and kind woman who simply asked him to help clear the table after dinner). He ends up foiling robbers, and being congratulated by a policeman, who actually turns out to be both his parents in disguise under a costume.", "Robbie's Robot Carer – An infirm old man whose regular caregiver is replaced by a robot after cutbacks to public health services.\n Robin Hood and his Merrie Men – Robin Hood plays overpriced, obviously rigged games at a funfair because Maid Marion insisted he win a stuffed toy for her.\n Robin Hood and Richard Littlejohn – Richard Littlejohn joins Robin Hood on a mission to rescue Maid Marion, while complaining about the gay agenda plotting to take over Sherwood Forest.", "Robot Nun (She's Got Tommy-Gun Tits!) – She bursts into a service being held in a church in outer space, and massacres the congregation with automatic weapons firing through her nipples.\n Rod Hull and Emo - A one-off strip parodying Rod Hull and Emu, in which Emu becomes Emo, a stereotypically maudlin emo fan.", "Rodney Rix - He Does Tricks With Bricks - A strip about a boy who throws bricks into windows, sets them down on the ground so people trip over them, and throws one up in the air, calls the police and has the brick drop on a policeman's head.", "Roger Irrelevant (\"He's Completely Hatstand\") – a young man with a very strange mental problem where he continually produces irrelevant and surreal streams of language and behaviour. In one strip, Roger throws a lamp from the roof of a house after a long, impassioned (and obviously unsuccessful) plea for the lamp not to commit suicide. On another occasion he decides to elope with an armchair, declaring it is pregnant with his children", ". Another time sees him disrupting the funeral of a relative by dragging the corpse out of the coffin and - employing a Brooklyn accent and emulating a character from a Mickey Spillane novel - aggressively questioning the deceased about some stolen goods. His parents seem to be very understanding and merely politely request that he stops his behaviour", ". His parents seem to be very understanding and merely politely request that he stops his behaviour. These are the only times that Roger manages to show any sign of interaction with real people, although usually it is only in the form of saying things like \"wibble wibble\". (Dictionary.com attributes this nonsense-word to Roger; see External Links below.) \"Frisnit\" and \"z'goft\" are two of Roger's other favourite words.", "Roger Mellie (\"The Man on the Telly - who says 'Bollocks!'\") – a foul-mouthed, perverted, corrupt and violent TV presenter, whose activities satirise real TV shows and incidents. His on-screen greeting was originally 'Hello, Good Evening and Welcome' but soon degenerated to 'Hello, Good Evening and Bollocks'! Starred in a spinoff cartoon, voiced by Peter Cook", ". He has in recent years lent his name to Roger's Profanisaurus, a book which purportedly lists all the obscenities used in the English-speaking world. The work is updated in every issue of Viz, and periodically reprinted under various risqué titles. See link for more information.", "Roger the Lodger – a parody of the Beano character Roger the Dodger. A young schoolboy who rings a landlady's doorbell, arranges to rent a room in her house, and then congratulates himself on his \"great lodge.\"\n The Adventures of Rolf Harris the Cat – A one-off strip which features a Scottish Rolf Harris in feline form attempting to deliver a package and avoid water-based hazards, only to find the package was a diver's watch.", "Ronnie Barker In Heaven – A strip depicting Ronnie Barker in Heaven where a shopkeeper (looking suspiciously like Ronnie Corbett) constantly \"misunderstands\" Barker's requests in the style of the Four Candles sketch. Barker is so irritated by this that he decides to go to Hell instead, but ends up stuck in a queue behind the Devil who is arguing with an identical shopkeeper.", "Roswell Stiles and his Intriguing X-Files – a one-off strip centred on a character named Roswell who wears glasses and carries a cabinet of \"X-Files\" and attempts to search for phenomena such as falling fish, spontaneous human combustion, crop circles, UFOs, big cats etc. but has no success; such as mistaking a kitten standing next to a Bonsai tree for an alien big cat winding up in the seals' enclosure at the zoo and many others", ". When he attempts to fake a UFO sighting by throwing an old car wheel trim into the air, it smashes another man's green house, who shoves the filing cabinet up Roswell's bottom.", "Rotating Chin Men – A gang of flying villains with jetpacks whose intention is to spoil Queen Elizabeth II's coronation by squirting semen onto her via a pump squeeze mechanism linked to their revolving chins. Paraphrased quote by the Archbishop of Canterbury: \"I can't crown a queen with all jizz matted in her hair, it would be most unconstitutional\"", ". The villains are foiled by the two child heroes who hook one of the villains' rotating chin with the archbishop's crook, causing the mechanism to overheat and \"dribble jissom all down his chin\".", "Roy'll Watch EIIR - two men (one middle aged, one elderly who wears a Union Flag suit and top hat) who are so obsessed with the royal family they will camp out for weeks on end to catch sight of even a minor Royal.", "Roy Schneider - Joy Rider – A 14-year-old perpetual truant yob whose attempts to cause trouble in his community usually end up with him looking ridiculous. For example, he twocs a car, looks in the rear-view mirror, and expresses delight that the police are chasing him already; in the next frame it is revealed that both Roy's car and the \"pursuing\" police car are models on a fairground ride, from which Roy is summarily ejected by the operator.", "Roy Wood is Watching - So far two strips have appeared under this grim title, which is a spoof of George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. Roy Wood is featured on a poster, rather like 1984 poster, with the title atop it. A telemarketer is featured undergoing impossible situations. Not actually evil, but impossible. You end up feeling quite sad for the fellow. Why Roy Wood was chosen is anyone's guess - ask the writer!\n Rubber Johnny – A strip about a boy with an elastic body.", "Rubber Johnny – A strip about a boy with an elastic body.\n Ruby Mary and her Arse of Fire – A strip about a girl who eats too much Indian food.\n Rude Kid – one-frame strip where a young boy answers the most polite request with a rude word or phrase, such as his mother saying \"Are you looking forward to the Eurovision Song Contest, son?\" and he replies with \"Granny's pubes, y'whore!\". This comic actually predates Viz, featuring in some of the proto-Viz fanzines created by Donald in the 1970s.", "Saint Bernard Manning – A one off strip depicting comedian Bernard Manning as a dog who tells jokes instead of saving a mountain climber.\n Sam, Son of Man – a young boy who believes himself to be the second (or third) coming and moves in a mysterious way.\n Sammy and his Stammer – A strip from the early 1980s issues of Viz (and later featured in The Big Hard One annual) in which the titular character has a speech impediment and ends the strip by swearing.", "The Scaffolders Were Bastards – a group of construction workers who solicit an old lady for a contract to renovate the front of her beautiful thatched cottage; but when they get the job are extremely rude, aggressive and deliberately careless in their work, further adding to the cost. The strip ends with the house collapsing because of their negligence.", "The Scandi-Noir Adventures of ABBA - A strip about the members of ABBA investigating the disappearance of bookcases inside a branch of IKEA. They eventually discover that Björk is responsible because she is jealous that Iceland does not have a thriving furniture industry.\n Schools – One-off strips featuring a school where the students have the same thing in common, e.g. Page 3 School pupils are all well-known Page 3 girls or Euro School pupils are all stereotypes of various European nationalities.", "Scooter Dolphin Boy – A young boy who travels around on a kick scooter, solving crime with the help of his dolphin friend. The strip ends with him failing to catch the crooks, ending up in hospital, and being arrested for cruelty to the dolphin.\n Scottie Trotter and his Tottie Allotment – A boy with a portable miniature garden with several scantily-clad women on it.", "Scum Mothers, Who'd 'Ave 'Em? – Occasional strip created by Barney Farmer and Lee Healey (also responsible for the Drunken Bakers, George Bestial, Hen Cabin and We...), in which a young middle-class couple are continually embarrassed by the husband's drunken, foul-mouthed mother and her various thuggish boyfriends. The title is a play on Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em but the roles from that iconic programme are reversed.", "Scurvy Dogg - A one off strip about rapper Snoop Dogg losing his teeth because of a vitamin C deficiency.\n The Secret Life of Walter Shitty - One-off strip (parodying the movie of a similar name) about a lowly office worker named Walter who constantly fantasises about defacating on the desks of his enemies. \n Sex Toy Story – A parody of Toy Story, depicting Sheriff Woody as a dildo and Buzz Lightyear as a new vibrator called Buzz Lightspeed.", "Sheila Sherry – A girl who has two bowls of trifle in place of breasts.\n Sheridan Poorly – An occasional strip of a man convinced that he is terminally ill, even though he is constantly being told by doctors that there is nothing wrong with him. The character's name references Sheridan Morley.\n Sherlock Homeless – the street-homeless main character is a parody of Sherlock Holmes who solves crimes for the reward money - which is inevitably spent on Tennents Super.", "Sherlock Homo – an outrageously gay version of Sherlock Holmes. Despite the clear lack of justification for searching them, he employs various ruses to have well-built men stopped and searched in order to investigate their backsides, sighing \"some day my prince will come\".\n Shirker Bee – A once-only strip featuring a worker bee within a hive who is unusually lazy, feigning illness and quoting bizarre contractual details to get out of doing his job.", "Shitty Dick – a man with a difficult medical condition, wherein he expels impossibly large stools whenever he interacts with a vicar. The humour of the strip usually revolves around him explaining away the turds, often disguising them as something else (a snowman, a large Easter egg, etc.)", "Sid the Sexist – This iconic strip which has featured in almost all copies of Viz since it began, features a young man with no sexual experience who boasts of his success with women. His distinct lack of tact or any social graces do not help him in his quest to \"pull\" women - and indeed he has no idea of how to react with the fairer sex! Starred in a spinoff cartoon. Follow the link for a full description.", "Silvio Berlusconi's Jaffa Cake Bunga-Bungalow – surreal strip in which Silvio Berlusconi owns a giant Jaffa Cake converted into a one-storey house, which he uses to hold wild sex parties.\n Sir Patrick Moore - A strip about Sir Patrick Moore using a telescope to look up into the sky but ends up looking at people's bottoms instead.", "Simon Lotion, Time and Motion man – a hopeless male parent who insists his family reorganise every mundane household and leisure activity to fit his \"professional\", pedantic view of how the world should be run more efficiently. This always results in the complete failure of the proposed activity to meet any kind of performance or time constraint, with pathetic yet humorous consequences, once even ending up at the beach on the sand with the family..", "...in the night! He still tried to reorganise them on the beach and the last frame had him still desperately trying to organise his family.", "Simon Salad-Cream – A pastiche of TV and radio presenter Simon Mayo. The four-frame strip shows him presenting a very mundane radio show. Not an overtly funny strip; its humour lay in the implied criticism of the supposed dullness of Mayo's show at the time. \n Simon's Snowman – Occasional strip which featured in some Christmas issues during the 1990s. A parody of The Snowman, in which a violent, foul-mouthed snowman takes a young boy on a drinking, striptease and gambling spree.", "Single Middle-Aged Brothers – two middle-aged bachelor brothers who are very socially inept, frequently arguing over very childish topics or making unsuccessful attempts to approach women.", "Sir Edmund Hilarity – a mountaineer who continually endangers the lives of his team by playing inappropriate practical jokes on them during an expedition to climb Mount Everest. The team die when a Sherpa unwittingly lights up one of Hilarity's joke exploding cigars, causing a fatal avalanche", ". Hilarity's camera is discovered 50 years later by modern-day climbers, who develop the film to discover that Hilarity did not take any pictures of the trip, and instead used the entire roll of film to take pictures of himself at Base Camp with his teammates' toothbrushes inserted up his bottom. He is a parody of the late real-life New Zealand explorer and Everest conqueror Sir Edmund Hillary.", "Sir Fred Goodwin the Fat Cat – the former governor of the Royal Bank of Scotland Fred Goodwin parodied as an overweight feline forced to catch mice in order to earn his pension.\n Skinheed – An early comic strip showing a young man with social problems turning into an inhuman monster.\n Skippy the Bush Kangaroo – A kangaroo that lives in a woman's pubic hair.", "Skippy the Bush Kangaroo – A kangaroo that lives in a woman's pubic hair.\n Sleeping Bag - A half-page one-off, rather sad strip featuring the characters from Bagpuss, who discuss where Bagpuss has disappeared to, noting that he was taken to the vets...for something. The last frame shows Bagpuss's cushion in the corner...but no Bagpuss.", "Smiling Susie – A very cheerful waitress, who is unfairly blamed for the murder of two patrons at the restaurant where she works; all of which turns out to be a set-up for a marriage proposal from the man she secretly loves. No one seems to mind the fact that he actually killed two people for this.", "The Snowmeth - One-off parody of The Snowman. Just like in the film, James builds a snowman which comes to life, however the awkward placement of his eyes and giving him a tomato for a nose causes the Snowman to start drinking meth. He drunkenly grabs James's hand and starts flying only to collide head-first with a brick wall, killing them both.\n Spawny Get – a boy whose initial apparent bad luck always turns into incredible fortune.", "Spawny Get – a boy whose initial apparent bad luck always turns into incredible fortune.\n Specky Twat – a boy who suffers bad vision, and wears thick glasses. He often mistakes things for something else.", "Spoilt Bastard – Real name: Timothy (Timmy) Timpson. A long-running and iconic VIZ strip featuring a horrible, fat, ungrateful and vicious-tongued 6-year-old boy (who never seems to age!) who manipulates his weak-willed mother into satisfying his hollow and selfish desires, usually with serious health-threatening, or financial destroying, or both, consequences for her. She is named more than once as \"Sissy\" - which pretty much describes her personality", ". She is named more than once as \"Sissy\" - which pretty much describes her personality. She often addresses him in terms of endearment: \"My Little Prince\", etc. and when things go wrong (as they inevitably do) she is forever blaming herself, \"Oh if only I were a better mother!\" - sob, sob!! The character is similar to a comic strip which appeared in Monster Fun and later Buster called Mummy's Boy", ". His name, as it contains an obscenity, is often altered slightly, or is covered by a picture element, whenever featured on the front page of an issue of Viz, as it would be easily read by children who are otherwise not entitled to buy the magazine. For example: \"Sboilt Pastard\"", ". For example: \"Sboilt Pastard\". One shudders to think what his life would be like for those around him if he were released after schooling on the rest of the world! Happily, as has already been noted, he does not appear to age, thank goodness; although one cannot help feeling sorry for Sissy even though she is a right twit!", "Stag Knight – a one-off strip of a buck's night/stag night in the time of King Arthur/Camelot. Strip shows, late-night kebab shops and a barroom brawl is presented in Ye Olde Englishe.\n Stalin on the Corner Watching the Girls Go By – a strip about Joseph Stalin attempting to pick up women with a series of increasingly ridiculous lines. Most of the women are horrified, but when he finally meets one who is attracted to Communist dictators, she instead goes home with Chairman Mao.", "Stamp-Addressed Antelope – A one off strip about an antelope who offers people rides by means of adding a stamp to it.\n Stan the Statistician – a nerd who tells everybody the probability of every event.\n Star Pupil - A schoolboy who believes he is a celebrity.\n It Started With a Piss - A one-off strip about a man who constantly urinates in the sink whenever he wakes up in the middle of the night, despite his wife begging him not to.\n Step Ladder – A strip about a family of ladders.", "Step Ladder – A strip about a family of ladders.\n Steve Irwin - Nursing Home Care Assistant – A one-off strip featuring Steve Irwin as said nursing home care assistant, describing the elderly as the animals he encounters such as crocodiles.", "Straw, Berry and Cream – single surreal strip where the British Government assigns Jack Straw, Mary Berry and the band Cream to stop an alien threat in 60 minutes or the world will be destroyed with nuclear weapons. After many mishaps, the aliens turn out not to be hostile, and everyone enjoys a picnic at 10 Downing Street with food provided by Mary Berry.", "Street Corner Sid – a man who struggles to make a living selling cigarette lighters on the street. He eventually gets his utilities disconnected (since he has not made enough profit to pay the bill) and is killed in a gas explosion after trying to use the lighter to see inside his house.", "Student Grant – an upper middle-class student at Fulchester (or sometimes Spunkbridge) University, who is fashionably and smugly \"right on\" and a left-wing radical, and who is routinely bailed out by his affluent parents when things go wrong. Grant does little or no work for his degree. One strip had him visiting his department (he had to be directed by a friend) to see his personal tutor, who pointed out that he had not handed in a single essay in three years", ". The terms seem ridiculously short (4 weeks in one case, the Christmas vacation lasting from mid-November to late March). When UK students received a maintenance grant and free tuition Student Grant appeared in most issues. In late 2010/early 2011, Grant reappeared again following the student riots against tuition fees, ending up in a \"taxi\" that turns out to be a limousine carrying Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall", ". He has a number of friends just like him, eager to express their individuality by wearing the same clothes, fashions, invariably ridiculous, like huge hats, bright yellow dungarees and T-shirts with slogans on them like Thunderbirds Are Go! and, in the late 1990s especially, Teletubbies Say \"Eh Oh\"!. All the female students have the same forename and are identical in appearance and dress. They are opinionated and talk loudly and ignorantly about various subjects, tagging \"..", ". They are opinionated and talk loudly and ignorantly about various subjects, tagging \"...actually!\" at the end of their sentences, \"proving\" their intelligence by listing the grades they got in their A-levels. Several of Grant's friends have bizarre speech impediments, dental deformities, or both, or worse - much worse!", "Suicidal Syd – a manically depressed young man who makes various unsuccessful attempts to kill himself. Each strip involves Syd becoming depressed over some issue and deciding to commit suicide and will typically make three attempts only for each of them to fail somehow (for instance, in one strip he draws what he thinks is a cartoon of Muhammad and shows it to a group of fanatical Islamists, hoping they will murder him, but he then realises he has actually drawn a picture of Muhammad Ali)", ". After his failed attempts to kill himself, Syd's faith in humanity will be restored only for him to die in random circumstances soon afterwards. Much like Big Vern, he is always resurrected in time for the next strip.", "Super Fly-Tip Guy - A man who frequently engages in illegal dumping (called \"fly-tipping\" in the UK), including of his own wife's body after she suddenly dies from heart failure.\n Supergod and the Son of Man Wonder – A strip about God and Jesus depicted as superheroes.\n Super Mario Curie – A strip depicting Marie Curie as Mario from Super Mario Bros.\n Super Villain Dad – A strip about a father who thinks he is a supervillain.", "Super Villain Dad – A strip about a father who thinks he is a supervillain.\n Swallows and Amazon – A parody of Swallows and Amazons where the children's mother suggests they go out and have an adventure. They decline, as they are all reading their Kindles or watching Prime Video.\n S.W.A.N.T – a crack paramilitary police team with \"Special Weapons and No Tactics\" which parodies American SWAT teams.", "Sweary Mary – a character who resembles The Beano's Minnie the Minx. Her sole purpose in life was to say as many rude words as possible; and the comic's story revolved around her attempts to evade censorship. When she was finally granted her wish to swear on the front cover, she lost her voice and was ridiculed by the other regular characters", ". Since then she has not reappeared as the comic's creators felt that the character had been taken as far as she can go; although other characters still use the word \"fitbin\" (which Mary claimed was incredibly rude) as an expletive. The first appearance of what would eventually be known as \"Roger's Profanisaurus\" was a special \"Sweary Mary's Dictionary\" that came bundled with a regular issue of the magazine", ". One recent edition of the Profanisaurus is titled \"Hail Sweary\" (a parody on the RC 'Hail Mary'), in Olde Englishe, with Roger in monastic robes kneeling. seemingly in prayer to the right, which is probably a nod to her heritage.", "T–Z \n Tabman – a parody of Batman, in which a superhero and his sidekick attempt to solve crimes despite being constantly breathless because of their heavy smoking habit (\"tab\" is northern English slang for a cigarette.)\n Tanya's Time-Travel Teapot – a girl who uses her magical teapot to reverse the flow of time and change events to help her friend win a showjumping contest.", "Tarquin Hoylett – he has to go to the toilet – finds himself saving a desperate situation - e.g. landing a jumbo jet after the flight crew fall unconscious - only to abandon the effort at the last moment in order to visit the lavatory. \"Excuse me, I must go to the toilet.\"", "Tasha Slappa – originally Kappa Slappa, after the sportswear brand, but changed on \"legal advice\". She is a teenage girl who follows a stereotypical \"chav\" lifestyle, and lives at home in Newcastle with her lazy, irresponsible mother and countless siblings, all from different (and unknown) fathers. Her main pursuits involve maximising her income from the state benefits system (for her own use) and shoplifting. Tasha is a moody, belligerent and foul-mouthed teenage girl", ". Tasha is a moody, belligerent and foul-mouthed teenage girl. She is arrogant, aggressive and frequently dismisses things with \"I divvint give a fuck\" (divvint is Geordie dialect for don't). She also has a boyfriend called Bobba – who it is hinted may also be her father and grandfather – who is fiercely defensive of her and has a violent temper, so that she can persuade him to beat up just about anyone for the most arbitrary of reasons", ". (Overtones of 'Big Fuckin' Dave' - which see) He is not very intelligent and is susceptible to anything she tells him, enabling her to get the better of him if he upsets her or tries to order her about. She is unbelievably lazy, constantly truants and will go to any lengths to avoid any other work", ". She is unbelievably lazy, constantly truants and will go to any lengths to avoid any other work. She was an avid fan of the now-defunct Jeremy Kyle Show (a British television chat show aimed at a lower-class audience) and many of her schemes centered on procuring a way for her to sit at home all day and watch it non-stop. Her other hobbies include having sexual intercourse with strangers (when Bobba is not around), binge drinking, smoking and gossiping with her equally delinquent friends", ". As well as her being Rat Boy's sister, Tasha's mother (\"Mam\") and numerous children have had their own strips in the comic.", "Tax Inspectre – A ghost that works as a financial auditor.\n Teevee Twins – Two young boys who attempt to make their own TV programmes (using a cardboard box as a pretend camera), pestering people for interviews and even deliberately causing accidents so they have something exciting to film. The strip would usually end with them trying to \"film\" some kind of violent criminal and being beaten up.", "Telly Evangelist – A Roman Catholic priest, Father O'Brien, who is addicted to television. Whenever he is not watching television he is talking about it (often doing both at the same time).\n Terry Addict – a man obsessed with TV, who goes to desperate lengths to watch television after his own set is stolen by a burglar. He eventually gets arrested after Mrs Brady, Old Lady (which see) reports him to police for loitering outside a television shop.", "Terry Fuckwitt – \"The unintelligent cartoon character\"; an extremely dim-witted boy. Fuckwitt continuously mistakes situations, objects and people for each other. In appearance, he is cross-eyed and has wild black hair sticking up in a style resembling dreadlocks, and wears absurd platform shoes. Due to the swear word in his name, the comic never prints it in its entirety on the front page, often obscuring it with another graphic element, or else spoonerising it to \"Wuckfitt\"", ". In one strip he appears to be getting married, but it is revealed that he is not in a church, but in a nuclear power plant, and that his bride is a rod of uranium. Fuckwitt's surreal misunderstandings are sometimes extended in multiple directions, or even circularly", ". Fuckwitt may be chastised by another character for being in the wrong place, and that character may later themselves be revealed to be someone completely different based on a misunderstanding of the first character, making it apparent that in fact Fuckwitt's initial impression was correct. These \"facts\" then may be completely reversed in a surprise reveal in the next frame, and so forth.", "Terry and Dune - A four-frame once-only in which Terry is warned by June to 'Walk across the patio without rhythm, dear'. He manages to sit down, but then in the last frame a Dune sandworm crashes up from below and breaks the patio!\n Terry the Tanked-Up Engine - Once-only spoof on Thomas, in which Terry and his friends are found sleeping off a huge binge. The controller comes on the scene, singing the following version of the old favourite, after which they wake up and immediately throw up:", "Down by the station, early in the morning, \nsee the little puffing billies standing in a row.\nMan on the engine, pulls the little lever, \n'Toot-toot, barf, barf, up they throw!'\n Terry Tree – A man who turns into a tree at inconvenient times.\n Tex Wade – \"Frontier Accountant\"; cowboy desperado and financial auditor who shoots dead anyone who crosses his path (and fails to balance their books properly).", "The Adventures of Sir Isaac Newton - A strip about Sir Isaac Newton trying to prove his theory of gravity by making apples fall to the ground.\n The Artist Formerly Known as Prince in the Tower – whimsical strip where, after reading about the Princes in the Tower, musician Prince travels back in time to Plantagenet London to save them from Richard III.", "The Clockwork Mountie Grand Prix Boxing Jungle Boy of the Foreign Legion - 18 Year old Jack Simmons who was the most unusual legionnaire at the Saharan outpost of Fort Laplume. Raised in the African jungle by a family of apes, flyweight boxing champ Jack ws the lucky owner of a fantastic formula one racing car which was carried everywhere by his incredible army of miniature robotic Canadian Mounties.", "The Human League (In Outer Space) – a strip featuring the 1980s pop band and their adventures in outer space (parodying the cartoon series Josie and the Pussycats in Outer Space).\n The Teacher from the Black Lagoon – a parody of the Creature from the Black Lagoon. A monstrous teacher drags victims to his underwater classroom where he bores them to death with lessons.\n The Three Blairs – A parody of The Beano's Three Bears featuring Tony, Cherie and Leo.", "The Three Blairs – A parody of The Beano's Three Bears featuring Tony, Cherie and Leo.\n The Three Wise Stooges - A strip about The Three Stooges as the three wise men delivering presents to baby Jesus.\n The Things – bizarre aliens that were contrived into situations whereby the human participants could say things like \"These things... (situation)...\"", "Thermos O'Flask – A man who dresses as a Thermos flask and cannot keep away from prostitutes. Each strip revolves around Thermos's attempts to avoid encountering a prostitute, but he always gives in by the end.\n There's a Holness in my Pocket – Young Danny Dearelizadeareliza was the luckiest owner of a miniature Blockbusters host Bob Holness, which lived in his jacket pocket.", "Thieving Gypsy Bastards – Infamous one-off strip about Irish travellers, the \"Mc O'Dougles\", who descend on a middle-class front garden and steal and vandalise everything in sight, with the approval of the local council, before moving on. On the next page there was a three-panel \"compensatory\" strip entitled The Nice, Honest Gypsies. It involved an old Romany woman giving change back to a home owner who had been overcharged for some clothes pegs", ". An end note adding that in next month's strip The Good Honest Gypsies would be renewing the car tax on their big American car. Both strips caused uproar from race relation groups in the UK. The publishers were accused of promoting prejudice and hatred against an ethnic minority", ". The publishers were accused of promoting prejudice and hatred against an ethnic minority. Following involvement by the UK's Commission for Racial Equality, the British Romany Council and even receiving a reprimand from the United Nations, the next issue of Viz contained a 'cut-out-and-keep' apology, subtitled \"what every gypsy's been waiting for!\".", "Thoughtful Bully – A high-school student who can present a good case to his teacher why he should be allowed to bully his classmates.\n The Kray Kittens – A one off strip about The Kray Twins, Reggie and Ronnie as kittens causing problems for a family man.\n The Mcbrowntrouts – strip centred on a Scottish family and their toilet-humour antics. A parody of the real comic strip The Broons.", "The Vibrating Bum-faced Goats – an influential one-off strip where two schoolchildren from the city go to stay with their grandfather in the countryside. The grandfather owns a herd of petrol-driven mechanical goats with buttocks in place of faces – referred to in the strip as robotic rump-resembling ruminants.\n Thomas the Tank Top and Friends – A parody of Thomas and Friends depicting the titular E2 Tank Locomotive as a wooly jumper.", "Thomas and the Breakdown - Quarter-page adaptation of Thomas in which a (suicidal?) fellow jumps in front of Thomas causing the engine to have a massive nervous breakdown. The last frame has everyone except Thomas asleep, and from Thomas' shed comes a huge sob!", "Timothy Potter – Trainspotter – Went round taking video of trains with his camcorder, in particular British Rail Class 37 locomotives, then had \"one off the wrist\" whilst playing back the videos on the telly. Often portrayed as being very short sighted (for example he mistook a set of golf clubs for his brother).\n Tina's Tits – A schoolgirl with unreasonably large breasts. She is convinced that they possess magical powers, when they clearly do not.", "Tinribs – recalls the adventures of schoolboy Tommy Taylor and his \"incredible robot\" Tinribs. Despite the fact that Tinribs is supposedly a highly advanced robot, it is obvious that he is made up very basic parts including a skateboard, a box, two tins and a voicebox that constantly repeats \"Hi. I'm Barbie. I love you very much.\"", ". I'm Barbie. I love you very much.\". Regardless, everyone around Tommy believes Tinribs to be a miracle of technology, with the exception of teacher Mr Snodworthy who always ends up suffering graphic and very painful injuries during the course of each strip. Based on the D.C. Thompson character Brassneck.", "Tip Top Tony – a man obsessed with his favourite canned foods: Tip Top (canned cream) and PEK canned pork. When his mother snaps and tries to serve him a different brand (saying she is sick of PEK because it's all her late husband would ever eat), Tony becomes suicidal and has to be talked out of jumping by an exasperated police officer.\n TNT Tommy - a boy with a compulsion to blow people up for no apparent reason.\n Toast Kid – a child who attempts to solve problems using toast.", "Toast Kid – a child who attempts to solve problems using toast.\n Toby's Jug – A strip about a boy called Toby who claims that his jug can solve people's problems, except it does not.\n Tom and Gerry – a one off strip that is a parody of Tom & Jerry, the only real difference being that Jerry's name is spelt with a G instead of a J. The strip is centred on Tom finally catching Jerry and commenting, \"Got the bastard!\"", "Tommy and his Magic Shoes – A one off strip from the late 1970s (also appears in The Big Hard One annual) in which the titular character gets requested from a random reader who appears in the strip to see his magic shoes, only to be told that \"some bleeder ripped them off\".\n Tommy and his Trifle – \"Young Tommy Thompson was the luckiest boy in Barndale, for he had an enormous trifle.\" Tommy and his trifle get involved in snack-related hijinks at his school.", "Tommy \"Banana\" Johnson – an influential early strip since reprinted in different formats such as a \"12\" remix\", an 'Irish Dance' version, and an \"on ice\" version. The strip depicts the titular boy with a giant banana, pointlessly offering it to solve people's problems. A policeman then shoves the banana up Johnson's anus.", "Tommy Salter – Chemical Capers – A young boy obsessed with performing bizarre experiments (such as forcing his sister to smoke asbestos cigarettes) with a total disregard for safety. His name comes from the Thomas Salter range of chemistry sets popular during the 1970s and 1980s.\n Tommy Tetley's Topping Teapot - A boy who owns a magical teapot attempts to start a business selling tea, but fails as he cannot lift the enormous, heavy teapot.", "Tommy's Gun – A one off strip about a boy with a gun who fires rounds of bullets at everything until he gets shot by an armed policeman.\n Tony Slattery's Phony Cattery – A strip in which Tony Slattery inexplicably owns a fake cattery with a cardboard facade and recorded cat noises.\n Topless Jan Fox and her Cornflakes Box – A dimwitted young woman who wanders around wearing nothing above the waist (hence the \"topless\" part) who believes a box of cornflakes she is holding has magical powers.", "Topless Skateboarding Nun – A companion piece to Nude Motorcycle Girl, this strip features a well-endowed young nun who fights crime and saves orphans while riding on a skateboard – naked except for a wimple, a sensible skirt and big clumpy shoes.", "Tranny Magnet – a short, balding middle-aged bachelor who is irresistibly attractive to transsexuals and cross-dressers, although he desperately wants to find a real woman. (The title is a pun on the expression \"Fanny Magnet\" meaning variously something which will supposedly make a man highly attractive to women, or, a man who imagines himself to be so.)", "Tristram Banks and his Jocular Pranks – A man who plays very serious, even fatal, \"pranks\" on others (such as cutting someone's nose off with a machete) until his surviving victims conspire to get him back by running him over with a steamroller.", "Trumptown - A very bleak version of Camberwick Green's Trumpton, featuring Donald Trump building a wall to separate Trumptown and Chigley, making Chigley pay the bill, throwing Chigleans back through the gate in the wall, shooting others who disagree with him and making a very bad impression on most. There is one peasant, obviously brainless, who keeps on shouting 'TRUMP! TRUMP!' and cheering him on. The reader is left to draw their own conclusion.\n Tubby Johnson – an impossibly fat boy.", "Tubby Johnson – an impossibly fat boy.\n Tubby Tucker The Big Fat...Person – A one off strip about an obese boy who eats anything and ends up in a surgery room and ends up having his intestines sent to a sausage factory.\n Twitter Parish Council – A group of town councillors who never get anything done, as they are constantly arguing as if on Twitter (even though their meetings are held in-person.)", "VAR Wars - A one-off strip where Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader's lightsaber duel is interrupted by a referee wanting to check a video replay of Luke's hand being sliced off, with the two complaining that things were much better when they were allowed to just get on with it.", "V.D. O'Nasty – A one off strip about a boy called Vincent Damien O'Nasty who loved watching horror movies, he even tries to emulate them until he gets stabbed in the back by his own mother after recreating the iconic shower scene from Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho.\n Vibrating Bum-Faced Goats - The goats of the title help children solve crime and save people. A parody of animal features common in the 60s and 70s, like Lassie, Skippy etc., as well as Enid Blyton's Famous Five books.", "Vicki Drake – A woman who acts everyday life as if she is hosting a talk show. A parody of real-life talk show host Ricki Lake.\n Victor and his Boa Constrictor – A strip about a man and his pet boa constrictor. A parody of Sid's Snake from Whizzer and Chips.\n Victor Pratt, the Stupid Twat – A top hat-wearing twat, who makes poor puns to his friend on a motorcycle.", "Victorian Dad – a father who applies strict Victorian values to himself and his family, even though they are living in the present. This also appeared during the Back to Basics campaign, and could be seen as a satirical commentary on it.\n Vidal Baboon – A baboon employed as a \"stylist\" at an upmarket hairdresser's; it ends up scalping the customer and trashing the salon (issue 125)\n Vlad's Army - A parody of Dad's Army starring Vladimir Putin.", "Vlad's Army - A parody of Dad's Army starring Vladimir Putin.\n Wacky Racists – a parody of the Hanna-Barbera cartoon television series Wacky Races, featuring a number of far right personalities including Adolf Hitler, Eugène Terre'Blanche, Unity Mitford (akin to Penelope Pitstop), the Ku Klux Klan and David Irving with his companion mutt Mosley (akin to Dick Dastardly and Muttley). Vehicles included the \"Mein Kampfervan\".", "Wanker Watson – a parody of the Winker Watson strip from The Dandy, set in a boys' boarding school, following the antics of Watson and his friends, and their hapless nemesis, Mr Creep. This strip prompted litigation by Dandy owners, D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd.", "We ... – A very bleak strip in which a man is seen working in different businesses, usually providing some kind of service to people in financial hardship (such as a bank, private loans company, pawn shop, car hire, or running a very questionable guest house). He is completely unsympathetic to customers' personal circumstances, insists they pay the maximum of charges and fees, refuses to negotiate, and constantly mocks and demeans them for their unfortunate situation", ". However, some of his customers are shown to be equally unscrupulous, e.g. in one strip where the man's business is buying hair for use in wigs, he deals with a family who have forced all their children to sell their hair in order to raise enough funds for an Xbox", ". Some strips have shown him in positions of authority (such as a bailiff or security guard) or simply as an aggressive salesman - one strip had him exploiting a customer's pay per view porn habit in order to sell an outrageously expensive TV and sound system. The title of the strip comes from its description of the business involved, e.g. \"We Buy Gold\" or \"We Give Money\"; and the main character's habit of saying \"We ...\" in order to justify his actions as company policy", "...\" in order to justify his actions as company policy. Often he has featured in other strips where such a person is needed.", "We Three Kays – A one-off strip featuring Peter Kay, Vernon Kay and Gorden Kaye in the roles of the Three Wise Men visiting the newborn Jesus during the Nativity. Despite Gorden's worries that he is not as famous as Peter and Vernon, he is gratified when Jesus asks him to recall his car accident from 1990.", "Wee Radge Joe – A short man who tends to make too much of an accident, misunderstanding or taunting from youngsters, ending in him getting beaten up as he will not \"Let it go\" or walk away when the other person involved (who is usually larger than him) is happy to do so.\n Will Selfie – A narcissistic young man obsessed with taking the perfect selfie, even to the extent of mutilating himself to look good in the pictures. His name appears to be based on that of author Will Self.", "William's Pissed Wellingtons – a young boy and his alcoholic wellington boots. The name is a pun on the UK children's TV cartoon series William's Wish Wellingtons.\n Whinging Pom – a stuffy, homesick English expatriate who unfavourably compares everything he experiences in Australia, including a beating meted out to him.\n Whiskers Galore – a man goes into an unfamiliar pub and is unnerved to notice that he is the only patron without a bushy beard. The title is a pun on Whisky Galore!", "Whoops! Aisle Apocalypse – a strip concerning a couple whose husband insists on buying food (and occasionally other items) from the discounted aisle in his local supermarket. As a result, the couple often end up eating food that is well-past its sell by date (and usually having already started to spoil) as well as often getting into fights with similar thrifty people", ". In one recent strip the husband finally agrees to stop visiting the discount aisle, only to be forced back into it by the constant rise in energy prices.", "A Woke Werewolf in London - a young Londoner with very politically correct views, who is bitten by a werewolf and turns into one himself. He goes on a rampage and mauls someone, only to regret it and apologise as they are on the minimum wage. The following day, he has no memory of any of this; but the right-wing press have picked up the story and are complaining about the \"woke werewolf\" being an example of cancel culture.", "Wolf Halls – A middle-aged couple obsessed with wolves who appear to dislike another couple of a similar age, who appear to have an obsession with tigers. The two couples are oblivious that the daughter of the wolf couple and the son of the tiger couple are in a relationship (i.e. a modern take on Romeo and Juliet).\n Woman Man - A strip about a male superhero whose powers are that of the common everyday woman.", "Woman Man - A strip about a male superhero whose powers are that of the common everyday woman.\n Wooly Wilfy Wichardson – a man with a left-wing leaning (e.g. he tries to tell two other men to stop fighting in a pub) and a speech impediment (as suggested in the title) who had his own strip in an early issue of Viz, but has more recently appeared in other strips - for example, as a counsellor who tries to curb Spoilt Bastard's bad behaviour, but actually ends up spanking the obnoxious boy.", "X-Ray - A boy named Ray who has X-ray vision glasses that help him solve a robbery (and ogle a policewoman whose uniform he can see through.)\n Xmas Perv - A one-off strip featuring Maxwell, a kinky Christmas pervert. Mrs Ottershaw makes an appearance, as does the \"Ladies Fundamentals\" shop, both featured in Archie McBlarter's Farting Dilemmas.\n Yakety Yak - A one off strip about a yak that talks too much.", "Yakety Yak - A one off strip about a yak that talks too much.\n Yankee Dougal – an English kid who thinks he is American. He eventually gains US citizenship, and is drafted to serve in the Vietnam War.\n Yasser's Glasses – A one off strip about Yasser Arafat who owns a pair of glasses that can see through women's clothing, except he ends up seeing through men's clothing instead.", "Young Bailey – A one-off strip featuring a schoolboy who looks and behaves like Rumpole of the Bailey. He argues constantly with his parents and teachers over trivial points and shouts \"Objection!\" while being caned by the headmaster. The original Young Bailey is a character in Dickens' Martin Chuzzlewit.\n Young Max and his Celebrity Pervert House of Wax – a schoolboy who owns a wax museum where all the exhibits are of celebrities convicted of child molestation.", "Young Stan, Son of Man – A young boy who blesses his family, says \"verily\" a lot, blesses the bread at breakfast, and moves (i.e., walks) in a mysterious way. An irritation to his mother.\n Zip o' Lightning – a strip about a young boy who believes he has an alien friend, who is actually a robber with a bucket on his head.\n 11 Dads for Daisy - the story of a young girl who is raised by Plymouth Argyle F.C. after the deaths of her parents.", "References\n\nExternal links \n Flash scan of strip from Viz website: Roger Irrelevant (archived from the original on June 15, 2008)\n\nViz\nViz\nViz" ]

[ "The Helter Skelter scenario is an apocalyptic vision that was supposedly embraced by Charles Manson and members of his so-called Family. At the trial of Manson and three others for the Tate–LaBianca murders, the prosecution presented it as motivating the crimes and as an aspect of the case for conspiracy. Via interviews and autobiographies, former Family members related what they had witnessed and experienced of it.", "In both the trial and his subsequent book, Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders, prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi presented evidence that, in a period that preceded the murders, Manson prophesied what he called Helter Skelter, an apocalyptic war that would arise from racial tensions between black and white people. The prophecy involved reference to the New Testament's Book of Revelation and to The Beatles' music, particularly songs from their 1968 White Album.", "A major part of the evidence was the testimony of Paul Watkins, a Family member who was not involved in the crimes and who presented the vision in full form. Though the defendants were convicted on all charges of conspiracy and murder, various parties have argued for other motives of the murders. Writers, police detectives, attorneys involved with the case, and perpetrators have contended that the crimes were copycat killings, revenge for a bad drug deal, or a combination thereof.", "Background", "As assembled by Bugliosi, the evidence of the vision indicated that Manson had been predicting racial conflict for some time before he used the term Helter Skelter. According to Paul Watkins, he first used the term at a gathering of the Family on New Year's Eve 1968 at Myers Ranch, near California's Death Valley. The apocalyptic scenario had Manson as the war's ultimate beneficiary and its musical cause", ". The apocalyptic scenario had Manson as the war's ultimate beneficiary and its musical cause. With the Family, Manson would create an album whose songs would bear messages as subtle as those he had heard in songs of the Beatles. These would draw the \"love\"—the hippies in Haight-Ashbury— to join the family.", "In the vision's logic, black men would thus be deprived of the white women whom the political changes of the 1960s had made sexually available to them; they would lash out in violent crimes against whites. Manson, according to Family member Brooks Poston, \"said a group of real blacks would come out of the ghettos and do an atrocious crime in the richer sections of Los Angeles and other cities", ". They would do an atrocious murder with stabbing, killing, cutting bodies to pieces, smearing blood on the walls, writing 'pigs' on the walls... in the victims' own blood.\"", "When frightened whites, according to Watkins and Tex Watson, would retaliate with a murderous rampage, militant blacks would exploit it to provoke a war of near-extermination between racist and non-racist whites over the treatment of blacks. In the wake of that, black militants would arise to finish off the few white survivors and to kill off all non-blacks.", "In this holocaust, as Watkins went on to explain, the members of the enlarged Family would have little to fear; they would wait out the war in a secret city underneath Death Valley, a city they'd reach through a hole in the ground. Upon the war's conclusion, they would be the only remaining whites. Emerging from underground, they would rule the blacks, who, having \"completed the white man's karma\", would want no longer to kill", ". Proving, as Watkins explained, incapable of running the world, blacks would go to Manson, who'd \"scratch [the black man's] fuzzy head and kick him in the butt and tell him to go pick the cotton and go be a good nigger.\"", "The term Helter Skelter was taken from the Beatles' song of the same name, which Manson purportedly interpreted as concerned with the war. The song was on the band's self-titled double album, also known as the \"White Album\", which Manson heard within a month or so of its November 1968 release.", "Appearing in a 2009 documentary, former Manson follower Catherine Share said the following:When the Beatles' White Album came out, Charlie listened to it over and over and over and over again. He was quite certain that the Beatles had tapped in to his spirit, the truth—that everything was gonna come down and the black man was going to rise. It wasn't that Charlie listened to the White Album and started following what he thought the Beatles were saying. It was the other way around", ". It was the other way around. He thought that the Beatles were talking about what he had been expounding for years. Every single song on the White Album, he felt that they were singing about us. The song 'Helter Skelter'—he was interpreting that to mean the blacks were gonna go up and the whites were gonna go down.", "According to Paul Watkins, Manson and his followers began preparing for Helter Skelter in the months before they committed the murders. They worked on songs for the hoped-for album, which they anticipated would set off everything. They prepared vehicles and other items for escape from their Los Angeles base to Death Valley, when the days of violence would arrive. They pored over maps to plot a route that would bypass highways and get them to the desert safely. Manson, according to Tex Watson, \"used ..", ". Manson, according to Tex Watson, \"used ... parts of the song [\"Helter Skelter\"] to plot out [the] escape route to the desert.\"", "Tate-LaBianca murders", "On the night of August 9–10, 1969, Manson and several Family members drove to the Los Angeles home of Leno and Rosemary LaBianca, who were murdered. In trial testimony, an interview with the Los Angeles Times, or autobiography, Linda Kasabian, Susan Atkins, and Tex Watson, who were in the party, stated that Manson guided the group to the home, directed the tying-up of the LaBiancas or said he'd tied them up, or gave instruction as to the killings", ". In LaBianca blood, one or more female Family members wrote \"Healter Skelter\" on the refrigerator and \"Rise\" and \"Death to Pigs\" on walls.", "On the previous night, August 8–9, Tex Watson and three female Family members had driven to 10050 Cielo Drive, in Beverly Hills, where actress Sharon Tate and four other persons were murdered", ". In trial testimony, an interview with the Los Angeles Times, or autobiography, Linda Kasabian, Susan Atkins, and Tex Watson, who were in the party, stated that Manson assembled the group, whom he instructed to get weapons and changes of clothes; gave an instruction to \"Go with Tex and do whatever Tex tells you to do\"; and/or instructed Watson to go to the house and kill everyone in it. Using Tate's blood, Atkins wrote \"Pig\" on the door.", "Earlier that day, Kasabian would testify, Manson told the Family, \"Now is the time for Helter Skelter.\" Upon the group's return from the Tate residence, stated Watson, in his autobiography, Manson asked him, \"Was it really Helter Skelter?\" Replied Watson, \"Yeah, it was sure Helter Skelter.\"", "On October 12, 1969, during the arrests that led to the charges in the murders, California Highway Patrol officer James Pursell found Manson at Barker Ranch. According to Pursell, \"Charlie told us that his group was out there looking for a place to hide because there was an impending race war. He told us that the blacks were going to win. He told us that because we were number one, cops, and number two, white, we should stop right there, let them loose, and flee for our lives.\"", "In early 1969, Paul Watkins told Bugliosi, Manson had told him Helter Skelter would start that summer. In May or June, months after he had been frustrated in his efforts to make the album,he told Watkins Helter Skelter was \"ready to happen.\" \"Blackie never did anything without whitey showin' him how,\" Watkins would recount Manson's saying. \"Helter Skelter is coming down. But it looks like we're gonna have to show blackie how to do it.\"", "References to the Beatles and the Book of Revelation \nIn Helter Skelter, Bugliosi writes that Manson told \"numerous people\", including former Barker gang member Alvin Karpis, that \"given the chance, he could be much bigger than the Beatles.\"", "In My Life with Charles Manson, Watkins said Manson delivered the Helter Skelter prophecy around a campfire at Myers Ranch. As Family members listened to the White Album repeatedly over the following days, they believed it:At that point Charlie's credibility seemed indisputable. For weeks he had been talking of revolution, prophesying it. We had listened to him rap; we were geared for it—making music to program the young love", ". We had listened to him rap; we were geared for it—making music to program the young love. Then, from across the Atlantic, the hottest music group in the world substantiates Charlie with an album which is almost blood-curdling in its depiction of violence. It was uncanny.Watkins said, too, that Manson \"spent hours quoting and interpreting Revelation to the Family, particularly verses from chapter 9\".", "Watson wrote that the Bible had \"absolutely no meaning in our life in the Family\" apart from Revelation chapter 9. Manson lived with an aunt and uncle for a period in his childhood when his mother was in prison. He later told a counselor that the aunt and uncle had \"some marital difficulty until they became interested in religion and became very extreme\".", "Beatles songs, as interpreted in the vision \nThe following summarizes Bugliosi's account of statements made to him by Family members Paul Watkins and Brooks Poston and talent scout Gregg Jakobson. It also includes statements from Tex Watson's autobiography, published years after the Tate–LaBianca murders, and statements of Manson himself to David Dalton.", "\"Honey Pie\"\nLyric: Oh, honey pie, my position is tragic / Come and show me the magic / Of your Hollywood song\nMeaning: The Beatles know Jesus Christ has returned to Earth and is in Los Angeles. They want Manson to create his \"song\", that is, his album that will set off Helter Skelter.\nLyric: Oh, honey pie, you are driving me frantic / Sail across the Atlantic / To be where you belong\nMeaning: The Beatles want Jesus Christ to come to England.", "Meaning: The Beatles want Jesus Christ to come to England.\nConsequence: In early 1969, states Bugliosi in Helter Skelter, Manson and his female followers attempt to contact the Beatles by letter, telegram, and telephone; they are struggling to make clear to the Beatles that it is they, the Beatles, who are to come across the Atlantic, to join the family in Death Valley.\n\"I Will, \"Yer Blues\", \"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Blue Jay Way\" were all interpreted as the Beatles are calling for Jesus Christ.", "\"Blue Jay Way\" appeared on Magical Mystery Tour, the album that preceded the \"White Album\". The Family had come to call its journey from San Francisco, to Los Angeles, the \"Magical Mystery Tour\".\nLyric (I Will): And when at last I find you/ Your song will fill the air/ Sing it loud so I can hear you/ Make it easy to be near you...\nMeaning: The Beatles want Manson to make an album.\n\"Sexy Sadie\"", "Meaning: The Beatles want Manson to make an album.\n\"Sexy Sadie\"\nSignificance: Manson had renamed Family member Susan Atkins \"Sadie Mae Glutz\" long before the release of the \"White Album\". This served to reinforce the mental connection Manson felt he had with the Beatles.", "In San Francisco, where she met Manson, Atkins had been a topless dancer. Paul Watkins wrote that Atkins \"thrived on sex\", and he even seemed to suggest she had the nickname Sexy Sadie before the Family heard the song. Similarly, Tex Watson wrote that the words of \"Sexy Sadie\" fit Atkins so well \"that it made us all sure [the Beatles] had to be singing directly to us", ".\" Watson specifically noted that the song's title character \"came along to turn on everyone\", \"broke the rules\", and \"laid it down for all to see\". Atkins, he said, \"had broken all the rules, sexually, and liked to talk about her experience and lack of inhibitions\".", "\"Rocky Raccoon\"\nSignificance: Rocky Raccoon means \"coon\", a racial epithet for a black man.\nOf all the Beatles songs known to have been connected with Helter Skelter, this is the only one that mentions the Bible.", "So one day [Rocky Raccoon] walked into town / Booked himself a room in the local saloon / Rocky Raccoon / Checked into his room / Only to find Gideon's Bible ... Now Rocky Raccoon / He fell back in his room / Only to find Gideon's Bible / Gideon checked out / And he left it no doubt / To help with good Rocky's revival.", "Before his trial, Manson was visited at the Los Angeles County Jail by David Dalton and David Felton, who were preparing a Rolling Stone story. An article in the magazine's issue of June 25, 1970, included a passage in which Manson was quoted about \"Rocky Raccoon\":", "\"Coon,\" said Charlie. \"You know that's a word they use for black people. You know the line, 'Gideon checked out / And left no doubt / To help good Rocky's revival.' Rocky's revival—re-vival. It means coming back to life. The black man is going to come into power again. 'Gideon checks out' means that it's all written out there in the New Testament, in the Book of Revelations.\n\"Happiness Is a Warm Gun\"\nSignificance: The Beatles are telling blacks to get guns and fight whites.", "Significance: The Beatles are telling blacks to get guns and fight whites.\nSample lyric: When I hold you in my arms / And I feel my finger on your trigger / I know no one can do me no harm / Because happiness is a warm gun / (Bang bang, shoot shoot)\n\"Blackbird\"\nLyric: Blackbird singing in the dead of night / Take these broken wings and learn to fly / All your life / You were only waiting for this moment to arise.", "Meaning: The black man is going to arise and overthrow the white man. The Beatles are programming blacks to rise.\nTex Watson wrote: \"[The white Establishment] would slaughter thousands of blacks, but actually only manage to eliminate all the Uncle Toms, since the true black race would have hidden, waiting for their moment\".\n\"Helter Skelter\"\nLyric: When I get to the bottom I go back to the top of the slide / Where I stop and I turn and I go for a ride", "Significance: A reference to the Family's emergence from \"the Bottomless Pit\", the underground Death Valley hideaway where the group will escape the violence of Helter Skelter.\nLyric: Look out... Helter Skelter... She's coming down fast... Yes she is.\nMeaning: The upcoming explosion of race-based violence is imminent.\n\"Piggies\"\nLyric: What they need's a damn good whacking\nSignificance: Blacks are going to give \"the piggies\"—i.e., the establishment—a damned good whacking.", "Lyric: Everywhere there's lots of piggies / Living piggy lives / You can see them out for dinner / With their piggy wives / Clutching forks and knives / To eat their bacon.\nBugliosi noted that Leno LaBianca was left with a knife in his throat and a fork in his stomach, details that led Bugliosi to draw a further connection with George Harrison's song.\n\"Revolution 1\"", "\"Revolution 1\"\nLyric: You say you want a revolution / Well you know / We all want to change the world ... / But when you talk about destruction / Don't you know that you can count me out (in)", "Significance: The singing of \"in\" after the word \"out\", even though \"in\" does not appear in the lyrics as they were presented on the printed sheet enclosed with the album, indicates that the Beatles had been undecided but now favor revolution. The Beatles, as Tex Watson relates Manson's view, are no longer on a \"peace-and-love trip\", but they cannot admit as much to the establishment.\nLyric: You say you got a real solution / Well you know / We'd all love to see the plan", "Lyric: You say you got a real solution / Well you know / We'd all love to see the plan\nMeaning: The Beatles want Manson to tell them how to escape the horrors of Helter Skelter. According to Watson and as told to Bugliosi: the Beatles are ready for violence and want Manson to create an album that will tell them what to do.\n\"Revolution 9\"", "\"Revolution 9\"\nAccording to Tex Watson this is the White Album piece Manson spoke about the most, the one he deemed most significant. In his 1970 conversation with Dalton, Manson said that \"Revolution 9\" was the track that \"turned me on\" to the message of Revelations chapter 9, which \"predicts the overthrow of the Establishment. The pit will be opened, and that's when it will all come down. A third of all mankind will die.\"", "Significance: The machine-gun fire, the oinking of pigs, and the word \"Rise\". The piece is audio representation of the coming conflict; the repeated utterance \"Number 9\" is reference to Chapter 9 of the Book of Revelation. In his Rolling Stone interview, Manson identified the pig sounds followed by machine-gun fire as significant details that \"predict the violent overthrow of the White man\". When asked whether the Beatles intended such a message, Manson replied: \"I don't know whether they did or not", ". But it's there. It's an association in the subconscious. This music is bringing on the revolution, the unorganized overthrow of the Establishment. The Beatles know in the sense that the subconscious knows.\"", "\"Rise,\" Gregg Jakobson tells Bugliosi, is \"one of [Manson's] big words\"; the black man is going to \"rise\" up against the white man. According to Ed Sanders while Manson played \"Revolution 9\", he [screamed] \"Rise! Rise! Rise!\"\nSanders also writes that Manson heard the Beatles whispering: \"Charlie, Charlie, send us a telegram.\"", "Years later Tex Watson tied the prophecy to one more White Album song, \"Everybody's Got Something to Hide Except Me and My Monkey\", though he changed monkey to monkeys. While on LSD at a party in late March 1969, Watson states in his autobiography, he and two Manson girls realized they themselves were \"the monkeys ... just bright-eyed, free little animals, totally uninhibited,\" as they started \"bouncing around the apartment, throwing food against the walls, and laughing hysterically\".", "Book of Revelation, as interpreted in the vision \nChapter 7:\nVerse 4: And I heard the number of them which were sealed: and there were sealed one hundred and forty and four thousand of all the tribes of the children of Israel.\nOne hundred forty-four thousand would be the membership of the Family when, in Helter Skelter's aftermath, it would emerge from \"the bottomless pit\" to rule.", "Tex Watson said this growth in the Manson Family would be a result of procreation, while Paul Watkins stated that it would result from the release of the Family's album, which would draw other people to the group. Watkins also said that the Family would acquire babies made homeless in Helter Skelter. Several decades were to pass before the Family would at last depart the Bottomless Pit; the group would live there in miniaturized form.", "Chapter 9:\nVerses 2–3: And he opened the bottomless pit.... And there came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth; and unto them was given power, as the scorpions of the earth have power.\nlocusts refers to the Beatles\nAccording to Watkins, as the scorpions of the earth have power means the power of scorpion, that is, Manson, a Scorpio, will prevail", "bottomless pit = the underground city in which the Family would ride out the ravages of Helter Skelter. The Family would be lowered into this by means of a gold rope; Manson bought gold rope at a Santa Monica sporting-goods store.", "Verses 7–8:...[A]nd [the locusts'] faces were as the faces of men. And they had hair as the hair of women...\nAccording to Gregg Jakobson: the Beatles are men with long hair\nVerse 17: And thus I saw the horses in the vision, and them that sat on them, having breastplates of fire, and of jacinth, and brimstone: and the heads of the horses were as the heads of lions; and out of their mouths issued fire and smoke and brimstone.", "Breastplates of fire, according to Brooks Poston = the Beatles' electric guitars. Fire and smoke and brimstone out of their mouths, according to Gregg Jakobson = the power of the Beatles' lyrics. According to Watson, this was the power of their music to ignite Helter Skelter\nVerse 7: And the shapes of the locusts were like unto horses prepared unto battle\nThe horses, Brooks Poston told Bugliosi, were the dune buggies the Family will be riding during Helter Skelter", "In Manson's view, according to Watkins, dune buggies were the ideal vehicles of the apocalypse; they would enable the Family to outrun police in the Bottomless Pit and were light enough that a few of the girls could carry them. During the war, the Family would be making forays from the Bottomless Pit. They would be fitted with machine gun mounts; while the men would drive, the girls would operate the guns.", "Fitted next to the steering wheel of Manson's personal buggy was a metal scabbard. It held a katana with which, in July 1969, Manson allegedly slashed the ear of Gary Hinman. On the buggy's front, wrote Ed Sanders, was a winch that Manson envisioned using to evade police. He would fling the winch's rope up into a tree and then winch himself up out of sight as pursuing officers would drive haplessly by.", "Family member Catherine Share said \"Charlie talked about Helter Skelter every night.... [W]e'd learn to live off the land. We'd live in the desert and come in on dune buggies and rescue the orphaned white babies. We'd be the saviors.\"\nVerse 15: And the four angels were loosed, which were prepared for an hour, and a day, and a month, and a year, for to slay the third part of men", "The four angels, according to Gregg Jakobson, were the Beatles. In the vision, Watson would state in his autobiography, they were prophets, preparing the way for Jesus Christ, i.e., Manson, to lead the chosen people away to safety\nslay the third part of men, according to Jakobson, meant \"one third of mankind ... the white race,\" which would die in Helter Skelter.\nVerse 16: And the number of the army of the horsemen were two hundred thousand thousand: and I heard the number of them.", "two hundred thousand thousand horsemen, according to Brooks Poston referred to Straight Satans motorcycle gang-members Manson was attempting to recruit into the Family\nThe Straight Satans were to be the Family's \"needed military wing\". According to Watkins the bikers and the Family would cruise through Helter Skelter in the manner of a flock of birds, all turning in one direction or another without even a sound from their leader.", "Verse 4: And it was commanded [that the locusts] should not hurt the grass of the earth, neither any green thing, neither any tree; but only those men which have not the seal of God in their foreheads.\nnot hurt the grass of the earth, neither any green thing, neither any tree meant only humans, not nature, will be destroyed in Helter Skelter according to Watkins", "the seal of God in their foreheads, according to Gregg Jakobson = a mark that would indicate whether someone was on Manson's side or not. In Helter Skelter, those without it would perish, Watson would state, in his characterization of the vision.\nVerse 20: And the rest of the men which were not killed by these plagues yet repented not of the works of their hands, that they should not worship devils, and idols of gold, and silver, and brass...", "the worship of idols of gold and silver and brass, according to Gregg Jakobson = the establishment's worship of materialism and money\nVerse 1: And the fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star fall from heaven unto the earth: and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit.\naccording to Gregg Jakobson, who arranged a recording session for Manson, the fifth angel is Stu Sutcliffe, one of the original five, not four, Beatles\naccording to Watson and Watkins, the fifth angel is Manson", "Chapter 10:\nVerses 1 and 2: And I saw another mighty angel come down from heaven, clothed with a cloud: and a rainbow was upon his head, and his face was as it were the sun, and his feet as pillars of fire: And he had in his hand a little book open: and he set his right foot upon the sea, and his left foot on the earth...", "For about two weeks after their departure from a house in Canoga Park, Family members moved into—or broke into—an unoccupied mansion that had recently been vacated by the rock group Iron Butterfly. In overlooking the sea from the Mulholland Hills, the house, according to Paul Watkins, met Manson's demand, in accordance with these verses, that \"[the Family] have access to the sea and to the desert and that the two roads be joined.\"", "Chapter 21:\nVerses 10 and 18: And [an angel] carried me away in the spirit to a great and high mountain, and showed me that great city... and the city was pure gold, like unto clear glass.\nVerse 23: And the city had no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to shine in it\nAccording to Watkins, the Family's sanctuary under Death Valley would be a city of gold where there would be no sun and no moon.", "Chapter 22:\nVerse 2: In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every month...\nAccording to Watkins, the city underneath Death Valley would have a tree that would bear twelve different kinds of fruit, a different kind each month.", "In relating how Manson would discourse in early 1969, while the Family was in the house in Canoga Park, Paul Watkins would report Manson's words as follows:", "Look at [the Beatles'] songs: songs sung all over the world by the young love; it ain't nothin' new.... It's written in... Revelation, all about the four angels programming the holocaust...the four angels looking for the fifth angel to lead the people into the pit of fire...right out to Death Valley.... It's all in black and white, in The White Album—white, so there ain't no mistakin' the color...", "In March 1969, Tex Watson, who'd separated himself from the Family after Manson and he first heard the White Album, rejoined the group. By that time, as he would recount in his autobiography, Helter Skelter had captured the group's imagination:", "Although I got it in bits and pieces, some from the women and some from Manson himself, it turned out to be a remarkably complicated yet consistent thing that he [Manson] had discovered and developed in the three months we'd been apart.... It was exciting, amazing stuff Charlie was teaching, and we'd sit around him for hours as he told us about the land of milk and honey we'd find underneath the desert and enjoy while the world above us was soaked in blood.", "Abbey Road \nAbbey Road was released in the United Kingdom in late September 1969 after the murders. By that time, most of the Family was at the group's camp in the Death Valley area searching for the Bottomless Pit. Three Family members arrived at the camp around October 1 with an advance copy of the album, which the group played on a battery-operated machine.", "Law officers raided the desert locations in the second week of October, found the Family with stolen vehicles, and arrested Manson and several others. By mid-November, Manson had become a suspect in the Tate-LaBianca murders, but Family members made their way back to Spahn Ranch after being released from jail. The LAPD confiscated a door on November 25 on which someone had written \"Helter Scelter is coming down fast", ".\" A photograph shows that the confiscated door was also inscribed with \"1, 2 3 4 5 6 7 — ALL GOOD CHILDREN (Go to Heaven?)\". This children's rhyme is heard in \"You Never Give Me Your Money\" on Abbey Road. In October 1970, the prosecution offered testimony about the door during Manson's trial for the Tate-LaBianca murders, but only the \"Helter Skelter\" inscription seems to have been noted.", "Tex Watson had left the desert camp and gone on to separate himself from the Family. By his own account, he bought a cassette recording of Abbey Road and played it continuously while walking for miles across the desert, to rejoin the group; he was hoping to see what The Beatles might have to tell him. He turned back at the last moment, and an old prospector informed him that the arrests had taken place.", "Three people were attacked on the beach near Santa Barbara, California in late July 1970 while Manson was on trial, two of them fatally. One of the Manson girls spoke of this incident as \"Maxwell's Silver Hammer\", an Abbey Road song about homicidal madness.", "In an interview with her court-appointed attorney, on December 29, 1969, Leslie Van Houten cited Come Together, the song with which Abbey Road opens: \"So because Charles is the type of person he is, like he's out front with people, and a lot of people had a hard time seeing him, or looking at him. And that's another line that the Beatles set up: 'He's got to be good-looking 'cause he's so hard to see,' because so many people couldn't even look at him.\"\n\nTimeline\n\n1969", "Around January 10: according to Paul Watkins, word comes from Manson, who is in Los Angeles, that the Family is to move from the desert to a house he found in Canoga Park. Because the canary-yellow house is a place where the Family, preparing for Helter Skelter, will be \"submerged beneath the awareness of the outside world,\" Manson, in the account of Watkins, dubs it the Yellow Submarine, another Beatles reference.", "Mid-February: according to Watkins, while he and Manson drove together, they saw a white woman and black man holding hands. Manson told Watkins that access to white women had pacified black men to the point that they had not yet risen up.\nMarch: hoping he will agree to record the music that is intended to trigger Helter Skelter, the Family vainly expects a visit from Terry Melcher, a producer for Columbia Records.", "March 23: entering uninvited upon 10050 Cielo Drive, which he has known as Melcher's residence, Manson is received by a male friend of Sharon Tate, the new lessee. Manson, who is looking for someone unknown to the friend, is told to check the guest house. After walking back to that, Manson leaves. Later in the day, Manson revisits the guest house and speaks with Rudy Altobelli, the owner of the property. Altobelli tells him Melcher no longer lives there.", "Around April 1: the Family start settling back into Spahn Ranch. During Helter Skelter, as Watson relates it, they must be at Spahn, from which they would have a \"clear escape route to the desert.\"\nJuly 27: in a dispute over money, Family member Bobby Beausoleil fatally stabs Family acquaintance Gary Hinman and writes \"Political piggy\" on a wall in Hinman's blood.\nAugust 6: Beausoleil is arrested after he is caught driving Hinman's car; the knife he used to stab Hinman is found in the car's tire well.", "August 9: After midnight, Tex Watson and two female Family members murder Sharon Tate and four others at 10050 Cielo Drive. With Tate's blood, Susan Atkins, one of the killers, writes \"Pig\" on the house's front door. Upon the killers' return to Spahn Ranch, Manson, according to Watson, asks whether it was Helter Skelter. Watson assures him it was.", "August 10: After midnight, Tex Watson and two female Family members murder Leno and Rosemary LaBianca at their Los Feliz home. Using LaBianca blood, Patricia Krenwinkel writes \"Rise\" and \"Death to Pigs\" on the living room walls. She writes \"Healter Skelter\" on the refrigerator.", "Manson's testimony \n\nManson was permitted to testify at his 1970 trial for the Tate-LaBianca murders, after the defendants' attorneys had attempted to rest their cases, without calling a single witness. Because of concerns related to California's People v. Aranda (1965), having to do with a defendant's statements that might implicate co-defendants, it was decided that Manson would first testify without the jury in the courtroom.\n\nManson spoke for over an hour. As to Helter Skelter, he said the following:", "Manson spoke for over an hour. As to Helter Skelter, he said the following:\n\nIt means confusion, literally. It doesn't mean any war with anyone. It doesn't mean that some people are going to kill other people. Helter Skelter is confusion. Confusion is coming down around you fast. If you can't see the confusion coming down around you fast, you can call it what you wish.", "When Manson was asked by Bugliosi, after the testimony, whether he'd be willing to testify in the same manner in the presence of the jury, the defense objected. When the judge asked Manson if he wanted to testify in front of the jury, Manson said he had relieved all the pressure he had.\n\nManson has dismissed the Helter Skelter conspiracy as an invention by the trial prosecutor to tie him to the murders.", "Is it a conspiracy that the music is telling the youth to rise up against the establishment because the establishment is rapidly destroying things? Is that a conspiracy? The music speaks to you every day, but you are too deaf, dumb, and blind to even listen to the music.... It is not my conspiracy. It is not my music. I hear what it relates. It says \"Rise\", it says \"Kill\". Why blame it on me? I didn't write the music. ..", ". It says \"Rise\", it says \"Kill\". Why blame it on me? I didn't write the music. ... As far as lining up someone for some kind of helter skelter trip, you know, that's the District Attorney's motive. That's the only thing he could find for a motive to throw up on top of all that confusion he had. There was no such thing in my mind as helter skelter.", "Statements by Van Houten \nOn December 29, 1969, Leslie Van Houten, who'd been charged with the LaBianca murders, was interviewed at Sybil Brand Institute. The interviewer was Marvin Part, who'd been appointed her attorney of record on December 19.\n\nVan Houten said the following:", "Van Houten said the following:\n\n\"You're only waiting for this moment to arise\" and then \"Have you seen the little piggies\" ... Helter Skelter and it's \"when I get to the bottom I go back to the top of the slide then I turn around and go for a ride\" and \"It's coming down fast, helter skelter\" ...\n\n\"...and then when we were reading the Bible it said about the four-headed locusts and it just described the Beatles so perfectly.\"", "Lawyer: You say Revolutions 9. Do you read anything, any title in the Bible that you thought might have been the Beatles song Revolution 9?\n\n\"Yeah, we looked up Revelation in the New Testament ... and it talked about a four-headed locust that would have hair of women and mouths of lions and faces of men and a shield of protective armor, and we thought it was like their guitars, because their album when we would listen ... on acid would say so much more ....\"", "Lawyer: Did you believe that the Beatles were the four-headed locusts and ... prophets?\n\n[Hard to hear:] \"Uh-huh. I believed it.... [I]n and out of the album they've got parts of the revelations in the Bible throughout it.... I believed that they were.\"\n\n\"...and in one part, if you listen on another track, it sounds like they're saying 'Charlie.'\"\n\n\"...all kinds of things that made it seem real to us, to connect the Beatles with us ...\"", "\"...all kinds of things that made it seem real to us, to connect the Beatles with us ...\"\n\n\"...we started seeing that we were in this position, because we knew that we were part of the revelations in the Bible ...\"\n\n\"...the chosen white people, would go down into the center of the earth and stay there for about fifty years and then ... something was going to happen and we were going to come back up and this was when the earth would be all black.\"", "\"...there would be no more white people on the earth [?]. They would all be wiped out completely.\"\n\nLater, Van Houten speaks as follows:\n\n\"...and the next night [after the Tate murders] ... well, I was feeling bad, to tell you the truth, 'cause [Patricia Krenwinkel] was my best friend, and to think that she was strong enough in her believing [to kill], I wanted to, too, because I wanted to be just like [Krenwinkel].\"", "\"So I was feeling kind of bad, 'cause I didn't get to go, and I was sure hoping that if they [?] did it again that I could go.\"\n\nLawyer: Now why in the world would you want to go out and kill somebody?\n\n\"'Cause it had to be done. It had to be done just in order for the whole thing to be completed. So the whole world's karma would be completed, we had to do this ....\"\n\nIn the penalty phase of the trial, Van Houten testified as follows:", "In the penalty phase of the trial, Van Houten testified as follows:\n\n... I had a court-appointed attorney by the name of Marvin Part. He had a lot of different thoughts, which were all his own, on how to get me off. He said he was going to make some tape recordings, and he told me the gist of what he wanted me to say. And I said it.", "Interviewed in 1977, by Barbara Walters, Van Houten said the following:\n... and at the time, it was supposed to help people.... The crimes, they were supposed to start a revolution that would clean the souls of everyone. And see, what Charlie would do is he would speak about people's souls and not their persons; and because we weren't tuned in enough, we couldn't see what he was talking about, so we would just have to take his word for it.", "And that's what he said, that next summer there would be this big revolution and that the chosen people would live in a hole in the middle of the desert, and then after the crimes we went out and looked for the hole.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBook of Revelation, Chapter 9, King James Version Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library. Retrieved April 30, 2007.\nCharles Manson and the Family: The Application of Sociological Theories to Multiple Murder Retrieved October 13, 2014.", "Charles Manson\n1969 in the United States\nAnti-black racism in the United States\nBook of Revelation\nThe Beatles" ]

[ "The Australian Hall is a heritage-listed community building located at 150-152 Elizabeth Street, in the Sydney central business district, in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was the site of the Day of Mourning protests by Aboriginal Australians on 26 January 1938. It was also known as the Cyprus Hellene Club. The property is owned by the Indigenous Land Corporation, a statutory corporation of the Australian Government", ". It was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 20 May 2008 and was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.", "History\n\nHistory of the Australian Hall \n\nThe building that houses the Australian Hall was erected in 1910-13 for the Concordia German Club. It was purchased in 1920 by the Knights of the Southern Cross, a Catholic fraternal lay group linked with the Catholic Right, in 1922 the name of the hall in the building was changed from Miss Bishop's Hall to the Australian Hall.\n\nPhillip Theatre, 1961-1974", "Phillip Theatre, 1961-1974 \n\nThe next significant change to the site on Elizabeth Street was the Phillip (Street) Theatre. In 1961 the Australian Hall was renovated and the interior of the building remodelled to turn it into a theatre capable of seating 453 with a raised area at the back to give a balcony effect. The Phillip Theatre broke away from traditional Australian theatre and became a significant force in Australian Theatrical History.", "The Cinema, 1974", "In the early 1970s the theatre was the only exclusively live theatre remaining in the city but it was hard to find shows suitable for a venue of its size. The site became the Rivoli Cinema in 1974. Changes were made to the auditorium and foyer to make it more of a cinema rather than a live theatre venue", ". With Haymarket being identified with the Chinese community, the Rivoli was let to Chinese interests who reopened in 1976 as the Mandarin Cinema, showing Chinese language films and in 1989 the Australian Hall became the home of the Mandolin Cinema.", "Cyprus-Hellenic Club", "The Knights of the Southern Cross sold the building in 1979 to the Hellenic Club and it was then used by Greek Cypriots as the Cyprus Hellene Club. It was a Greek organisation offering cultural and social links for its members. The club was and still is instrumental in promoting and maintaining the Cypriot culture in Australia", ". The Cyprus club and use of the building have been directly involved with the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia in the support of charitable organisations, particularly those associated with the Greek Welfare Centre. The Cyprus Club owned the property until 1998. Similarly to previous owners, the Cyprus-Hellenic Club used the premises for their cultural and social activities while still sub-letting the old hall, which continued as a cinema with various owners and names until 1988", ". Over the years, the building accommodated a restaurant, dining and community facilities and the interior of the building was altered on a number of occasions.", "Site (as the then Hellenic Club) of the first national conference of the Australian Labor Party, called the \"Inter-Colonial Conference of Labour\" held in January 1900, which formally established a federal party and platform, and adopted the \"maintenance of a White Australia\" and the \"total exclusion of coloured and other undesirable races\" as the first plank in the new federal party's \"fighting platform\" and its \"general platform\".", "Site in 1965 of the 26th national conference of the Australian Labor Party when it abolished the White Australia policy from its platform.", "In the early 1990s the owner of the Cyprus Hellene Club planned to demolish most of the building and erect a 34-storey residential development. This proposal started a campaign by Indigenous people and the National Aboriginal History and Heritage Council to protect the building and gain recognition of the significance of the building to Indigenous people for its association with the Day of Mourning.", "Indigenous community ownership \nAfter several years of inquiries and objections, the NSW Minister for Urban Affairs and Planning made a Permanent Conservation Order over parts of the building. In 1998 the Indigenous Land Corporation, a Commonwealth statutory authority, purchased the building on behalf of the Metropolitan Aboriginal Association Inc, who now manages the building.\n\nHistory of the Day of Mourning", "History of the Day of Mourning \n\nSince European settlement, Indigenous Australians have been treated differently to the general Australian population; denied the basic concession of equality with whites and rarely given full protection before the law. Indigenous people have long resisted and protested against European settlement of their country. Early protests were initiated by residents of missions and reserves as a result of local issues and took the form of letters, petitions and appeals.", "One of the earliest examples of this form of protest was during the mid 1840s at the Aboriginal reserve called Wybalenna on Flinders Island. Residents of Wybalenna sent letters and petitions to Queen Victoria and the Colonial Secretary and other Government officials, protesting against the living conditions and administration of Wybalenna", ". Similarly in the mid 1870s residents of Coranderrk in Victoria began a decade long protest against the management and closure of the reserve using letters to the editors of daily newspapers and government ministers as well as seeking support from humanitarian organisations.", "This pattern of protests focusing on local concerns continued during the 1880s and 1890s with residents of Cummeragunja in New South Wales and Poonindie in South Australia also using letters and petitions to lobby for the allocation of parcels of land within the reserve to families so that they would be responsible for farming their allocated parcel.", "A new dynamic began in the late 1920s with the creation of regional and state based Aboriginal controlled organisations. The first of these was the short lived Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association (AAPA), founded on the mid north coast of New South Wales (NSW) by Fred Maynard. Subsequent state based organisations were formed in NSW with the Aborigines Progressive Association (APA) and in Victoria with the Aboriginal Advancement League (AAL)", ". Key founders of these organisations included William Cooper, Doug Nicholls, Margaret Tucker, William Ferguson, Jack Patten and Pearl Gibbs.", "The key members of both these organisations shared common life experiences; they grew up on missions or reserves controlled by protection boards but were either expelled on disciplinary grounds or left to find work. The majority of these people had at one time resided at Cummeragunja and/or Warrangesda missions in NSW and a number also had lived at Salt Pan Creek, an Aboriginal squatter's camp south-west of Sydney", ". This camp housed refugee families, the dispossessed and people seeking to escape the harsh and brutal policies of the Aborigines Protection Board. It became a focal point for intensifying Aboriginal resistance in NSW.", "While living off an Aboriginal reserve provided some level of freedom, these Aboriginal people experienced the full force of laws that impacted on the ability of Indigenous people to find employment, receive equal wages, seek unemployment relief and the ability to purchase or own property", ". The experience of living under the control of a protection board on a mission or reserve, and the barriers they faced off these reserves, united the members of these early Aboriginal organisations in their concerns for the lack of civil rights, the growth in the Aboriginal Protection Board's powers and the condition of people remaining in missions and reserves.", "It was in this environment that in November 1937 William Cooper called a meeting of the AAL in Melbourne which William Ferguson from the APA also attended. During this meeting the two groups agreed to hold a protest conference in Sydney to coincide with sesquicentenary celebrations planned for Australia Day 26 January 1938. They decided to call this protest the Day of Mourning.", "The AAL and APA widely promoted the Day of Mourning through radio interviews and other media. To encourage Aboriginal people to attend, Jack Patten and William Ferguson took turns in touring the reserves to promote it. Jack Patten and William Ferguson also published a 12-page pamphlet entitled \"Aborigines Claim Citizen Rights\" to promote the purpose of the Day of Mourning amongst non-Indigenous people. This \"manifesto\" has been described as perhaps the most bitter of Aboriginal protests", ". This \"manifesto\" has been described as perhaps the most bitter of Aboriginal protests. It explained the significance of the action:\"The 26th January, 1938, is not a day of rejoicing for Australia's Aborigines; it is a day of mourning. This festival of 150 years' so-called 'progress' in Australia commemorates also 150 years of misery and degradation imposed upon the original native inhabitants by the white invaders of this country", ". We, representing the Aborigines, now ask you, the reader of this appeal, to pause in the midst of your sesqui-centenary rejoicings and ask yourself honestly whether your \"conscience\" is clear in regard to the treatment of the Australian blacks by the Australian whites during the period of 150 years' history which you celebrate", "?\"The pamphlet asked the reader to acknowledge the impact of the \"protection\" approach, the restrictions that it continued to place on Aboriginal people's rights, and to be proud of the Australian Aborigines and not misled by the superstition that they are a naturally backward and low race", ".", "It also made explicit that the choice of holding the Day of Mourning on Australia Day, the national holiday celebrating the arrival of the First Fleet and the birth of Australia as a nation, was to highlight the exclusion of Aboriginal people from the Australian nation:\"We ask you white Australians for justice, fair play and decency, and we speak for 80,000 human beings in your midst", ". We ask—and we have every right to demand—that you should include us, fully and equally with yourselves, in the body of the Australian nation\".The organisers distributed approximately 2,000 leaflets and posters advertising the Day of Mourning which advised that \"Aborigines and persons of Aboriginal blood only are invited to attend\". The organisers were denied permission to hold the Day of Mourning in Sydney Town Hall, but were able to rent the Australia Hall at 150-152 Elizabeth Street", ". The use of Australia Hall was granted on condition that the delegates watched the sesquicentennial parade from the Town Hall steps and then marched behind the parade to the Australian Hall.", "The official Australia Day celebrations included a re-enactment of the arrival of Governor Phillip by boat at Port Jackson \"who will put the Aborigines to flight\". The Government had brought in Aboriginal people from the Menindee reserve to participate in the re-enactment of the arrival of Governor Phillip at Port Jackson as this was a safer option then using Aboriginal people from the Sydney area", ". These people were housed at the Redfern Police Barracks and were not allowed any contact with \"disruptive influences\" before the re-enactment.", "While delegates did not watch the re-enactment, they were required to watch a pageant at the Sydney Town Hall. After watching this pageant, delegates for the Day of Mourning walked to Australia Hall. Two police officers guarded the front door of the building", ". Two police officers guarded the front door of the building. The Day of Mourning was held at a time when there were restrictions on Aboriginal people's rights of movement and assembly and the delegates from reserves risked imprisonment, expulsion from their homes and loss of their jobs for participating in an event such as this. As a result, some entered through the back door of the building to avoid identification and reprisals.", "Over 100 people attended the Day of Mourning from throughout NSW, Victoria and Queensland. Telegrams of support for this action also came from Western Australia, Queensland and north Australia, which the organisers believed gave the gathering the status and strength of a national action.", "After a number of statements by participants, they unanimously endorsed a resolution demanding full citizen rights:\"WE, representing THE ABORIGINES OF AUSTRALIA, assembled in conference at the Australian Hall, Sydney, on the 26th day of January 1938, this being the 150th Anniversary of the Whiteman's seizure of our country, HEREBY MAKE PROTEST against the callous treatment of our people by the whitemen during the past 150 years", ", AND WE APPEAL to the Australian nation of today to make new laws for the education and care of Aborigines, and we ask for a new policy which will raise our people to FULL CITIZEN STATUS and EQUALITY WITHIN THE COMMUNITY\"", ".On 31 January 1938, a delegation presented this resolution, and a ten-point policy statement developed at the Day of Mourning, to the Prime Minister and the Minister for the Interior. Participants described the ten-point policy statement as the only policy which has the support of the Aborigines themselves", ". It included a long range policy with recommendations for: Australian Government control of all Aboriginal affairs; the development of a national policy for Aborigines; the appointment of a Commonwealth Minister for Aboriginal Affairs whose aim would be to raise all Aborigines throughout Australian to full citizen status and civil equality with the whites in Australia", ". The latter included entitlement to: the same educational opportunities; the benefits of labor legislation, including Arbitration Court Awards, workers' compensation and insurance; receiving wages in cash, and not by orders, issue of rations, or apprenticeship systems; old-age and invalid pensions; to own land and property, and to be allowed to save money in personal banking accounts.", "The long range policy also identified the need for Aboriginal land settlements including tuition in areas of agriculture and financial assistance to generate self-supporting Aboriginal farmers. While opposing a policy of segregation, it advocated the retention of Aboriginal Reserves as a sanctuary for some Aboriginal people.", "A full report of the Day of Mourning appeared in the first issue of the monthly Australian Abo Call, the first newspaper published by Aboriginal people to voice their views. It stated:\"The Day of Mourning protest conference on 26 January 1938 at the Australia Hall marks the first occasion in Australian history that Aboriginal people from different states joined together to campaign for equality and full citizenship rights", ". Initiated and organised by key figures in two of the early Aboriginal political protest organisations, the Australian Aborigines League and the Aborigines Progressive Association, delegates joined to discuss civil rights and debate a ten-point list of demands aimed at redressing the political and legal disadvantages of Aboriginal people\"", ".Although it brought about little change in the years immediately following 1938, the Day of Mourning produced a comprehensive collection of key policies that identified impacts on the lives of Aboriginal people at the time and recommendations for how they should be addressed. One of the issues highlighted in these policies, namely Australian Government control of all Aboriginal affairs, formed the basis for the constitutional amendments endorsed by the Australian people in the Referendum of the 27 May 1967", ". While there has been progress, governments still identify the broad issues raised in these documents as priority areas within Indigenous Affairs (see Ministerial Taskforce on Indigenous Affairs long term vision in Office of Indigenous Policy Coordination 2004; issues identified in Bilateral Agreements between Commonwealth and States/Territories at www.oipc.gov.au/publications/default.asp).", "A number of contemporary Indigenous leaders also recognise that the key policy issues identified at the Day of Mourning remain relevant to Indigenous people today. In a speech at the Australian Reconciliation Convention, Noel Pearson (1997) noted that after reading the documents associated with the Day of Mourning he \"was struck either how sophisticated the movement was back then, or how far we have not come\" because the issues raised in the material from the Day of Mourning remained fresh propositions", ". In an article published in a number of metropolitan newspapers on Australia Day in 1998, Gatjil Djerrkura noted that while advances have been made in relation to Indigenous affairs since the Day of Mourning, many of the underlying issues remain, including improvements to the health and economic opportunities in communities.", "The call at the Day of Mourning for recognition of \"full citizen status\" and \"equality within the community\" still recurs in the numerous government reports including those of the Human Rights Commission, the Social Justice Commissioner, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commissions and the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, as well as the Indigenous statements such as the Yirrkala Bark Petition, the Barunga Statement, the Eva Valley Statement and the Boomanulla Oval Statement.", "The Day of Mourning not only produced political statements that remain current, it also highlighted the exclusion of Indigenous people from the Australian nation. The ambiguous relationship between Indigenous people and the Australian nation remains an issue for Indigenous people", ". As a result, Indigenous people have continued to use Australia Day and other foundation anniversaries to draw attention to their exclusion from the national consciousness: in 1970 a second Day of Mourning was held to demonstrate against Sydney's bicentenary celebrations of Captain Cook's \"discovery\" of Australia; Australia Day in 1972 saw the establishment of an Aboriginal Tent Embassy on the lawns of the then Parliament House in Canberra (now Old Parliament House) in a call for national land rights", ", sovereignty and self-determination; and the anti-bicentenary protests on Australia Day in 1988 is still one of the largest Indigenous protest marches in Australia", ".", "In the 1930s demanding the same rights as white Australians, when Indigenous people were subject to severe restrictions and punitive sanctions, constituted a radical claim in Australia and challenged the premise of the dominant racial order. The Day of Mourning is therefore regarded as one of the most important moments in the history of the Indigenous resistance in the early 20th century.\n\nDescription \nThe Cyprus Hellene Club - Australian Hall is located at 150-152 Elizabeth Street, Sydney.", "The Cyprus Hellene Club, the building which houses Australia Hall, is a three-storey masonry building in the Federation Romanesque style with the use of rusticated stone dressings. The building originally formed part of a Federation period streetscape group known as the Elizabeth Street Precinct. The entire building, although internally altered over the years, remains substantially intact", ". The entire building, although internally altered over the years, remains substantially intact. The symmetrical facade to Elizabeth Street has bold modelling and textures, due to its semi-circular arches, segmental oriel windows and rock faced stonework.", "The former Australia Hall occupies the rear of the first floor; its interior and that of the entrance lobby and foyer both retain original Classical decorative elements possibly dating from the 1920s. The front entrance and back door survive intact.", "Exterior", "The building was constructed on the full site area, has three storeys above ground and a basement and has facades to Elizabeth Street and Nithsdale Street. The Elizabeth Street facade has a suspended steel awning above which fabric is intact. The facade has the characteristics of Federation Free Style as identified by Apperley, Irving and Reynolds. In consistency with the style it features two contrasting materials, face brick and rusticated sandstone", ". The sandstone has all been painted and the brick left unpainted. There are three entrances. The cinema entrance has marble steps and timber floors which are glazed. The club entrance has terrazzo steps with aluminium edge strip. The club doors are of solid timber. The fire exit, constructed during the 1980s has white terrazzo steps and standard fire door. The Nithsdale Street facade walling is rendered and painted. The two windows at the second floor have segmental arched face brick heads", ". The two windows at the second floor have segmental arched face brick heads. Two windows behind the Mandolin cinema screen and part of the opening which was probably a fire exit or receiving dock have been bricked up. The roof is corrugated asbestos above the western part of the building and corrugated iron above the hall.", "Interior", "The basement extends for half the depth of the building and the ground along the northern and southern site boundaries is un-excavated at basement level. The ground and first floors extend the full depth of the site with the former Australian Hall occupying the rear half of the first floor. Main access to the hall if from Elizabeth Street. The second floor extends for half the depth of the site. Two isolated stairs and one lift provide access to all levels of the building", ". Two isolated stairs and one lift provide access to all levels of the building. The lift dates from the 1960s alteration. The stair has terrazzo steps. The other fire stair, located in the former light-well, was constructed in the mid-1980s and has tiled steps.", "Basement\nThe basement comprises store rooms, cool rooms and toilets. Cool rooms and store rooms have cement floors and cement rendered walls. Although the spatial arrangement and much of the visible fabric date from later alterations, some wall sections appear to be original.", "Ground Floor", "The main entry to the former Cyprus-Hellenic Club opens into a foyer and reception office. The major part of the ground floor is occupied by a large bar/club with games area and a restaurant/auditorium with a small stage and dance floor. Also located on this floor is a kitchen, cool room, toilets, storeroom and an exit passage to Nithsdale Street. The club premises were completely refitted in the mid-1980s and most of the finishes date from this latest alteration", ". Original elements include the plastered and painted side walls, recessed alcoves and original ceiling panels. The main spaces on the ground floor have carpeted floors while the cinema entrance foyer features black and white lino tile flooring, papered wall and decorative plastered ceiling with cornice and brackets.", "First Floor", "The front part of the first floor comprises the board room, snooker room, bar area, a small kitchen and toilets. Original elements surviving timber floor structure, the arched and square timber windows to Elizabeth Street and joinery such as frames, shashes, architraves and surviving skirtings. The rear part of the first floor is occupied by the Mandolin Cinema, the former Australian Hall. The cinema is accessible by a narrow foyer which is adjacent to the northern wall of the building", ". The cinema is accessible by a narrow foyer which is adjacent to the northern wall of the building. The first floor cinema foyer and amenities retained much of their original features such as the original floor structure, marble stair and billboard frames. The ceiling, cornice frieze and ceiling roses appear to be original too. The former dance hall, which was adapted to the use as a theatre in 1961 and to the cinema use in 1974, retains much of its original fabric", ". These are the wall fabric to external walls, the surviving original wall detailing such as blind arches and remaining wall decoration, hidden behind false walling and the suspended ceiling. Other original elements include the timber floor structure, windows in the rear wall, mouldings, skirtings and architraves. However, nothing remains of the original stage.", "Second Floor", "The second floor is occupied by a large function room, toilets at the rear, a kitchen and an unused board room along the northern boundary wall. Surviving original fabric includes timber floor structure, original wall surfaces along the southern and northern walls, timber windows, window joinery, architraves and skirtings. The acoustic tiled suspended ceiling above the board room is ruined. Similarly to the first floor, the finishes and fit out of the toilets dates from an earlier (1970s) alteration.", "Condition \n\nThe building is in a good condition. Modifications to the interior of the building have not affected its heritage significance in connection to the Day of Mourning. The front of the ground floor has undergone modernisation and has a suspended awning.\n\nHeritage listing", "Heritage listing\n\nAustralian National Heritage List\nSince European settlement, Indigenous people have been treated differently to the general Australian population; denied the basic concession of equality and rarely given full protection before the law. While Indigenous groups have long resisted and protested against this inequality, up until the 1920s these protests were generally focused on local issues.", "Cyprus Hellene Club - Australian Hall was listed on the Australian National Heritage List on 20 May 2008 having satisfied the following criteria.\n\nCriterion A: Events, Processes", "Coinciding with the 1938 sesquicentenary celebrations for Australia Day, members of the Aboriginal Advancement League and the Aboriginal Progressive Association held the first national Indigenous protest, the Day of Mourning, to highlight that the \"150 years\" so-called \"progress\" in Australia commemorates also 150 years of misery and degradation imposed upon the original native inhabitants by the white invaders of this country'", ". The Day of Mourning identified a significant collection of policy issues impacting on Indigenous people and proposed recommendations for addressing these issues through government action. While there has been some progress, generally the political statements and social issues identified from the Day of Mourning are still relevant to Indigenous people today", ". Australia Hall, as the site of the Day of Mourning, is outstanding in the course of Australia's cultural history as the first national Indigenous protest which identified issues of continuing relevance to Indigenous people.", "The ambiguous relationship between Indigenous people and the Australian nation remains an issue for Indigenous people. The choice of holding the Day of Mourning on Australia Day, the national holiday celebrating the arrival of the first fleet and the birth of Australia as a nation, highlighted the exclusion of Aboriginal people from the Australian nation", ". Since the Day of Mourning in 1938, Indigenous people have continued to use Australia Day celebrations to draw attention to their exclusion from the national consciousness as shown by the 1988 bicentenary protest, one of the largest Indigenous protests in Australia", ". The Australian Hall, as the site of the Day of Mourning, is outstanding in the course of Australia's cultural history for its association with the first national Indigenous protest seeking the inclusion of Indigenous people in the Australian nation.", "Criterion G: Social value", "The Day of Mourning played a significant role in the history of Indigenous peoples' struggle for the recognition of their civic rights and is regarded by Indigenous people as one of the most important moments in the history of the Indigenous resistance in the early 20th century. The strong social and cultural association Indigenous people have with Australia Hall and the Day of Mourning is demonstrated by the continuous references made by Indigenous leaders from across Australia to this event", ". It is also shown through the campaign during the 1990s for the recognition of the significance of the building to Indigenous people and the depiction of the Day of Mourning at Reconciliation Place. Indigenous people have a strong association with the Australian Hall, the site of the Day of Mourning, as the first national Indigenous protest which identified social justice issues of continuing relevance to Indigenous people.", "Criterion H: Significant people", "Over 100 people Aboriginal people attended the Day of Mourning at the Australian Hall. Indigenous people involved in the inception and organisation included prominent Aboriginal leaders of the time such as William Cooper, William Ferguson, Jack Patten, Pearl Gibbs, Margaret Tucker and Doug Nicholls. Their combined work produced a significant collection of policy issues impacting on Indigenous people and proposed recommendations for addressing these issues through government action", ". The political statements associated with the Day of Mourning are still relevant to Indigenous people today. Australia Hall has a special association with the work of the organisers of the Day of Mourning, which is outstanding for its continued relevance to Indigenous people.", "New South Wales State Heritage List", "The Cyprus-Hellene Club holds State social significance for at least three groups of people. Firstly, the building holds social significance for the Aboriginal People for its role in the 1938 \"Day of Mourning\" meeting. This event was the first protest by Aboriginal people for equal opportunities within Australian Society. It was attended by approximately 100 people of Aboriginal Blood and was the beginning of the contemporary Aboriginal Political Movement", ". Among those who contributed significantly to the movement generally and particularly to the event in the Australian Hall were Mrs Ardler, J Connelly, William Cooper, William Ferguson, Tom Foster, Pearl Gibbs, Helen Grosvenor, Jack Johnson, Jack Kinchela, Bert Marr, Pastor Doug Nicholls, Henry Noble, Jack Patten, Tom Pecham, Frank Roberts and Margaret Tucker", ". Secondly, it holds significance for the German and Greek-Cypriot communities in Sydney as it allowed visitors and migrants to enjoy cultural and social events. The building also has an association with Australian national and political history in its ownership (1920–79) by the Knights of the Southern Cross, a Catholic fraternal lay group linked with the Catholic Right and, ultimately with the split in the Labor Party in the 1950s.", "The building was initially built to be used as a meeting place for cultural and social activities and was continuously used for these events including cinema and theatre. It is a rare example of a purpose built building in Sydney continuously used for its initial purpose.", "The building holds architectural significance as it still contains some examples of original architecture. It is a good example of Federation Romanesque style. The interior also contains examples of certain features that could date from the original construction in the 1920s and also has features from each of the renovations since\n\nCyprus-Hellene Club was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.", "The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.", "The Australian Hall is of State significance as the site of the National \"Day of Mourning\" - the first organised Aboriginal Civil Rights protest. They met in 1938 to debate a ten-point list of demands aimed at changing the then current disadvantages to Aboriginal People. The list was presented to Prime Minister Joseph Lyons four days later and formally began the struggle for indigenous rights", ". A theatre, art-house cinema and club houses operated from the building until 1999 when it was purchased by the Indigenous Land Trust to house a museum of Aboriginal heroes. The site is important in the Aboriginal and Political history of Australia and is significant for its association with the beginning of the continuing struggle for the rights of Aboriginal people.", "The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.\n\nThe Cyprus-Hellene Club is of State significance as the site of the 1938 Day of Mourning, which sparked the modern Aboriginal political movement.\n\nThe place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.", "The Cyprus-Hellenic Club is of State significance for its strong connections with several groups throughout its history. Firstly, the German Concordia Club used the building for cultural and social events allowing their culture to continue outside their homeland and providing German migrants and visitors to Sydney a touch of home. Similarly thus can be said for the Greek-Cypriots who later used the club for its cultural and social events", ". Secondly, the Aboriginal people of Australia have a strong connection to the building for its use in the first organised Aboriginal Civil Rights protest in 1938. Thirdly, and to a lesser extent, the building has a connection with the Knights of the Southern Cross and even the Asian Community of Sydney. Both these groups found a purpose to use the building", ". Both these groups found a purpose to use the building. The KSC used the building as a place to find employment for Catholic people and also as a call in centre, while the Asian community of Sydney have links to the cinema for its dedication to showing Asian films. Once again, providing a cultural group with a sense of identity outside their homeland.", "The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.", "The building is a rare example of a European building that is of heritage significance to both Aboriginal and European communities, but particularly to Aboriginal people. It is of State significance as a rare example of a venue for club, social, recreational and entertainment purposes which was in continuous use for that purpose since its erection until recently. It is rare for the use by a number of social institutions related to ethnic groups.\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nAttribution\n\nExternal links", "Attribution\n\nExternal links \n\nAustralian National Heritage List\nCommunity buildings in New South Wales\nArticles incorporating text from the Australian Heritage Database\nFormer theatres in Sydney\nNew South Wales State Heritage Register\nOffice buildings in Sydney\nClubhouses in New South Wales\nEntertainment venues in New South Wales\nArticles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register\nElizabeth Street, Sydney\n1913 establishments in Australia\nOffice buildings completed in 1913" ]

[ "People with mental illnesses are overrepresented in jail and prison populations in the United States relative to the general population. There are three times more seriously mentally ill people in jails and prisons than in hospitals in the United States. Scholars discuss many different causes of this overrepresentation, including the deinstitutionalization of mentally ill individuals in the mid-twentieth century, inadequate community treatment resources, and the criminalization of mental illness itself", ". The majority of prisons in the United States employ a psychiatrist and a psychologist. There is a consensus that mentally ill offenders have comparable rates of recidivism to non-mentally ill offenders. Mentally ill people experience solitary confinement at disproportionate rates and are more vulnerable to its adverse psychological effects", ". Twenty-five states have laws addressing the emergency detention of the mentally ill within jails, and the United States Supreme Court has upheld the right of inmates to mental health treatment.", "Prevalence", "There is a broad scholarly consensus that mentally ill individuals are overrepresented within the jail and prison populations of the United States. In a 2010 study, researchers concluded that, based on statistics from sources including the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, there are currently three times more seriously mentally ill people in jails and prisons than in hospitals in the United States, with the ratio being nearly ten to one in Arizona and Nevada", ". \"Serious mental illness\" is defined here as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression. Further, they found that 16% of the jail and prison population in the U.S. has a serious mental illness (compared to 6.4% in 1983), although this statistic does not reflect differences among individual states. For example, in North Dakota, they found that a person with a serious mental illness is equally likely to be in prison or jail versus a hospital", ". In contrast, in states such as Arizona, Nevada, and Texas, the imbalance is much more severe. Finally, they noted that a 1991 survey by the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill concluded that jail and/or prison are part of the life experiences of forty percent of these mentally ill individuals. In addition to mood and anxiety disorders, other psychopathologies have also been found in the US Prison System", ". Antisocial personality disorder is found in less than 6% of the general American population, but seems to be found in anywhere between 12% and 64% of prison samples. Estimates of borderline personality disorder seem to make up around 1% to 2% of the general public, compared to 12% to 30% within prisons. Personality disorders, especially in the inmate population, are often found to be comorbid with other disorders.", "A separate research study, The Prevalence of Mental Illness among Inmates in a Rural State, noted that national statistics like those previously mentioned primarily pull data from urban jails and prisons. To investigate possible differences in rural areas, researchers interviewed a random sample of inmates in both jails and prisons in a rural northeastern state", ". They found that in this rural setting, there was little evidence of high rates of mental illness within jails, \"suggesting the criminalization of mental illness may not be as evident in rural settings as urban areas.\" However, high rates of serious mental illness were found among rural prison inmates.", "A 2017 report issued by the Bureau of Justice Statistics used self-reported survey data from inmates to assess the prevalence of mental health problems among prisoners and jail inmates. They found that 14% of prisoners and 25% of jail inmates had experienced serious psychological distress in the past 30 days, compared to 5% of the general population. In addition, 37% of prisoners and 44% of jail inmates had a history of mental health problems.", "In 2015, lawyer and activist Bryan Stevenson claimed in his book Just Mercy that over 50% of inmates in jails and prisons in the United States had been diagnosed with a mental illness and that one in five jail inmates had had a serious mental illness", ". As for the gender, age, and racial demographics of mentally ill offenders, the 2017 Bureau of Justice Statistics report found that female inmates, when compared to male inmates, had statistically significantly higher rates of serious psychological distress (20.5% of female prisoners and 32.3% of female jail inmates had serious psychological distress, versus 14% of male prisoners and 25.5% of male jail inmates) and a history of a mental health problem (65.8% of female prisoners and 67", ".5% of male jail inmates) and a history of a mental health problem (65.8% of female prisoners and 67.9% of female jail inmates compared to 34.8% of male prisoners and 40.8% of male jail inmates). Significant differences between race and ethnicity were also observed. White prisoners and jail inmates were more likely to have serious psychological distress or a history of mental health problems than black or Hispanic inmates", ". For example, in local jails, 31% of white inmates had serious psychological distress compared to 22.3% of black inmates and 23.2% of Hispanic inmates. Finally, regarding age, there were virtually no statistical differences between age groups and the percentage of those with serious psychological distress or a history of a mental health problem.", "Potential reasons for the high number of incarcerated people diagnosed with mental illnesses\n\nDeinstitutionalization", "Researchers commonly cite deinstitutionalization, or the emptying of state mental hospitals in the mid-twentieth century, as a direct cause of the rise of mentally ill people in prisons. In the 2010 study \"More mentally ill persons are in jails and prisons than hospitals: a survey of the states,\" researchers noted that, at least in part due to deinstitutionalization, it is increasingly difficult to find beds for mentally ill people who need hospitalization", ". Using data collected by the Department of Health and Human Services, they determined there was one psychiatric bed for every 3,000 Americans, compared to one for every 300 Americans in 1955. They also noted increased percentages of mentally ill people in prisons throughout the 1970s and 1980s, and found a strong correlation between the number of mentally ill people in a state's jails and prisons and how much money the state spends on mental health services", ". In the book Criminalizing the Seriously Mentally Ill: The Abuse of Jails As Mental Hospitals, researchers note that while deinstitutionalization was carried out with good intentions, it was not accompanied by alternate avenues for mental health treatment for those with serious mental illnesses", ". According to the authors, Community Mental Health Centers focused their limited resources on individuals with less serious mental illnesses; federal training funds for mental health professionals resulted in lots more psychiatrists in wealthy areas but not in low-income areas; and a policy that made individuals eligible for federal programs and benefits only after they'd been discharged from state mental hospitals unintentionally incentivized discharging patients without follow-up.", "In the article Assessing the Contribution of the Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally Ill to Growth in the U.S. Incarceration Rate, researchers Steven Raphael and Michael A. Stoll discuss transinstitutionalization, or how many patients released from mental hospitals in the mid-twentieth century ended up in jail or prison. Using U.S", ". Using U.S. census data collected between 1950 and 2000, they concluded that \"those most likely to be incarcerated as of the 2000 census experienced pronounced increases in overall institutionalization between 1950 and 2000 (with particularly large increases for black males). Thus, the impression created by aggregate trends is somewhat misleading, as the 1950 demographic composition of the mental hospital population differs considerably from the 2000 demographic composition of prison and jail inmates", ".\" However, when estimating (using a panel data set) how many individuals incarcerated between 1980 and 2000 would have been institutionalized in years past, they found significant transinstitutionalization rates for all men and women, with the largest rate for white men.", "Accessibility", "A main contributing factor to the US's steady increase in those who are mentally ill within the prison system could be the lack of accessibility in various communities. Specifically, those who come from a lower-income background face these issues, in which there are few to no readily available resources for those experiencing ongoing difficulty with their mental health", ". The AMA Journal of Ethics discusses more specific factors contributing to the consistently high arrest rates of those with severe mental illness within certain communities, stating that the arrests of drug offenders, a lack of affordable housing, and a significant lack of funding for community treatments are the main contributors. With the introduction of Medicaid, many state-run mental health facilities closed due to a shared responsibility for funding with the federal government", ". Eventually, states would close a good portion of their facilities, so that mentally ill patients were being treated at hospitals where they would be partially covered by Medicaid and the government. The National Council for Behavioral Health conducted a study in October 2018 that included survey results that confirmed \"nearly six in 10 (56%) Americans [are] seeking or wanting to seek mental health services either for themselves or for a loved one..", "...\" These individuals are skewing younger and are more likely to be of lower income and military background”.", "Criminalization", "A related cause of the disproportionate number of mentally ill people in prisons is the criminalization of mental illness itself. In the 1984 study Criminalizing mental disorder: The comparative arrest rate of the mentally ill, researcher L. A. Teplin notes that in addition to a decline in federal support for mental illness resulting in more people being denied treatment, mentally ill people are often stereotyped as dangerous, making fear a factor in action taken against them", ". Bureaucratic and legal impediments to initiating mental health referrals mean arrest can be easier, and in Teplin's words, \"Due to the lack of exclusionary criteria, the criminal justice system may have become the institution that cannot say no.\" Mentally ill people do indeed experience higher arrest rates than those without mental illness, but to investigate whether or not this was due to the criminalization of mental illness, researchers observed police officers over a period of time", ". As a result, they concluded that \"within similar situations, persons exhibiting signs of mental disorder have a higher probability of being arrested than those who do not show such signs.\"", "The authors of the book Criminalizing the Seriously Mentally Ill: The Abuse of Jails As Mental Hospitals claim that nationwide, 29% of jails will hold mentally ill individuals with no charges brought against them, sometimes as a means of 'holding' them when psychiatric hospitals are very far away. This practice occurs even in states where it is explicitly forbidden", ". This practice occurs even in states where it is explicitly forbidden. Beyond that, the vast majority of people with mental illnesses in jails and prisons are held on minor charges like theft, disorderly conduct, alcohol or drug-related charges, and trespassing. These are sometimes \"mercy bookings\" intended to get the homeless mentally ill off the street, a warm meal, etc", ". Family members have reported being encouraged by mental health professionals or the police to get their loved ones arrested to get them treatment. Finally, some mentally ill people are in jails and prisons on serious charges, such as murder. Many such crimes would likely not have been committed had the individuals been receiving proper care.", "Malingering\n\nSome inmates feign psychiatric symptoms for secondary gain. For example, an inmate may hope to receive a transfer to a more desirable setting or psychotropic medication.", "Exacerbation of mental illness in a prison setting \nAnother proposed reason for the high number of people incarcerated with mental illness is the way a prison setting can worsen mental health. Individuals with pre-existing mental health conditions can worsen, or new mental health problems may arise. A few reasons are listed as to how prisons can worsen the mental health of the incarcerated:", "Separation from loved ones\n Lack of movement or isolation\n Overcrowded prisons\n Witnessing violence in the prison setting", "Mental health care in prisons and jails", "Psychologists report that one in every eight prisoners were receiving some mental health therapy or counseling services by mid-2000. Inmates are generally screened at admission, and depending on the severity of the mental illness, they are placed in either general confinement or specialized facilities. Inmates can self-report mental illness if they feel it is necessary. In mid-2000, inmates self-reported that State prisons held 191,000 mentally ill inmates", ". In mid-2000, inmates self-reported that State prisons held 191,000 mentally ill inmates. A 2011 survey of 230 correctional mental health service providers from 165 state correctional facilities found that 83% of facilities employed at least one psychologist and 81% employed at least one psychiatrist. The study also found that 52% of mentally ill offenders voluntarily received mental health services, 24% were referred by staff, and 11% were mandated by a court to receive services", ". Although 64% of providers of mental health services reported feeling supported by prison administration and 71% were involved in continuity of care after release from prison, 65% reported being dissatisfied with funding", ". Only 16% of participants reported offering vocational training, and the researchers noted that although risk/need/responsivity theory has been shown to reduce the risk of recidivism (or committing another crime after being released), it is unknown whether it is incorporated into mental health services in prisons and jails. A 2005 article by researcher Terry A", ". A 2005 article by researcher Terry A. Kupers noted that male prisoners tend to underreport emotional problems and don't request help until a crisis, and that prison fosters an environment of toxic masculinity, which increases resistance to psychotherapy. A 2017 report from the Bureau of Justice Statistics noted that 54", ". A 2017 report from the Bureau of Justice Statistics noted that 54.3% of prisoners and 35% of jail inmates who had experienced serious psychological distress in the past 30 days have received mental health treatment since admission to the current facility, and 63% of prisoners and 44.5% of jail inmates with a history of a mental health problem said they had received mental health treatment since admission.", "Finally, the book Criminalizing the Seriously Mentally Ill: The Abuse of Jails As Mental Hospitals points out that 20% of jails have no mental health resources. In addition, small jails are less likely to have access to mental health resources and are more likely to hold individuals with mental illnesses without charges brought against them", ". Jails in richer areas are more likely to have access to mental health resources, and jails with more access to mental health resources also deal with fewer medication refusals.", "Recidivism", "Research shows that rates of recidivism, or re-entry into prison, are not significantly higher for mentally ill offenders. A 2004 study found that although 77% of mentally ill offenders studied were arrested or charged with a new crime within the 27–55-month follow-up period, when compared with the general population, \"our mentally ill inmates were neither more likely nor more serious recidivists than general population inmates", ".\" In contrast, a 2009 study that examined the incarceration history of those in Texas Department of Criminal Justice facilities found that \"Texas prison inmates with major psychiatric disorders were far more likely to have had previous incarcerations compared with inmates without a serious mental illness", ".\" In the discussion, the researchers noted that their study's results differed from most research on this subject and hypothesized that this novelty could be due to specific conditions within the state of Texas.", "A 1991 study by L. Feder noted that although mentally ill offenders were significantly less likely to receive support from family and friends upon release from prison, they were actually less likely to be revoked on parole. However, mentally ill offenders were less likely to have the charges dropped for nuisance arrests, although they were more likely to have charges dropped for drug arrests. In both cases, mentally ill offenders were more likely to be tracked into mental health care", ". In both cases, mentally ill offenders were more likely to be tracked into mental health care. Finally, there were no significant differences in charges for violent arrests.", "Tools for effective mental healthcare \nA research paper published in 2020 by M. Georgiou remarked that having a well-defined consultation process for mental health services will allow for effective care. This is called the Care Programme Approach. It lists six steps to effective care of the prisoner:", "Identify the health and care needs of the prisoner.\n Written and clear plans.\n Having key persons supervise the program.\n Regular assessments of the program.\n Interprofessional involvement.\n Career involvement.\n\nSolitary confinement", "A broad range of scholarly research maintains that mentally ill offenders are disproportionately represented in solitary confinement and are more vulnerable to the adverse psychological effects of solitary confinement", ". Due to differing schemes of classification, empirical data on the makeup of inmates in segregated housing units can be difficult to obtain, and estimates of the percentage of inmates in solitary confinement who are mentally ill range from nearly a third, to 11% (with a \"major mental disorder\"), to 30% (from a study conducted in Washington), to \"over half\" (from a study conducted in Indiana), depending on how mental illness is determined, where the study is conducted, and other differences in methodology", ". Researchers J. Metzner and J. Fellner note that mentally ill offenders in solitary confinement \"all too frequently\" require crisis care or psychiatric hospitalization and that \"many simply won't get better as long as they are isolated.\" Researchers T. L. Hafemeister and J. George note that mentally ill offenders in isolation are at higher risk for psychiatric injury, self-harm, and suicide", ". A 2014 study that analyzed data from medical records in the New York City jail system found that while self-harm was significantly correlated with having a serious mental illness regardless of whether or not an inmate was in solitary confinement, inmates with serious mental illness in solitary confinement under 18 years of age accounted for the majority of acts of self-harm studied", ". When brought before federal courts, judges have prohibited or curtailed this practice, and many organizations that deal with human rights, including the United Nations, have condemned it.", "In addition, scholars argue that the conditions of solitary confinement make it much more difficult to deliver proper psychiatric care. According to researchers J. Metzner and J. Fellner, \"Mental health services in segregation units are typically limited to psychotropic medication, a health care clinician stopping at the cell front to ask how the prisoner is doing (i.e., mental health rounds), and occasional meetings in private with a clinician", ".e., mental health rounds), and occasional meetings in private with a clinician.\" One study in the American Journal of Public Health claimed that health care professionals must \"frequently\" conduct consultations through a slit in a cell door or an open tier that provides no privacy.", "However, some researchers disagree with the scope of claims surrounding the psychological effects of solitary confinement. For example, in 2006, researchers G. D. Glancy and E. L. Murray conducted a literature review in which they claimed that many frequently-cited studies have methodological concerns, including researcher bias, the use of \"volunteer nonprisoners, naturalistic experiments, or case reports, case series, and anecdotes\", and concluded \"there is little evidence to suggest the majority..", "...kept in SC...experience negative mental health effects.\" However, they did support claims that inmates with preexisting mental illnesses are more vulnerable and do suffer adverse effects. In their conclusion, they claim, \"we should therefore be concerned about those with pre-existing mental illness who are housed in segregation because there is nowhere else to put them within the correctional system.\"", "Community standpoint and outcome \nSocial stigma regarding this issue is significant due to the public's outlook and perception of mental health; some may not recognize it as a health factor that must be addressed. For this reason, some may avoid or deny the assistance offered to them, thus further suppressing feelings and experiences that eventually need to be dealt with. The NCBH notes that about one-third (or 38%) of Americans worry about their peers and family judging them if they seek mental help.", "Without the presence of these facilities within communities, mentally ill individuals would carry on with no preventative treatment or care to keep the severity of their condition at a healthy level. About 2 million of these individuals go to jail each year; moreover, data shows that 15% of men and 30% of women who are taken to prison have a serious mental health condition", ". The National Alliance on Mental Illness further looked into the results of decreased mental health services, and they found that for many, individuals do ultimately become homeless or find themselves in emergency rooms as a result of inaccessibility to mental health services and support groups", ". Statistics show that about 83% of jail inmates did not have access to needed treatment before their incarceration within their community, which is why some may be rearrested for crimes as a way to return to some form of assistance. The Marshall Project has gathered data regarding those being treated in jail, and what they found was that the Federal Bureau of Prisons implicated a new policy to be initiated that was meant to improve the care for inmates with mental health issues", ". It ultimately led to a decrease in the number of inmates who were categorized as needing higher care levels by more than 35%. After this policy change, the Marshall Project noted the steady decline since May 2014 of inmates receiving treatment for a mental illness. Research shows that in recent years, those with “serious psychotic disorders, especially when untreated, can be more likely to commit a violent crime”.", "It is said that an institutional shift would be more effective in reducing the number of incarcerated people through the collaboration of multiple agencies, especially regarding the criminal justice system and the community. This collaboration between agencies deviates from the \"self-perpetuating\" system meant to incarcerate and process individuals administratively; therefore, it focuses closely on people with severe mental illness and ensures ongoing care within and out of prison to reduce recidivism.", "Legal aspects", "Current laws\nThe Federal Bureau of Prisons has claimed to have made policy changes, but those changes only apply to the rules within the system, and they did not fund resources to carry out those new implementations. It should also be noted that within the prison system, states have laws and responsibilities to ensure as well, one of which is the Eighth amendment, which requires prisoners' medical needs to be consistently met. The Prison Litigation Reform Act upholds this right in federal court cases.", "As of late December 2018, the First Step Act (S 756) was signed into law as a way to reduce recidivism and provide overall improvements to the conditions faced within federal prisons, as well as working to reduce the mandatory sentences given. Although this Act primarily applies to about 225.000, or 10%, of individuals in federal prisons and jails, this reform may not be applied to those in state prisons and jails", ". Some of the provisions resulting from this act include staff training on how to identify and assist those suffering from a mental illness and providing improved, accessible treatment regarding drug abuse with programs like medication-assisted treatment.", "The implementation of significantly more Certified Community Behavioral Health Clinics has also been discussed as a solution to the mental health issue in the prison system. Its primary goal is to cater to the needs of its specific communities and expand access to mental health treatment for everyone. An organization like this claims to reduce criminal justice costs, hospital readmissions, and, once again, recidivism", ". They strive to treat individuals with mental illness early on rather than allowing them to carry on without professional care and general support.", "Emergency detention", "One major area of legal concern is the emergency detention of the non-criminal mentally ill in jails while waiting for formal procedures for involuntary hospitalization. Twenty-five states and the District of Columbia have laws specifically addressing this practice; eight of these states and D.C. explicitly forbid it. Seventeen states, on the other hand, explicitly allow it. Within this set, the criteria and circumstances necessary differ by state", ". Within this set, the criteria and circumstances necessary differ by state. Most states limit the detention periods in jails to one to three days. One distinguishing factor of this practice is that it is often initiated by a non-medical professional, such as a police officer. In many states, especially those in which a non-public official such as a medical health professional or concerned citizen can initiate the detention, a judge or magistrate is required to approve it before or soon after the initiation", ".", "When emergency detention in jails has been brought to court, judges generally agree that the practice is not unconstitutional. One notable exception was Lynch v. Baxley; however, later cases, particularly Boston v. Lafayette County, Mississippi, have connected the ruling of unconstitutionality in that case with the conditions of the jails themselves rather than the fact that they were jails", ". That being said, the Supreme Court of Illinois has stated that this practice is unconstitutional if the person being detained doesn't pose an imminent threat to himself or others.", "Supreme court cases", "Several landmark Supreme Court cases, notably Estelle v. Gamble, have established the constitutional right of prison inmates to mental health treatment. Estelle v. Gamble determined that \"deliberate indifference to serious medical needs\" of prisoners was a violation of the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This case was the first time the phrase \"deliberate indifference\" was used; it is now legal", ". This case was the first time the phrase \"deliberate indifference\" was used; it is now legal. To determine \"serious medical need\" later cases would use tests such as the treatment mandated by a physician or an obvious need to a layman. On the other hand, other cases, notably McGukin v. Smith, used much stricter terms, and in 1993 researchers Henry J. Steadman and Joseph J. Cocozza commented that \"serious medical need\" had little definitional clarity. Langley v", ". Langley v. Coughlin involved a prisoner \"regularly isolated without proper screening or care\" and clarified that a single, distinctive act is not necessary to constitute deliberate indifference but rather \"if seriously ill inmates are consistently made to wait for care while their condition deteriorates, or if diagnoses are haphazard and records minimally adequate then, over time, the mental state of deliberate indifference may be attributed to those in charge.\"", "The landmark case Washington v. Harper determined that although inmates do have an interest in and the right to refuse treatment, this can be overridden without judicial process even if the inmate is competent, provided there this act is \"reasonably related to legitimate penological interest\". Washington's internal process for determining this need was seen as affording due process. In contrast, in Breads v", ". In contrast, in Breads v. Moehrle, the forcible injection of drugs in jail was not upheld because sufficient procedures were not taken to ensure \"substantive determination of need\".", "Court cases \nGeorge Daniel, a mentally ill man on Alabama's death row was arrested and charged with capital murder. In jail, George became acutely psychotic and couldn't speak in complete sentences. Daniel had been on death row until several years later, Lawyer Bryan Stevenson uncovered the truth about the doctor who lied about examining Daniels's mental illness. Daniel's trial was then overturned and he has been in a mental institution since.", "Another mentally ill man, Avery Jenkins, was convicted of murder and sentenced to death. Throughout Jenkins's childhood, he had been in and out of foster homes and developed a serious mental illness. Jenkins erratic behavior didn't change, so his foster mother decided to get rid of him by tying him to a tree and leaving him there. Around the age of sixteen, he was left homeless and started to experience psychotic episodes", ". Around the age of sixteen, he was left homeless and started to experience psychotic episodes. At age twenty, Jenkins had wandered into a strange house and stabbed a man to death as he perceived him to be a demon. He was then sentenced to death and spent several years in prison as if he had been sane and responsible for his actions. Jenkins then got off death row and was put into a mental institution.", "In the past, overall living and treatment conditions within US prisons were not up to par, which can be seen through the details and points made by the Coleman v. Brown case that went to trial in 1995. In this case, The district court judge ultimately recognized the system's systemic failure to properly care for and provide resources to mentally ill inmates", ". These individuals were not receiving treatment prior to prison, and were sent there with expectations from others that they would be receiving treatment there, but that expectation was not fulfilled.", "In Coleman v. Brown, a special court, including three judges that can make final decisions on whether or not a problem is significant enough to enact change, concluded that overcrowding was in fact a reason for poor conditions in prisons, therefore they called for a reduction in the prison population to partially relieve said issue", ". Justice Alito at this time questioned whether the reduction solution was helpful when they could be looking into constructing additional prison medical and mental health facilities. Although, the decision did not take care of the living conditions that were problematic before and even after the case. It has been noted that psychotic prisoners were often held in small, narrow essentially restricted areas where standing on their secretions was common", ". Regarding actual mental health treatment conditions, the waiting time to even receive care could take up to a year, and when they finally reached that date, the screenings for such lacked privacy for those being evaluated as several physicians often shared the spaces at a time.", "Other cases that have been discussed is John Rudd, who was being a federal prison in West Virginia as of 2017. Rudd had a history of mental health disorders consisting of posttraumatic stress disorder, as well as schizophrenia. He was evaluated and diagnosed by a doctor as early as 1992. In 2017, he stopped taking his psychiatric medication, then informed staff of his intentions to take his own life. Staff put him in a suicide watch cell, where he would physically and violently hurt himself", ". Staff put him in a suicide watch cell, where he would physically and violently hurt himself. Staff injected him with haloperidol, an anti-psychotic drug, to treat him, but after some time they concluded that Rudd was not ill enough to receive proper, regular treatment and continued to categorize him as a level one inmate, meaning no significant mental health needs", ". Although they were aware of his pre-existing conditions, the prison staff claimed those were resolved and adjusted it to Rudd having an antisocial personality disorder.", "On December 7, 2020, Thomas Lee Rutledge died of hyperthermia at the home of William E. Donaldson in Bessemer. According to a lawsuit filed by his sister, Rutledge had a core temperature of 109 degrees when he was found unconscious in his psychiatric cell. Listed as defendants were the prison staff, guards, and contractors.", "A more recent case is that a mentally ill man froze to death at an Alabama jail as of 2023, according to a lawsuit filed by the man’s family who say he was kept naked in a concrete cell and believe he was also placed in a freezer or other frigid environment. According to the lawsuit, Anthony Don Mitchell, 33, arrived at the hospital's emergency room with a body temperature of 72 degrees (22 degrees Fahrenheit) and was pronounced dead hours later", ". He was rushed to the hospital on January 26 from the Walker County Jail, where he had been held for two weeks. The paramedic who tried unsuccessfully to resuscitate Mitchell writes, \"I believe hypothermia was the ultimate cause of death,\" according to a lawsuit filed by Mitchell's mother in federal court Monday", ". Mitchell, who had a history of substance abuse, was arrested on January 12, 2023, after a cousin asked authorities to check on his well-being for wandering through portals to heaven and hell at his home and suffering a nervous breakdown. According to the lawsuit, prison video shows Mitchell being held naked in a solitary cell with a concrete floor", ". The lawsuit speculates that Mitchell was also taken to the prison kitchen \"freezer\" or similar freezing environment and left there for hours \"because his body temperature was so low.\"", "Prison staff in general, have also been experiencing issues for various years now. Previously in the 1990s, just about one-third of positions went unfilled for mental health staff, and it became increasingly impactful on inmates when the vacancy rates for psychiatrists reached 50% and up. Staffing shortage is still seen today in which some counsellors can be pulled and asked to serve as corrections officers for the time being", ". This situation had worsened due to the Trump administration and the hiring freeze that was meant to reduce costs. Rudd, now out of prison and receiving counselling and taking medication, speaks on triggers within the prison environment that are not in any way healthy for those who are mentally ill.", "See also\n\nMental health among female offenders in the United States\nIncarceration in the United States\n\nLGBT people in prison\nMental health court\nMental health issues in American women's prisons\n\nUnited States incarceration rate\n\nNotes\n\nReferences", "Al-Rousan, T., Rubenstein, L., Sieleni, B., Deol, H., & Wallace, R. B. (2017). Inside the nation's largest mental health institution: a prevalence study in a state prison system. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 342.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Steadman, H. J., Holohean, E. J., & Dvoskin, J. (1991). Estimating mental health needs and service utilization among prison inmates. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 19(3), 297–306.", "Steadman, H. J., Osher, F. C., Robbins, P. C., Case, B., & Samuels, S. (2009). Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates. Psychiatric services, 60(6), 761–765.", "Imprisonment and detention in the United States\nForensic psychology\nMental health in the United States" ]

[ "Diarmuid Martin (born 8 April 1945) is an Irish prelate of the Catholic Church who was Archbishop of Dublin and Primate of Ireland from 2004 to 2020. From 1976 to 2003 he held a variety of positions in the Roman Curia and in the diplomatic service of the Holy See, representing the Holy See at the United Nations in Geneva and many international conferences. He became a bishop in 1999 and an archbishop in 2001.", "Early life and education\nDiarmuid Martin was raised and educated in Dublin, at the Oblate school in Inchicore, the De La Salle School situated on the Ballyfermot Road in Ballyfermot, and Marian College, Ballsbridge. He went to University College Dublin, where he studied philosophy, and then went to the Dublin Diocese's seminary at Holy Cross College (Dublin), where he studied theology. He entered Clonliffe seven days before the opening of the Second Vatican Council on 11 October 1962.", "He was ordained a priest on 25 May 1969 by Archbishop John Charles McQuaid. Martin is also an alumnus of the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas Angelicum where he pursued further studies.\n\nHis brother, Seamus Martin, was the International Editor of The Irish Times newspaper.", "Work for the Holy See", "In 1976, Martin entered the service of the Holy See, working for the Pontifical Council for the Family. He later worked on the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, was appointed Under Secretary in 1986 and Secretary in 1994. On 6 January 1999 he was consecrated titular Bishop of Glendalough by Pope John Paul II", ". On 6 January 1999 he was consecrated titular Bishop of Glendalough by Pope John Paul II. On 17 January 2001, he was appointed titular Archbishop of the same see when he was appointed the Holy See's Permanent Observer at the United Nations Office at Geneva and other Specialised Agencies there, including the World Trade Organization. In this capacity, he represented the Holy See at various UN conferences, including the International Conference on Population and Development", ". He led the delegations of the Holy See to the Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (Doha, 2001), the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance.", "During the 1990s, Martin represented the Holy See at major United Nations International Conferences, spoke about the Church's teachings on social matters at a variety of Episcopal Conferences, and was a member of various Vatican Offices, including the Central Committee for the Great Jubilee of the Year 2000. Also, he was involved in discussions between the World Council of Churches and the Catholic Church as well as the World Faiths Development Dialogue", ". He represented the views of the Holy See to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, where he advocated for debt relief for less developed countries.", "Archbishop of Dublin\nMartin was appointed Coadjutor to Cardinal Desmond Connell on 3 May 2003 and was installed on 30 August. On 26 April 2004, following the acceptance of Cardinal Connell's resignation by Pope John Paul II, Martin automatically succeeded him as Archbishop of Dublin.\n\nTraditional Latin Mass", "Traditional Latin Mass\n\nFollowing Pope Benedict XVI's decree Summorum Pontificum liberalising the use of the Latin Mass, which took effect on 14 September 2007, Martin established a Latin Mass Chaplaincy in the Dublin City area.", "Gay priests", "In 2005 Martin said that being gay should not prevent a man becoming a Catholic priest. He said: \"You don't write off a candidate for the priesthood simply because he is a gay man.\" He discussed the admission of homosexuals to the priesthood in the context of the sexual abuse of minors by priests: \"You have to say that horrendous damage was done to people. Then you need to take steps to ensure this will never happen again", ". Then you need to take steps to ensure this will never happen again.\" He noted that \"you cannot identify homosexuality with paedophilia\" and that paedophilia is \"not the result of homosexuality, nor is it a result of celibacy\". His remarks preceded the Congregation for Catholic Education's publication in November of a document on the same subject and later clarification that banned homosexuals who did not live chastely for at least three years.", "Missionary work\nIn 2007, Martin announced that \"a Catholic Church representative will visit every household in the Dublin Archdiocese next year. He predicted his evangelisation programme would promote greater co-operation between lay people and priests in the Church's mission and ministry\".", "Civil partnerships legislation\nIn response to comments by Cardinal Seán Brady on the Civil Partnership Bill, Martin said: \"We haven't expressed an opinion as an Episcopal Conference [on the bill]. I don't think anyone in the conference is against what Cardinal Brady said, but they may have said it in different ways.\" He also said that while the Catholic Church favoured marriage, \"it is not against other forms of intimacy\".", "Martin told the Irish Independent in 2004 that \"I recognise that there are many different kinds of caring relationships and these often create dependencies for those involved. The State may feel in justice that the rights of people in these relationships need to be protected.\" He emphasised he was not thinking mainly of homosexual relationships, but rather of caring, dependent relationships in general. At the same time, he said, he did not exclude homosexual relationships", ". At the same time, he said, he did not exclude homosexual relationships. Martin said: \"I have a wide range of relationships in mind. I do not exclude gay relationships but my main concern is with all caring relationships where dependencies have come into being.\"", "50th International Eucharistic Congress", "At the end of the 49th International Eucharistic Congress held in Quebec in 2008, Pope Benedict XVI announced that the next International Eucharistic Congress would be held in Dublin in 2012, the second time that Dublin hosts the congress, the first being the 31st congress in 1932", ". On 11 November 2010, Pope Benedict met with Martin and members of the organising committee of the 50th Eucharistic Congress as well as participants in the plenary assembly of the Pontifical Committee for International Eucharistic Congresses in the Sala Clementina of the Apostolic Palace. In May 2012, Martin said that the congress which begins in Dublin on 10 June \"will reflect the Church in Ireland today. It will not be a going back to the church of 1932 or any other period. ..", ". It will not be a going back to the church of 1932 or any other period. ... Its strength will be the quality of people's faith, not numbers. It will be a congress of prayer\".", "Credibility deficit of Church", "Speaking in Dublin at a discussion organised by the Communion and Liberation lay Catholic movement, Martin said that, when the Church speaks, it faces a severe hindrance: \"When I was younger, if you did your Leaving Certificate examination through the medium of Irish you got a bonus on your mark – I think it was either a 10 per cent or 15 per cent – just for that fact", ". Today for the Church to make a credible statement on many aspects of public life or simply to talk about faith you start out with the opposite. You start out with a substantial percentage of credibility deficit.\" He wondered: \"How does one really begin to speak about faith? How does one attempt to reach out and lead young people on a journey of faith, when they in many ways have lost trust in a Church which many young people find no longer just 'irrelevant' but ..", "... in which many young people say they have very little confidence\".", "Martin addressed this topic again on Holy Thursday 2009, saying that the two biggest problems facing young people were the Catholic Church's condemnation of gay couples and the question of suicide. He said that these were causing \"a disconnect\" which was causing \"a dramatic and growing rift\" between the Church and the younger generation", ". He accepted that this was partly the Church's fault because young people were much more questioning today than previously and he urged his priests to offer services in the parish that would be geared more towards their particular concerns. He said that young people \"see through the superficial answers we give\". He added: \"Our young people are generous and idealistic but such generosity and idealism does not seem to find a home in the Church", ". Where are we offering young people a home in our Church communities? Where are the focal points where we are helping young people to find an interpretation of their generosity, idealism and questioning in the light of the challenge and of the beauty of the message of Jesus Christ?\"", "Commission on child sexual abuse", "On Holy Thursday 2009, he also warned that the depth of the Catholic sex abuse cases \"will shock us all\", throwing up challenges to the Catholic Church in Ireland it has never experienced before. Martin said: \"It is likely that thousands of children or young people across Ireland were abused by priests in the period under investigation and the horror of that abuse was not recognised for what it is. The report will make each of us and the entire church in Dublin a humbler church\"", ". The report will make each of us and the entire church in Dublin a humbler church\". Martin also asked for the \"forgiveness of anyone that I may have hurt or left feeling neglected. I know my own failings and limitations and I wish to renew sincerely today my respect and concern for each and every priest of this diocese or working in this diocese\".", "On 25 May 2009, Martin stated in the Irish Times (partially quoting a correspondent):", "Red Mass 2009", "Addressing on 5 October 2009 a congregation that included Supreme Court and High Court judges, at the formal opening of the law term, Martin warned that ongoing prosperity could not on its own bring the harmony which society requires. Urging the congregation to work to strengthen the fabric of society and make it more caring, he said self-indulgence could lead to corruption, total disregard for the rights of others, a breakdown of community and violence", ". Violence, he added, was \"a continual threat to the harmony of society\" in Ireland, was \"profoundly anti-democratic\" and attempted to \"limit the effectiveness of community through a climate of fear\"", ". Speaking of \"those whose mission it is to advance legislation which promotes harmony and equality and those whose mission it is to apply such laws and administer justice\", he said: \"Yours is a task of the spirit: to ensure that true communication in the fullest sense between people is not inhibited by the raw power of the self-interest of the few\".", "Murphy Report", "On 26 November 2009, the Murphy Report into abuse carried out by priests and covered up to varying degrees by the four preceding Archbishops of Dublin, namely, John Charles McQuaid, Dermot Ryan, Kevin McNamara, and Desmond Connell, was published. The report, which took three years to complete, said the archdiocese had an \"obsessive concern with secrecy and the avoidance of scandal\" and had \"little or no concern for the welfare of the abused child\"", ". The investigating commission identified 320 individuals who complained of abuse between 1975 and 2004, and noted that 130 complaints had been made since May 2004. In a letter to the priests and laity read out at all Masses on Sunday 29 November 2009, Martin wrote that \"The damage done to children abused by priests can never be undone. As Archbishop of Dublin and as Diarmuid Martin I offer to each and every survivor, my apology, my sorrow and my shame for what happened to them", ". I am aware however that no words of apology will ever be sufficient\".", "Martin said on 1 December 2009 that he was writing to Bishop of Limerick Donal Murray, a former auxiliary bishop of the Dublin diocese who was strongly criticised in the report but who, while saying he regretted his actions, did not immediately resign from his Limerick post, and to all other auxiliary bishops who served in Dublin and who were named in the report. He said he was \"not satisfied\" with some of their responses so far", ". He said he was \"not satisfied\" with some of their responses so far. He pointed out that those bishops named in the report, but no longer serving in the Dublin archdiocese, could not tailor their responses to people in their current dioceses. \"What they did and did not do failed people in Dublin and they owe them a response.\"", "On 11 December, Archbishop Martin and Cardinal Brady met with Pope Benedict XVI to discuss the Murphy Report. Pope Benedict was accompanied by a group of Curial officials including the Cardinal Secretary of State and the Cardinal Prefects of the Congregation for Bishops, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the Congregation for the Clergy, and the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life", ". The Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland, Archbishop Giuseppe Leanza, also attended. Asked if the meeting and the ensuing Vatican statement would go some way to answering criticism about the perceived silence of the Holy See in the wake of the publication of the report, Martin said: \"What appeared to us today is that maybe things were not said but certainly people were reflecting on matters\".", "Some survivors of child abuse and their representatives reacted negatively to the Holy See's statement. Marie Collins, who was abused in 1960 by a priest when she was a patient at Our Lady's Hospital for Sick Children in Crumlin, said: \"I can’t say I was disappointed because I didn’t have any high hopes", ".\" Acknowledging the sincerity of the pope's call for prayers for those abused and their families, and possible initiatives where reorganisation of the Irish Church was concerned, she pointed out the statement \"doesn't deal with the past. No one has taken responsibility for what went on in Dublin. There is no accountability\".", "In his Christmas sermon, Martin said the church for too long placed its self-interest above the rights of its parishioners, particularly innocent children. He said they, as well as the dedicated majority of priests, had been betrayed by their leaders. \"It has been a painful year\", he told worshippers at St Mary's Pro-Cathedral in Dublin. \"But the church today may well be a better and safer place than was the church of 25 years ago – when all looked well, but where deep shadows were kept buried", ".\" On 11 August 2010, however, it was revealed that Pope Benedict had not accepted the resignations of Bishops Walsh and Field. \"Following the presentation of their resignations to Pope Benedict, it has been decided that Bishop Eamonn Walsh and Bishop Raymond Field will remain as auxiliary bishops\", Archbishop Martin said in a letter to priests of the diocese", "Martin came in for criticism among other high ranking clergy for calling for the resignations of bishops mentioned in the Murphy report. In the Connaught Tribune, Father Tony Flannery was critical of how Martin communicated with his own auxiliary bishops: \"These bishops are not recalcitrant teenagers; they are intelligent and mature men, so it was pathetic of Diarmuid Martin to use the media to communicate with them\"", ". In January 2010, the Archbishop expressed surprise at claims made in the previous month by Bishop of Galway Martin Drennan that he had attacked Drennan's integrity. Drennan had said: \"I don't know if Martin intended it or not but it has put a question mark over my integrity, yes. Now that I've responded to him and given him the evidence he needs he might want to reflect on that and see what response he should make to it", ".\" On 22 January, Martin said: \"I'm surprised that anybody would say that, by asking people to be accountable, to stand up and explain themselves, that was an attack on anyone's integrity.\" He said he had received much correspondence supporting him for saying people should be accountable, which did not mean heads should roll, he said.", "Auxiliary Bishop Emeritus of Dublin Dermot O'Mahony said Martin had failed to support priests in the Dublin diocese following publication of the Murphy report. \"The archbishop did nothing to counteract the statement of the Murphy report, widely circulated in the media, that the majority of clergy knew and did nothing", ". Indeed, I feel he made matters worse by giving an example of a parish that could be clearly identifiable to the priests of the diocese,\" wrote O’Mahony in letters sent to Martin and the Council of Priests. He added: \"To suggest our approach failed to take cognisance of the safety of children is inaccurate and unjust. The acceptance by media and current diocese policy that a cover-up took place must be challenged\". He circulated his own correspondence with Martin to the Council of Priests.", "In a letter to Martin on 30 December, Bishop O'Mahony wrote that he had been shocked at the tone of a previous letter he had received from Martin, which had addressed the Murphy report. A spokeswoman for Martin told The Irish Times that this letter to O’Mahony, which was dated 2 December 2009, had been sent following a detailed conversation between them. It was sent three days after a meeting of the diocesan council that discussed the Murphy report.", "A meeting of priests heard demands that Martin be confronted over his handling of the fallout from the Murphy report and claims that the archbishop had become \"a source of division\" among priests and bishops. Archbishop Martin in August 2010 said that bishops have \"a long history of a lack of unity\".", "Pope's Pastoral Letter to Irish Catholics", "Pope Benedict's letter to Irish Catholics was signed on 19 March 2010 and released on 20 March. Archbishop Martin welcomed the pope's statement, describing it not as a final word but as \"a further step in the process of renewal and healing in the Catholic Church in Ireland following the crisis of the sexual abuse of children\". Martin said the pope acknowledged the suffering and betrayal experienced by survivors of clerical abuse", ". \"The pope recognises the failures of Church authorities in how they dealt with sinful and criminal acts,\" he said.", "Refusal to call for resignation of Cardinal Brady", "In response to a journalist's question following publicity given to Cardinal Brady's role in canonical investigations in 1975 concerning paedophile priest Brendan Smyth, Martin commented: \"I never tell people to resign. I never said people should stay. I ask for accountability. Resigning is a personal decision a person has to make on their own. People should be accountable, and render account of what they've done. Resignations are personal decisions", ". Resignations are personal decisions.\" Asked whether it was acceptable that Cardinal Brady did not stop Smyth after the 1975 investigation, he said Smyth \"was not stopped by who had the power to stop him\", and \"somebody should have stopped him\".", "In the same interview Martin was asked if he had been recently silenced by the church. He replied: \"No, I haven't been asked to stop talking. I gave four major interviews in the last four weeks to Irish and international television.\" Asked if he had been ostracised by other members of the church, he said: \"I do things in my own way, which may not please everybody, but in no way was I ostracised. I have to maintain also my own independence of thought.\"", "Apostolic visitation", "In October 2010, the four metropolitan archbishops of Ireland, Michael Neary of Tuam, Seán Brady of Armagh, Diarmuid Martin of Dublin and Dermot Clifford of Cashel and Emly, met for high-level talks with heads of Vatican congregations regarding the apostolic visitation. This visitation was prompted by the publication of the Murphy and Ryan reports", ". This visitation was prompted by the publication of the Murphy and Ryan reports. While in Rome, the metropolitans met a team of investigators appointed by Pope Benedict to examine the four provinces and \"some other as yet unspecified dioceses\"", ". The team included: the Cardinal-Archbishop Emeritus of Westminster, Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, who inspected Armagh; the Archbishop of Boston, Seán O'Malley, who inspected Dublin; the Archbishop of Toronto, Thomas Christopher Collins, who inspected Cashel; the Archbishop of Ottawa, Terrence Prendergast, who inspected Tuam. An investigation of the state of Irish seminaries will be conducted by Cardinal Timothy Dolan of New York. The apostolic visitors reported their findings directly to Pope Benedict XVI.", "Archbishop Martin on 20 February 2011 said that the Church has a long way to journey in honesty before it merits forgiveness for the abuse of children. Archbishop Martin then made what victims said was the most explicit apology to date for the role of the Church hierarchy in enabling the abuse. Three of the victims held hands and sobbed as Martin poured water on their feet and Cardinal O'Malley dried them with a towel", ". During the service Archbishop Martin said \"I can express my sorrow, my sense of the wrong that was done to you. I think of how you were not heard or not believed and not comforted and supported. I can ask myself how did this happen in the Church of Jesus Christ where as we heard in the Gospel children are presented to us as signs of the kingdom", ". How did we not see you in your suffering and abandonment?\" He continued: \"Someone once reminded me of the difference between on the one hand apologising or saying sorry and on the other hand asking forgiveness. I can bump into someone on the street and say \"Sorry\". It can be meaningful or just an empty formula. When I say sorry I am in charge. When I ask forgiveness however I am no longer in charge, I am in the hands of the others. Only you can forgive me; only God can forgive me", ". Only you can forgive me; only God can forgive me. I, as Archbishop of Dublin and as Diarmuid Martin, stand here in this silence and I ask forgiveness of God and I ask for the first steps of forgiveness from all of the survivors of abuse.\"", "Comments on Vatican response to report", "In May 2011 Archbishop Martin emphasised he was not criticising Pope Benedict, but was encouraging a sense of urgency on the part of the Pope's \"collaborators\" in the Roman Curia", ". Speaking in Dublin he said the pace of change in Irish religious culture was such that \"the longer the delay in advancing the fruits of the apostolic visitation, the greater the danger of false expectations, and the greater the encouragement to those who prefer immobilism to reform, and the greater the threat to the effectiveness of this immense gift of the Holy Father to the Irish Church\"", ". He was \"impatient to learn about the path that the apostolic visitation will set out for renewal for the Irish Church so that our renewal will move forward decisively. At the same time, I am also becoming increasingly impatient at the slowness in the process, which began over a year ago. This is not a criticism of the Holy Father. It is an appeal to his collaborators.\" His \"greatest concern\" was \"the rift which is growing between the church and young people\".", "Church role in education", "In March 2010, Martin welcomed an announcement by Minister for Education Batt O'Keeffe that his department \"will shortly be providing an initial list of about 10 urban areas that can be used to test the concept of reducing the number of Catholic schools\". Martin also said that solutions would have to be found to respect the rights of teachers \"who do not wish to be involved in religious education\"", ". He welcomed the fact that \"the Minister has indicated that there will be consultations with parents, teachers and local communities\". Minister O'Keefe said that \"the issue of the Catholic Church divesting itself of certain schools was originally explicitly raised by Archbishop Diarmuid Martin and it has also found expression in the work of the Bishops' Conference and through its engagement with my department", ".\" He said that the archbishop's \"public identification of this reality\" was \"a timely and important contribution not just to the future of Catholic schools but to the future of the primary sector generally,\" he said.", "\"In overall terms, I know it has been acknowledged that the Catholic primary sector, which currently represents over 90 per cent of overall provision, may ultimately fall to between 50 per cent and 60 per cent of overall provision and that this percentage of overall provision will still be enough to allow the church fulfil its expressed commitment to meet the needs of parents who wish their children to have a Catholic education.\"", "Comments on the Cloyne report", "On 13 July 2011 the report in the sexual abuse in the diocese of Cloyne was published. Archbishop Martin said on reading his report that his \"first emotion that came to me was anger\". Archbishop Martin warned that further investigations of clerical child sex abuse in dioceses will not get to the truth if people in the Catholic Church are not prepared to tell the truth", ". Senior church figures who were not prepared to be honest would only be \"discovered\" through an \"invasive\" audit of child protection practices in their dioceses, he said. He said the Vatican, in responding to the findings of last week's report on child abuse cases in the Cloyne diocese, should reiterate its support for the Irish church in applying existing \"norms\", or rules, on child protection", ". The Vatican should also support the reporting of cases to the State authorities and the carrying out of audits to show exactly where the situation was in relation to child protection. He acknowledged that people could feel deceived by the church. He said the norms set down by the present pope in 2001 had been ignored in the Cloyne diocese. \"What sort of a cabal is in there and still refusing to recognise the norms of the church?\" he asked", ". All the other Irish bishops had put these norms into practice, \"as far as I know\", he added. Martin said six elderly priests were verbally abused at a colleague's funeral this week when someone challenged them, claiming they \"should be ashamed of themselves\". \"Those who felt they were able to play tricks with norms, they have betrayed those good men and so many others in the church who are working today,\" he said.", "Third Edition of the Roman Missal", "In August 2011 Archbishop Martin defended the new English translation of the Roman Missal entering into force by Advent 2011. A gradual introduction of the missal began at Masses in Ireland from 11 September. The new translation came into full use throughout Ireland and the English-speaking Catholic world on the first Sunday of Advent, 27 November 2011", ". In a letter to the priests of the Dublin diocese the August before, Martin said that since the prior Roman Missal was introduced in 1975, \"many additional texts have been made available for use. These include new Eucharistic prayers for reconciliation I and II, and for Masses for various needs I to IV, Masses for the Blessed Virgin Mary, Masses for new feasts of saints, and other new material", ".\" Those familiar with translations in other languages had come to realise \"that often there were key phrases and rich biblical allusions missing from the English translation\" in the current missal, he said. Also, \"some theological vocabulary had been lost in the 1975 edition\" and the new missal \"addresses some of these weaknesses\". Changes to the wording of the Confiteor, the Gloria and the Creed are included in the new Roman Missal.", "2014 Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops", "Martin gave a speech at the Synod and said later that the bishops' Synod on the Family must show that church teaching can develop so it can respond to the difficulties faced by ordinary Catholics. \"This synod can't simply repeat what was said 20 years ago,\" Archbishop Martin told journalists at a briefing in the Vatican halfway through the two weeks of discussions", ". \"It has to find new language to show that there can be development of doctrine, that there has been a willingness to listen to what emerged in the questionnaire that went out and what was said at the synod itself.\" The questionnaire before the synod asked Catholics around the world a range of questions on family life including issues such as divorced and remarried couples, same-sex unions and contraception.", "Archbishop Martin said this Synod on the family had been very \"different\" but it would be misleading to suggest that it will lead to immediate change in relation to \"celebrity\" issues such as homosexuality and communion for the divorced, explaining: \"There can be a development of doctrine in the sense that we can understand the same doctrine in a different way, but a change whereby, overnight, you say that what was wrong is now right, that is just not on the cards", ".\" Martin said this Synod has been radically different because, thanks to Pope Francis, it has been marked by a genuine dialogue and an at times heated debate. However, he said the Pope has so far \"given no indication as to where he stands on anything\" for the reason that this is a three-year-long process that will be concluded only when the Pope himself issues his post-Synodal apostolic exhortation, after the second leg of this Family Synod in October 2015.", "Homeless initiative\nOn 2 December 2014 Archbishop Martin offered to house some of the city's homeless people in church property, after a homeless man was found dead metres away from Leinster House, one of the parliament buildings. The body of 42-year-old Jonathan Corrie was found by a passer-by in a doorway in November 2014. Archbishop Martin said one of his diocesan buildings could be made suitable before Christmas to provide shelter for between 30 and 40 homeless people in the inner city.", "Islam", "Archbishop Martin has said that 2016 comments by Raymond Cardinal Burke on Islam's supposed desire to \"govern the world\" are unhelpful at a time when Europe reels in the aftermath of a spate of terror attacks. The archbishop decried the murder of French priest, Fr", ". The archbishop decried the murder of French priest, Fr. Jacques Hamel, in Normandy as \"something that no religion would stand over,\" adding that the atrocity in the small parish church of Saint Etienne du Rouvray has been \"horrifying to everyone\" and that people have been \"absolutely stunned by the brutality\" of it. Speaking from Poland where he was attending World Youth Day, Martin stressed that education is the basis for real tolerance as well as knowledge and respect for other religions", ". While Burke, in an interview on his new book, said that Islam seeks to govern the world and that the only way to save Western civilization is to return it to its Christian roots, Martin countered: \"I don't think that helps at all.\" He added, \"Does Islam want to rule the world? There may be some people of the Islamic faith who do, but Islam itself has another side within it -- a caring and a tolerant side.\"", "Abortion\nOn 6 January 2019, Martin called for caution in constructing anti-abortion protests outside of abortion clinics. \"I'm not a person personally for protest,\" he said. \"What the Church should be doing is strengthening its resolve to help women in crisis and to educate people.\" Martin also called for protections for medical workers who refused to assist with abortions due to conscientious objections.", "Future of the Church in Ireland", "Archbishop Martin said in a speech on the future of the Church on 10 May 2010 that the Gospel reminds \"us that the Father would send the Spirit who, at each moment in the history of the Church, would teach us all things in Jesus' name. In that sense I cannot be pessimistic about the future of the Church in Ireland.\" He continued saying that \"The future of the Catholic Church in Ireland will see a very different Catholic Church in Ireland", ". I sometimes worry when I hear those with institutional responsibility stress the role of the institution and others then in reaction saying that 'we are the Church'. Perhaps on both sides there may be an underlying feeling that 'I am the Church', that the Church must be modelled on my way of thinking or on my position. Renewal is never our own creation. Renewal will only come through returning to the Church which we have received from the Lord.\"", "On Church teaching, Archbishop Martin said that, \"There are further challenges to be addressed regarding Church teaching. Within the Church and outside of it discussion focuses around challenges in the area of sexual morality where the Church's teaching is either not understood or is simply rejected as out of tune with contemporary culture. There is on the other hand very little critical examination of some of the roots of that contemporary culture and its compatibility with the teaching of Jesus", ". The moral teaching of the Church cannot simply be a blessing for, a toleration of, or an adaptation to the cultural climate of the day.\"", "On the need for greater evangelisation he said that \"The use of modern media mechanisms to support the distribution of the Gospel is something important and innovative. In this context, we are very fortunate to have a group of scripture scholars who put their knowledge and personal perception of the scriptures at the service of parishes and bible study groups. This material is accessible to any individual who would wish to avail of it on the website www.yearofevangelisation.ie.\"", "On 20 February 2011, he made what was regarded by abuse survivors as his most explicit apology yet.", "At a talk on the future of Irish Catholicism on 22 February 2011 for the Cambridge Group for Irish Studies, Magdalene College, Cambridge, Archbishop Martin said that \"there are parishes in Dublin where the presence at Sunday Mass is some 5% of the Catholic population and, in some cases, even below 2%. On any particular Sunday about 18% of the Catholic population in the Archdiocese of Dublin attends Mass. That is considerably lower than in any other part of Ireland", ". That is considerably lower than in any other part of Ireland.\" He continued saying: \"(That) the conformist Ireland of the Archbishop McQuaid era changed so rapidly and with few tears, was read as an indication of a desire for change, but perhaps it was also an indication that the conformism was covering an emptiness and a faith built on a faulty structure to which people no longer really ascribed\" and that \"The Catholic Church in Ireland will inevitably become more a minority culture", ". The challenge is to ensure that it is not an irrelevant minority culture\".", "2011 general election comments", "Archbishop Martin in February 2011 called on Christians in Ireland to be vocal about the values they want for \"a caring\" society. Addressing a Church celebration of the World Day of the Sick in Clontarf, Archbishop Martin said: \"We stand at an important moment regarding the future of our Irish society", ".\" He continued saying \"In a climate marked too often only by criticism and mud-slinging, we Christians are called to drive for a sense of common purpose regarding the type of society we wish our political leaders to generate and the values that we would wish to see enshrined in that society.\" Shortly afterwards the Irish Catholic Bishops' Conference released a guide to voters for the general election.", "2015 Same Sex Marriage Referendum\n\nIn response to the passing of the thirty-fourth amendment of the constitution of Ireland, which inserted a clause into the Irish Constitution permitting same sex marriage, Martin stated that \"The Church needs to take a reality check. It's very clear there’s a growing gap between Irish young people and the Church, and there’s a growing gap between the culture of Ireland that's developing and the Church.\"", "Retirement\nOn 29 December 2020, Pope Francis accepted Martin's resignation, which he had submitted as required upon turning 75 in April 2020. Bishop Dermot Farrell was named to succeed him.\n\nSee also\nRoman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Catholic Hierarchy\n Dublin Diocese Biography\n Ferns Report\n Diocese of Dublin", "Catholic Hierarchy\n Dublin Diocese Biography\n Ferns Report\n Diocese of Dublin\n\nRoman Catholic archbishops of Dublin\nAlumni of University College Dublin\nAlumni of Clonliffe College\n1945 births\nLiving people\nChristian clergy from Dublin (city)\nOfficials of the Roman Curia\nDiplomats of the Holy See\nRoman Catholic titular archbishops\nPontifical Council for Justice and Peace\nCatholic Church sexual abuse scandals in Ireland\n21st-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Ireland\nTitular bishops of Glendalough" ]

[ "The City of Manchester Stadium (currently known as the Etihad Stadium for sponsorship reasons) is the home of Premier League club Manchester City, with a domestic football capacity of 53,400, making it the 6th-largest football stadium in England and ninth-largest in the United Kingdom.", "Built to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games, the stadium has since staged the 2008 UEFA Cup final, England football internationals, rugby league matches, a boxing world title fight, the England rugby union team's final group match of the 2015 Rugby World Cup and summer music concerts during the football off-season.", "The stadium, originally proposed as an athletics arena in Manchester's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics, was converted after the 2002 Commonwealth Games from a 38,000 capacity arena to a 48,000 seat football stadium at a cost to the city council of £22 million and to Manchester City of £20 million. Manchester City F.C. agreed to lease the stadium from Manchester City Council and moved there from Maine Road in the summer of 2003.", "The stadium was built by Laing Construction at a cost of £112 million and was designed and engineered by Arup, whose design incorporated a cable-stayed roof structure and supported entirely by twelve exterior masts and cables", ". The stadium design has received much praise and many accolades, including an award from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004 for its innovative inclusive building design and a special award in 2003 from the Institution of Structural Engineers for its unique structural design.", "In August 2015, a 7,000 seat third tier on the South Stand was completed, in time for the start of the 2015–16 football season. The expansion was designed to be in keeping with the existing roof design. A £300 million redevelopment programme of the existing North Stand entailing the construction of a new hotel with 400 rooms, covered fan park for 3,000 people and increased net capacity to 61,474 commenced in July 2023 and will be completed by the end of 2026.\n\nHistory\n\nBackground", "Plans to build a new stadium in Manchester were formulated before 1989 as part of the city's bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics. Manchester City Council submitted a bid that included a design for an 80,000-capacity stadium on a greenfield site west of Manchester city centre. The bid failed and Atlanta hosted the Games", ". The bid failed and Atlanta hosted the Games. Four years later the city council bid to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, but this time focusing on a brownfield site east of the city centre on derelict land that was the site of Bradford Colliery, known colloquially as Eastlands", ". The council's shift in focus was driven by emerging government legislation on urban renewal, promising vital support funding for such projects; the government became involved in funding the purchase and clearance of the Eastlands site in 1992.", "For the February 1993 bid the city council submitted another 80,000-capacity stadium design produced by design consultants Arup, the firm that helped select the Eastlands site. On 23 September 1993, the games were awarded to Sydney, but the following year Manchester submitted the same scheme design to the Millennium Commission as a \"Millennium Stadium\", only to have this proposal rejected", ". Undeterred, Manchester City Council subsequently bid to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games, once again proposing the same site along with downsized stadium plans derived from the 2000 Olympics bid, and this time were successful. In 1996, this same planned stadium competed with Wembley Stadium to gain funding to become the new national stadium, but the money was used to redevelop Wembley.", "After successful athletics events at the Commonwealth Games, conversion into a football venue was criticised by athletics figures such as Jonathan Edwards and Sebastian Coe as, at the time, the United Kingdom still lacked plans for a large athletics venue due to the capability of installing an athletics track having been dropped from the designs for a rebuilt Wembley Stadium", ". Had either of the two larger stadium proposals developed by Arup been agreed for funding, then Manchester would have had a venue capable of being adapted to hosting large-scale athletics events through the use of movable seating.", "Sport England wished to avoid creating a white elephant, so they insisted that the City Council agree to undertake and fund extensive work to convert CoMS from a track and field arena to a football stadium, thereby ensuring its long-term financial viability. Sport England hoped either Manchester City Council or Manchester City F.C. would provide the extra £50 million required to convert the stadium to a 65,000 seater athletics and footballing venue with movable seating", ". However, Manchester City Council did not have the money to facilitate movable seating and Manchester City were lukewarm about the idea. Stadium architects Arup believed history demonstrated that maintaining a rarely used athletics track often does not work with football – and cited examples such as the Stadio delle Alpi and the Olympic Stadium with both Juventus and Bayern Munich moving to new stadiums less than 40 years after inheriting them.", "2002 Commonwealth Games", "The stadium's foundation stone was laid by Prime Minister Tony Blair in December 1999, and construction began in January 2000. The stadium was designed by Arup and constructed by Laing Construction at a cost of approximately £112 million, £77 million of which was provided by Sport England, with the remainder funded by Manchester City Council", ". For the Commonwealth Games, the stadium featured a single lower tier of seating running around three sides of the athletics track, and second tiers to the two sides, with an open-air temporary stand at the northern end; initially providing a seating capacity for the Games of 38,000, subsequently extended to 41,000 through the installation of additional temporary trackside seating along the east and south stands.", "The first public event at the stadium was the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games on 25 July 2002. Among the dignitaries present was Queen Elizabeth II who made a speech, delivered to her in an electronic baton, and 'declared the Commonwealth Games open'. During the following ten days of competition, the stadium hosted the track and field events and all the rugby sevens matches. Sixteen new Commonwealth Games track and field records (six men's and ten women's) were set in the stadium", ". Prior to the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London, the 2002 Games was the largest multi-sport event ever to be staged in the United Kingdom, eclipsing the earlier London 1948 Summer Olympics in numbers of teams and competing athletes (3,679), and it was the world's first multi-sport tournament to include a limited number of full medal events for elite athletes with a disability (EAD)", ". In terms of number of participating nations, it is still the largest Commonwealth Games in history, featuring 72 nations competing in 281 events across seventeen (fourteen individual and three team) sports.", "Stadium conversion", "Sections of the track were removed and relaid at other athletics venues, and the internal ground level was lowered to make way for an additional tier of seating, on terracing already constructed then buried for the original configuration. The three temporary stands with a total capacity of 16,000 were dismantled, and replaced with a permanent structure of similar design to the existing one at the southern end", ". This work took nearly a year to complete and added 23,000 permanent seats, increasing the capacity of the converted stadium by 7,000 to approximately 48,000. Manchester City F.C. moved to the ground in time for the start of the 2003–04 season", ". Manchester City F.C. moved to the ground in time for the start of the 2003–04 season. The total cost of this conversion was in excess of £40 million, with the track, pitch and seating conversion being funded by the city council at a cost of £22 million; and the installation of bars, restaurants and corporate entertainment areas throughout the stadium being funded by the football club at a cost of £20 million", ". The Games had made a small operating surplus, and Sport England agreed that this could be reinvested in converting the athletics warm-up track adjacent to the main stadium into the 6,000 seat Manchester Regional Arena at a cost of £3.5 million.", "Stadium expansion", "The stadium is owned by Manchester City Council and leased by the football club on a 'fully repairing' basis. All operating, maintenance and future capital costs are borne by the club; who consequently receive all revenues from stadium users. The 2008 takeover made the football club one of the wealthiest in the world, prompting suggestions that it could consider buying the stadium outright", ". Manchester City signed an agreement with Manchester City Council in March 2010 to allow a £1 billion redevelopment led by architect Rafael Viñoly.", "During the 2010 closed season the football pitch and hospitality areas were renovated, with a £1 million investment being made in the playing surface so that it is better able to tolerate concerts and other events without damage", ". In October 2010, Manchester City renegotiated the stadium lease, obtaining the naming rights to the stadium in return for agreeing to now pay the City Council an annual fixed sum of £3 million where previously it had only paid half of the ticket sales revenue from match attendances exceeding 35,000. This new agreement occurred as part of a standard five-year review of the original lease and it amounts to an approximate £1 million annual increase in council revenues from the stadium.", "During 2011–14, the club sold all 36,000 of its allocated season tickets each season and experienced an average match attendance that is very close to its maximum seating capacity (see table in subsequent section). Consequently, during the 2014–15 season, an expansion of the stadium was undertaken. The South Stand was extended with the addition of a third tier which, in conjunction with an additional three rows of pitch side seating, increased stadium capacity to approximately 55,000", ". Construction commenced on the South Stand in April 2014 and was completed by the start of the 2015–16 season.", "Future plans", "A final phase of expansion, which received planning approval at the same time as the others, would have added a matching third tier of seats to the North Stand. In November 2018, the club consulted with season ticket holders on possible alternative configurations for this expansion, including proposals for a still larger two-tier North Stand without executive boxes or corporate hospitality lounges, and possibly with areas convertible to safe standing", ". The full length of the second tiers in the East and West stands would then be reconfigured as premium seating associated with new hospitality bar areas. This final phase would bring the stadium's total seating capacity up to approximately 62,000, making the Etihad Stadium the nation's fourth largest capacity club ground, after Old Trafford, the London Stadium and the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium.", "Eventually, a £300 million redevelopment programme of the existing North Stand was approved. It entails the construction of a new hotel, covered fan park for 6,000 people and increased net capacity to 61,474 (allowing for seats blocked off for fan separation), with construction expected to commence in 2023 and be completed by the end of 2026", ". The second tier at the north end of the stadium will be extended with a further 7,900 seats; while a 'Skybar', linked to the hotel and with premium seating for 450, will surmount the whole. The renovations are hoped to be completed by UEFA Euro 2028.", "Architecture", "When planning the development, Manchester City Council required a sustainable landmark structure that would be an icon for the regeneration of the once heavily industrialised site surrounding Bradford Colliery, as well as providing spectators with good sightlines in an \"atmospheric\" arena", ". Arup designed the stadium to be \"an intimate, even intimidating, gladiatorial arena embodying the atmosphere of a football club\" with the pitch six metres below ground level, a feature of Roman gladiatorial arenas and amphitheatres", ". The attention to detail, often absent in stadium design, has been remarked upon, including the cigar-shaped roof supports with blue lighting beacons, sculpted rainwater gutters, poly-carbonate perimeter roof edging and openable louvres to aid pitch grass growth with similarities also made to high-tech architecture.", "Roof design", "The toroidal-shaped stadium roof is held together by a tensioned system, which has been described as \"ground-breaking\" by New Steel Construction magazine. The stadium's architectural focal point is the sweeping roof and support masts which are separate from the concrete bowl. A catenary cable is situated around the inner perimeter of the roof structure which is tied to the masts via forestay cables. Backstay cables and corner ties from the masts are connected to the ground to support the structure", ". With the expansion of the South Stand in 2015 to accommodate a third tier of seating, the original south end roof was dismantled; but with the southern masts and corner ties remaining, so as to continue to tie the catenary cable which now runs below the new roof. The new higher South Stand roof is a separate structure, with its own set of braced masts and cables; and it is expected that a counterpart arrangement will be adopted for the proposed North Stand expansion.", "Cables are attached to the twelve masts circling the stadium with rafters and purlins for additional rigid support. The cigar-shaped masts double as visual features, with the highest at . Access to the upper tiers of seats is provided by eight circular ramps with conical roofs resembling turrets above which eight of the twelve masts rise up providing the support structure for the roof.", "The roof of the south, east and west stands built for the athletics stadium configuration was supported by the cable net system. The temporary open stand at the north end was built around the masts and tie down cables that would ultimately support the roof of the North Stand. After the games the track and field were excavated. The temporary bleachers at the north end were removed and the North Stand and lower tier of seats constructed on the prepared excavation", ". The North Stand roof was completed by adding rafters, purlins and cladding.", "Facilities and pitch", "The stadium has facilities for players and match officials in a basement area below the west stand, which also contains a kitchen providing meals for up to 6,000 people on match days, press rooms, ground staff storage, and a prison cell. The stadium also has conference facilities and is licensed for marriage ceremonies", ". The stadium also has conference facilities and is licensed for marriage ceremonies. Fitting out of the hospitality suites, kitchens, offices, and concourse concessions was accomplished by KSS Architects, and included the installation of the communications cabling and automatic access control system.", "The stadium's interior comprises a continuous oval bowl, with three tiers of seating at the sides, and two tiers at each end. Entry by patrons is gained by contactless smart card rather than traditional staffed turnstiles. The system can admit up to 1,200 people per minute through all entrances. A service tunnel under the stadium provides access for emergency vehicles and the visiting team's coach to enter the stadium directly", ". Once inside the stadium patrons have access to six themed restaurants, two of which have views of the pitch, and there are 70 executive boxes above the second tier of seating in the north, west and east stands. The stadium is equipped with stand-by generators should there be an electrical mains failure. These are capable of keeping the stadium electrics running as well as the floodlights at 800 lux, the minimum level stipulated by FIFA to continue to broadcast live football.", "To create the optimum grass playing surface in the stadium bowl, the roof was designed to maximise sunlight by using a ten-metre band of translucent polycarbonate at its periphery. Additionally, each of the corners of the stadium without seating have perforated walls with moveable louvres that can be adjusted to provide ventilation of the grass and general airflow through the stadium. Drainage and under-pitch heating were installed to provide optimum growing conditions for the grass", ". The pitch has a UEFA standard dimension of . and is covered with natural grass reinforced by artificial fibres made by Desso. The field of play is lit by 218 2000-watt floodlights, consuming a total of 436,000 watts. The grass playing surface is recognised as being one of the best in English football, and has been nominated five times in the last nine seasons for best Premier League pitch, an accolade it won in 2010–11 among other awards.", "Names", "The stadium was named the City of Manchester Stadium by Manchester City Council before construction began in December 1999, but has a number of commonly used alternatives. City of Manchester Stadium is abbreviated to CoMS when written and spoken. Eastlands refers to the site and the stadium before they were named SportCity and CoMS respectively, and remains in common usage for both the stadium and the whole complex, as does SportCity but with less frequency", ". The stadium was also officially referred to as Manchester City Stadium for the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The football club, under its new ownership, renegotiated its 250-year lease with the city council in October 2010, gaining the naming rights in return for a substantial increase in rent. The stadium was renamed the Etihad Stadium by the club in July 2011 as part of a ten-year agreement with the team kit sponsors Etihad Airways", ". The agreement encompasses sponsorship of the stadium's name, extends the team kit sponsorship for ten years, and relocated the club's youth academy and training facilities to the City Football Academy onto the Etihad Campus development across the road from the stadium.", "Despite being a continuous oval bowl, each side of the stadium is named in the manner of a traditional football ground. All sides were initially named by compass direction (North Stand and South Stand for the ends, East Stand and West Stand for the sides). In February 2004, after a vote by fans, the West Stand was renamed the Colin Bell Stand in honour of the former player", ". The vote was almost cancelled (and the stand instead named after Joe Mercer) due to suspicions it had been hijacked by rival fans who wished to dub the renamed stand The Bell End. However, core supporters of the club made it clear they still wished the stand named after their hero. The East Stand is unofficially known by fans as the Kippax as a tribute to the very vocal east stand at the club's Maine Road ground.", "The North Stand is the only part of the stadium built after the Commonwealth Games, during the stadium's conversion. The temporary unroofed north stand it replaced had been dubbed the New Gene Kelly Stand by supporters, a reference to the unroofed corner between the Kippax and the North Stand at the club's former Maine Road home, because, being exposed to the elements, they frequently found themselves \"singing in the rain\"", ". Commencing season 2010–11, seating in the North Stand has been restricted to only supporters accompanied by children, resulting in this end of the ground now being commonly referred to as the Family Stand", ". Although the North Stand has never been officially renamed and is still frequently referenced that way, most external ticketing offices and stadium guides, in addition to the club itself, now preferentially label and refer to this section of the ground as the Family Stand when discussing seating and ticket sales. Supporters initially dubbed the South Stand the Scoreboard End (the former name of the North Stand at Maine Road), and it houses the majority of City's more vocal fans", ". Supporters of visiting teams are also normally allocated seats in this stand, as it has ready access from the visitor supporter coach park. From 2003 to 2006, the South Stand was renamed the Key 103 Stand for sponsorship reasons, though this was largely ignored by regular patrons", ". The November 2018 consultation exercise on further expansion options envisages the North Stand then becoming the Home End, with no corporate hospitality areas, a greatly extended second tier, \"affordable\" ticket prices and possible areas capable of conversion to safe standing. The singing area would then be in the North Stand, and the Family Stand would be relocated elsewhere in the Stadium.", "SportCity", "The stadium is the centrepiece of SportCity, which includes several other nationally important sporting venues. Adjacent to the stadium is the Manchester Regional Arena, which served as a warm-up track during the Commonwealth Games and is now a 6,178-capacity venue that hosts national athletics trials, but has previously also hosted the home games of both the Manchester City women's team and the club's under-21 reserve team", ". The Regional Arena has regularly hosted the AAA Championships and Paralympic World Cup, and is currently the home ground of amateur rugby league side Manchester Rangers.", "The National Squash Centre and the National Cycling Centre, which includes both the Manchester Velodrome and the National Indoor BMX Arena, are all a short distance from the stadium. The Squash Centre, which has hosted the British National Squash Championships since 2003 was added to the SportCity complex for the Commonwealth Games along with CoMS", ". The Velodrome, another showpiece venue used to stage all the track cycling events for the Games, was already in place and had been home to British Cycling, the governing body for cycling in Britain, since it was built in 1994, as part of Manchester's unsuccessful 2000 Olympics bid. Prior to the completion of the Lee Valley VeloPark for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the Velodrome had been the only indoor Olympic-standard track in the United Kingdom", ". The collocated BMX Arena houses the United Kingdom's only permanent indoor BMX track and provides seating for up two thousand spectators. It was added to the National Cycling Centre at SportCity in 2011.", "Other major sporting and sport-related venues located in SportCity in the immediate vicinity of the Etihad Stadium, all legacies of the 2002 Commonwealth Games are the English Institute of Sport, west of the stadium, adjacent to the southwest corner of the Regional Arena; the Manchester Regional Tennis Centre, adjacent to the north end of the stadium; and the Manchester Tennis & Football Centre, also adjacent to the stadium, which is operated and administered by the Manchester Sport and Leisure Trust.", "Public sculpture", "Between 11 March (Commonwealth Day) and 10 August 2002, as part of the preparations for the upcoming Commonwealth Games and to celebrate Her Majesty the Queen's Golden Jubilee, a national Spirit of Friendship Festival was organised. On 9 July, a few weeks before the Games began, a sculpture outside the new national headquarters of the English Institute of Sport at SportCity was unveiled by the middle-distance runner Steve Cram", ". This sculpture, commissioned in late 2001, was created in a little over eight weeks by Altrincham-based artist, Colin Spofforth, who had submitted to Manchester City Council his idea for a heroic-sized sculpture of a sprinter as a means of celebrating the beauty, power and determination of the competing athletes", ". Reaching thirty feet high, weighing seven tonnes, and titled The Runner, this unique larger-than-life bronze statue of a male sprinter surmounting a bronze globe was, at the time, the United Kingdom's largest sporting sculpture. It depicts the very moment the runner leaves the blocks once the starter's gun has fired.", "From 2005 to 2009 a Thomas Heatherwick sculpture, B of the Bang, was situated to the southeast of the stadium at the junction of Ashton New Road and Alan Turing Way. Built after the Commonwealth Games to commemorate them, it was the tallest sculpture in the United Kingdom. However, numerous structural problems led to the 184 ft. sculpture being dismantled in 2009 for safety reasons", ". sculpture being dismantled in 2009 for safety reasons. In 2014, money recovered by the Manchester City Council as a result of lengthy legal battles consequent to this debacle was used to fund a new £341,000 public sculpture a few hundred yards further south.", "Across 2021 and 2022, Manchester City unveiled outside the stadium three statues designed by Andy Scott of players crucial to the team's first Premier League title in 2011–12. First came a pair of defender Vincent Kompany and striker David Silva, and one year later one of striker Sergio Agüero recreating his celebration after scoring the \"93:20\" goal.\n\nStadium firsts", "Stadium firsts\n\nThe first public football match at the stadium was a friendly between Manchester City and Barcelona on 10 August 2003. Manchester City won the game 2–1, with Nicolas Anelka scoring the first ever goal in the stadium.", "The first competitive match followed four days later, a UEFA Cup match between Manchester City and Welsh Premier League side Total Network Solutions, which City won 5–0 with Trevor Sinclair scoring the first competitive goal in the stadium", ". Having started the Premier League season with an away match, Manchester City's first home league fixture in the new stadium was on 23 August, a game drawn 1–1 with Portsmouth, with Pompey's Yakubu scoring the first league goal in the stadium, and David Sommeil being the first City player to score here in the league.", "2011–12 saw the Etihad Stadium play host to the setting of a number of new club and Premier League footballing records, such as the club becoming the first ever team to win eleven of its opening twelve games in a Premier League season, and going on to remain unbeaten at the Etihad Stadium in all nineteen of the Premier League games played there", ". The club's record of 55 home points out of a possible 57 at the stadium is a joint best Premier League record, and the club's record of twenty consecutive home wins at the stadium (going back to the end of the previous season) also set a new Premier League record in March 2012.", "The record football attendance at the stadium not involving its host team Manchester City is 43,878, which was set at the 2008 UEFA Cup final game between Zenit Saint Petersburg and Rangers on 14 May 2008. As is customary for such games, the then 47,715 maximum physical capacity of the stadium had been reduced by UEFA to around 44,000 for this final", ". However, neither limit would have been able to accommodate the vast number of supporters of the Scottish club, estimated to be in excess of 130,000, that travelled down from Glasgow to Manchester on the day of the game, despite the club's official ticket allocation being just 13,000 and police requests for fans without tickets to stay home", ". This order of magnitude mismatch between the numbers of travelling fans and those holding tickets ultimately led to a serious public disorder incident in the centre of the city now inextricably associated with this final, despite the fact that the 44,000 or so crowd who watched the game inside the stadium were perfectly well-behaved.", "Reception", "The 2002 Commonwealth Games were deemed a success and the stadium gained critical acclaim for its atmosphere and architectural design. It has won a number of design awards, including the 2004 Royal Institute of British Architects Inclusive Design Award for inclusive building design, the 2003 Institution of Structural Engineers Structural Special Award, and in 2002 a BCI Major Project high commendation was awarded by the British Construction Industry", ". In July 2014, the stadium was declared one of the United Kingdom's five most iconic structures by the Construction Industry Training Board.", "In 2003, initial reception by Manchester City supporters was polarised, with some lukewarm about moving from Maine Road which had a reputation for being one of English football's most atmospheric grounds, whilst others were enthusiastic about the bigger stadium and move back to East Manchester where the club was formed. Since 2010, the club has boasted more than 36,000 season ticket holders each season, which is more than the 35,150 maximum capacity of Maine Road just before the club moved homes.", "In a 2007 Premier League survey of fans of each club, the proportion of Manchester City fans assessing their sight lines as 'very good' was the second highest in the Premier League, after the Emirates Stadium.\nOpposition fans have generally given positive feedback, with CoMS coming second to Old Trafford in a 2005 poll to find the United Kingdom's favourite football ground. In 2010, the City of Manchester Stadium was the third most visited stadium after Old Trafford and Anfield by overseas visitors.", "In the early years of Manchester City's tenure, the stadium suffered from a poor atmosphere, a common problem with newly-opened stadia when compared with traditional football grounds such as Maine Road. In the 2007 Premier League survey, the proportion of Manchester City fans assessing match atmosphere as 'very good' was the second lowest in the Premier League, better only than Middlesbrough's Riverside stadium", ". The more recent expansion of capacity has been designed with improved atmosphere as a specific objective. Though not based on facts, the stadium is nicknamed 'Emptyhad' by rival fans in reference to poor game-day attendance and atmosphere.", "In October 2014, the club received two national VisitFootball awards for the quality of its customer care of Premier League fans visiting the Etihad Stadium during the previous season. VisitFootball, a joint venture between the Premier League and the national tourism board's VisitEngland, has been assessing the care that patrons receive at football grounds since August 2010, and presents annual awards for those clubs who deliver outstanding customer service", ". Manchester City had been one of the first four clubs to receive an inaugural VisitFootball award in 2011, but in 2014 it was the recipient of both the Club of the Year and Warmest Welcome awards. According to the panel of experts from the football and customer service industries that assess the services and facilities provided at each of the twenty Premier League club stadia, \"Manchester City are the gold standard in providing fans with the best matchday experience.\"", "Etihad Campus\n\nEtihad Campus and CFA", "In July 2011, CoMS was renamed the Etihad Stadium, sponsored by Etihad Airways who fought off competition from Ferrostaal and Aabar to gain the stadium naming rights. The lucrative ten-year sponsorship deal included not just the naming rights to the stadium itself but to the whole £200 million complex of football-related facilities into which it was soon to be incorporated", ". In mid-September 2011, development plans were duly announced for a new state-of-the-art youth academy and training facility, now known as the City Football Academy (CFA) to be built on derelict land adjacent to the stadium and which would include a 7,000 capacity mini-stadium plus fifteen additional outdoor football pitches, six swimming pools and three gyms", ". The planned CFA facility was not only to become the new home base of the Manchester City first team squad, reserve (under-21 youth) team squad, and all of the Academy younger age group squads, but also the new home of the prior loosely affiliated Manchester City Ladies team (which was re-branded in 2012 as Manchester City Women's F.C. and more formally merged into the Manchester City family of affiliated football teams)", ".C. and more formally merged into the Manchester City family of affiliated football teams). Also fully integrated into the new CFA facility would be the parent club's world headquarters.", "At the beginning of March 2014, the structural framework for a new pedestrian walkway/footbridge over the junction of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road connecting the CFA with the Etihad Stadium was lowered into place. With sponsor Suisse Power & Gas SA having subsequently secured the naming rights, the completed SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened and turned over to Manchester City Council for general public access on 26 November 2014", ". Twelve days later, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, presided over the official opening of the CFA.", "Community outreach/Urban regeneration", "As part of Manchester City's commitment to community outreach in their redevelopment plans for the areas of East Manchester adjacent to the Etihad Stadium, other urban regeneration plans incorporated into the overall Etihad Campus development project include the new £43 million Beswick Community Hub, that includes Connell Sixth Form College; a community leisure centre (with swimming pool, dance studio, health and fitness gym, rugby pitch", ", dance studio, health and fitness gym, rugby pitch, and grass sports pitches); and a planned Manchester Institute of Health and Performance", ". On 26 November 2014, the same day the SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened, a \"globally admired\" grouping of stainless steel sculptures, consisting of three towering metallic chess pieces called Dad's Halo Effect by its internationally acclaimed creator, Ryan Gander, was likewise unveiled to the public", ". Commissioned by the Manchester City Council to represent both the past industrial and current sporting heritage of this area of east Manchester, the public artwork is located in front of the Connell Sixth Form College, close to the central circus of the Beswick Community Hub, and only a few hundred yards south from where the area's last public sculpture, B of the Bang, had been situated.", "Transport", "The stadium is 2.5 km east of Manchester city centre. Manchester Piccadilly railway station, which serves mainline trains, is a twenty-minute walk away along a well-lit signposted route that is supervised by stewards close to the ground. Piccadilly station also has a Metrolink tram stop (in the undercroft); from which regular trams along the East Manchester Line to Ashton-under-Lyne serve the stadium and Etihad Campus, with enhanced service frequencies and doubled tram units on matchdays", ". The Etihad Campus tram stop close to Joe Mercer Way to the immediate north of the stadium opened in February 2013, and handles several thousand travellers each matchday; spectators travelling by tram from Manchester city centre being able to board services at Piccadilly Gardens, the journey taking approximately 10 minutes", ". The Velopark tram stop also opened in February 2013 and provides access to the southeastern approach to the stadium, as well as closer access to other areas of SportCity such as the Manchester Velodrome and the City Football Academy.", "There are many bus routes from the city centre and all other directions which stop at, or close to, SportCity. On match and event days special bus services from the city centre serve the stadium. The site has 2,000 parking spaces, with another 8,000 spaces in the surrounding area provided by local businesses and schools.\n\nOther uses", "Other uses\n\nUnder the terms of its lease, the stadium is able to host non-football events such as concerts, boxing and rugby fixtures at Manchester City's prerogative. Manchester City applied for a permanent entertainment licence in 2012 in a bid to expand the number of non-footballing events at the stadium.", "Concerts\nOutside the football season, the stadium hosts annual summer concerts, and is one of the United Kingdom's largest music venues, having a maximum capacity of 60,000 for performances. It was the largest stadium concert venue in England before the new Wembley Stadium was built.", "The first concert was a performance by the Red Hot Chili Peppers supported by James Brown in 2004. An Oasis concert at the ground was featured on the DVD, Lord Don't Slow Me Down and the band's concert in 2005 set the attendance record of 60,000. Take That released a DVD of their 2006 performance at the stadium, Take That: The Ultimate Tour", ". Take That released a DVD of their 2006 performance at the stadium, Take That: The Ultimate Tour. Other artists who have played the stadium are U2, Beyoncé, Jay-Z, George Michael, Rod Stewart, Foo Fighters, Pet Shop Boys, Manic Street Preachers, Bastille, Dizzee Rascal, The Futureheads, the Sugababes, Taylor Swift, Sophie Ellis-Bextor, Coldplay, Bruce Springsteen, Muse, Bon Jovi (three times), Robbie Williams, One Direction, The Stone Roses and the Spice Girls", ". It also hosted Liam Gallagher for his homecoming gig in 2022.", "Concerts and boxing matches eventually took their toll on the pitch. In 2008, late post-concert pitch renovation, combined with an early start to the football season, led to the pitch not being ready for the first home fixture, causing the club to play its UEFA Cup first round qualifying match at Barnsley's Oakwell Stadium and a moratorium to be imposed on the staging of non-football events at Eastlands", ". In May 2010, the club invested in a new pitch and summer concerts resumed in 2011 when Take That played eight nights, with ticket sales totalling approximately 400,000.", "Other football events", "CoMS is rated a category 4 stadium by UEFA and has hosted several major football matches in addition to Manchester City's home fixtures. It became the fiftieth stadium to host an England international football match when the English and Japanese national teams played on 1 June 2004. In June 2005, the stadium hosted England's opening game in the UEFA Women's Championship, setting an attendance record of 29,092 for the competition", ". The stadium also hosted the 2008 UEFA Cup final, in which Zenit Saint Petersburg defeated Rangers 2–0.", "In May 2011, the stadium hosted the Conference National play-off final between AFC Wimbledon and Luton Town; Wimbledon gained promotion to the Football League after beating Luton in a penalty shoot-out. The stadium was used for the play-offs because the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final was due to take place at Wembley on 28 May 2011 and UEFA regulations stipulate the stadium hosting the Champions League final must not be used for other matches during the previous two weeks.", "Other sports\nIn October 2004, the stadium played host to a rugby league international match between Great Britain and Australia in the Tri-Nations series in front of nearly 40,000 spectators.", "The stadium also hosted the Magic Weekend for three consecutive seasons (2012–2014). After a record attendance in 2012 – both for a single day (32,953) and the aggregate for the whole weekend (63,716) – the Etihad Stadium became the venue of choice for this annual rugby league event, setting another attendance record (36,339/64,552) for it in May 2014. However, construction work involved with the expansion of the South Stand caused it to be relocated to St. James' Park, Newcastle, for summer 2015.", "On 24 May 2008, Stockport born and twice IBF and IBO light welterweight champion boxer Ricky Hatton defeated Juan Lazcano in a contest billed as \"Hatton's Homecoming\". The fight was held in front of 56,337 fans, setting a record attendance for a British boxing event post World War II.\n\nOn 10 October 2015, the stadium hosted a 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool A match between hosts nation England and Uruguay. England won 60–3 with 50,778 in attendance.\n\nEngland national football games\n\nSee also", "England national football games\n\nSee also\n\nList of Commonwealth Games venues\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\nSpecific\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links", "City of Manchester Stadium official website\nManchester City Football Club official website\nImages tagged City of Manchester Stadium at Flickr\nArup Associates PDF format article about the original design of the stadium\nArup Associates PDF format article about the transformation of the stadium after the 2002 Games\nModern Steel Construction PDF format article about the innovative construction of the stadium's roof\nYouTube video depicting MCFC's vision for planned Etihad Campus / CFA development", "YouTube video depicting MCFC's vision for planned Etihad Campus / CFA development\nYouTube video depicting sequential construction steps required to expand stadium's South Stand\nYouTube video depicting hub circus location of Dad's Halo Effect public sculpture", "Etihad Airways\nPremier League venues\nFootball venues in Manchester\nManchester City F.C.\n2002 Commonwealth Games venues\nMusic venues in Manchester\nCommonwealth Games rugby union venues\nRugby union stadiums in England\nSports venues completed in 2002\n2002 establishments in England\nHigh-tech architecture\nOve Arup buildings and structures" ]