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Although not nearly as famous as its German counterpart, there was also an English Historical School, whose figures included William Whewell, Richard Jones, Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie, Walter Bagehot, Thorold Rogers, Arnold Toynbee, William Cunningham, and William Ashley. It was this school that heavily critiqued the deductive approach of the classical economists, especially the writings of David Ricardo. This school revered the inductive process and called for the merging of historical fact with those of the present period. |
Georgism or geoism is an economic philosophy proposing that both individual and national economic outcomes would be improved by the utilization of economic rent resulting from control over land and natural resources through levies such as a land value tax. |
Ricardian socialism is a branch of early 19th century classical economic thought based on the theory that labor is the source of all wealth and exchange value, and rent, profit and interest represent distortions to a free market. The pre-Marxian theories of capitalist exploitation they developed are widely regarded as having been heavily influenced by the works of David Ricardo, and favoured collective ownership of the means of production. |
Marxian economics descended from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. This school focuses on the labor theory of value and what Marx considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital. Thus, in Marxian economics, the labour theory of value is a method for measuring the exploitation of labour in a capitalist society rather than simply a theory of price. |
Anarchist economics comprises a set of theories which seek to outline modes of production and exchange not governed by coercive social institutions: |
Thinkers associated with anarchist economics include: |
Distributism is an economic philosophy that was originally formulated in the late 19th century and early 20th century by Catholic thinkers to reflect the teachings of Pope Leo XIII's encyclical "Rerum Novarum" and Pope Pius's XI encyclical "Quadragesimo Anno". It seeks to pursue a third way between capitalism and socialism, desiring to order society according to Christian principles of justice while still preserving private property. |
Institutional economics focuses on understanding the role of the evolutionary process and the role of institutions in shaping economic behaviour. Its original focus lay in Thorstein Veblen's instinct-oriented dichotomy between technology on the one side and the "ceremonial" sphere of society on the other. Its name and core elements trace back to a 1919 "American Economic Review" article by Walton H. Hamilton. |
Neoclassical economics is the dominant form of economics used today and has the highest amount of adherents among economists. It is often referred to by its critics as Orthodox Economics. The more specific definition this approach implies was captured by Lionel Robbins in a 1932 essay: "the science which studies human behavior as a relation between scarce means having alternative uses." The definition of scarcity is that available resources are insufficient to satisfy all wants and needs; if there is no scarcity and no alternative uses of available resources, then there is no economic problem. |
Austrian economists advocate methodological individualism in interpreting economic developments, the subjective theory of value, that money is non-neutral, and emphasize the organizing power of the price mechanism (see "Economic calculation debate") and a "laissez faire" approach to the economy. |
The Stockholm School is a school of economic thought. It refers to a loosely organized group of Swedish economists that worked together, in Stockholm, Sweden primarily in the 1930s. |
The Stockholm School had—like John Maynard Keynes—come to the same conclusions in macroeconomics and the theories of demand and supply. Like Keynes, they were inspired by the works of Knut Wicksell, a Swedish economist active in the early years of the twentieth century. |
Keynesian economics has developed from the work of John Maynard Keynes and focused on macroeconomics in the short-run, particularly the rigidities caused when prices are fixed. It has two successors. Post-Keynesian economics is an alternative school—one of the successors to the Keynesian tradition with a focus on macroeconomics. They concentrate on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes, and research micro foundations for their models based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. Generally associated with Cambridge, England and the work of Joan Robinson (see Post-Keynesian economics). New-Keynesian economics is the other school associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. These researchers tend to share with other Neoclassical economists the emphasis on models based on micro foundations and optimizing behavior, but focus more narrowly on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of these models, rather than simply assumed as in older style Keynesian ones (see New-Keynesian economics). |
The Chicago School is a neoclassical school of economic thought associated with the work of the faculty at the University of Chicago, notable particularly in macroeconomics for developing monetarism as an alternative to Keynesianism and its influence on the use of rational expectations in macroeconomic modelling. |
New institutional economics is a perspective that attempts to extend economics by focusing on the social and legal norms and rules (which are institutions) that underlie economic activity and with analysis beyond earlier institutional economics and neoclassical economics. It can be seen as a broadening step to include aspects excluded in neoclassical economics. It rediscovers aspects of classical political economy. |
Notable schools or trends of thought in economics in the 20th century were as follows. These were advocated by well-defined groups of academics that became widely known: |
In the late 20th century, areas of study that produced change in economic thinking were: risk-based (rather than price-based models), imperfect economic actors, and treating economics as a biological science (based on evolutionary norms rather than abstract exchange). |
The study of risk was influential, in viewing variations in price over time as more important than actual price. This applied particularly to financial economics, where risk/return tradeoffs were the crucial decisions to be made. |
An important area of growth was the study of information and decision. Examples of this school included the work of Joseph Stiglitz. Problems of asymmetric information and moral hazard, both based around information economics, profoundly affected modern economic dilemmas like executive stock options, insurance markets, and Third-World debt relief. |
Finally, there were a series of economic ideas rooted in the conception of economics as a branch of biology, including the idea that energy relationships, rather than price relationships, determine economic structure. The use of fractal geometry to create economic models (see Energy Economics). In its infancy the application of non-linear dynamics to economic theory, as well as the application of evolutionary psychology explored the processes of valuation and the persistence of non-equilibrium conditions. The most visible work was in the area of applying fractals to market analysis, particularly arbitrage (see Complexity economics). Another infant branch of economics was neuroeconomics. The latter combines neuroscience, economics, and psychology to study how we make choices. |
= = = Diving at the 1948 Summer Olympics – Women's 3 metre springboard = = = |
The women's 3 metre springboard, also reported as "springboard diving", was one of four diving events on the diving at the 1948 Summer Olympics programme. |
The competition was held on Saturday July 31, on Monday August 2, and on Tuesday August 3. It was split into two sets of dives: |
Sixteen divers from eight nations competed. |
= = = Gargoyle (module) = = = |
Gargoyle is an adventure module for the fantasy role-playing game "Dungeons & Dragons", set in the game's World of Greyhawk campaign setting. The module has the code WG9 and was published by TSR, Inc. in 1989 for the second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules. |
In "Gargoyle", which is set in the City of Greyhawk, the player characters are hired by a pair of gargoyles to find their stolen wings. |
The adventure is set in The Tors, between the Yeomanry and the Crystalmists, and was one of the first 2nd edition modules published. |
WG9 "Gargoyle" was written by David Collins with Skip Williams, with cover art by David Dorman, and was published by TSR in 1989 as a 32-page booklet with an outer folder. The module features interior art by David Dorman and Karl Story. |
= = = Ashok Amritraj = = = |
Ashok Amritraj (born 22 February 1956) is Chairman and CEO of the Hyde Park Entertainment Group, and was formerly CEO of National Geographic Films. |
An internationally renowned award-winning producer, Amritraj has made over 100 films during the span of his 35-year career, with worldwide revenues in excess of $2 billion. He has partnered with every major studio in Hollywood and produced films starring the likes of Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson , Robert De Niro , Bruce Willis, Sandra Bullock, Sylvester Stallone, Angelina Jolie, Cate Blanchett, Dustin Hoffman, Andrew Garfield, Steve Martin, Antonio Banderas , Jennifer Aniston , Nicolas Cage, and many more. |
Amritraj’s extraordinary career from Wimbledon tennis player to billion dollar Hollywood producer (chronicled in his autobiography Advantage Hollywood ) is matched only by his commitment to education, diversity, and gender equality. Dedicating a significant amount of his time to philanthropic endeavors worldwide, in 2016 Amritraj was appointed as the first United Nations India Goodwill Ambassador for the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals . In December 2018, by decree of the President of the Republic of France, Amritraj was appointed a Chevalier (Knight) of the Ordre National du Merité . |
Amritraj has grown Hyde Park into a cutting-edge independent alternative to the traditional Hollywood system, fully realizing his vision for a progressive global company that incorporates the most essential elements of a full-fledged studio. Hyde Park’s mandate encompasses feature film, television, digital, documentary, and local language content, with the Company possessing development, production, and financing capabilities in addition to handling worldwide sales and marketing. |
Amritraj has had box office hits such as GHOST RIDER: SPIRIT OF VENGEANCE, starring Nicolas Cage , BRINGING DOWN THE HOUSE, starring Steve Martin , PREMONITION, starring Sandra Bullock , WALKING TALL starring The Rock, and many more, as well as critically acclaimed titles including 99 HOMES starring Andrew Garfield and Michael Shannon, BLUE VALENTINE starring Ryan Gosling and Michelle Williams , and SHOPGIRL, starring Steve Martin and Claire Danes . |
Amritraj’s current projects include: supernatural thriller, PREY, in partnership with Blumhouse Productions , PASHMINA, a Major Animated Musical in partnership with Netflix, to be directed by Gurinder Chadha and with music by Oscar-winner A.R. Rahman and FORDLANDIA, a Television event series, to be directed by Werner Herzog at AMC Studios . |
Hyde Park Entertainment Group and its artists have received awards and recognition from the major award shows and film festivals including the Oscars, the BAFTA awards, the Emmys, the Independent Spirit Awards, the Cannes Film Festival, the Golden Globes, and many more. |
Amritraj serves on the Producers Executive Board of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and on the advisory board for the Dodge Film School at Chapman University . In 2015, he was bestowed an honorary Doctorate of the Arts from the University of East London . |
= = = Qala i Kah District = = = |
Qala i Kah district is located in the western part of Farah Province, in western Afghanistan. Its western border is with Iran. The population is 29,900. The main town is Qala i Kah (Do Kal'eh) (). |
On 30 August 2014, a group of Taliban deliberately shot 16 labourers, killing 12 and injuring four. All 16 civilians were from the same village and were on their way to work when the Taliban stopped their vehicles and shot them. The Taliban claimed responsibility for the killings on their website. |
= = = Sunanda Murali Manohar = = = |
Sunanda Murali Manohar was an Indian-British film producer and entrepreneur, based in London England. She has produced, along with her husband, Dr. J. Murali Manohar (an ENT Surgeon), several Indian, American and British films, including "Indian Summer" (British 1987), "Blood Stone" (US 1988), "Jungle Boy" (US 2001), "Tropical Heat" (US 2002), "Inferno" (US 2006), "Jeans" (1998 film), "Jeans" (Tamil 1998), "JODI" (Tamil 1999), "Minnale" (Tamil 2001), "Majnu" (Tamil 2002), "Arasatchi" (Tamil 2003), "Backwaters" (English/UK 2004), "Ramji Londonwale" (Hindi/UK 2005), "Telling Lies" (English/UK 2005), "Provoked" (English/UK 2006), "Sajni" (Kannada/ UK 2006), "Dhaam Dhoom" (Tamil 2008), "Mirattal" (2008), "Chikku Bukku" (Tamil 2010), and "Kochadaiiyaan" (2014). |
In 2001, she launched "South for You", a south Indian Tamil Channel on Sky network in Great Britain, and was running it till 2011. When she sold it, the channel was taken over by UTV. |
She is the daughter of R. N. Mandre, a veteran in Production, Distribution and Exhibition of Hindi and Kannada films for more than 50 years, who built the first air-conditioned theater Sangam, in Bangalore and Mysore. Sharmila Mandre, a popular Kannada actor, is her niece. |
She died on 30 December 2017 due to lymphomas. |
= = = Nine on a Ten Scale = = = |
Nine on a Ten Scale is the debut studio album by American rock musician Sammy Hagar, released in May 1976 by Capitol Records. After his departure from Montrose, he began a solo recording and touring career with increasing success. |
= = = When Seconds Count = = = |
When Seconds Count is the sixth album by the American rock band Survivor, released on October 9, 1986. It is the second album featuring vocalist Jimi Jamison. The album included the hit single, "Is This Love", which peaked at #9 in the US on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in early 1987. The album reached #49 on the "Billboard" 200 album chart. |
This is one of the many Survivor albums briefly taken out of print in 2009. However, it was remastered and reissued in 2011 and distributed by Rock Candy Records. |
= = = Vital Signs (Survivor album) = = = |
Vital Signs is the fifth studio album by American rock band Survivor and their first with vocalist Jimi Jamison released on August 1, 1984. The album was their second most successful in the U.S., reaching #16 on the Billboard Album charts and being certified platinum by the RIAA. This album includes the singles "I Can't Hold Back", "High on You", "The Search Is Over" and "First Night." Outside of the singles, the other songs on "Vital Signs" keep up with the effective formula. |
This is one of the very few studio albums that remained commercially available by Volcano Entertainment after they took a great deal of their releases out of print in August 2009. Rock Candy Records also remastered the content of "Vital Signs" and reissued it in 2010, adding "The Moment of Truth" (from "The Karate Kid" soundtrack) as a bonus track. |
= = = Angle Ring = = = |
The Angle Ring Company Limited is an engineering firm based in Tipton, West Midlands, England. It was founded in 1951 at a site in Bloomfield Road, and has since expanded to become one of the most prominent steel benders / curvers of metal and alloys in its market. By 1980, it was Britain's largest steel bending firm and ten years later was exporting its goods to foreign markets. |
An Angle ring is a companion flange which is made out of angle iron. Angle Iron is rolled into a complete ring and the joint on the ring is welded to make the ring one solid piece. Usually angle rings have holes punched in the outer leg so they can bolt up to another ring or a fitting such as an elbow, an expansion joint or a fan or blower. These rings go on to round heavy duty duct work, typically made out of spiral pipe or single longitudinal pipe also known as blow pipe. Angle rings are components in air systems where movement of air or movement of material by air is done. They are used in pollution control systems, agricultural equipment such as grain handling and a multitude of other applications. The largest manufacturer and leader of stock and special angle rings in the United States is Midwest Metal Products located in Michigan City Indiana. |
= = = Caught in the Game = = = |
Caught in the Game is the fourth album by American rock band Survivor, released in July 1983. It features guest appearances by Mr. Mister's Richard Page and REO Speedwagon's Kevin Cronin. It is the band's last album to-date to feature lead vocalist Dave Bickler, who left due to vocal surgery. Bickler rejoined the band from 1993 to 2000, and again from 2013 to 2016. |
The hard to find 1999 Pony Canyon Japanese release on CD featured an insert with lyrics in English and Japanese and an OBI strip. The album was one of the many Survivor albums briefly taken out of print in 2009. However, it was remastered and reissued in 2010, distributed by Rock Candy Records. |
All tracks written by Jim Peterik and Frankie Sullivan, except "What Do You Really Think?" written by Peterik. |
= = = Great Bridge North railway station = = = |
Great Bridge North railway station was a station on the South Staffordshire Line in England. |
The station was built in 1850 and served by the South Staffordshire Railway, which was later absorbed by the London and North Western Railway) which in 1923 amalgamated with several other railways to create the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (the station shared the name "Great Bridge" with its Great Western Railway counterpart built in 1866). "North" was appended to the name of the station just after nationalisation. |
Passenger usage declined in the early 1880s, and the line became mainly freight in 1887. It remained open for goods traffic as the district became highly industrialised in the heyday of the Black Country's industrial past. Local industry declined after World War II and road transport became more common. British Rail closed the station to passengers through the Beeching Axe in 1964, but it continued as a freight station for local factories until 1972. Goods trains continued to pass through the site of the station until 1993. By that date no sign of the station or the goods yard remained. It is now derelict and mostly fenced off. |
A £1,100,000/15-year-long regeneration project is expected to re-open the closed section of railway through Dudley as a combined Midland Metro tramway with a separate heavy rail line for goods trains. The old station site is earmarked as the location of a Midland Metro stop on the local tram network's second line between Walsall, Dudley Port railway station, Dudley railway station and the Merry Hill Shopping Centre scheduled for opening upon completion in 2011.SDIT The freighters would continue on past Brettell Lane railway station and on to the mainline at Stourbridge junction. |
= = = Murder in Canton = = = |
Murder in Canton is a "gong'an" detective novel written by Robert van Gulik and set in Imperial China (roughly speaking the Tang Dynasty). It is a fiction based on the real character of Judge Dee (Ti Jen-chieh or Di Renjie), a magistrate and statesman of the Tang court, who lived roughly 630–700. |
The book contains twelve illustrations and a map of Canton by the author. |
Judge Dee is now the most senior judge in all of China and his authority is little less than that of the Emperor himself. Canton is the most important trading port in the country, filled with merchants from many other lands, some as far away as India and Baghdad. When one of the secretive but very powerful Imperial censors goes missing in Canton, Judge Dee must come to the city in disguise and investigate. He is aided by a beautiful blind girl who collects crickets. |
This is the last story in the internal chronology of Judge Dee. |
"Published in the year before his death, this tale by the distinguished Sinologist takes Judge Dee to a setting new for him and deals with crime in a style closer to that of his first good ones. The unraveling of the political intrigue and love affairs is as subtle as the plot is complex, and modernity and antiquity are beautifully blended. As in all the other stories, the illustrations are too much alike to add much interest." |
= = = Powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina = = = |
Powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina, known as one of the amber snails, is a subspecies of large, carnivorous land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Rhytididae. |
Shape of the eggs is oval and seldom constant in dimensions 9 × 7.75, 8.25 × 6.75 mm (red variety). |
"Powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina" is classified by the New Zealand Department of Conservation as being in "Gradual Decline". |
= = = Diving at the 1948 Summer Olympics – Women's 10 metre platform = = = |
The women's 10 metre platform, also reported as "highboard diving", was one of four diving events on the diving at the 1948 Summer Olympics programme. |
The competition, held on Friday August 6, was held from both 10 and 5 metre platforms and was split into two sets of dives: |
Fifteen divers from nine nations competed. |
Gudrun Grömer did not finish the competition. |
= = = Wednesbury Town railway station = = = |
Wednesbury Town railway station was a station on the South Staffordshire Line. |
The station was opened in 1850. The station was built and served by the South Staffordshire Railway, which later became London, Midland and Scottish Railway (through amalgamation of the London and North Western Railway). The line had reasonable passenger usage until about the early 1880s, when it began to slump at several stations, leading to the line becoming a largely freight only operation in 1887. It would remain open for goods traffic, which was considerable at this time, as the district had become highly industrialised in the then heyday of the Black Country's industrial past. It also served as the terminus of the Darlaston Loop which ran from Walsall to Wednesbury via Darlaston and it branched off on the present-day Walsall-Wolverhampton Line. It closed to passengers in the 1880s and then to freight and excursion trains in the 1960s. It is now a footpath between Darlaston and James Bridge but is built on towards Wednesbury Town. |
As the local industry declined and road transport became more common, the station entered a post-World War II decline. |
The station was known as Wednesbury until it was renamed Wednesbury 'town' in 1950 as part of nationalisation. British Rail closed the station through the Beeching Axe in 1964 due to decline in freight and passenger custom. |
While the electrification of the West Coast Main Line was underway the former GWR line did see a large increase in its traffic and a reopening of the station appear likely, but once the West Coast Main Line had been re-reopened the diverted trains were removed and the additional services quickly reduced. The last Paddington to Birkenhead express train ran on the line in March 1967, and after 1970 it was normally only used by goods trains. |
The station buildings were demolished shortly after their closure, but the platform remains intact more than 50 years later. The signal box was still in use when the Walsall-Round Oak section of the line closed in March 1993, but it was destroyed by arsonists in 1995. The level crossing was fenced off around the same time in order for the Midland Metro to be built across the line nearby, although the fence was later vandalized and the line between Wednesbury and Great Bridge is often used a route for pedestrians and dog walkers. |
The station ruins were fenced off and partly built over by a growing Biffa waste disposal plant by 2010. The plant has been built during the 1990s in one of the station car parks, while the buildings of several small enterprises occupy the other side. |
A £1,100,000/15-year-long regeneration project will see the station become part of the local tram network with the line reopening between Walsall, Dudley Port railway station, Dudley railway station and the Merry Hill Shopping Centre for trams on one track and for freight on the other. The freighters would continue on part Brettell Lane railway station and on to the mainline at Stourbridge Junction. |
In March 2011, the business plan for the reopening of the line between Stourbridge and Walsall was submitted to Network Rail. Trams would run along the South Staffordshire line through Wednesbury and Dudley, sharing the line with freight trains.. Andy Street pledged in his mayoral campaign to reopen the line, however there is still no timeline. |
= = = Clear Fork Valley Local School District = = = |
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