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Voices of the Caribou People is a participatory videography project for documenting and sharing the local knowledge of caribou-user communities about social-ecological changes. The project was conducted in partnership with indigenous people who share a long and close relationship with caribou and self-identify as the Caribou People. The Caribou People desired to share their knowledge, experiences, challenges, and coping strategies with other indigenous communities and with scientists and wildlife managers. Six communities in the North American Arctic participated in the project, with 99 people interviewed about the ecological, cultural, spiritual, and nutritional aspects of their relationship with caribou. The Caribou People wished to tell their stories with their own voices, without the filter of a researcher's interpretations of their messages. The communities defined three project goals, i.e., documentation, communication, and sharing of knowledge, and we identified methodological challenges associated with these goals. Through videography, we sought to overcome these challenges and accomplish community goals, which formed the basis for our project's evaluation. Participants reported changes and concerns ranging from impacts of oil and gas exploration, mining activities, nonlocal hunting, and high energy costs to impacts of climate-related conditions. All interviews were made available in the public domain via the Internet for sharing. In the view of the communities, videography preserved their legacy and served as a repository of traditional knowledge in changing times; visual images were seen as a powerful medium to communicate with policy makers and the public at large and were seen as a preferred informal, unstructured approach. We have (1) described the approach of the Voices of the Caribou People project as a collaborative video methodology and (2) discussed the effectiveness of this method in meeting the goals of participatory research. General insights into the process of using videography as a participatory research tool to study social-ecological systems in partnership with indigenous communities have been provided.

Bali, A; Kofinas, GP

Voices of the Caribou People: a participatory videography method to document and share local knowledge from the North American human-Rangifer systems

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06327-190216

Global sustainability goals cannot realistically be achieved without strategies that build on multiscale definitions of risks to wellbeing. Particularly in geographic contexts experiencing rapid and complex social and environmental changes, there is a growing need to empower communities to realize self-identified adaptation goals that address self-identified risks. Meeting this demand requires tools that can help assess shared understandings about the needs for, and barriers to, positive change. This study explores consensus about risks and uncertainties in adjacent boroughs grappling with rapid social-ecological transformations in northern Alaska. The Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs, like the rest of the Arctic, are coping with a climate that is warming twice as fast as in other regions. The boroughs are predominantly inhabited by Inupiat people, for whom the region is ancestral grounds, whose livelihoods are still supported by subsistence activities, and whose traditional tribal governance has been weakened through multiple levels of governing bodies and institutions. Drawing on extensive workshop discussions and survey experiments conducted with residents of the two boroughs, we developed a model of the northern Alaska region's social-ecological system and its drivers of change. Using cultural consensus analysis, we gauged the extent of consensus across the boroughs about what key risks threaten the sustainability of their communities. Though both boroughs occupy vast swaths of land, each with their own resource, leadership, and management challenges, we found strong consensus around how risks that impact the sustainability of communities are evaluated and prioritized. Our results further confirmed that rapid and complex changes are creating high levels of uncertainties for community planners in both boroughs. We discuss the mobilizing potential of risk consensus toward collective adaptation action in the civic process of policy making. We note the contribution of cultural consensus analysis as a tool for cross-scale learning in areas coping with rapid environmental changes and complex social challenges.

Blair, B; Lovecraft, AL

Risks Without Borders: A Cultural Consensus Model of Risks to Sustainability in Rapidly Changing Social-Ecological Systems

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062446

For Inuit and Naskapi living in the eastern Canadian Subarctic, local meteorological and environmental conditions (e.g., snow and ice cover extent, thickness, and duration) play a key role as they affect subsistence activities such as fishing, hunting, trapping, and harvesting. In this study, we first documented locally observed changes in meteorological and environmental conditions made by members of the Inuit communities of Kangiqsualujjuaq (Qu,bec) and Nain (Newfoundland and Labrador) and the Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach (Qu,bec). We then examined spatiotemporal trends in gridded meteorological variables, most notably air temperature and precipitation, publicly available online. We compared Naskapi and Inuit observations with meteorological variables using a novel statistical approach to answer the question: how do locally observed changes in meteorological and environmental conditions relate to spatiotemporal trends in gridded meteorological variables? We used an adapted consensus index to measure the level of agreement in participants' observations and assess the efficacy and utility of converting qualitative statements into quantitative measures for use in statistical models. Our results indicate that all three communities observed changes in meteorological and environmental conditions and that our consensus indices appropriately translated community observations. Participants from all three communities agreed that winter air temperatures are warmer, that the quantity of snow is diminishing, that freeze-up occurs later in the fall, and that precipitation patterns are changing. In contrast to Kangiqsualujjuaq and Kawawachikamach, participants from Nain observed that summer air temperatures have cooled. Through the analysis of gridded meteorological variables, we identified increases in annual mean and seasonal air temperatures and in total annual precipitation, particularly between 1990 and 2009. When analyzing both community observations and spatiotemporal trends in gridded meteorological variables, we found consensus regarding subjective changes and quantitative changes in mean air temperature and total precipitation.

Rapinski, M; Payette, F; Sonnentag, O; Herrmann, TM; Royer, MJS; Cuerrier, A; Collier, LS; Hermanutz, L; Guanish, G; Elders Kawawachikamach; Elders Kangiqsualujjuaq; Elders Nain

Listening to Inuit and Naskapi peoples in the eastern Canadian Subarctic: a quantitative comparison of local observations with gridded climate data

Regional Environmental Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1188-3

Every country will have to prepare for climate change. Despite obvious risks to national security in terms of safety, food, and infrastructure as well as impending economic losses, countries like the United States (US) have declined to pursue meaningful federal action. The human impact of climate change - specifically climate migration and its health implications - has been largely neglected at a policy level. Yet climate migration is predicted to have tremendous consequences for people in the next 30 years and beyond, and with it comes a host of difficulties - political, cultural, economic, and structural. Preparedness will be of great importance to potential migrants and how they adapt to their receiving (host) locations. Health systems are one of the most significant institutions impacting long-term migration and these systems' strengths and weaknesses will determine the integration and well-being of migrants for years to come. A critical analysis of existing literature exposes that there is little current research on health system preparedness as it relates to climate migration, especially in the US. To help address this gap, this paper focuses on how the American health system, already fraught with limitations, can prepare for the expected increase in mostly internal migrants in the face of climate change. Key policy insights Climate migration in the US will pose huge challenges for health systems because of the American health system's unique, pre-existing weaknesses. To prepare for climate migration, federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments should focus on adopting a universal healthcare policy, shifting primary care tasks away from physicians and towards other qualified and more ubiquitous professionals, and investing in telemedicine, retail clinics, and a national electronic health record system. A 'health in all policies' approach, which applies a health lens to legislation, needs to be applied in the context of health system strengthening for climate migration since countless environmental determinants of health and infrastructural decisions shape the vulnerability of communities.

Sabasteanski, ND

Climate migration and health system preparedness in the United States

Climate Policy

https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2020.1828795

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to synthesise lessons from research on adaptation to demonstrate that African countries can explore the opportunities and challenges inherent in climate variability and change. Design/methodology/approach - The paper is a review work which synthesises lessons from relevant journal articles and other related documents. The literature was retrieved from Google and Google Scholar using search terms such as climate change, climate change and mitigation, climate change and mitigation in Africa, climate change adaptation and mitigation in Africa, climate change vulnerability, climate change impacts, among others. Various combinations of the search terms were also deployed. The journals were subjected to critical review and key lessons synthesised from them and reflections on their future implications in relation to climate risks and vulnerability presented. Findings - Key lessons were synthesised and reflections on their future implications in relation to climate risks and vulnerability were presented. The evidence seems to suggest that countries in Africa recognise that it is time for them to take action on the impacts of climate change. The key lessons which emerge, going forward, are that climate change adaptation should be mainstreamed into development plans of nations. All efforts should be geared towards sustaining livelihoods of people. Key stakeholders also have a role to play in adaptation. The paper has indicated that although a lot has happened, there are areas that require strengthening and that should be the focus and priority of change and policy makers for the future. Research limitations/implications - The paper is a synthesis and reflection of existing literature and it is possible that some of the dynamics may have changed since the paper was published. Practical implications - The dynamics of climate change adaptation is understood. The approaches to adaptation are also explored. Areas worth prioritising in the discourse of adaptation studies have also been indicated. Originality/value - The syntheses provided are the reflections of the author. The views of the researcher provide insights and understanding into the current adaptation debate.

Abraham, EM

Understanding climate change adaptation in Africa: key considerations

Management Of Environmental Quality

https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-01-2017-0001

In the wake of deepened situations of changing climate, a clear understanding of the perceived impacts and adaptation of climate variability and change on livelihoods of vegetable farmers in Western and Eastern Africa, which is not readily available, is critical for sustainable vegetable production in Africa. Development planning for climate change vulnerability and adaptation assessment was utilised in the study. Using multi-stage sampling procedure, 193 vegetable farmers in selected sites prominent for vegetable production from Uganda, Ghana and Nigeria were used. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, analysis of variance and linear regression at alpha(0.05). Awareness of climate variability and change was high among most respondents from the three countries, but highest among respondents from Uganda (78.3%). Awareness was highest for long dry spell (x over bar = 1.90) and drought (x over bar = 1.81) and lowest for harmful gas emissions (x = 0.76). Changes in climate variability and trends were perceived to be highest in terms of flood volume/damage caused by flood to farmlands in Nigeria (x = 3.85) and Uganda (x = 5.0), but in terms of increased temperature for Ghana (x = 4.93). Impact of climate-related changes on vegetable farming was high in Ghana (98.3%) and Nigeria (46.6%) but low in Uganda (5.0%). Awareness (beta= 0.14), perception (beta = 0.15) use of adaptation strategies (beta= 0.10) and household size (beta = - 0.19) predicted change in perceived impact of climate variability among vegetable farmers. Vegetable farmers in Nigeria, Ghana and Uganda are affected differently by climate variability. Farmers in these countries also have different priorities for adaptation strategies. Locality-specific climate adaptation strategies would help ease farmers burden due to climate change.

Fadairo, O; Williams, PA; Nalwanga, FS

Perceived livelihood impacts and adaptation of vegetable farmers to climate variability and change in selected sites from Ghana, Uganda and Nigeria

Environment Development And Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00514-1

This essay interrogates an emergent genre of development projects that seek to instill resilience in populations likely to be severely impacted by climate change. These new projects venture a dark vision of life in a warming worldone where portable technologies become necessary for managing a future of climate chaos. I propose, following Michel Foucault, understanding these projects as heterodystopias: spaces managed as and in anticipation of a world of dystopian climate crisis that are at once stages for future interventions and present-day spectacles of climate security. My exploration of these projects is situated in the borderlands of Bangladesh, a space increasingly imagined as a ground zero of climate change. The projects discussed frame the borderlands as a site that reflects forward onto a multiplicity of (other) dystopian spaces to come. Their often puzzling architecture reveals a grim imagining of the future: one in which atomized resilient families remain rooted in place, facing climate chaos alone, assisted by development technology. In this way, these projects seek to mitigate against global anxiety about climate displacement by emplacing peoplepreventing them from migrating across borders increasingly imagined as the front lines of climate security. Yet at the same time, these projects speak a visual language that suggests they are as much about representing success at managing climate crisis to an audience elsewhere as they are to successfully stemming climate migration in a particular place. Heterodystopia provides an analytic for diagnosing the specific visions of time and space embedded in securitized framings of the future. In doing so, however, it also points toward counterimaginations and possibilities for life in the midst of ecological change. I thus conclude by contrasting climate heterodystopias with other projects that Bangladeshi peasants living in the borderlands are carrying out: projects that offer different ways of imagining the environment and life in the borderlands of Bangladesh.

Cons, J

STAGING CLIMATE SECURITY: Resilience and Heterodystopia in the Bangladesh Borderlands

Cultural Anthropology

https://doi.org/10.14506/ca33.2.08

Global warming is the immediate consequence of increased greenhouse gasses emission. Agriculture is a significant source in terms of greenhouse gasses emission and on the other hand, the main sector in terms of producing food. As global food demand grows, the share of agriculture in the total greenhouse gasses emission will rise too. Therefore, agriculture needs to cut the greenhouse gasses emission. A response to the two important issues today, i.e. achieving food security and reducing greenhouse gasses emission is climate-smart agriculture. According to the Paris Agreement, an international effort to reduce greenhouse gasses emission, Iran has to decrease 12 percent of its greenhouse gasses emission by 2050, which all sectors have to contribute. Since the pathway to define strategies, is to explore the challenges; in this study, a seemingly unrelated regression technique has been used to model the climate-smart agriculture in Iran. Three main sub-sectors of agriculture; i.e. crops, livestock, and aquatics production, have been considered in the model to find the role of them in delivering food security and emitting greenhouse gasses. The findings show livestock and aquaculture sectors have had a positive significant impact in achieving food security. On the other hand, these sectors have had a positive significant effect on the emitting greenhouse gasses. Cropping system was not found to have a significant role in achieving food security and emitting greenhouse gasses in Iran although the expected signs (+) has been confirmed by the model. New research to explore appropriate technical and behavioral innovations needs to do on the specific-product-sector to be climate-friendly and sustainable. On the consumers hand, an encouragement to a more healthy diet with more vegetable, where is possible, also can reduce emissions. Finally, the key message from the assessments is the future legislative outlines for mitigation, adaptation and resource management as well as consumer behavior for how agriculture can deal with climate change.

Ardakani, Z; Bartolini, F; Brunori, G

Economic modeling of climate-smart agriculture in Iran

New Medit

https://doi.org/10.30682/nm1901c

Governments and policymakers are increasingly concerned about climate change. To cope with this inevitable issue, the SDGs-13 target underscores the importance of developing adaptation measures that reduce its adverse effects and ultimately safeguard both society and the environment. This issue is critical in developing countries, which are unable to counter climate-related risks because they lack adaptive capacity, suitable infrastructure, technology and, most importantly, human and physical capital. By contrast, resource-endowed developed countries have succeeded in integrating adaptative and protective policies into their developmental agenda using human power, technology, and especially investment. Keeping these facts in mind, this study is framed to examine the nexus between climate change, adaptation measures, and economic development across different income groups (lower-middle, upper-middle, and high income), using the Driscoll-Kraay (D/K) standard errors method for panel data from the period of 1995 to 2020. This study incorporates two indices (i.e., adaptive capacity and adaptation readiness) in the adaptation framework. The results demonstrate that developed countries such as Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the USA, and the UK are highly adaptive countries due to their readiness for adaptation. Developing countries with very low levels of readiness have a lower adaptive capacity and are, therefore, more vulnerable to climate change. Additionally, a non-causality test demonstrates that a one-way causality runs from readiness, ecological footprint, GDP, renewable energy, FDI, and natural resource investment to the adaptive capacity in all panels. The developed countries are less vulnerable to climate change because of their well-established economies, rich capital resources, good governance, and timely and effective readiness strategies. Adaptation readiness is a vital tool in capacity building for societal adaptation to minimize the effects of disasters on the living standard of communities.

Saeed, S; Makhdum, MSA; Anwar, S; Yaseen, MR

Climate Change Vulnerability, Adaptation, and Feedback Hypothesis: A Comparison of Lower-Middle, Upper-Middle, and High-Income Countries

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054145

Biofuel production has increased dramatically over the past decade, among other to mitigate climate change. However, climate change vulnerability may currently not be sufficiently accounted for in national biofuel strategies, hence neglecting a possible link between mitigation and adaptation to climate change. To the best of our knowledge this potential link has received very little attention in the literature. One example is the Philippines, which is currently implementing an ambitious program of biofuel production. Its aim is to reduce dependency on imported fuel, increase rural employment and incomes, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. The Philippines is frequently battered by tropical typhoons and from 1975 to 2002 the annual average damage to agriculture was 3.047 billion pesos. We calculate wind damage on biofuel feedstock production, and assess the effect that a future potential increase in tropical cyclone intensity would have on energy security, rural development and climate change mitigation in the Philippines. A Monte Carlo simulation is used to obtain the future expected development of typhoon impacts. Based on the Philippines legislated target of 10% biodiesel blend in gasoline by 2011, simulation of the affected area for each feedstock, and expected biofuel feedstock damage is computed for the Philippine's 80 provinces in 2050, for two different typhoon climate change scenarios. Additional indirect economic effects are assessed in a tentative way. The results suggest a modest decrease in biofuel feedstock productivity at the national level, but with strong local differences that are shown to affect the Philippine's policy goals. In a broader perspective the paper accentuates a so far little described link between climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation. This link may merit further attention by policy makers and development planners in order to ensure that policies are economically sound not only in the short but also medium term. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Stromberg, PM; Esteban, M; Gasparatos, A

Climate change effects on mitigation measures: The case of extreme wind events and Philippines' biofuel plan

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.06.004

Climate change is expected to adversely affect agricultural production, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa where the agricultural sector forms the backbone of most countries' economies. This thus holds true for the agriculture sector of the Northern Region of Ghana which is largely rain-fed and dominated by smallholder farmers with minimal livelihood alternatives. The main research question of this paper is how the adaptive capacity to climate change of smallholder farmers in the Northern Region of Ghana can be characterised? The paper proposes an indicator-based framework for assessing the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers in the Northern Region of Ghana along six main determinants of adaptive capacity: economic resources, social capital, awareness and training, technology, infrastructure and institutions. Based on a thorough literature review and qualitative interviews with experts for rural livelihoods and agriculture in the study region, the determinants were ranked and three to five indicators per determinant were selected. The results of the expert interviews show that economic resources, awareness and training as well as technological capacities seem most relevant for smallholder farmers' adaptive capacity while infrastructure, social capital, and institutions were ranked least important. The study operationalized the indicators in a standardized survey questionnaire and tested it in two agrarian communities in the Northern Region of Ghana. The survey results show the aggregate adaptive capacity of respondents is low. However, disparities in adaptive capacity were recorded among respondents in terms of gender and education. Differentiating between the determinants women farmer show significantly lower capacities in fields of economic resources, technology and knowledge and awareness. This paper recommends resilience building interventions in the study area that target individuals with low adaptive capacities, especially women and farmers without formal education. (C) 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Abdul-Razak, M; Kruse, S

The adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate change in the Northern Region of Ghana

Climate Risk Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2017.06.001

The mantra that policy and management should be 'evidence-based' is well established. Less so are the implications that follow from 'evidence' being predictions of the future (forecasts, scenarios, horizons) even though such futures define the actions taken today to make the future sustainable. Here, we consider the tension between 'evidence', reliable because it is observed, and predictions of the future, unobservable in conventional terms. For flood risk management in England and Wales, we show that futures are actively constituted, and so imagined, through 'suites of practices' entwining policy, management and scientific analysis. Management has to constrain analysis because of the many ways in which flood futures can be constructed, but also because of commitment to an accounting calculus, which requires risk to be expressed in monetary terms. It is grounded in numerical simulation, undertaken by scientific consultants who follow policy/management guidelines that define the futures to be considered. Historical evidence is needed to deal with process and parameter uncertainties and the futures imagined are tied to pasts experienced. Reliance on past events is a challenge for prediction, given changing probability (e. g. climate change) and consequence (e. g. development on floodplains). So, risk management allows some elements of risk analysis to become unstable (notably in relation to climate change) but forces others to remain stable (e. g. invoking regulation to prevent inappropriate floodplain development). We conclude that the assumed separation of risk assessment and management is false because the risk calculation has to be defined by management. Making this process accountable requires openness about the procedures that make flood risk analysis more (or less) reliable to those we entrust to produce and act upon them such that, unlike the 'pseudosciences', they can be put to the test of public interrogation by those who have to live with their consequences.

Lane, SN; Landström, C; Whatmore, SJ

Imagining flood futures: risk assessment and management in practice

Philosophical Transactions Of The Royal Society A-Mathematical Physical And Engineering Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0346

Background: The incorporation of multiple types of knowledge (e.g., science, Indigenous knowledge, traditional ecological knowledge) is an important undertaking, which can strengthen the evidence-base for policy advice, decision making, and environmental management. While the benefits of incorporating multiple types of knowledge in environmental research and management are many, successfully doing so has remained a challenge. In response there has been a number of recent reviews that have sought to better understand the what and how, when it comes to bridging Indigenous and science-based knowledge. Yet there continues to be a need for methods, models, and approaches for integrative work. This systematic map seeks to examine the extent, range, and nature of the published literature (i.e., peer-reviewed and grey) that integrates and/or includes Indigenous and science-based knowledge in coastal-marine research, monitoring, or management in Canada. Results from this study can be used to inform new and ongoing research and monitoring efforts and highlight evidence gaps. Methods: The systematic map will aim to capture all available studies relevant to the question found in the peer-reviewed and grey literature. Accordingly, the search will leverage four databases focused on peer reviewed publications, carefully selected specialist websites, and two web-based search engines. Reference sections of relevant review articles will also be cross-checked to identify articles that were not found using the search strategy. All searches will be conducted in English. Search results will be reviewed in two stages: (1) title and abstract; and (2) full text. All screening decisions will be included in the database. The systematic map will employ a narrative synthesis approach that will include the use of descriptive statistics, tables (including SM database), and figures (including map with the studies geospatially referenced). In addition, an online version of the map and queryable database will be developed similar to other knowledge mobilization tools.

Alexancler, SM; Provencher, JF; Henri, DA; Taylor, JJ; Cooke, SJ

Bridging Indigenous and science-based knowledge in coastal-marine research, monitoring, and management in Canada: a systematic map protocol

Environmental Evidence

https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-019-0159-1

Connecting indigenous and scientific observations and knowledge has received much attention in the Arctic, not least in the area of climate change. On some levels, this connection can be established relatively easily, linking observations of similar phenomena or of various effects stemming from the same cause. Closer examinations of specific environmental parameters, however, can lead to far more complex and difficult attempts to make those connections. In this paper we examine observations of wind at Clyde River, Nunavut, Canada. For Inuit, many activities are governed by environmental conditions. Wind, in particular, is identified by Inuit as one of the most important environmental variables, playing a key role in driving sea ice, ocean, and weather conditions that can either enable or constrain hunting, travel, or other important activities. Inuit observe wind patterns closely, and through many means, as a result of their close connection to the land and sea. Inuit in many parts of Nunavut are reporting changes in wind patterns in recent years. At Clyde River, a community on the eastern coast of Baffin Island, Inuit have observed that at least three key aspects of wind have changed over the last few decades: wind variability, wind speed, and wind direction. At the same time, wind observations are also available from an operational weather station located at Clyde River. An analysis of this information shows little change in wind parameters since the mid-1970s. Though the station data and Inuit observations correspond in some instances, overall, there is limited agreement. Although the differences in the two perspectives may point to possible biases that may exist from both sources-the weather station data may not be representative of the region, Inuit observations or explanations may be inaccurate, or the instrumental and Inuit observations may not be of the same phenomena-they also raise interesting questions about methods for observing wind and the nature of Arctic winds.

Gearheard, S; Pocernich, M; Stewart, R; Sanguya, J; Huntington, HP

Linking Inuit knowledge and meteorological station observations to understand changing wind patterns at Clyde River, Nunavut

Climatic Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-009-9587-1

Identification and profiling of current and emerging disaster risks is essential to inform effective disaster risk management practice. Without clear evidence, readiness to accept future threats is low, resulting in decreased ability to detect and anticipate these new threats. A consequential decreased strategic planning for mitigation, adaptation or response results in a lowered resilience capacity. This study aimed to investigate threats to the health and well-being of societies associated with disaster impact in Oceania. The study used a mixed methods approach to profile current and emerging disaster risks in selected countries of Oceania, including small and larger islands. Quantitative analysis of the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT) provided historical background on disaster impact in Oceania from 2000 to 2018. The profile of recorded events was analyzed to describe the current burden of disasters in the Oceania region. A total of 30 key informant interviews with practitioners, policy managers or academics in disaster management in the Oceania region provided first-hand insights into their perceptions of current and emerging threats, and identified opportunities to enhance disaster risk management practice and resilience in Oceania. Qualitative methods were used to analyze these key informant interviews. Using thematic analysis, we identified emerging disaster risk evidence from the data and explored new pathways to support decision-making on resilience building and disaster management. We characterized perceptions of the nature and type of contemporary and emerging disaster risk with potential impacts in Oceania. The study findings captured not only traditional and contemporary risks, such as climate change, but also less obvious ones, such as plastic pollution, rising inequality, uncontrolled urbanization, and food and water insecurity, which were perceived as contributors to current and/or future crises, or as crises themselves. The findings provided insights into how to improve disaster management more effectively, mainly through bottom-up approaches and education to increase risk-ownership and community action, enhanced political will, good governance practices and support of a people-centric approach.

Cuthbertson, J; Rodriguez-Llanes, JM; Robertson, A; Archer, F

Current and Emerging Disaster Risks Perceptions in Oceania: Key Stakeholders Recommendations for Disaster Management and Resilience Building

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030460

CONTEXT: Climate change is expected to adversely affect agricultural production, particularly in Iran where the agricultural sector forms the backbone of the economy. This is true for the agriculture sector of the southwest region of Iran which is largely rain-fed and dominated by smallholder farmers with minimal livelihood alter-natives. Although several studies have been conducted on climate change, little has been done on the adaptive capacity of farmers within farming systems, especially in Iran.OBJECTIVE: The main objective of this study was to evaluate the adaptive capacity of four common farming systems (i.e., family farming system, cooperative farming system, commercialized farming system, and agro-enterprise farming system) in Fars province, southwestern Iran.METHODS: A seven-step approach was used to normalize, weigh, and aggregate 102 individual indicators within a composite adaptive capacity index that is dimensionless, ranging from 0 to 1, and 1 is the optimal value. The required data were collected using a cross-sectional survey from 1472 farmers within the four mentioned farming systems.RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that the highest value was recorded by agro-enterprise for knowledge, perception and awareness, transport and physical accessibility, and institution and economic resources. Agro-enterprise scored higher in terms of awareness and action, which shows that these farming systems have a higher capacity for adaptation to the threat posed by climate diversity. Farmers in this farming system benefit from high formal education, high perceptions about the threat and risk of climate change, the occurrence of climatic events, causes for the change in climatic parameters, and awareness of climate change impactsSIGNIFICANCE: This paper recommends resilience-building interventions in the study area, which target in-dividuals with low adaptive capacities, especially farmers. The results can also assist agricultural policymakers to recognize which components and determinants of adaptive capacity should be prioritized to mitigate the threat of climate change to farming systems.

Abdollahzadeh, G; Sharifzadeh, MS; Sklenicka, P; Azadi, H

Adaptive capacity of farming systems to climate change in Iran: Application of composite index approach

Agricultural Systems

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103537

Climate variability presents an additional challenge to the agricultural sector and society's livelihood due to persistent low rainfall and high temperatures. Women smallholder farmers who depend on agricultural production and have limited natural resources are observed to suffer the more from climate-related adverse effects. The aim of the study was to investigate women smallholder farmers' off-farm adaptation strategies to climate variability in rural savanna, Ghana. The study adopted a case study design method with a sample of 187 women smallholde farmers. Multi-stage sampling was used to select the communities and women respondents for the study. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect the data. Quantitative data was analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science while the interviews were analyzed using thematic approach. Climate vulnerability perception index (CVPI) was performed to determine the sensitivity and exposure of women to climate variability and the need for off-farm adaptation. Again, Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance, test of linearity and Adaptation Strategy Index (ASI) were performed to establish off-farm adaptation strategies that were effective and of importance to the women. The results of the CVPI revealed that women were vulnerable to drought, flood and bush fires in their communities. The results further indicated that, due to women sensitivity and exposure to climate variability, they have engaged in multiple off-farm adaptation strategies to include petty business, poultry and livestock keeping, and agro-processing to respond to the varying climate system. The test of linearity revealed that, most of the off-farm adaptation strategies were significantly associated with climate variability. The ASI results revealed that, women farmers placed agro-processing as the most effective off-farm adaptation strategy to climate variability. Contrarily, women mentioned limited financial resources, poultry and livestock diseases and pests, and low market demands as constraints in their response to climate variability. The practical and policy implications of the study are discussed.

Yiridomoh, GY; Appiah, DO; Owusu, V; Bonye, SZ

Women smallholder farmers off-farm adaptation strategies to climate variability in rural Savannah, Ghana

Geojournal

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10191-7

Strategic location of coastal areas across the world causes them to be prone to disaster risks. In the global south, the Indian coast is one of the most susceptible to oceanic extreme events, such as cyclones, storm surge and high tides. This study provides an understanding of the risk experienced (currently as well as back in 2001) by the districts along the Indian coastline by developing a quantitative risk index. In the process, it attempts to make a novel contribution to the risk literature by following the definition of risk as a function of hazard, exposure and vulnerability as stated in the most recent (Fifth) assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Indicators of bio-physical hazards (such as cyclones, storm surge, tides and precipitation), and socio-economic contributors of vulnerability (such as infrastructure, technology, finance and social nets) and exposure (space), are combined to develop an overall risk index at a fine administrative scale of district-level over the entire coastline. Further, the study employs a multi-attribute decision-making (MADM) method, Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), to combine the contributing indicators and generate indices on hazard, exposure and vulnerability. The product of these three components is thereafter defined as risk. The results suggest that most districts of the eastern coast have higher risk indices compared to those in the west, and the risk has increased since 2001. The higher risk can be attributed to the higher hazard indices in the eastern districts which are aggravated by their higher vulnerability index values. This study is the first effort made to map risk for the entire coastline of India - which in turn has resulted in a new cartographic product at a district-scale. Such assessments and maps have implications for environmental and risk-managers as they can help identify the regions needing adaptive interventions.

Malakar, K; Mishra, T; Hari, V; Karmakar, S

Risk mapping of Indian coastal districts using IPCC-AR5 framework and multi-attribute decision-making approach

Journal Of Environmental Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112948

Climate change has become a global issue, not only because it affects the intensity and frequency of rainfall but also because it impacts the economic development of regions whose economies heavily rely on rainfall, such as the West African region. Hence, the need for this study, which is aimed at understanding how rainfall may change in the future over the Sahel, Savannah, and coastal zones of the Volta River Basin (VRB). The trends and changes in rainfall between 2021-2050 and 1985-2014 under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) scenarios were analyzed after evaluating the performance of three climate models from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) as observation. The results show, in general, a relatively high correlation and low spatial biases for rainfall (r > 0.91, -20% < Pbias < 20%) over the entire Volta Basin for the models' ensemble mean. An increasing trend and projected increase in annual rainfall under the SSP2-4.5 scenario is 6.0% (Sahel), 7.3% (Savannah), and 2.6% (VRB), but a decrease of 1.1% in the coastal zone. Similarly, under SSP5-8.5, the annual rainfall is projected to increase by 32.5% (Sahel), +22.8% (Savannah), 23.0% (coastal), and 24.9% (VRB), with the increase being more pronounced under SSP5-8.5 compared to the SSP2-4.5 scenario. The findings of the study would be useful for planning and designing climate change adaptation measures to achieve sustainable development at the VRB.

Dotse, SQ; Larbi, I; Limantol, AM; Asare-Nuamah, P; Frimpong, LK; Alhassan, ARM; Sarpong, S; Angmor, E; Ayisi-Addo, AK

Rainfall Projections from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 in the Volta River Basin: Implications on Achieving Sustainable Development

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021472

Ensuring food security has been one of the major national priorities of Bangladesh since its independence in 1971. Now, this national priority is facing new challenges from the possible impacts of climate change in addition to the already existing threats from rapid population growth, declining availability of cultivable land, and inadequate access to water in the dry season. In this backdrop, this paper has examined the nature and magnitude of these threats for the benchmark years of 2030 and 2050. It has been shown that the overall impact of climate change on the production of food grains in Bangladesh would probably be small in 2030. This is due to the strong positive impact of CO2 fertilization that would compensate for the negative impacts of higher temperature and sea level rise. In 2050, the negative impacts of climate change might become noticeable: production of rice and wheat might drop by 8% and 32%, respectively. However, rice would be less affected by climate change compared to wheat, which is more sensitive to a change in temperature. Based on the population projections and analysis of future agronomic innovations, this study further shows that the availability of cultivable land alone would not be a constraint for achieving food self-sufficiency, provided that the productivity of rice and wheat grows at a rate of 10% or more per decade. However, the situation would be more critical in terms of water availability. If the dry season water availability does not decline from the 1990 level of about 100 Bm(3), there would be just enough water in 2030 for meeting both the agricultural and nonagricultural needs. In 2050, the demand for irrigation water to maintain food self-sufficiency would be about 40% to 50% of the dry season water availability. Meeting such a high agricultural water demand might cause significant negative impacts on the domestic and commercial water supply, fisheries, ecosystems, navigation, and salinity management.

Faisal, IM; Parveen, S

Food security in the face of climate change, population growth, and resource constraints: Implications for Bangladesh

Environmental Management

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-003-3066-7

Climate change-induced disasters show the highest risk for agriculture and livelihoods in rural areas of developing countries. Due to changing rainfall pattern, the arid and semiarid region of Pakistan faces frequent droughts. Farming communities affected by drought disasters are causing serious threats to livelihood, global food crises, environmental migration, and sustainable development. The existing study was designed to quantify two key components through (1) analysis of agrometeorological data (1981-2017) with exploratory data analysis and Mann-Kendall trend analysis; (2) extensive field survey (200 households). The multivariate probit model has been run to detect determinants of coping and adaptive strategies by farmers. Our results showed that the farmers supposed that temperature and rainfall were highly fluctuating in recent years equally. Farmers adopted different coping and adaptive measures that include crop diversification, input adjustment, water management, asset depletion, income diversification, and migration to sustain their livelihood during stress periods. The agrometeorological data analysis revealed that the agricultural vulnerability to drought risks increased significantly, and the survey results projected that 64.7% of the population is exposed to drought directly or indirectly. Sen's slope quantification resulted in (0.025 degrees C) rise in temperature, (-2.936 mm) decline in rainfall year(-1). Modeling future scenarios resulted in an increase in temperature up to 0.7 degrees C, 1.2 degrees C, and a decrease in precipitation up to 161.48 mm, 103.5 mm in 2040 and 2060. The study evaluated a huge gap in the provision of drought risk resilience services, crop insurance, and climate-smart training practices to build capacities among farmers to cope with the impacts of extreme weather conditions. Our research might provide the groundwork to upgrade actions to drought prevention and early warning in water scarcity areas.

Ashraf, M; Arshad, A; Patel, PM; Khan, A; Qamar, H; Siti-Sundari, R; Ghani, MU; Amin, A; Babar, JR

Quantifying climate-induced drought risk to livelihood and mitigation actions in Balochistan

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04913-4

Background: Community food programs (CFPs), including soup kitchens and food banks, are a recent development in larger settlements in the Canadian Arctic. Our understanding of utilization of these programs is limited as food systems research has not studied the marginalised and transient populations using CFPs, constraining service planning for some of the most vulnerable community members. This paper reports on a baseline study conducted with users of CFPs in Iqaluit, Nunavut, to identify and characterize utilization and document their food security experience. Methods: Open ended interviews and a fixed-choice survey on a census (n = 94) were conducted with of users of the food bank, soup kitchen, and friendship centre over a 1 month period, along with key informant interviews. Results: Users of CFPs are more likely to be Inuit, be unemployed, and have not completed high school compared to the general Iqaluit population, while also reporting high dependence on social assistance, low household income, and an absence of hunters in the household. The majority report using CFPs for over a year and on a regular basis. Conclusions: The inability of users to obtain sufficient food must be understood in the context of socio-economic transformations that have affected Inuit society over the last half century as former semi-nomadic hunting groups were resettled into permanent settlements. The resulting livelihood changes profoundly affected how food is produced, processed, distributed, and consumed, and the socio-cultural relationships surrounding such activities. Consequences have included the rising importance of material resources for food access, the weakening of social safety mechanisms through which more vulnerable community members would have traditionally been supported, and acculturative stress. Addressing these broader challenges is essential for food policy, yet CFPs also have an essential role in providing for those who would otherwise have limited food access.

Ford, J; Lardeau, MP; Vanderbilt, W

The characteristics and experience of community food program users in arctic Canada: a case study from Iqaluit, Nunavut

Bmc Public Health

https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-464

Flood risk reduction strategies play an important role in flood risk management (FRM) and these strategies are being co-designed with the engagement of the stakeholder through multiple consultations and co-designing sessions. Effective participation of stakeholders in interactive work sessions requires fast and accurate modeling systems with a user-friendly interface, which can simulate the impact due to various flood reduction measures selected by the stakeholders and also generate outputs that can be understood by all stakeholders, especially those who are not FRM specialists. Presenting an easy-to-understand tool with easy inputs and outputs for a variety of stakeholders and at the same time providing reliable and accurate results for a range of scenarios and interventions is a challenge. Seven requirements that are essential for a user-friendly flood risk tool were used to develop an instant flood risk modeling tool. This paper presents a web-based hydraulic tool, i.e., instant flood risk model (Inform), to support FRM in the urban center of Can Tho city (Ninh Kieu district), Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Inform was developed based on (i) a simplified 1D model for the entire Mekong Delta; and (ii) flood hazard and damage maps, and estimated flood damage for Ninh Kieu district in Can Tho city obtained directly from the 1D/2D coupled model for Ninh Kieu district. Inform rapidly generates flood levels, flood hazard and damage maps, estimated damages. Pilot testing with experts confirmed that Inform qualifies as a reliable co-design tool for developing FRM strategies as it features an inbuilt input library, comprises flexible options, easy to use, produces quick results and has a user-friendly interface. With the help of an interactive web-based tool such as Inform presented here, it is possible to co-design FRM strategies for Can Tho or any other city that is subject to flood risk.

Ngo, H; Radhakrishnan, M; Ranasinghe, R; Pathirana, A; Zevenbergen, C

Instant Flood Risk Modelling (Inform) Tool for Co-Design of Flood Risk Management Strategies with Stakeholders in Can Tho City, Vietnam

Water

https://doi.org/10.3390/w13213131

San Francisco Bay, the largest estuary on the Pacific Coast of North America, is heavily encroached by a metropolitan region with over 7 million inhabitants. Urban development and infrastructure, much of which built over landfill and at the cost of former baylands, were placed at very low elevations. Sea level rise (SLR) poses a formidable challenge to these highly exposed urban areas and already stressed natural systems. Green, or ecosystem-based, adaptation is already on the way around the Bay. Large scale wetland restoration projects have already been concluded, and further action now often requires articulation with the reinforcement of flood defense structures, given the level of urban encroachment. While levee setback, or removal, would provide greater environmental benefit, the need to protect urban areas and infrastructure has led to the trial of ingenious solutions for promoting wetland resilience while upgrading the level of protection provided by levees. We analyzed the region's environmental governance and planning structure, through direct observation, interviews with stakeholders, and study of planning documents and projects. We present two examples where actual implementation of SLR adaptation has led, or may lead to, the need to revise standards and practices or require uneasy choices between conflicting public interests. Among the region's stakeholders, there is an increasing awareness of the risks related to SLR, but the institutional arrangements are complex, and communication between the different public agencies/departments is not always as streamlined as it could be. Some agencies and departments need to adapt their procedures in order to remove institutional barriers to adaptation, but path dependence is an obstacle. There is evidence that more frank and regular communication between public actors is needed. It also emphasizes the benefits of a coordination of efforts and strategies, something that was eroded in the transition from central-government-led policies to a new paradigm of local-based adaptive governance.

Pinto, PJ; Kondolf, GM; Wong, PLR

Adapting to sea level rise: Emerging governance issues in the San Francisco Bay Region

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.09.015

Indo-Pacific geopolitics is now redefining the ocean diplomacy of India and other countries in the region including China, Vietnam, Indonesia and Australia. Therefore, the Small Island Developing Countries (SIDS) have now acquired immense diplomatic interests in the renewed regional architecture. This paper examines the dynamics of India's ocean diplomacy in the Indo-Pacific and outlines 12 enablers which can strengthen India's engagements with the SIDS countries of both the Indian Ocean as well as the South Pacific Ocean. These enablers have been grouped into three broad sets namely geo-economic enablers, geo-strategic enablers, and, environmental and healthcare enablers. The weightage of individual enablers and subcategory of the enablers have been calculated by employing Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), a mathematical modelling technique. The results reveal that among all geo-economic enablers, 'sub-regional cooperation' is the most significant variable. While, among the geo-strategic enablers and environmental and healthcare enablers, factors like 'support for democratic governance' and 'abating vector and water-borne diseases' are the most important ones respectively. Also, in terms of the global weights of the 12 enablers, it is found that the top five enablers that can potentially drive India's ocean diplomacy with SIDS include the following: sub-regional cooperation, aid-for-trade, trade capacity building, abating vector and water-borne diseases, and, management of water-related ecosystem. This study has implication for policy- making in India especially in context of determining the areas in which the resources can be allocated to strengthen India's engagements with the SIDS countries. Also, it contributes to the discourse on India's emerging role in the IndoPacific geopolitical architecture.

Ahmed, F; Mishra, V

India's Ocean Diplomacy in the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Indo-Pacific: Modelling the Enablers using Fuzzy AHP

Pacific Business Review International

Environmental disasters displace over one million people in the United States per year. Displaced persons are disproportionately from marginalized communities, including low-income communities and communities of color. Once displaced, members of these groups also tend to be displaced for longer periods of time, exposing them to human rights violations. Federal disaster programs are not equipped to prevent or address disaster displacement in the era of climate change. Most federal disaster programs derive their authority from the 1988 Stafford Act, which was designed to react to rare and random events through discretionary, short-term assistance. Long-term recovery funds increasingly come from unpredictable congressional appropriations that lack permanent statutory authority, leading to excessive delays and administrative burdens. This framework results in ad hoc responses that exclude vulnerable communities from critical planning processes and prolong displacement. This Note argues that federal disaster reforms must address the rights of internally displaced persons (IDPs) as enumerated under the international Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement. Part I proposes a definitional framework for climate change-related migration in the United States, and reviews key drivers of disaster displacement. Parts II and III provide an overview of the Guiding Principles and the federal disaster system, respectively. Parts V and VI then address two key rights under the Guiding Principles. Part V reviews IDPs' right to freedom from discrimination, concluding that the Stafford Act's broad discretionary function exception, combined with courts' narrow interpretation of the Act's nondiscrimination provision, effectively blocks access to legal redress for disaster programs that disparately impact protected groups. Part VI evaluates IDPs' right to access protection and assistance that accounts for their specific needs, finding that federal funding structures under both the Stafford Act and the Housing and Community Development Act severely inhibit meaningful consultation with groups vulnerable to disaster displacement. Both Parts V and VI conclude with suggested reforms to facilitate the recognition and affirmation of these rights.

Perls, H

US DISASTER DISPLACEMENT IN THE ERA OF CLIMATE CHANGE: DISCRIMINATION & CONSULTATION UNDER THE STAFFORD ACT

Harvard Environmental Law Review

The interactions between prevailing gender gaps and climate variability and change (CVC) response strategies can intensify inequalities among farmers. Hence, this study examined implications of CVC response strategies on gender relations among farmers in Southeast Nigeria and ways of mainstreaming gender into the strategies. Specifically, it scrutinized the implications of CVC response strategies on gender relations; compliance of response strategies with equity dimensions and ways of mainstreaming gender into response strategies among farmers in SE region. Data were collected in various stages using focus group discussion, key informant interview and household (questionnaire) surveys of 150 men and 150 women farmers. Data analysis was performed using mean, standard deviations, and Pearson's chi-square in SPSS software. Findings revealed thatuse of government supports increase gender inequality because it provides limited gender sensitive response strategies. In addition, use of migrations cause women to spend more time on care giving works (p = 0.004). The response of men and women were significantly different for some variables that complied with contextual equity like the setting up of crop and animal insurance; procedural equity such as crop diversification (p = 0.020), and distributive equity such as the support of farmers to increase crop production. Gender differences (p < 0.05) exist in some ways of mainstreaming gender into response strategies such as improving women's training on access to fund, ensuring higher access to finance by women, and gender mainstreaming into traditional norms. Hence, this study recommends the use of gender-specific and equitable interventions such as providing trainings in line with needs of men and women to improve their information, technologies, knowledge and capacity for efficient use of CVC response strategies. In addition, there is need for sensitization of local communities to allow improved access to finance and economic resource for women in order to reduce gender inequalities and promote effective use of CVC response strategies.

Nnadi, OI; Lyimo, JG; Liwenga, ET; Madukwe, MC

Equity and implications of response strategies on gender relations: Identifying ways of mainstreaming gender into response strategies in Southeast Nigeria

Environmental Development

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2021.100618

The Green Climate Fund, donors, governments and non-governmental organisations, among others, are pouring vast amounts of financial and human capital into community-based adaptation across the developing world. The underlying premise is that the world's majority-who have the minority of financial capital-are living on the margins and are the most vulnerable and at risk from climate change. Such a reality, coupled with a deficit understanding of the majority world, is resulting in significant implications for how the 'adaptation industry' (those that fund, design and implement projects) go about their work. Drawing on research evaluating 15 community-based adaptation projects in Vanuatu we found that despite genuine attempts, projects invariably fell short of success, longevity and sustainability. We argue that the indifferent, albeit variable, success of most projects is attributable to the construction of the geographical scale of 'community-based' and the deficit view flowing down to the 'community' through hubris policy, funding guidelines and individual implementers. Our findings show that 'experts' are working in Pacific communities, conducting assessments that involve asking what 'community' needs are, going away to design projects, coming back and implementing projects, which communities are inevitably challenged to sustain once funding has ceased. We postulate that these limitations stem from such a formation of adaptation work that pejoratively fails to see Pacific Islanders in situ as the best litmus test of their own agendas, needs, aspirations and futures and in the best position to make decisions for themselves about what and how they might become more resilient. We claim from a growing body of evidence and new frontiers in research that, rather than adaptation being 'community-based', it needs to be 'locally led', not limited to 'communities', and should take place across different entry points and incorporate, as appropriate, elements of autonomous/Indigenous peoples ownership.

Westoby, R; McNamara, KE; Kumar, R; Nunn, PD

From community-based to locally led adaptation: Evidence from Vanuatu

Ambio

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01294-8

Rajasthan, with its climate ranging from arid to semi-arid to sub-humid, and rapidly depleting natural resources, is already experiencing the effects of climate change. The region's climate is projected to become harsher, with increased average temperatures, intensity of rainfall events, and increased variability in space & time of monsoon rains being consistently projected for the region. Without action in the form of adaptation of social, human, economic, and natural resource management systems, these weather changes are predicted to result in decreasing surface and ground water availability, flash floods, degradation of soil resources, decrease in crop yields, greater vulnerability to crop pest outbreaks, and declines in forest and pastureland ecosystem goods and services, thus rendering agricultural and herding communities extremely vulnerable to weather related losses of life, livelihood, and food security. In Rajasthan, government is focussing for sustainable development and climate change adaptation by finding and administering alternative methods to deal with issues of poverty and environmental degradation in context of linkage between livelihood and the immediate environment of the people. The livelihoods of the rural poor are directly dependent on environmental resources like land, water, forests and are vulnerable to weather and climate variability. Climate change affects every aspect of society, environment and economy requiring adjustments in behaviour, livelihoods, infrastructure, laws, policies and institutions in response to experienced based expected climatic events. However, it was found that local coping strategies and traditional knowledge need to be used in synergy with government and local interventions. Solutions must be integrated to address the interrelationships between water, agriculture, forests and pastures, livestock. Finally, there is great potential for existing policies and schemes to be employed synergistically towards building true adaptive capacity for the rural communities. However, adapting to climate change will entail adjustments and implementation at every level from community to national and international.

Kaushik, G; Sharma, KC

CLIMATE CHANGE AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS-ADAPTATION AND VULNERABILITY IN RAJASTHAN

Global Nest Journal

Climate events pose major challenges to food production and the livelihoods of rural inhabitants in northern Laos, where upland rice using swidden production is an important crop. The onset of the rainy season in this area is one such climate event, and it has occurred earlier and with less regularity in recent years. Not all households are able to cope with these changes. This study examines the ability of local farmers to cope with rice insufficiency. This investigation also clarifies household strategies in dealing with the climate event. We randomly interviewed 63 of 95 household heads, and performed a paired sample t test to examine the significance of differences in three household groups between the 2010 normal climate and the 2011 climate event. The groups were categorized according to rice self-sufficiency in 2011: groups I are households with rice self-sufficiency, group II are those facing a rice shortage of up to 3 months, and group III are those with insufficient rice for over 3 months. We also conducted a one-way ANOVA to examine the significance of differences in livelihood strategies among the three groups. We found that the household labor force was the most important factor in enhancing the villagers' ability to deal with the climate event and that the level of impact of that event shaped their coping strategies. Households with substantial labor force had more options for coping strategies than those with smaller ones. The villagers faced different levels of impact and adopted different coping strategies accordingly. Non-timber forest product collection was the principle livelihood strategy in response to non-climate factors such as education, access to health services, provision of equipment and clothing, and overcoming the impact of the climate event. Households heavily affected by the early rainy season onset tended to engage in intensive activities such as off-farm activity and outside work, rather than their major livelihood activities in the village (upland crop and livestock production).

Ingxay, P; Yokoyama, S; Hirota, I

Livelihood factors and household strategies for an unexpected climate event in upland northern Laos

Journal Of Mountain Science

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-013-2879-y

Purpose - The present paper attempts to investigate the awareness of coastal community towards climate change in Malaysia and to explore the factors associated with their awareness toward the climate change. Design/methodology/approach - This is a quantitative study where a set of questionnaires was developed based on reviews of literature and series of instrument development meeting. Through a multi-stage cluster sampling, a total of 210 respondents from three coastal villages in Peninsular Malaysia were selected. Findings - The coastal community are shown to record a high mean score on their awareness toward changes relating to the sea, temperatures and the coast. Surprisingly, fishermen are found to be less aware toward climate change compared to other groups, such as housewives/retirees and students. Further analysis confirms that there are significant differences regarding coastal community awareness to changes relating to the sea, temperatures and the coast. Research limitations/implications - This study represented the answers of 210 respondents who were randomly selected from three coastal villages in Peninsular Malaysia, and the results might be enriched if the number of respondents is increased and respondents from other villages are included. A future study should be conducted to gather information on the possible effects, rather than focusing on the respondents' awareness. Additionally, because of the nature of the topic, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and officers from environment-related agencies should cooperate during the research. Practical implications - It is recommended that information management activities with regard to the climate change should be actively conducted by NGOs, universities and related parties. Originality/value - Most of the related studies are scientific in nature, leading to a gap relating to the social aspects of climate change, particularly in terms of communities' awareness toward the climate change. Moreover, a number of local studies have produced inconsistencies in term of their results regarding the awareness of the climate change among the community. In response to this, the current study aims to fill this gap.

Shaffril, HAM; D'Silva, JL; Kamaruddin, N; Omar, SZ; Bolong, J

The coastal community awareness towards the climate change in Malaysia

International Journal Of Climate Change Strategies And Management

https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-07-2014-0089

Flood risk emerges from the dynamic interaction between natural hazards and human vulnerability. Methods for the quantification of flood risk are well established, but tend to deal with human and economic vulnerability as being static or changing with an exogenously defined trend. In this paper we present an Agent-Based Model (ABM) developed to simulate the dynamical evolution of flood risk and vulnerability, and facilitate an investigation of insurance mechanism in London. The ABM has been developed to firstly allow an analysis of the vulnerability of homeowners to surface water flooding, which is one of the greatest short-term climate risks in the UK with estimated annual costs of 1.3bn pound to 2.2bn pound. These costs have been estimated to increase by 60-220% over the next 5 0 years due to climate change and urbanisation. Vulnerability is influenced by homeowner's decisions to move house and/or installmeasures to protect their properties from flooding. In particular, the ABM focuses on the role of flood insurance, simulating the current public-private partnership between the government and insurers in the UK, and the forthcoming re-insurance scheme Flood Re, designed as a roadmap to support the future affordability and availability of flood insurance. The ABM includes interaction between homeowners, sellers and buyers, an insurer, a local government and a developer. Detailed GIS and qualitative data of the London borough of Camden are used to represent an area at high risk of surface water flooding. The ABM highlights how future development can exacerbate current levels of surface water flood risk in Camden. Investment in flood protection measures are shown to be beneficial for reducing surface water flood risk. The Flood Re scheme is shown to achieve its aim of securing affordable flood insurance premiums, however, is placed under increasing pressure in the future as the risk of surface water flooding continues to increase.

Dubbelboer, J; Nikolic, I; Jenkins, K; Hall, J

An Agent-Based Model of Flood Risk and Insurance

Jasss-The Journal Of Artificial Societies And Social Simulation

https://doi.org/10.18564/jasss.3135

West Africa has been described as a hotspot of climate change. The reliance on rain-fed agriculture by over 65% of the population means that vulnerability to climatic hazards such as droughts, rainstorms and floods will continue. Yet, the vulnerability and risk levels faced by different rural social-ecological systems (SES) affected by multiple hazards are poorly understood. To fill this gap, this study quantifies risk and vulnerability of rural communities to drought and floods. Risk is assessed using an indicator-based approach. A stepwise methodology is followed that combines participatory approaches with statistical, remote sensing and Geographic Information System techniques to develop community level vulnerability indices in three watersheds (Dano, Burkina Faso; Dassari, Benin; Vea, Ghana). The results show varying levels of risk profiles across the three watersheds. Statistically significant high levels of mean risk in the Dano area of Burkina Faso are found whilst communities in the Dassari area of Benin show low mean risk. The high risk in the Dano area results from, among other factors, underlying high exposure to droughts and rainstorms, longer dry season duration, low caloric intake per capita, and poor local institutions. The study introduces the concept of community impact score (CIS) to validate the indicator-based risk and vulnerability modelling. The CIS measures the cumulative impact of the occurrence of multiple hazards over five years. 65.3% of the variance in observed impact of hazards/CIS was explained by the risk models and communities with high simulated disaster risk generally follow areas with high observed disaster impacts. Results from this study will help disaster managers to better understand disaster risk and develop appropriate, inclusive and well integrated mitigation and adaptation plans at the local level. It fulfills the increasing need to balance global/regional assessments with community level assessments where major decisions against risk are actually taken and implemented.

Asare-Kyei, D; Renaud, FG; Kloos, J; Walz, Y; Rhyner, J

Development and validation of risk profiles of West African rural communities facing multiple natural hazards

Plos One

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171921

In recent years, scholarly interest in the nexus between climate change and human societies has risen dramatically, and many researchers from different disciplines have begun studying the possible effects of climate change and climate anomalies on past and present societies. In this article, we join this lively debate, seeking to extend it by raising, and providing possible answers to, two fundamental questions: what type of climatic anomalies can undermine social stability? What duration and intensity are necessary to instigate structural change? When attempting to answer these questions, researchers tend to view short-term climatic events, such as storms or mudslides, as unusual events that instigate an unusual reality for temporary, and measurable, time periods. We argue, instead, that gradual and more usual climatic events, such as prolonged droughts or extended periods of untimely rains, impact societies in a more profound and extraordinary manner, and it is here that our paper meets the theme of the extraordinary and the usual, the axes of the current collection of essays. Based on qualitative examination of collapse periods in western Asia and northern China during the eleventh and early twelfth centuries, and a high-resolution re-examination of the crisis in Mali at the beginning of 2010, we argue that extended climate anomalies that cause decreases in the amount of available food are the anomalies that most affect the fate of human civilizations. While people can cope with short-term climate anomalies that cause periodical food crises, lasting a year or two, extended climate anomalies that affect the availability of food, like droughts, cold spells or untimely rains, can have disastrous, long-term effects: they accelerate decisive processes, push people to migrate outside their regions of residence, increase violence and religious extremism, and, ultimately, lead to structural changes in the societies that are affected by the crises.

Ulus, T; Ellenblum, R

How long and how strong must a climatic anomaly be in order to evoke a social transformation? Historical and contemporaneous case studies

Humanities & Social Sciences Communications

https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00933-4

Effective coastal risk management often involves the selection and appraisal of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) measures. Such measures, however, are rarely implemented in isolation and their (inter)dependencies need to be considered to assess the overall contribution to risk reduction. This paper presents a framework that utilises a pathway-based approach to consider such (inter)dependencies. The framework identifies measures that have the potential to directly influence risk reduction (primary measures) at the individual/household level and how these relate to the implementation of other measures (non-primary). These two types of measures are linked using intermediate pathway factors, which aggregate to the effective uptake and/or operation of primary measure(s) and subsequently represent the direct influence on risk reduction when included in a risk assessment. The approach is demonstrated utilising two coastal risk examples. The case of Varna Bay, Bulgaria highlights a pathway, which explores how developing a coastal Early Warning System (EWS), can enable assets to be moved and saved prior to an event. The Praia de Faro, Portuguese application provides an example of how local risk awareness meetings can support the uptake of property raising to protect against erosion. Past experience, poor trust in authorities, house type/feasibility, transient population and strong community networks are identified as key influencing variables across both cases. The process of considering the (inter)dependencies between measures has potential to lead to improved decision making and strategy building. The framework developed is flexible in nature and can be applied in many different situations; however, it is one step towards accounting for these (inter)dependencies at the individual/household level. Ex-ante or ex-post survey data, expert judgement and literature have been used to estimate these factors. However, in many cases this good quality data is not available, and is something that national level monitoring strategies, along with the research community, must address.

Cumiskey, L; Priest, S; Valchev, N; Viavattene, C; Costas, S; Clarke, J

A framework to include the (inter)dependencies of Disaster Risk Reduction measures in coastal risk assessment

Coastal Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2017.08.009

Over the past decade, pastoralists in Kunene Region, Namibia, have endured recurrent drought and flood events that have culminated in the loss of their primary form of livelihood-pastoralism. Most pastoralists are finding it difficult to sustain their livelihoods, and their communities have fallen into extreme poverty. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approaches are increasingly acknowledged as having the potential to enhance the adaptive capacity of vulnerable communities. The first step is to develop an understanding of how affected communities live, their perceptions of and how they respond to climate change and the biophysical impacts of climate change in their communities. This study aims to collect this information in order to explore the use of EbA to help pastoralists adapt to climate change. We examined an isolated pastoral Himba community, to understand their perceptions, experiences and understanding of climate change and its related impacts on their livelihoods. A nested mixed-methods approach using structured interviews was employed to address the study objectives. Interview results revealed that pastoralists lack scientific knowledge of climate change, and they have no access to climate change information. Though pastoralists have coping and adaptation approaches at the community level (such as making gardens, fishing, etc.), these have become ineffective as climatic uncertainty and change persist. Furthermore, pastoralists no longer get benefits from the environment, such as food and fodder. Despite this, there are currently no biodiversity interventions at the community level to address the impacts of climate change. Pastoralists have indicated their adaptation needs, particularly the provision of water supply to grow food. This is an open avenue to explore EbA approaches, specifically ecological restoration, while still addressing the need of the pastoralists. There is an urgent need to develop new practical adaptation strategies, including restoration options that will strengthen their adaptive capacity.

Inman, EN; Hobbs, RJ; Tsvuura, Z

No safety net in the face of climate change: The case of pastoralists in Kunene Region, Namibia

Plos One

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238982

Quantifying the impact of climate change at a regional scale is important in trying to develop adaptation policies. We estimated the economic impact of climate change on forest resource use in Nigeria using the Ricardian model in the STATA statistical software. Using a structured questionnaire, data were collected from 400 rural households in forest communities, sampled from five broad ecological regions across Nigeria to estimate income and potential impact on this as a result of climate change. Estimated average value of annual household income from the forest was $3380. The age of the household head, level of education, mode of transport, hudrology (river flow) significantly and positively affected net revenue from the forest, while noticing of climate change negatively affected net revenue. Also while winter and spring precipitation had positive impacts on net revenue ($1.5 and $0.28 respectively), summer and autumn precipitation had negative impacts; (-$0.073 and -$0.05 respectively). Marginal impact analysis shows that increasing rainfall during winter and spring seasons significantly increases the net revenue per household by $62 and $75 respectively, while increasing precipitation marginally during the summer and autumn seasons reduce the net revenue per household by $42 and $18 respectively. This underscores the place of rainfall as a limiting factor in tropical ecosystem productivity and the growing impact of changing rainfall on household income and efforts to moderate water supply in agriculture and forestry will be an effort in the right direction. Annual marginal increase in rainfall increases net revenue per household by $77. The model shows that a 1 degrees C increase in temperature will lead to an annual loss of $39 x 10(-7) in net income per household, after which further increase in temperature or decreases in precipitation shows no significant change in net revenue, thus underscoring the resilience of tropical forest to climate change. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Onyekuru, NA; Marchant, R

Assessing the economic impact of climate change on forest resource use in Nigeria: A Ricardian approach

Agricultural And Forest Meteorology

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2016.01.001

We review the use and value of seasonal climate forecasting for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a view to understanding and exploiting opportunities to realize more of its potential benefits. Interaction between the atmosphere and underlying oceans provides the basis for probabilistic forecasts of climate conditions at a seasonal lead-time, including during cropping seasons in parts of SSA. Regional climate outlook forums (RCOF) and national meteorological services (NMS) have been at the forefront of efforts to provide forecast information for agriculture. A survey showed that African NMS often go well beyond the RCOF process to improve seasonal forecast information and disseminate it to the agricultural sector. Evidence from a combination of understanding of how climatic; uncertainty impacts agriculture, model-based ex-ante analyses, subjective expressions of demand or value, and the few well-documented evaluations of actual use and resulting benefit suggests that seasonal forecasts may have considerable potential to improve agricultural management and rural livelihoods. However, constraints related to legit:in-lac); salience, access, understanding, capacity to respond and data scarcity have so far limited the widespread use and benefit from seasonal prediction among smallholder fanners. Those constraints that reflect inadequate information products, policies or institutional process can potentially be overcome. Additional opportunities to benefit: rural communities come from expanding the use of seasonal forecast information for coordinating input and credit supply, food(1 crisis management, trade and agricultural insurance. The surge of activity surrounding seasonal forecasting in SSA following the 1997/98 El Nino has waned in recent years, but emerging initiatives, such as the Global Framework for Climate Set-vices and ClimDev-Africa, are poised to reinvigorate support for seasonal forecast information services for agriculture. We conclude with a discussion of institutional and policy changes that we believe will greatly enhance the benefits of seasonal forecasting to agriculture in SSA.

Hansen, JW; Mason, SJ; Sun, LQ; Tall, A

REVIEW OF SEASONAL CLIMATE FORECASTING FOR AGRICULTURE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Experimental Agriculture

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0014479710000876

Background Climate change is expected to decrease food security globally. Many Indigenous communities have heightened sensitivity to climate change and food insecurity for multifactorial reasons including close relationships with the local environment and socioeconomic inequities which increase exposures and challenge adaptation to climate change. Pregnant women have additional sensitivity to food insecurity, as antenatal undernutrition is linked with poor maternal-infant health. This study examined pathways through which climate change influenced food security during pregnancy among Indigenous and non-Indigenous women in rural Uganda. Specific objectives were to characterize: 1) sensitivities to climate-associated declines in food security for pregnant Indigenous women; 2) women's perceptions of climate impacts on food security during pregnancy; and 3) changes in food security and maternal-infant health over time, as observed by women. Methods Using a community-based research approach, we conducted eight focus group discussions-four in Indigenous Batwa communities and four in non-Indigenous communities-in Kanungu District, Uganda, on the subject of climate and food security during pregnancy. Thirty-six women with >= 1 pregnancy participated. Data were analysed using a constant comparative method and thematic analysis. Results Women indicated that food insecurity was common during pregnancy and had a bidirectional relationship with antenatal health issues. Food security was thought to be decreasing due to weather changes including extended droughts and unpredictable seasons harming agriculture. Women linked food insecurity with declines in maternal-infant health over time, despite improved antenatal healthcare. While all communities described food security struggles, the challenges Indigenous women identified and described were more severe. Conclusions Programs promoting women's adaptive capacity to climate change are required to improve food security for pregnant women and maternal-infant health. These interventions are particularly needed in Indigenous communities, which often face underlying health inequities. However, resiliency among mothers was strong and, with supports, they can reduce food security challenges in a changing climate.

Bryson, JM; Patterson, K; Berrang-Ford, L; Lwasa, S; Namanya, DB; Twesigomwe, S; Kesande, C; Ford, JD; Harper, SL

Seasonality, climate change, and food security during pregnancy among indigenous and non-indigenous women in rural Uganda: Implications for maternal-infant health

Plos One

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247198

The new EU strategy on adaptation to climate change suggests flexible and participatory approaches. Face-to-face contact, although it involves time-consuming procedures with a limited audience, has often been considered the most effective participatory approach. In recent years, however, there has been an increase in the visibility of different citizens' initiatives in the online world, which strengthens the possibility of greater citizen agency. This paper investigates whether the Internet can ensure efficient public participation with meaningful engagement in climate change adaptation. In elucidating issues regarding climate change adaptation, we developed an eParticipation framework to explore adaptation capacity of agriculture to climate change in Northern Italy. Farmers were mobilised using a pre-existing online network. First they took part in an online questionnaire for revealing their perceptions of and reactions to the impacts of ongoing changes in agriculture. We used these results to suggest a portfolio of policy measures and to set evaluation criteria. Farmers then evaluated these policy options, using a multi criteria analysis tool with a simple user-friendly interface. Our results showed that eParticipation is efficient; it supports a rapid data collection, while involving high number of participants. Moreover, we demonstrated that the digital divide is decreasingly an obstacle for using online spaces for public engagement. This research does not present eParticipation as a panacea. Rather, eParticipation was implemented with well-established participatory approaches to both validate the results and, consequently, communicate meaningful messages on local agricultural adaptation practices to regional decision-makers. Feedbacks from the regional decision-makers showed their interest in using eParticipation to improve communication with farmers in the future. We expect that, with further Internet proliferation, eParticipation may allow the inclusion of more representative samples, which would contribute to an informed and legitimate decision-making process. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Bojovic, D; Bonzanigo, L; Giupponi, C; Maziotis, A

Online participation in climate change adaptation: A case study of agricultural adaptation measures in Northern Italy

Journal Of Environmental Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.04.001

Asia has the fastest growing population and economy, but it is also the most disaster-prone region in the world. Resilience to disaster impacts from natural hazards will be key to the long-term sustainability of this rapidly growing region. The first step to building resilience is to identify the key threats that this region faces. We describe these key threats as Black Elephants: a cross between a black swan and the proverbial elephant in the room - they are extreme events that are known but difficult to address and often ignored. We examine the primary drivers of these looming risks and find that the drivers include underestimated or intensifying hazards, growing exposure, high vulnerability, and unaccounted complexities from multi-hazard events. In mitigating these key risks, we discuss psychological barriers to action and highlight the importance of information, language, and hope. The known but complex impacts from natural hazards in Asia must be further acknowledged and managed in order to build a more sustainable, resilient future in an increasingly globally connected world. Plain Language Summary Asia has the fastest growing population and economy in the world, but it is also the most disaster prone region and is home to many Black Elephant disaster risks. Black Elephant risks are a cross between extreme events that are known, but difficult to address, and are especially relevant to Asia's development. In this paper, we characterize drivers of these risks, including underestimated or changing hazards, growing number of people, places, and things that are potentially affected by hazards, high vulnerability of built and social systems when exposed to hazards, and growing impacts from multi-hazard events. Analysis of the drivers of Black Elephant events offer insights for improved resilience to Black Elephant events. In addressing Black Elephant disaster risks, we recommend leveraging the power of language, hope, and existing information for improved resilience in this region.

Lin, YC; Sarica, GM; Chua, TJ; Stone, AB; Jenkins, SF; Switzer, AD; Woo, G; Lallemant, D

Characterizing Drivers of Asia's Black Elephant Disaster Risks

Earths Future

https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF002607

This paper reviews the widely used concepts of risk and vulnerability as they relate to climate and weather hazards, re-conceptualizes these terms in the context of climate change and illustrates this development using crop and flood insurance as examples. Government subsidization of insurance against risks associated with adverse climatic conditions and weather events, such as flood damage and crop loss, may lead to individual decisions that actually increase the susceptibility of people, property and economic activities to those risks. The processes that give rise to this phenomenon are important in understanding the vulnerability of human populations to climate change. In many regions, existing conditions that give rise to flooding or crop failure are likely to be exacerbated by climate change over coming decades. In the climate change field, vulnerability has been conceptualised as a function of exposure to risk and as an ability to adapt to the effects. In this context, crop and flood insurance are possible adaptive measures. This treatment of vulnerability compares with similar concepts in insurance and risk management whereby events that cause loss are known as perils, and physical conditions, such as climate change, that increase the likelihood of a peril occurring, are known as physical hazards. Human behaviour that increases the exposure of individuals to potential perils is known as morale hazard or moral hazard, depending on the intentions of the person. Vulnerability consequently becomes a function of hazard and responses taken to reduce risk. Examples of crop and flood insurance programs from Canada, New Zealand and the U.S. are used to show how subsidized insurance might create a morale hazard in addition to physical hazards such as short-term weather events and long-term climate change, resulting in a higher level of vulnerability than would otherwise exist. These findings demonstrate that human behaviour affects the formation of both exposure and adaptive capacity in the context of vulnerability to climate change. Responses taken to increase adaptive capacity may in some cases be offset by individual behaviour that increases exposure.

McLeman, R; Smit, B

Vulnerability to climate change hazards and risks: crop and flood insurance

Canadian Geographer-Geographe Canadien

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0008-3658.2006.00136.x

This paper critically assesses debt as a response to ecological, fiscal, and climate disasters that have emerged within the blue economy agenda in the Caribbean. Caribbean countries routinely suffer major losses of life, internal social and economic displacement, increased debt burdens, and significant economic damages due to hurricanes and ecological disasters in the context of an ongoing fiscal crisis. In response, regional public and national agencies have proposed blue economy initiatives to address the regional need for finance, to rejuvenate financial flows, and to compensate for extremely constrained fiscal resources and externally imposed austerity (or debt bondage). Major recent hurricanes and ecological shocks illustrate uneven and interconnected spatial histories of anti-Black dispossession, disenfranchisement, and deprivation, offering important empirical terrain from which to appreciate how contemporary 'disasters' have become new means to extend hierarchical plantation formations to the seascape through debt-driven finance and austerity. The paper demonstrates the ways in which coercive financial instruments like catastrophe insurance, debt swaps, 'blue bonds', and traditional public debt constitute tools to further integrate these societies differentially into racialised financial geographies and entrench a coloniality of being. As traditional plantation structures become exhausted and lack capacity to effectively ensure growth, these innovative finance mechanisms are required for blue accumulation. We situate spiralling debt burdens and these new instruments spurred by socially produced and postcolonial disasters within postplantation ecologies that describe socio-political relations and spatial dependencies linked to interwoven logics of disaster-based financial capitalism that seek to extend the extractive capacity of the plantation anew. These arrangements tend to naturalise and render disaster, death, and debt as ordinary events and obligations arising from postcolonial statehood, and take for granted their origins in racialised plantation structures.

Perry, KK

From the plantation to the deep blue sea: Naturalising debt, ordinary disasters, and postplantation ecologies in the Caribbean

Geographical Journal

https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12470

School resilience is characterized as risk management techniques to build a safe environment for students. Recognizing the need of building disaster resilience for the education sector, this study is aimed at assessing flood disaster resilience of elementary schools in four extremely vulnerable districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. This paper established the assessment tool by incorporating climate resilience indices and 16 tasks of the Hyogo Framework for action designed for the education sector. It discusses four dimensions: physical conditions of elementary schools, human resources, institutional issues, and external relationships, each with three parameters and five variables. The data were obtained for 60 variables from 20 randomly selected elementary schools. Indicators of resilience were identified, and an index-based approach was used to get the composite values of the four dimensions of resilience. Correlations between the dimensions, components, and indicators were also checked in the current study. Results show that schools in Nowshera, followed by Charsadda, Peshawar, and Dera Ismail Khan, are the most resilient to flood disasters. For all 12 parameters under 4 dimensions, the relative resilience of study districts is the same. The findings further indicated that there is a strong correlation between the pairs of human resources and institutional issues as well as institutional issues and external relationships that can also enhance human resources and external relationships. Furthermore, institutional issues are also correlated with external relationships and human resources, which indicate that there is a triangular relationship among human resources, institutional issues, and external relationships. The findings would encourage policymakers and practitioners to develop an effective plan to improve the resilience of schools using the overall resilience situation. In short, education sector disaster resilience can be achieved by integrated planning and implementation approach. In this respect, disaster managers, public and private education sectors, school staff, students, and parents need to establish synergies to devise a comprehensive plan of action to enhance disaster education.

Shah, AA; Gong, ZW; Ali, M; Jamshed, A; Naqvi, SAA; Naz, S

Measuring education sector resilience in the face of flood disasters in Pakistan: an index-based approach

Environmental Science And Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10308-y

Rural communities inhabited on riverbank areas are frequently facing the ever-increasing psychological, social and economic distress due to negative effects of riverbank erosion. This study focused to investigate the impact of climate-based hazards particularly riverbank erosion on human displacement, food security and livelihood of rural riverine households and how vulnerable households act in response. The survey data of 398 households of erosion-prone riverbank area were collected, and group discussions connecting household heads from this area were also used for this study. In human displacement scenario of the last ten years due to riverbank erosion, almost 60% households lost their homestead once while 38% more than three times and forced to displaced. Empirical estimates of households' food security status indicated the value of Food Security Index 2.11, highlighting households face issue of food security all over the year. Food security issue of vulnerable households is highly related with migration because these households have insufficient employment chances, and coupled with limited or no farming land, they are highly prone to migration. In conclusion, this study estimated that riverbank erosion risk is a co-exist reason of population displacement, increasing rural environmental vulnerability and obstacles to psychological, cultural and socioeconomic development. Implications of local-based proper policy interventions such as developing advance research regarding infusion of agro-based technology packages for emerging Bait areas for developing resilience, human capital development, credit access and institution service are necessary for improving livelihood and food security of these riverbank erosion households. State-based institutions and local community mutually need to focus increasing forestry specifically in riverbank areas to save fertile land from riverbank erosion and reducing environmental pollution. Convalescing livelihood and food security for erosion riverbank households, more employment opportunity needs to provided, investing more in training and education programmes to promoting income-generating activities that subsequently will develop livelihood and food security of households.

Ahmad, D; Afzal, M

Flood hazards, human displacement and food insecurity in rural riverine areas of Punjab, Pakistan: policy implications

Environmental Science And Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11430-7

Coastal regions of developing countries are highly vulnerable to climate impacts. Climate change is projected to increase sea level rise, coastal storm events, and natural resource scarcity, impacting coastal ecosystems and societies. These climate impacts intersect with other anthropogenic stressors contributing to the degradation of coastal habitats and ecosystems (driven by, among other things, development, encroachment and pollution), increasing the risk of coastal hazards. Given the complexities of coastal adaptation and the reality of scarce financial and human resources, policymakers must make challenging decisions regarding which adaptation strategies to prioritize. This study seeks to understand: 1) What approaches to coastal adaptation have been most commonly implemented in projects financed through multilateral adaptation funds? and 2) Were the projects designed to build climate-specific or broader adaptive capacity? Using a content analysis of project proposals for 60 coastal adaptation projects financed through multilateral adaptation funds across 39 countries (as well as two regional projects), we categorized adaptation approaches and assessed contributions to adaptive capacity. Our findings indicate that policy, planning, and capacity-building, as compared to more tangible implementation activities, have characterized most coastal adaptation projects in the past 15 years. We also found a common emphasis on climate-specific adaptive capacity which diverges from the widely discussed need to address climate change and development priorities synergistically. In the context of limited resources, decisions regarding which adaptation approaches to invest in inherently involves trade-offs that need to be explicitly acknowledged. While numerous regional studies have analyzed these trade-offs, our study provides a global context and identifies potential areas of underinvestment for coastal adaptation in developing countries. (C) 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Kuhl, L; Van Maanen, K; Scyphers, S

An analysis of UNFCCC-financed coastal adaptation projects: Assessing patterns of project design and contributions to adaptive capacity

World Development

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104748

Household flooding has wide ranging social, economic and public health impacts particularly for people in resource poor communities. The determinants and public health outcomes of recurrent home flooding in urban contexts, however, are not well understood. A household survey was used to assess neighborhood and household level determinants of recurrent home flooding in Detroit, MI. Survey activities were conducted from 2012 to 2020. Researchers collected information on past flooding, housing conditions and public health outcomes. Using the locations of homes, a hot spot analysis of flooding was performed to find areas of high and low risk. Survey data were linked to environmental and neighborhood data and associations were tested using regression methods. 4803 households participated in the survey. Flooding information was available for 3842 homes. Among these, 2085 (54.26%) reported experiencing pluvial flooding. Rental occupied units were more likely to report flooding than owner occupied homes (Odd ratio (OR) 1.72 [95% Confidence interval (CI) 1.49, 1.98]). Housing conditions such as poor roof quality and cracks in basement walls influenced home flooding risk. Homes located in census tracts with increased percentages of owner occupied units (vs. rentals) had a lower odds of flooding (OR 0.92 [95% (CI) 0.86, 0.98]). Household factors were found the be more predictive of flooding than neighborhood factors in both univariate and multivariate analyses. Flooding and housing conditions associated with home flooding were associated with asthma cases. Recurrent home flooding is far more prevalent than previously thought. Programs that support recovery and which focus on home improvement to prevent flooding, particularly by landlords, might benefit the public health. These results draw awareness and urgency to problems of urban flooding and public health in other areas of the country confronting the compounding challenges of aging infrastructure, disinvestment and climate change.

Larson, PS; Gronlund, C; Thompson, L; Sampson, N; Washington, R; Thorsby, JS; Lyon, N; Miller, C

Recurrent Home Flooding in Detroit, MI 2012-2020: Results of a Household Survey

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147659

Assessing the current farm-level efforts of climate change adaptation is essential to distinguish their usefulness and implying policy level advance measures for future. The present study investigated cotton farmers' climate change adaptation and its impact on increasing cotton productivity and net cotton income in Punjab province of Pakistan. A pretested and well-structured questionnaire was used for data collection of 480 cotton farmers from three major cotton-producing divisions of cotton-wheat zone of Punjab, Pakistan. Logistic regression analysis approach was used in this study to find out the factors of adaptation and propensity score matching method employed to identify connecting adaptation impact on cotton productivity and cotton income. Empirical estimates of this study indicated as owing to some external and internal constraint farmers were limited focused on adaptation while conscious about adverse effects of climate change. Usage of required and recommended types of fertilizer, variation in planting dates, and changing varieties of crop were main adaptation strategies implemented by cotton farmers. Cotton farmers' adaptation decision was significantly influenced by some major factors as weather forecasting, market information, easy access to agricultural extension services, farming experience, and education of cotton farmer. Farm-level increase in cotton productivity and net cotton crop income was direct while overall increases in national output and improving rural area farmer well-being were indirect and significant outcomes of implementing climate change adaptation of cotton farmers. Cotton farmers were using various combinations of adaptation strategies and achieving more benefits regarding their crop productivity and net returns. Findings of the study suggest need for larger investment in farm-level extension services, farmers' schooling, and develop climate change institutional setup for enhancing farmers' adaptation capability to increasing cotton productivity, improving well-being of farming community, and securing agriculture from future climatic uncertainties. Future policies must deal with farm-level limitations of advanced adaptation measures like making available information and sustaining sponsoring soil conservation practices, launching climate smart varieties and advanced adaptation measures based on various agro-ecological zones.

Ahmad, D; Afzal, M

Climate change adaptation impact on cash crop productivity and income in Punjab province of Pakistan

Environmental Science And Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09368-x

Social-ecological change has placed unprecedented stress on water resources throughout the world. This has driven water users to employ a diverse range of adaptation strategies and necessitates new governance structures, such as adaptive water governance (AWG), which have the capacity to manage resources in the midst of uncertainty and complexity. As such, AWG has the potential to support household adaptation strategies; however, little empirical work has been done to identify the factors that facilitate the emergence of AWG. To address this gap, we conducted a household survey of 448 households in northwestern Pakistan, a post-conflict, waterscarce area where adaptive governance is needed to support rural livelihoods in the midst of numerous socioeconomic and environmental transformations. Indeed, we found that households in our study area perceived a range of changes to the water system, including but not limited to declines of fish populations, decreased quality and amount of river water, and an increase of local tourism. Respondents reported a range of adaptation strategies including increasing agricultural inputs, planting new crop varieties, and changing their domestic water supply system. In some cases, households employed these adaptation strategies despite economic barriers, and although many were willing to go against friends' and community leaders' opinions to adapt, and they were less likely to counter the opinions of family members. This reveals that households negotiate multiple factors in their decisions to adapt to social-ecological change; as such, there is a great need for flexible and collaborative governance systems such as AWG to support this complexity in household adaptation decision making. Further, we argue that the varying roles of social influence should be considered to align governance structures with household decision-making processes. Thus, we suggest that AWG will be more likely to emerge when decision makers involved in water management draw on existing informal institutions and cross-sectoral collaboration to reflect the complex ways water users adapt to social-ecological change.

Nixon, R; Ma, Z; Khan, B; Birkenholtz, T; Lee, L; Mian, I

Social influence shapes adaptive water governance: empirical evidence from northwestern Pakistan

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-13546-270337

We explored the proactive responses of local communities against locally experienced climate change impacts and anticipated threats. This study interviewed 124 rural households from three community forestry user groups representing three ecological regions of Nepal using a semi-structured questionnaire. The study used eight criteria to distinguish the proactive nature of adaptation. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyze data, including the use of a chi-square (& chi;(2)) test to determine the proactive measures and their association with livelihood options and the ordered logistic regression model to explain determining factors of choosing proactive adaptations. The results indicate that 83.9% of households adapted both proactive and reactive measures, while 10.5% applied solely reactive adaptation and 5.6% were earmarked only for proactive adaptation measures. Over 50 different proactive adaptation measures were implemented by the households. The measures were significantly associated with agricultural diversification, cash crop cultivation, livestock raising, small-scale enterprise development, and disaster control. Socio-economic and spatial factors such as a household's wellbeing, land holding size, geographical location, livelihood options, and the number of adaptation measures implemented by households were found to be decisive factors in choosing proactive adaptation. The study concludes that local people in Nepal are not only aware of escalating climate risks but also engage their cognition and knowledge proactively to adapt locally. The results suggest that even small proactive initiatives by households can offer multiple benefits against climate risks as an architect of individuals. Therefore, adopting a trans-disciplinary approach and nurturing local proactive actions in strategic connectivity between environmental, political, and societal functions is pivotal, which primarily takes a step to drive expediently successful climate change policy and strategy implementation. The findings of this study offer valuable insights into policy and strategy planning for the unsolicited consequences of climate change and highlight the importance of understanding the perspective of local communities in adaptation planning and implementation.

Darjee, KB; Neupane, PR; Köhl, M

Proactive Adaptation Responses by Vulnerable Communities to Climate Change Impacts

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410952

The European Union (EU) is increasingly connected to the rest of the world via flows of people, capital, goods and resources, exposing it to the potential impacts of climate change occurring outside its borders, in addition to impacts occurring on and between EU countries themselves. However, there is currently no peer-reviewed literature that describes the way in which cross-border impacts might affect the EU as a whole, or what the pattern of exposure to cross-border impacts might look like from a European perspective. This paper describes the pathways via which the EU may be impacted and analyses indicator data to identify some of the potential key issues for EU adaptation. We find that many EU countries are more exposed than the global average to climate-related risks in the context of transboundary water dependency, trade openness, openness to asylum and globalisation. We introduce a typology of cross-border climate change impacts to guide future assessments and adaptation planning in the European Union: EU internal aspects resulting from climate risks shared between neighbouring member states and within the single market; EU external aspects resulting from climate impacts beyond the EU's borders; and EU impacts on the rest of the world, recognising that the EU and its member states will themselves transmit impacts to others depending on the success of their own adaptation efforts. Cross-border climate impacts raise a number of challenges for EU adaptationsuch as applying existing cohesion and external action mechanisms to build resilience to cross-border climate change impacts, or monitoring member states to track changes in exposure to internal cross-border climate risks; and to researchsuch as making better use of economic, trade and other supply chain modelling and data analysis to assess climate-related risks, as well as other methods and approaches that have not been applied widely in adaptation studies to date. Overcoming these challenges will help to advance society's understanding of and preparedness for cross-border climate change impacts.

Benzie, M; Carter, TR; Carlsen, H; Taylor, R

Cross-border climate change impacts: implications for the European Union

Regional Environmental Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1436-1

People, local cultures and the environments they live in are complex and dynamic social-ecological systems that have evolved together over time and are continually affected by a myriad of factors, including climate and global changes. Escalating climate and global changes present an imminent threat to Pacific communities, particularly for food security, livelihoods, health and safety, cultural identity and biodiversity conservation. A participatory community-based climate change adaptation planning process was used to engage with communities on Rendova Island in Western Province, Solomon Islands to identify local adaptation priorities. The methodology recognized that local community members are the managers of the resources they use daily, have direct knowledge of the status of key local resources and have direct influence over ongoing resource governance. The study focused on two objectives: (1) identifying community priorities and documenting them in adaptation plans intended for local implementation, and (2) evaluating whether community adaptation priorities addressed key vulnerabilities identified independently using a semi-quantitative vulnerability assessment. The adaptation priorities identified by the communities encompassed: governance, leadership and planning; farming and livestock; sustainable livelihoods; natural resource management; and youth capacity building. The community adaptation priorities were found to address the key climate change vulnerabilities identified in the semi-quantitative assessment and also addressed additional drivers of social vulnerability and adaptive capacity. This finding reiterates the importance of fully inclusive and participatory vulnerability assessments and community-identification of adaptation priorities coupled with scientific climate projections to comprehensively assess the complexity of social-ecological systems. The climate change adaptation priorities have informed ongoing local actions and are intended to be used by communities, government and NGOs to focus local effort, funding and project development. A review of the suitability of the adaptation priorities by similar villages on neighbouring islands would determine the utility of scaling-up and applying these adaptations to other rural communities in the Solomon Islands, and possibly more widely in other Pacific communities.

Basel, B; Goby, G; Johnson, J

Community-based adaptation to climate change in villages of Western Province, Solomon Islands

Marine Pollution Bulletin

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111266

Research on rural household livelihood vulnerability to climate change and extreme weather events (e.g., drought, flood and typhoons) has received broad attention; however, relatively few attempts have been made to assess the effects of social, economic, or spatial variation on livelihood vulnerability. With China's rapid urban expansion, many farmers in urban fringe areas are suffering great risks to their livelihoods because of land requisition. Thus, the livelihood of these land-lost farmers has become an important social issue in China. This article applies the livelihood vulnerability analytical framework to the case of land-lost farmers in the urban fringe of Xi'an who have been exposed to rapid urbanization. We developed indicators to assess the impact of exposure/sensitivity and response capacity on the livelihood vulnerability of land-lost farmers. Using a mix of qualitative and quantitative analyses, we combined data from in person interviews and household surveys in 2015. Four types of livelihood vulnerability for land-lost households were classified: high sensitivity and high response capacity, low sensitivity and high response capacity, low sensitivity and low response capacity, and high sensitivity and low response capacity. The type of crop farmed before losing land had the greatest impact on the sensitivity of land-lost farmers, but no significant impact on response capacity. Having a commercially viable house, income diversity, educational level, land compensation, and social capital are major factors that influence the response capability of land-lost farmers. Our findings highlight the need for land-lost farmers to improve their educational level and occupational skills, and thus enhance their capacity for sustainable and diversified livelihoods. Simultaneously, local government Must provide livelihood assistance in the form of employment training, improved social welfare, and limited disorderly urbanization. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Huang, XJ; Huang, X; He, YB; Yang, XJ

Assessment of livelihood vulnerability of land-lost farmers in urban fringes: A case study of Xi'an, China

Habitat International

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.11.001

Cities are gaining prominence committing to respond to the threat of climate change, e.g., by developing local climate plans or strategies. However, little is known regarding the approaches and processes of plan development and implementation, or the success and effectiveness of proposed measures. Mainstreaming is regarded as one approach associated with (implementation) success, but the extent of integration of local climate policies and plans in ongoing sectoral and/or development planning is unclear. This paper analyses 885 cities across the 28 European countries to create a first reference baseline on the degree of climate mainstreaming in local climate plans. This will help to compare the benefits of mainstreaming versus dedicated climate plans, looking at policy effectiveness and ultimately delivery of much needed climate change efforts at the city level. All core cities of the European Urban Audit sample were analyzed, and their local climate plans classified as dedicated or mainstreamed in other local policy initiatives. It was found that the degree of mainstreaming is low for mitigation (9% of reviewed cities; 12% of the identified plans) and somewhat higher for adaptation (10% of cities; 29% of plans). In particular horizontal mainstreaming is a major effort for local authorities; an effort that does not necessarily pay off in terms of success of action implementation. This study concludes that climate change issues in local municipalities are best tackled by either, developing a dedicated local climate plan in parallel to a mainstreamed plan or by subsequently developing first the dedicated and later a mainstreaming plan (joint or subsequent dual track approach). Cities that currently provide dedicated local climate plans (66% of cities for mitigation; 26% of cities for adaptation) may follow-up with a mainstreaming approach. This promises effective implementation of tangible climate actions as well as subsequent diffusion of climate issues into other local sector policies. The development of only broad sustainability or resilience strategies is seen as critical.

Reckien, D; Salvia, M; Pietrapertosa, F; Simoes, SG; Olazabal, M; Hurtado, SD; Geneletti, D; Lorencová, EK; D'Alonzo, ; Krook-Riekkola, A; Fokaides, PA; Ioannou, BI; Foley, A; Orru, H; Orru, K; Wejs, A; Flacke, J; Church, JM; Feliu, E; Vasilie, S; Nador, C; Matosovic, M; Flamos, A; Spyridaki, NA; Balzan, M; Fülöp, O; Grafakos, S; Paspaldzhiev, ; Heidrich, O

Dedicated versus mainstreaming approaches in local climate plans in Europe

Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.014

In 2009, the tropical cyclonic storm Aila hit 11 southwestern coastal districts in Bangladesh, which triggered migration. Many studies were conducted on the impact of Aila on southwestern coastal communities; however, no comparative study was done on migrant and non-migrant households. Therefore, this article set out to assess the impact of cyclone Aila on the socio-economic conditions of migrant and non-migrant households. The households that could not cope with the impact, resulting in at least one household member having to migrate to seek an alternative source of income, were considered migrant households. On the other hand, non-migrant households were considered as those where no one migrated. The unit of analysis was the households. The research was conducted in the Koyra and Shymnagar sub-districts of Khulna and Satkhira, respectively. Mixed-method analysis was carried out using quantitative data collected from 270 households through a survey and qualitative data through 2 focus group discussions, 12 key informant interviews, and informal discussions. Data were analyzed through a comparative analysis of the migrant and non-migrant households. The findings showed that migrant households were better equipped to recover from losses in terms of income, housing, food consumption, and loan repayments than non-migrant households. It can be argued that the options of migration or shifting livelihood are better strategies for households when dealing with climatic events. Furthermore, the outcome of this research could contribute to the growing body of knowledge in an area where there are evident gaps. The findings could support policymakers and researchers to understand the impacts of similar climatic events, as well as the necessary policy interventions to deal with similar kinds of climatic events in the future. The study could be useful for developing and refining policies to recover from losses as a result of the same types of climatic events.

Subhani, R; Ahmad, MM

Socio-Economic Impacts of Cyclone Aila on Migrant and Non-Migrant Households in the Southwestern Coastal Areas of Bangladesh

Geosciences

https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110482

Agriculture is a major economic driver in Aotearoa-New Zealand (New Zealand), led by export earnings from dairy farming. Dairying is uniquely exposed to climatic- and nonclimatic socioeconomic stressors, which have their greatest effects on production and yield. The growing need to consider these and other changes is accelerating efforts aimed at ensuring greater resilience, adaptability, and flexibility within the industry. To gain insight into these dynamics at the farm-level, a resilience-based assessment framework was piloted with three different types of dairy farming systems, following extensive drought on the east coast of the North Island. Using a participatory and bottom-up approach, the framework was used to qualitatively explore the potential significance of varying social, economic, and agroecological attributes between high-input, low-input, and organic systems, and their implications for resilience. The lock in trap of highly intensive systems, although profitable in the near term, may be less resilient to climate shocks because these are likely to occur in conjunction with changing market and financial risks. Low-input systems are less dependent, in particular, on fossil fuels and are associated with higher levels of farmer satisfaction and well-being. Organic farming provides ecological benefits, and the financial premium paid to farmers may act as a short-term buffer. The framework provides insight into the current context at the farm level and can draw out individual perspectives on where to target interventions and build resilience. Results demonstrate the potential of in-depth qualitative assessments of resilience, which can usefully complement quantitative metrics. The framework can be used as the basis for further empirical assessment and inform the design of similar approaches for cross-sector comparative analysis, large-N surveys, or modelling. Furthermore, the preliminary characterization of resilient farm-systems has the potential to contribute to broader sustainability frameworks for agriculture and can inform strategic adaptation planning in the face of climate change.

Cradock-Henry, NA

Linking the social, economic, and agroecological: a resilience framework for dairy farming

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-12122-260103

Forty-nine countries participating in the U.S. Country Studies Program (USCSP) assessed climate change impacts in one or more of eight sectors: coastal resources, agriculture, grasslands/livestock, water resources, forests, fisheries, wildlife, and health. The studies were generally limited to analysis of first order biophysical effects, e.g., coastal inundation, crop yield, and runoff changes. There were some limited studies of adaptation. We review and synthesize the results of the impact assessments conducted under the USCSP. The studies found that sea level rise could cause substantial inundation and erosion of valuable lands, but, protecting developed areas would be economically sound. The studies showed mixed results for changes in crop yields, with a tendency toward decreased yields in African and Asian countries, particularly southern Asian countries, and mixed results in European and Latin American countries. Adaptation could significantly affect yields, but it is not clear whether the adaptations are affordable or feasible. The studies tend to show a high sensitivity of runoff to climate change, which could result in increases in droughts or floods. The impacts on grasslands and livestock are mixed, but there appears to be a large capacity for adaptation. Human health problems could increase, particularly for populations in low-latitude countries with inadequate access to health care. The USCSP assessments found that the composition of forests is likely to change, while biomass could be reduced. Some wildlife species were estimated to have reduced populations. The major contribution of the USCSP was in building capacity in developing countries to assess potential climate impacts. However, many of the studies did not analyze the implications of biophysical impacts of climate change on socioeconomic conditions, cross-sectoral integration of impacts, autonomous adaptation, or proactive adaptation. Follow-on work should attempt to develop capacity in developing and transition countries to conduct more integrated studies of climate change impacts.

Smith, JB; Lazo, JK

A summary of climate change impact assessments from the US Country studies program

Climatic Change

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010642529072

India is witnessing an increasing rate of farmers' suicide, which has been attributed to indebtedness by most of the studies. Indebtedness can be attributed to multiple factors, including individual, household, community, climatic, institutional, and market-oriented factors. The majority of studies have related these factors with indebtedness in isolation, but the conflating effect of these factors has not been investigated. Moreover, it is observed that farmers follow different adaptation measures to deal with crop failure and socio-economic and climatic stressors, which also play a significant role in their well-being. However, the relationship of these adaptation measures toward indebtedness and farmers' suicide was found to be missing in the existing literature, which would otherwise provide valuable information regarding how to deal with farmers' suicide. Considering the compounding effect of these factors on farmers' suicide, we evaluated and quantified the relationship of individual, community, climatic, credit, and market-oriented factors with adaptation and indebtedness, which were subsequently related to suicidal ideation of farmers. This complex relationship was estimated using structural equation modeling (SEM) by surveying 400 farmers across 15 villages in Vidarbha and Marathwada regions of Maharashtra. SEM results show that individual traits, i.e., age, experience, and illness of farmers; community-oriented factors, i.e., provision of lakes, wells, water tanks; credit factor, i.e., moneylenders; perception of climate change; and market factors are the primary factors contributing toward farmers' suicidal ideation. Adaptation was found to play a vital role in reducing the indebtedness and suicidal thoughts of the farming community. Results emphasize that a combined and thorough understanding of all the factors is required before making any recommendations to the government or any other decision-making entity.

Swami, D; Dave, P; Parthasarathy, D

Understanding farmers' suicidal ideation: a structural equation modeling study in Maharashtra, India

Climatic Change

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02935-8

The research on coastal hazards predicts substantial adverse impacts of chronic and episodic flooding on populated coastal areas. Despite the growing evidence about anticipated flood risks, many coastal communities are still not adapting. The observed disconnect between science on physical impacts and adaptation decisionmaking in part reflects stakeholders' inability to envision the implications of these impacts on socioeconomic systems and the built environment in their jurisdictions. This inertia is particularly apparent in the discourse on flood-driven displacement and relocation. There is a lack of knowledge about direct and indirect flood impacts on community attributes and services that contribute to relocation decision-making. This study holistically evaluates the flood exposure on municipal features vital for socioeconomic stability, livelihoods, and quality of life across spatiotemporal scales. As such, it uses a more nuanced approach to relocation risk assessment than those solely focused on direct inundation impacts. It measures flood exposure of land use, land cover, and sociocultural and economic dimensions that are important drivers of relocation in selected rural and urban areas. The approach uses a 50-year floodplain to delineate populated coastal locations exposed to 2% Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP) storm surge projections adjusted for 2030, 2060, and 2090 sea level rise (SLR) scenarios. It then evaluates the potential impacts of this flood exposure on different types of land uses and critical socioeconomic assets in rural (Dorchester and Talbot Counties, Maryland, USA) and urban (Cities of Hampton, Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA) settings. The results show that some urban land uses, such as open space, military and mixed-use, and rural residential and commercial areas, might experience significantly more flooding. There are also notable differences in the baseline flood exposure and the anticipated rate and acceleration in the future among selected communities with significant implications for relocation planning.

Bukvic, A; Mitchell, A; Shao, Y; Irish, JL

Spatiotemporal implications of flooding on relocation risk in rural and urban coastal municipalities

Land Use Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106754

Adaption to global environmental change is a focus of sustainability research. Farmers face multiple environmental and social pressures due to global environmental change. Effective livelihood changes must be taken to decrease asset losses and to adapt to current or future environmental challenges. However, there are few studies that systematically understand and assess farmers' livelihood adaptation. We developed an integrated analytical framework for livelihood adaptation and explored the relationships between adaptive capacity, adaptation outcomes, and farmers' adaptation strategies. We applied this framework to a case study of the Minqin Oasis in China and assessed the livelihood adaptation of farmers facing environmental change and water scarcity. Household surveys and semi-structured interviews were used for data collection. We found that (1) farmers' livelihood adaptation choices were limited due to current govemment policies and their own resources and (2) livelihood adaptive capacity (such as land, water resources, and social networks) and policy reform (water resource fees, and cultivated land compression) had a key impact on farmers' adaptation. The factors representing a poor livelihood strategy and adaptation outcomes of the farmer include the following: (1) a low level of livelihood awareness among farmers (such as passive fanners), (2) a lack of livelihood assets, (3) government focus on environmental recovery, and (4) a weakened role of the market. To improve the adaptation of farmers' livelihoods to environmental change, these measures must balance the relationship between environmental restoration and farmers' livelihoods, consider a variety of key forces, and guide farmers to adopt effective strategies. This study facilitates the development of livelihood adaptation analysis methods for global change studies. Case-based research results can be used to improve local decision-making and can provide an assessment reference method for farmer adaptation to regional and global environmental change.

Chen, J; Yin, S; Gebhardt, H; Yang, XJ

Farmers' livelihood adaptation to environmental change in an arid region: A case study of the Minqin Oasis, northwestern China

Ecological Indicators

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.05.017

Background: Climate change is a major global challenge, especially for Indigenous communities. It can have extensive impacts on peoples' lives that may occur through the living environment, health and mental well-being, and which are requiring constant adaptation. Objectives: The overall purpose of this research was to evaluate the impacts of climate change and permafrost thaw on mental wellness in Disko Bay, Greenland. It contained two parts: multidisciplinary fieldwork and a questionnaire survey. The aim of the fieldwork was to learn about life and living conditions and to understand what it is like to live in a community that faces impacts of climate change and permafrost thaw. For the questionnaire the aim was to find out which perceived environmental and adaptation factors relate to very good self-rated wellbeing, quality of life and satisfaction with life. Analysis: Fieldwork data was analyzed by following a thematic analysis, and questionnaire data statistically by cross-tabulation. First, the associations between perceived environmental and adaptation factors were studied either by the Pearson chi(2) test or by Fisher's exact test. Second, binary logistic regression analysis was applied to examine more in depth the associations between perceived environmental/adaptation variables and self-rated very good well-being, satisfaction with life and quality of life. The binary logistic regression analysis was conducted in two phases: as univariate and multivariate analyses. Results: Nature and different activities in nature were found to be important to local people, and results suggest that they increase mental wellness, specifically well-being and satisfaction with life. Challenges associated with permafrost thaw, such as changes in the physical environment, infrastructure and impacts on culture were recognized in everyday life. Conclusions: The results offer relevant information for further plans and actions in this field of research and at the policy level. Our study shows the importance of multidisciplinary research which includes the voice of local communities.

Timlin, U; Ingimundarson, JH; Jungsberg, L; Kauppila, S; Larsen, JN; Nordström, T; Scheer, J; Schweitzer, P; Rautio, A

Living conditions and mental wellness in a changing climate and environment: focus on community voices and perceived environmental and adaptation factors in Greenland

Heliyon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06862

Purpose - Mombasa City in Kenya is one of the most vulnerable towns to flood risk due to its low-lying coastal location. Those at the highest risk in the city are households living in the flood-prone informal settlements. However, little is known about the perception of these vulnerable households to the flood risks and its health impacts, which is important for developing effective long-term adaptation strategies. The purpose of this paper is to examine the general perception of the residents regarding flood risks, its impact on their health and their adaptation strategies. Design/methodology/approach - This study surveyed 390 randomly selected households in three informal settlements in the city of Mombasa using a semi-structured questionnaire. This was supplemented with six focus group discussions (FDGs) and six key informant interviews (KIIs). Findings - The majority of respondent households perceive future flooding as high risk or severe with high negative health impact. Despite this, many do not evacuate their homes because they do not have alternative places to move to. Flooding was indicated to have had a negative physical and mental health impact on members of households. Although majority of households had taken some adaptation measures, most of these were short term, mainly due to financial constraints, lack of knowledge and government support. Perception of flood risk and gender were found to have a strong influence on taking long-term adaptation measures at the household level. Practical implications - Reducing flood risk and averting its health consequences in flood-prone informal settlements require empowering and supporting those living in these areas with ability to initiate long-term adaptation measures and creating awareness about future risks. Originality/value - This study provides evidence about how residents of flood-prone informal settlements perceive flood risk and how the exposures to perennial flooding impact their health. The paper augments existing knowledge of flood risk in poor urban neighborhoods of developing countries.

Okaka, FO; Odhiambo, BDO

Households' perception of flood risk and health impact of exposure to flooding in flood-prone informal settlements in the coastal city of Mombasa

International Journal Of Climate Change Strategies And Management

https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-03-2018-0026

Introduction: Flooding causes significant mortality and morbidity, with impacts expected to increase with climate change. Ensuring adequate country-level flood mitigation and response capacity is key. Lifeguards, traditionally used for drowning prevention, may represent an additional workforce for flood emergency response. Methods: Through an anonymous, online survey, we explored experiences, beliefs, and attitudes of a convenience sample of surf lifeguards from Australia and England towards lifeguards' involvement in flood response. Respondents were recruited via Surf Life Saving Australia and Great Britain and had prior training in flood rescue. Analysis comprised descriptive statistics and thematic coding of free-text responses. Results: Forty-four responses were received (93.2% male, 34.1% aged 50-59 years; 61.4% from Australia; 61.4% with >= 16 years lifesaving experience). Twenty-nine respondents (65.9%) self-reported having previously responded to flooding, 15 of which responded prior to receiving flood training. Lifeguards commonly reported being involved in the flood response phase (n = 28). Respondents identified rescue skills (n = 43; 97.7%), awareness of water conditions (n = 40; 90.9%), and radio communication protocols (n = 40; 90.9%) as relevant in a flood scenario. Respondents broadly agreed lifeguards were an asset in flood response due to transferrable skills, including to bolster existing capacity. However, respondents noted need for greater recognition, for involvement earlier in flood response and for flood-specific training and equipment prior to deployment. Discussion & Conclusions: Lifeguards represent a willing and able workforce to support flood mitigation and response, some of whom are already being tasked with such work. Provision of flood-specific training and equipment are vital, as is addressing intemperability tensions.

Peden, AE; Mayhew, A; Baker, SD

Experiences, beliefs, and attitudes of lifeguards from Australia and the United Kingdom toward lifeguard involvement in flood mitigation and response

International Journal Of Disaster Risk Reduction

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103013

Improving natural disaster resilience is one of the important methods for coping with climate change and natural disasters, and quantitative evaluation of natural disaster resilience is the primary problem to be solved urgently. In this paper, an index system for evaluating regional flood disaster resilience is constructed based on a review of the literature regarding natural disaster resilience and with full consideration of the five dimensions (i.e., nature, society, economy, technology and management) which have a great influence on flood disaster resilience. Subsequently, the overall level and five dimensions of flood disaster resilience in the Chaohu Lake Basin can be evaluated quantitatively by adopting analytic network process to dynamically analyze the influencing relationships of factors. The results obtained in this research indicate that: (1) overall, the majority of the Chaohu Lake Basin exhibits intermediate to high flood disaster resilience, but there are distinct variations within the basin. The resilience is clearly influenced by the natural dimension indexes, the highest resilience levels are mainly located in the hilly, mountainous regions, and the lowest resilience levels mainly occur in the south-southeast plain of the Chaohu Lake Basin and the river estuary of the Chaohu Lake. Considering the administrative regions, the regions with the greatest areas of intermediate and high resilience are Hefei Municipal District, Chaohu City, Feidong County, Feixi County, Lujiang County, Hanshan County, Shucheng County, most parts of He County, Wuwei County and Jiujiang District of Wuhu City. (2) Preliminary validation indicates that evaluation results regarding flood disaster resilience in the Chaohu Lake Basin are consistent with the actual conditions. Therefore, the evaluation results and method can provide a valuable approach to the rapid diagnosis of weak links in the construction of flood disaster resilience infrastructure and will ultimately improve the level of flood disaster resilience in the Chaohu Lake Basin.

Sun, HH; Cheng, XF; Dai, MQ

Regional flood disaster resilience evaluation based on analytic network process: a case study of the Chaohu Lake Basin, Anhui Province, China

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2178-3

Institutional arrangements are a key issue for sustainable natural resource management. Recent water and fisheries management projects in Bangladesh have established new local institutions for floodplain management based on community organizations. Although the Flood Action Plan (FAP) was the culmination of an earlier emphasis on technical and structural 'solutions' to managing floods and water in Bangladesh, the expected large engineering works were never built. One legacy of FAP lies in a contested process that accelerated emphasis on public participation, smaller scale hazard adjustments and maintaining a wider range of floodplain resource values including conserving and restoring fisheries. This paper compares institutional arrangements and outcomes in two fisheries and two water management projects taken up after FAR Local organizations appeared generally successful in sustaining themselves and continuing floodplain resource management. Facilitation, the extent of consensus among different stakeholders, and fit between institutional arrangements and scale of resource were all important influences on effectiveness. Local organizations have sustained in smaller floodplains, but in larger areas co-management bodies were a key to effective coordination and troubleshooting among a series of linked community organizations. Local leaders tend to dominate after projects end, especially where planning was less participatory and organizational structures were determined from above. Participants stressed that for continued success formally recognized well-run organizations are needed with accountable and adaptable decision-making processes and good leaders. This process built on participatory guidelines from FAP but the local institutions have not addressed hazard risks. Community resource management institutions could develop a more integrated approach that internalizes the interactions between water, land and fishery management. So far, local planning for floods has been a notable gap in the activities of community institutions, but the enhanced social capital could be a basis for adaptation to climate change. For this, an enabling policy environment is needed, which could be facilitated by the open high-profile debate on floodplain issues that characterized FAP.

Sultana, P; Thompson, P

Local institutions for floodplain management in Bangladesh and the influence of the Flood Action Plan

Environmental Hazards-Human And Policy Dimensions

https://doi.org/10.3763/ehaz.2010.SI05

Tropical cyclones pose a major risk to societies worldwide, with about 22 million directly affected people and damages of USD29 billion on average per year over the last 20 years. While data on observed cyclones tracks (location of the center) and wind speeds are publicly available, these data sets do not contain information about the spatial extent of the storm and people or assets exposed. Here, we apply a simplified wind field model to estimate the areas exposed to wind speeds above 34, 64, and 96 knots (kn). Based on available spatially explicit data on population densities and gross domestic product (GDP) we estimate (1) the number of people and (2) the sum of assets exposed to wind speeds above these thresholds accounting for temporal changes in historical distribution of population and assets (TCE-hist) and assuming fixed 2015 patterns (TCE-2015). The associated spatially explicit and aggregated country-event-level exposure data (TCE-DAT) cover the period 1950 to 2015 and are freely available athttps://doi.org/10.5880/pik.2017.011 (Geiger at al., 2017c). It is considered key information to (1) assess the contribution of climatological versus socioeconomic drivers of changes in exposure to tropical cyclones, (2) estimate changes in vulnerability from the difference in exposure and reported damages and calibrate associated damage functions, and (3) build improved exposurebased predictors to estimate higher-level societal impacts such as long-term effects on GDP, employment, or migration. We validate the adequateness of our methodology by comparing our exposure estimate to estimated exposure obtained from reported wind fields available since 1988 for the United States. We expect that the free availability of the underlying model and TCE-DAT will make research on tropical cyclone risks more accessible to non-experts and stakeholders.

Geiger, T; Frieler, K; Bresch, DN

A global historical data set of tropical cyclone exposure (TCE-DAT)

Earth System Science Data

https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-185-2018

Using a pragmatic philosophical underpinning, this article analyses how land use planning actions and inactions contribute to flood risk creation in Sekondi-Takoradi, Ghana. in recent times, the planning system in Ghana has come under intense public criticism for failure to effectively control physical development in the major cities. The recurring flooding in the cities of Accra, Kumasi, Tamale and Sekondi-Takoradi seems to testify to this failure. Many lives and property have been lost through these flooding events in the country. This article argues from a disaster risk reduction point of view that the ineffectiveness in elementary processes of land use planning, such as delays in permit approval, inadequate monitoring and inspections, and lax enforcement of regulations, potentially creates flood risk. The rational of this study is therefore to bring to light the land use planning actions and inactions that create flood risk in Sekondi-Takoradi exposing urban dwellers to flooding. Because of the article's pragmatic underpinning, a mixed-methods case study approach was adopted for this investigation. Both survey and interview data were collected from homeowners and planning institutions in Sekondi-Takoradi to ascertain how land use control practices seem to be contributing to flood risk in the municipality. The analyses comprised simple statistical analysis of the survey data in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and thematic analyses of the interview data. The findings reveal that institutional incapacities have resulted in delays in permit approvals, non-compliance with permit regulations, uncontrolled conversion of vegetated land, lax monitoring and inspections of physical developments and poor enforcement. These institutional challenges have emboldened prospective land developers and homeowners to flout building and land use regulations. This has led to the building of residential properties in swamps, waterways and other flood-prone locations, creating flood risk.

Tasantab, JC

Beyond the plan: How land use control practices influence flood risk in Sekondi-Takoradi

Jamba-Journal Of Disaster Risk Studies

https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v11i1.638

Although planning and policy instruments are important for climate change adaptation, the implementation of these measures is critical for success. This paper studies different climate change adaptation strategies by analysing the measures adopted by stakeholders in charge of government policy development and implementation to minimise the impacts of climate change in the northern tropical region of Queensland, Australia. Local government organisations are responsible for taking a leading role in climate change adaptation. State and commonwealth government agencies are primarily responsible for developing climate transition policies and guidelines, as well as providing limited financial aid to help support the local government. Interviews were conducted with local government practitioners identified from different local government authorities in the study region. Although all the government bodies made some progress in developing better climate change adaptation policies, the interview participants identified that a lot more needs to be done, especially in implementation, including devising and the application of relevant action plans, economic assessments, stakeholder participations and engagement. From a local government practitioners' viewpoint, both the water sector and local economy will face the highest immediate impacts if climate change adaptation actions are not adequately implemented at local government level in the study region. There are currently no notable legal bindings to address climate change risks in the region. In addition, financial liability assessments due to climate risks and cost-share mechanisms among different levels of stakeholders and government authorities to face and prepare for climate change impacts hardly exist. Although the interview respondents recognise their high importance. As there are uncertainties in the achievements of climate change adaptation plans, from a local government practitioners' standpoint, the local authorities should take appropriate actions to integrate adaptation and mitigation works to face and prepare for climate risks rather than focusing only on adaptation. The respondents informed that some work has been done to identify flood prone areas and a few policy documents exist that accommodate sea level rise in planning practice, but these are done in fragments with no holistic implementation, monitoring or evaluation plans put in place.

Biswas, RR; Rahman, A

Adaptation to climate change: A study on regional climate change adaptation policy and practice framework

Journal Of Environmental Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117666

Superstorm Sandy hit the northeastern United States in October 2012, knocking out power to 10 million people and highlighting energy and critical infrastructure system vulnerabilities in the face of a changing climate. The increased frequency and intensity of such disruptive events is shifting priorities in electricity system planning around the world, including how multiple stakeholders consider linkages between climate vulnerability and energy. This research links smart grid development with adaptation to changing climates and explores how different stakeholders grapple with system vulnerabilities and climate disruptions. To illustrate this, the in-depth case study assesses post-Sandy discourse to compare how electricity sector stakeholder groups in New York, Massachusetts and Vermont associate energy, smart grid, and climate change. To explore how different energy system stakeholders frame the impacts of Superstorm Sandy on energy system planning, we conducted 22 focus groups with a broad range of organizations representing diverse aspects of the electricity system including utilities, regulatory authorities, research and development agencies, regional transmission organizations, academic research institutions, consumer advocacy and environmental organizations across the three states. We used these data to examine post-Sandy discourse about climate mitigation and climate adaptation, routine system management, and the potential value of smart grid for future energy system planning. We found that both New York and Massachusetts stakeholders focused more on climate adaptation than climate mitigation, while stakeholders in Vermont focused more on mitigation. In all three states stakeholder discussions of adaptation focused most heavily on system resilience and reliability, whereas discussions of mitigation focused on demand-side management and demand response followed by alternative energy strategies. These results suggest that extreme weather and climate disruptions will differentially shape discourse around smart grid and energy system change and shift the focus among energy system stakeholders on climate adaptation compared to climate mitigation. This research demonstrates variation between political jurisdictions (states) and energy system stakeholders in energy system planning in the face of new challenges related to an uncertain and rapidly changing world.

Feldpausch-Parker, AM; Peterson, TR; Stephens, JC; Wilson, EJ

Smart grid electricity system planning and climate disruptions: A review of climate and energy discourse post-Superstorm Sandy

Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.015

Resilience is a key term in disaster economic loss assessment. The flood loss rates in different scenarios for the residence, industry, commerce, infrastructure, and agriculture are calculated, and the original depth-damage curves are drawn by collecting the socioeconomic data of Lizhong Town in Lixia River and Houbai Town in Jurong River. Thereafter, by fully considering the resilience factor to draw the new depth-economic loss curves, which are in line with the actual situation, the results show: (1) the disaster reduction capability correction loss rate of different receptors in Lizhong Town is in the range of 16-74 %, and in Houbai Town is in the range of 20-79 %. The residential flood loss, commercial loss, infrastructure loss, and industry loss were reduced by 74, 54.8, 38, and 16 %, respectively, in Lizhong Town, and the residential flood loss, commercial loss, and industry loss were reduced by 79, 60, and 20 %, respectively in Houbai Town. (2) Residential property types and their display heights in families with different income levels have similar flood-damage rate curves in mainland China and Taiwan (Su et al. in Flood damage assessment and related database Implementation for KeeLung River Basin (II), Special research report of National Science Council, Taiwan, 2002); (3) the loss rate reached the maximum at the depth of 3 m, and the sum of the five receptors' damage is 6.98 million Yuan (RMB) and 2.2 million Yuan (RMB) in Lizhong Town and Houbai Town, respectively. At last, in this paper, several approaches to improving resilience were proposed and possibilities in future researches were put forward. This study is a useful complement to flood economic loss evaluation literature and provides reference for disaster prevention and mitigation decisions in similar areas.

Wu, XH; Zhou, L; Gao, G; Guo, J; Ji, ZH

Urban flood depth-economic loss curves and their amendment based on resilience: evidence from Lizhong Town in Lixia River and Houbai Town in Jurong River of China

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2281-5

The paper discusses the application of a method to analyze the capacity for management of wetland resources. The method consists of a framework with a set of indicators to analyze the presence and effectiveness of formal regulations and procedures, and relevant informal mechanisms for wetland management. The set of indicators is designed based on internationally recognized objectives and 'good practices' for wetland management given in the Ramsar Convention guidelines. The guidelines advise on which policies and authorities should be in place, and which actions should be taken in order to use wetland resources sustainably. Evaluation is seen as 'measuring' the closeness between the real wetland management system and recommendations given in the guidelines. In the current study, experts were asked to categorize developed indicators for three cases into three classes (high, medium and low capacity). Analysis of these case studies indicates that overall capacity for wetland management is insufficient in Gemenc floodplain (Hungary) and Ga-Mampa wetland (South Africa), and highly insufficient in Nabajjuzi and Namatala wetlands (Uganda). The capacities in these wetland sites are strongest at the policy level and weakest at local level, where policies are to be implemented. In these locations there is a mix of new formal legislation and procedures, having been put in place recently, and informal instruments and planning/management practices from the past, which are still used by wetland managers and stakeholders. Capacity of the wetland management systems to deal with changes such as climate change appeared to be limited. Thus, all the studied wetland sites require an improved capacity as an integral part of wetland management. It is recommended that the wetland managers select future actions that consider a gradual approach that accounts for their capabilities and local institutions. Such an approach can result in a progressive strengthening of actions over time with the overall objective to bring the wetland degradation to a halt. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ostrovskaya, E; Douven, W; Schwartz, K; Pataki, B; Mukuyu, P; Kaggwa, RC

Capacity for sustainable management of wetlands: Lessons from the WETwin project

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.08.006

The vulnerability of coastal areas to associated hazards is increasing due to population growth, development pressure and climate change. It is incumbent on coastal governance regimes to address the vulnerability of coastal inhabitants to these hazards. This is especially so at the local level where development planning and control has a direct impact on the vulnerability of coastal communities. To reduce the vulnerability of coastal populations, risk mitigation and adaptation strategies need to be built into local spatial planning processes. Local government, however, operates within a complex hierarchal governance framework which may promote or limit particular actions. It is important, therefore, to understand how local coastal planning practices are shaped by national and supranational entities. Local governments also have to respond to the demands of local populations. Consequently, it is important to understand local populations' perceptions of coastal risk and its management. Adopting an in-depth study of coastal planning in County Mayo, Ireland, this paper evaluates: (a) how European and national policies and legislation shape coastal risk management at local level; (b) the incorporation of risk management strategies into local plans; and (c) local perception of coastal risks and risk management. Despite a strong steer from supranational and national legislation and policy, statutory local plans are found to be lacking in appropriate risk mitigation or adaptation strategies. Local residents appear to be lulled into a sense of complacency towards these risks because of the low level of attention afforded to them by the local planning authorities. To avoid potentially disastrous consequences for local residents and businesses, it is imperative that this situation is redressed urgently. Based on our analysis, we recommend: the development and implementation of a national ICZM strategy, supported by detailed local ICZM plans; and obliging local government to address known risks in their plans rather than defer them to project level decision making. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Flannery, W; Lynch, K; Cinnéide, MO

Consideration of coastal risk in the Irish spatial planning process

Land Use Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.11.001

Under the background of global environmental change, a huge impact has been made on the village ecosystem, which leads to disorder of structure and function of the village ecosystem. The current management measures of the village have failed in allowing the village to achieve sustainable development. Research on the vulnerability and resilience of the village ecosystem is helpful in regards to the ecological restoration of the village. The research status and progress in regards to the vulnerability and resilience of the village ecosystem are not clear, and the summary of research results and problems is insufficient. Based on 87 related literatures, this paper focuses on the current status and progress of village ecosystem vulnerability and resilience research, and reveals the current research results and shortcomings of village ecosystem vulnerability and resilience. We found that: (1) the research on vulnerability and resilience of the village ecosystem is on the rise; (2) the research mainly focuses on the index system, monitoring and assessment, mechanism research and strategy research. The monitoring and assessment research is the most prominent, which mainly discusses the research methods, the vulnerability and the resilience of the village ecosystem; (3) the study area is mainly concentrated in Asia, North America and Africa. Research institutions are mainly institutions of higher learning and research institutes (centers). Finally, this paper finds that major scientific and technical studies such as the construction of indicator systems and the study of governance strategies in the study of vulnerability and resilience of village ecosystems are lagging behind. In future research, we should deepen the research on the concept and connotation of vulnerability and resilience. We must establish a scientific and reasonable research framework for vulnerability and resilience of the village ecosystem. We should also strengthen and improve the index system of vulnerability and resilience of the village ecosystem. We should strengthen research on the impact mechanisms and governance strategies of vulnerability and resilience, and apply the research on vulnerability and resilience to the planning and governance of the village ecosystem.

Tang, JH; Xiong, KN; Chen, Y; Wang, Q; Ying, B; Zhou, JY

A Review of Village Ecosystem Vulnerability and Resilience: Implications for the Rocky Desertification Control

International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116664

Indigenous and subsistence-oriented people are particularly sensitive to the impacts of climate change. Strategies to cope and adapt to those changes may rely on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which can play an important role for understanding global environmental change at the local level. We aim to provide insights regarding perceptions of climate change, traditional ecological knowledge, and the coping strategies forest-dependent Indigenous people in the Amazon adopt when faced with climate change impacts. The outcomes are based on a mixed set of methods: comprising semi-structured interviews, meteorological data, and photovoice in a case study approach of 49 households of the Indigenous Territory TCO Tacana I in lowland Bolivia. Data were collected in 2013 and 2015; meanwhile, the study area was hit by a severe extreme weather precipitation event and resulting flood in 2014. The results demonstrate that Tacana's perception of weather trends and those of Western science-trained specialists complement each other because they provide different sets of details. The study revealed 38 traditional weather-related short-term indicators that underline the close interaction of Tacana with the environment. However, their current reliability has been questioned, indicating a need for further observation and research for potential long-term environmental change. Photovoice outcomes suggest that most of the negative effects during the extreme weather event were reported on natural capital in subsistence farming households. Indigenous households relied more on strong bonding and networking social capital (intracommunal and external), less on other capitals to cope with the flood event. Acknowledging TEK insights and changing local ecological indicators contributes information to assist sustainable ecosystem management and build corresponding resilient social systems. Local knowledge can support the understanding of climate and environmental change and local and regional risk management planning, interventions, and policy recommendations. This can considerably enhance the effectiveness and robustness of such strategies while counteracting the loss of traditional ecological knowledge.

Bauer, TN; de Jong, W; Ingram, V

Perception matters: an Indigenous perspective on climate change and its effects on forest-based livelihoods in the Amazon

Ecology And Society

https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-12837-270117

Many cities around the world are increasingly developing plans and policies for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. These plans and policies are often focused on either mitigation or adaptation. This dichotomized approach can be problematic and result in trade-offs. In other words, efforts aimed at enhancing mitigation (adaptation) may hinder achieving adaptation (mitigation) objectives. Additionally, conflicts may arise as there might be inconsistencies between some mitigation and adaptation measures. Since trade-offs and conflicts between adaptation and mitigation measures can undermine effectiveness and efficiency of municipal activities, efforts should be made to avoid or minimize them. This study aims to provide a better understanding of potential trade-offs and conflicts through reviewing literature on the interactions between urban adaptation and mitigation measures. This is done through bibliographic analysis and detailed content analyses of selected papers. Results of this review show that research on trade-offs and conflict has gained traction since the publication of the fourth assessment report of The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. However, there is still a lack of empirical studies. In particular, limited research exists on the Global South cities. Also, according to the findings, existing research is mainly focused on trade-offs associated with measures related to energy, land use, transport, water, building, green infrastructure, and waste sectors. It is found that mitigation measures may have negative impacts on adaptation by increasing exposure to risks such as the urban heat island effect and flooding and/or by eroding livelihood options of poor and marginalized groups and causing equity concerns. In contrast, adaptation measures may increase greenhouse gas emissions by, among other things, reducing efficiency and increasing energy demand. It is discussed that integrated assessment frameworks should be utilized to deal with trade-offs and conflicts. Finally, some recommendations for better uptake of integrated frameworks are provided. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sharifi, A

Trade-offs and conflicts between urban climate change mitigation and adaptation measures: A literature review

Journal Of Cleaner Production

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122813

Understanding major climate risks, adaptation strategies, and factors influencing the choice of those strategies is crucial to reduce farmers' vulnerability. Employing comprehensive data from 2822 farm households in Ethiopia and Kenya (East Africa; EA) and 1902 farm households in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (South Asia; SA), this study investigates the main climate risks that farmers faced and the adaptation strategies they used. Among others, excessive rainfall and heightened crop pest/disease incidence are commonly observed climate-induced risks in all study areas, while cyclones and salinity are unique to Bangladesh. Drought is prevalent in Ethiopia, India, Kenya, and Nepal. Farmers in those countries responded with strategies that include change in farming practices, sustainable land management, reduce consumption, sell assets, use savings and borrowings, seek alternative employment and assistance from government or NGO. In general, farmers faced several multiple climate risks simultaneously and they responded with multiple adaptation strategies. Therefore, this study used a multivariate probit (MVP) approach to examine the factors influencing the adoption of adaptation strategies. Unlike other studies, we also tested and corrected for possible endogeneity in model estimation. All the countries mentioned have low adaptive capacity to address climate change, which is further weakened by inadequate governance and inefficient institutions. We observed significant differences in the choice of adaptation strategies between male-headed households (MHHs) and female-headed households (FHHs), as well as across countries. Generally, MHHs are more likely to seek additional employment and change agricultural practices, while FHHs and households headed by older persons tend to reduce consumption and rely on savings and borrowings. Institutional support for adaptation is much less in EA compared to SA. Training on alternative farming practices, enhancing non-farm employment options, better institutional support, and social security for older farmers are crucial for climate change adaptation in both regions.

Aryal, JP; Sapkota, TB; Rahut, DB; Marenya, P; Stirling, CM

Climate risks and adaptation strategies of farmers in East Africa and South Asia

Scientific Reports

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89391-1

Creating ?resilient places? has increasingly become a major priority for urban planners, designers, and policy makers. ?Spatial resilience? as a subset of urban resilience can be used to guide the development of a conceptual framework for resilient place assessment. In this regard, a resilient place should feature a combination of physical and non-physical characteristics that can contribute to improved response and adaptation to a broad range of natural and manmade hazards. In this context, resilience is claimed to be the ability to manage, mitigate and adapt to varied risks and changes that threaten the quality of the functionality, livability, and vitality of a place. To further elaborate on the concept of resilient place, in this study, 127 articles were reviewed using qualitative methods, and general urban resilience definitions related to semantic resilience dimensions were extracted. These are, namely, intrinsic, resilience behavior, and reinforcing attributes. Eventually, 22 studies were selected for content analysis using a qualitative review. The conceptual framework of place assessment was developed concerning the constituent attributes of ?place? and ?spatial resilience.? In the proposed framework, the constructive dimensions of Resilient Place Assessment (RPA) include four dimensions, three of which are semantic resilience dimensions. These dimensions include the intrinsic resilience attributes (i.e., robustness, coherence, efficiency, foresight capacity, flexibility, resourcefulness, knowledge and learning, and self-organization), behavioral resilience attributes (i.e., recovery; adaption; innovation; transformation), reinforcing resilience attributes (i.e., diversity, redundancy, modularity, and connectivity), and place-making components (i.e., form and structure, environment and behavior, and image and meaning). Insights provided in this conceptual framework can be used by urban planners, designers, and policy makers in their efforts towards creating more resilient places.

Dastjerdi, MS; Lak, A; Ghaffari, A; Sharifi, A

A conceptual framework for resilient place assessment based on spatial resilience approach: An integrative review

Urban Climate

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2021.100794

Based in an interdisciplinary review of the literature on COVID-19 and recent outbreaks, this paper uses pandemics as a lens to examine the socio-ecological resilience of human settlements. This narrative literature review applies the conceptual framework for resilience developed for complex systems to identify five planning and policy issues critical to disease emergence, transmission, and outbreak. First, since urban settlements and activities facilitate pathogen transmission between species, reducing 'shocks' like zoonotic diseases and climate change requires not just prioritizing urbanization patterns and land use in urban policies for environmental health, but also animal rearing practices and biodiversity maintenance. Second, since disease transmission is linked to not just contact rate but also host susceptibility, reducing vulnerability by improving equity in access to essential infrastructures like housing, water, sanitation, healthy food, green/public spaces, healthcare-that impact human health directly and indirectly-is critical. In its absence, curbing disease transmission requires focusing on contact rate suppression, but doing so brings human activity to a halt, decimating the economy and livelihoods. Third, the persistence of many pathogens or their vectors in environmental media suggests that built environment & public health professionals must address maintenance of environmental quality at various scales. Fourth, there is a need for redundancy, be it in commodity supply chains (like PPE, food) or data management for say, monitoring & enforcement of home quarantines during a pandemic. Fifth, while it is crucial to have a centralized response for healthcare, decentralized infrastructure management has been critical during this outbreak: including participatory governance structures to recruit civil society in data collection and self-reporting, reliance on and quick development of mutual aid groups to distribute food and other essential supplies, localized approaches to repurposing infrastructures to create safe public spaces. This application of resilience thinking also evokes the need to study cities as social-ecological systems.

Syal, S

Learning from pandemics: Applying resilience thinking to identify priorities for planning urban settlements

Journal Of Urban Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2021.05.004

Data on flood occurrence and flood impacts for the last seven centuries in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula have been analysed in order to characterise long-term trends, anomalous periods and their relationship with different climatic factors such as precipitation, general circulation and solar activity. Catastrophic floods (those that produce complete or partial destruction of infrastructure close to the river, and major damages in the overflowed area, including some zones away from the channels) do not present a statistically significant trend, whereas extraordinary floods (the channel is overflowed and some punctual severe damages can be produced in the infrastructures placed in the rivercourse or near it, but usually damages are slight) have seen a significant rise, especially from 1850 on, and were responsible for the total increase in flooding in the region. This rise can be mainly attributed to small coastal catchments, which have experienced a marked increase in developed land and population, resulting in changes in land use and greater vulnerability. Changes in precipitation alone cannot explain the variation in flood patterns, although a certain increase was shown in late summer-early autumn, when extraordinary floods are most frequently recorded. The relationship between the North Atlantic circulation and floods is not as strong, due to the important role of mesoscale factors in heavy precipitation in the northwest of the Mediterranean region. However, it can explain the variance to some extent, mainly in relation to the catastrophic floods experienced during the autumn. Solar activity has some impact on changes in catastrophic floods, with cycles related to the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) and the Gleissberg solar cycle. In addition, anomalous periods of high flood frequency in autumn generally occurred during periods of increased solar activity. The physical influence of the latter in general circulation patterns, the high troposphere and the stratosphere, has been analysed in order to ascertain its role in causing floods.

Barrera-Escoda, A; Llasat, MC

Evolving flood patterns in a Mediterranean region (1301-2012) and climatic factors - the case of Catalonia

Hydrology And Earth System Sciences

https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-465-2015

This paper aims at assess district-wise vulnerability index of the state of Karnataka State, which is predominantly is rainfed and is highly susceptible to climatic variability. Secondary data on relevant indicators were collected to prepare indices viz, crop production losses, exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Following normalization and using appropriate weights for indicators, these four indices were used for constructing vulnerability index, which can be used a rapid assessment method for prioritizing districts that need measures to moderate the detrimental impact of climate change. It has been observed that Climatic variability caused higher production losses in cereals, pulses and oilseeds in Davangere, Gulbarga and Raichur districts, respectively. Districts like Koppal, Raichur, Bijapur Gulbarga, Gadag, Bagalkote and Bellary were placed under extreme degree of exposure. As per the sensitivity index scores, Kolar district is the most sensitive. Further, Bengaluru (Urban), Dakshin Kannada and Kodagu are ranked first, second and third in terms of adaptive capacity in the state. Overall, vulnerability index scores indicate that Gulbarga, Koppal, Raichur, Bellary, Bagalkote, Bijapur and Belgaum are extremely vulnerable districts in the state. It was also estimated that around 70% of the cultivated area, which supports 60% and 67% of livestock and rural population of the state, respectively are facing 'extreme to high' level of vulnerability. The ranking based prioritization of the vulnerable areas calls for a holistic approach for each district or a group of districts to reduce their sensitivity, minimize exposure to rainfall variability through implementation of site-specific and leverage adaptive capacity through better health and education facilities, expansion of employment opportunities in other sectors or reducing over dependence on agriculture. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Kumar, S; Raizada, A; Biswas, H; Srinivas, S; Mondal, B

Application of indicators for identifying climate change vulnerable areas in semi-arid regions of India

Ecological Indicators

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.06.041

Climate change adaptation and mitigation decisions made by governments are usually taken in different policy domains. At the individual level however, adaptation and mitigation activities are undertaken together as part of the management of risk and resources. We propose that a useful starting point to develop a national climate policy is to understand what societal response might mean in practice. First we frame the set of responses at the national policy level as a trade off between investment in the development and diffusion of new technology, and investment in encouraging and enabling society to change its behaviour and or adopt the new technology. We argue that these are the pertinent trade-offs, rather than those usually posited between climate change mitigation and adaptation. The preference for a policy response that focuses more on technological innovation rather than one that focuses on changing social behaviour will be influenced by the capacity of different societies to change their greenhouse gas emissions; by perceived vulnerability to climate impacts; and by capacity to modify social behaviour and physical environment. Starting with this complete vision of response options should enable policy makers to re-evaluate the risk environment and the set of response options available to them. From here, policy makers should consider who is responsible for making climate response decisions and when actions should be taken. Institutional arrangements dictate social and political acceptability of different policies, they structure worldviews, and they determine the provision of resources for investment in technological innovation and social change. The importance of focussing on the timing of the response is emphasised to maximise the potential for adjustments through social learning and institutional change at different policy scales. We argue that the ability to respond to climate change is both enabled and constrained by social and technological conditions. The ability of society to respond to climate change and the need for technological change for both decarbonisation and for dealing with surprise in general, are central to concepts of sustainable development. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Tompkins, EL; Adger, WN

Defining response capacity to enhance climate change policy

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2005.06.012

While there have been many pilot projects on adaptation undertaken in the fisheries and aquaculture sector, state policies are only just beginning to address let alone refer to climate change. This study explores the climate-related content, climate sensitivities, and opportunities to incorporate climate change concerns in a set of aquaculture policies by the government of Thailand. The analysis is based on content analysis of policy documents and in-depth interviews with 14 officials that had roles in the design or implementation of 8 Department of Fisheries policies. The Aquaculture Master Plan 2011-2016 and the now abandoned Tilapia Strategy refer directly to climate variability or change. The Master Plan also suggests measures or strategies, such as investment in research, and the transfer of technologies, which would be helpful to sustainability and adaptation. Other policies suggest, or at the very least include, practices which could contribute to strengthening management of climate-related risks, for example: a registration policy included provisions for compensation; extension programme policy recognizes the importance of extreme events; and a standards policy gives guidance on site selection and water management. Most existing aquaculture policies appear to be sensitive to the impacts of climate change; for instance, the zoning policy is sensitive to spatial shifts in climate. Stakeholders had ideas on how policies could be made more robust; in the case of zoning, by periodically reviewing boundaries and adjusting them as necessary. POLICY RELEVANCE This study is one of the first evaluations of the coverage and sensitivity of aquaculture policies to climate change. It shows that while existing policies in Thailand are beginning to refer explicitly to climate change, they do not yet include much in the way of adaptation responses, underlining the need for identifying entry points as has been done in this analysis. Further mainstreaming is one option; another possibility is to adopt a more segregated approach, at least initially, and to collect various policy ideas under a new strategic policy for the aquaculture sector as a whole.

Uppanunchai, A; Chitmanat, C; Lebel, L

Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into inland aquaculture policies in Thailand

Climate Policy

https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2016.1242055

While it is generally asserted that those countries who have contributed least to anthropogenic climate change are most vulnerable to its adverse impacts some recently developed indices of vulnerability to climate change come to a different conclusion. Confirmation or rejection of this assertion is complicated by the lack of an agreed metric for measuring countries' vulnerability to climate change and by conflicting interpretations of vulnerability. This paper presents a comprehensive semi-quantitative analysis of the disparity between countries' responsibility for climate change, their capability to act and assist, and their vulnerability to climate change for four climate-sensitive sectors based on a broad range of disaggregated vulnerability indicators. This analysis finds a double inequity between responsibility and capability on the one hand and the vulnerability of food security, human health, and coastal populations on the other. This double inequity is robust across alternative indicator choices and interpretations of vulnerability. The main cause for the higher vulnerability of poor nations who have generally contributed little to climate change is their lower adaptive capacity. In addition, the biophysical sensitivity and socio-economic exposure of poor nations to climate impacts on food security and human health generally exceeds that of wealthier nations. No definite statement can be made on the inequity associated with climate impacts on water supply due to large uncertainties about future changes in regional water availability and to conflicting indicators of current water scarcity. The robust double inequity between responsibility and vulnerability for most climate-sensitive sectors strengthens the moral case for financial and technical assistance from those countries most responsible for climate change to those countries most vulnerable to its adverse impacts. However, the complex and geographically heterogeneous patterns of vulnerability factors for different climate-sensitive sectors suggest that the allocation of international adaptation funds to developing countries should be guided by sector-specific or hazard-specific criteria despite repeated requests from participants in international climate negotiations to develop a generic index of countries' vulnerability to climate change. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Füssel, HM

How inequitable is the global distribution of responsibility, capability, and vulnerability to climate change: A comprehensive indicator-based assessment

Global Environmental Change-Human And Policy Dimensions

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.009

Critical infrastructures are essential for the society and economy. In recent years, climate change has been identified as an urgent and growing threat to critical infrastructures, and many studies have been conducted to assess the vulnerability of critical infrastructures to climate change. However, despite these research efforts, the vulnerability of critical infrastructures is often vaguely defined and inconsistently studied in the literature. This paper proposes a framework to analyze critical infrastructure's vulnerability to climate change based on the traditional vulnerability/sustainability framework and hazard-of-place model of vulnerability. The vulnerability assessment of emergency services to sea level rise and storm surge in Collier County, Florida, is taken as an example to validate the proposed framework. Flood simulation, comparisons of storm surge models, spatial analysis, and network-based service area analysis are conducted to assess the vulnerability of fire stations in the case study area. The vulnerability assessment identifies the predominant hazard risk and the exposed infrastructures, analyzes the sensitivity of serviceability, and evaluates the effectiveness of potential adaptive capacity. The results show that the fire stations in the case study area are more vulnerable to the potential landfall and changes in hurricane and tropical cyclone patterns compared to the flooding caused directly by sea level rise. It indicates that the lack of consideration of potential landfall and changes in storms could greatly underestimate the vulnerability to climate change, especially in coastal areas with limited historical tidal data. The analysis also illustrates the current floodplain management that focuses primarily on the 100-year flood may not be a sufficient standard for all regions given the potential changes in frequency and magnitude of climate-related hazards. Finally, it confirms that disaster risk management strategies could also contribute to climate change adaptation. The weak linkages between existing climate change adaptation and disaster risk management need to be strengthened. The proposed concept and framework could be generalized and expanded to other critical infrastructures, regions, and climate-related hazards.

Shen, SW; Feng, X; Peng, ZR

A framework to analyze vulnerability of critical infrastructure to climate change: the case of a coastal community in Florida

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2442-6

Climate change is a major environmental and socioeconomic challenge in Ethiopia in recent decades. The study site is one of the climate change prone areas affected by climate variability and extreme events. Therefore, a better understanding of area-specific and adaptation is crucial to develop and implement proper adaptation strategies that can alleviate the adverse effects of climate change. Therefore, this work was aimed to identify determinants of farmers' adoption of climate change adaptation strategies in Gondar Zuria District of northwestern Ethiopia. Primary data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires, observation, and interviews. Besides, the secondary data were also obtained from journal articles, reports, governmental offices, and the internet. The Multinomial and Binary logistic regression models with the help of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (21th edition) were used to analyze the data. The multinomial logistic regression model was used to estimate the influence of the socioeconomic characteristics of sample households on the farmer's decision to choose climate change adaptation strategies. The result showed that age, gender, family size, farm income, and farm size had a significant influence on the farmers' choice of climate change adaptation strategies. The result also revealed that crop failure, severe soil erosion and shortages of water are major climate change-related problems than others. In order to alleviate these problems, farmers have implemented mixed farming, mixed cropping, early and late planting (changing sowing period), use of drought-resistant crop varieties, application of soil and water conservation techniques, shifting to non-farm income activities and use of irrigation. In contrast, access to climate information, total annual farm income, and market access variables are significant adoption determinants of climate change adaptation strategies by farmers' in the study site. Therefore, we recommend future adaptation-related plans should focus on improving climate change information access, improving market access and enhancing research on the use of rainwater harvesting technology.

Marie, M; Yirga, F; Haile, M; Tquabo, F

Farmers' choices and factors affecting adoption of climate change adaptation strategies: evidence from northwestern Ethiopia

Heliyon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03867

Waterfront management constitutes one of the most challenging research areas for spatial planning and a key driver for urban development. As such, it has unceasingly being placed at the epicenter of the scientific and policy-making debate over time. In a rapidly changing decision environment, marked by recession, climate change, urbanization, blue growth, etc., the interest in coastal zone management and related planning endeavours is constantly escalating. Raising is also the concern for serving sustainability and resilience objectives of urban coastal fronts, further amplified in case of coastal metropolitan regions, i.e. areas that are subject to intense urban sprawl pressures and intensification of land/sea uses. In such regions, population overconcentration and deployment of hyper-local infrastructures/functions leads to the formation of strong developmental enclaves along the coastline, with multiple consequences on the marine and coastal ecosystems, the local identity as well as the territorial and social cohesion of the coastal communities. Managing the fragile and highly vulnerable urban coastal zones is currently dealt with the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). A key issue in this respect lies on the understanding of the causes behind coastal urbanization and their use in relevant planning endeavours, ending up with policy actions and institutional regulatory mechanisms. Having as a pilot field of research one of the most intriguing parts of the Athens' southern waterfront (Faliro-Elliniko), the focus of this work is on: identifying the main drivers behind its structure/dynamics and degree of integration into the city; studying and evaluating its spatio-functional transformations; and illuminating the typological characteristics of the coastal zone that affect its vulnerability and spatial continuity. The ultimate goal is to highlight the necessity for a multi-dimensional and spatio-temporal approach for assessing coastal urban sprawl and monitoring its effects on the natural and manmade environment.

Theodora, Y; Spanogianni, E

Assessing coastal urban sprawl in the Athens' southern waterfront for reaching sustainability and resilience objectives

Ocean & Coastal Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106090

Climate-related hazards can lead to agricultural losses and affect local and wider food supply via food trade. This study estimates the potential for adverse effects of climate hazards on food supply across Indian States and Union Territories (hereafter 'states') by quantifying climate hazard risks. Risks were estimated using the most recent data available on hazard presence, vulnerability, and volume of per capita food supply that is exposed to hazards. Historical (2000-2020) climatological and geological data sourced from meteorological stations and satellite imagery were used to estimate the state-level presence of eight climate-related hazards (droughts, forest fires, floods, extreme rainfall, landslides, cyclones, extreme temperatures, sea level rise). For each state and hazard type, we distinguished between risk to food supply produced in the state and the risk to food supply imported from other states. The source of food supply was estimated from a supply and demand balance model for 30 major food items that uses government data from 2011-12. We found that climate hazard risks to food supply vary across states and by hazard type. The largest climate hazard risks to state food supply are in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Assam, where the majority of risk is to locally produced supply. Food supply in each state is at risk to all eight climate hazards via food imports from other Indian states. For 14 states, the climate hazard risk is greater for imported food supply than for locally produced supply. Just five states contribute to more than half of the climate hazard risk in interstate food trade. The findings indicate that climate-related hazards in Indian states could have potentially adverse effects on national food supply, affecting both local production and interstate trade. For policy-makers, these climate hazard risks identify potential priorities for enhancing food system resilience to mitigate impacts on local and national food security.

Harris, F; Amarnath, G; Joy, EJM; Dangour, AD; Green, RF

Climate-related hazards and Indian food supply: Assessing the risk using recent historical data

Global Food Security-Agriculture Policy Economics And Environment

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100625

Flood modelling in transnational rivers requires efficient cross-border collaboration among the riparian countries. Currently, each country/region usually uses a different hydraulic modelling approach, which may hinder the modelling of the entire river. For the sake of accurate and consistent river modelling there is a necessity for the establishment of a framework that fosters international collaborations. This study investigates the current hydraulic modelling approach across the whole length of the River Meuse, the main course of which crosses three north-western European countries. The numerical models used by French, Belgian, and Dutch agencies and authorities were interconnected by exchanging boundary conditions at the borders. At the central part of the river, the Belgian hydraulic model assumed steady flow conditions, while the rest of the river was modelled in unsteady mode. Results for various flood scenarios revealed a distinctive pattern of water depths at the Belgian-Dutch border. To clarify whether this is a bias induced by the change in modelling approach at the border (steady vs. unsteady), we remodelled a stretch of the river across the Belgian-Dutch border using a consistent unsteady modelling approach. The steady and unsteady approaches led to similar patterns across the border, hence discarding the hypothesis of a bias resulting from a change in the employed model. Instead, the pattern in water depths was attributed to a change in the topography of the Meuse Valley, where there is a transition from a narrow steep corridor with limited water storing capacity in Ardennes massif to wide floodplains in the Dutch lowlands. The associated flood damping for the 100-year discharge is less than 1% in the Ardennes and exceeds 15% in the Dutch lowlands. It can be inferred that the current differences in regional hydraulic modelling approaches for the River Meuse are generally well-grounded and not just a legacy of the past.

Kitsikoudis, V; Becker, BPJ; Huismans, Y; Archambeau, P; Erpicum, S; Pirotton, M; Dewals, B

Discrepancies in Flood Modelling Approaches in Transboundary River Systems: Legacy of the Past or Well-grounded Choices?

Water Resources Management

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-020-02621-5

The settlements with high natural resources have become the subject of conservation policies to ensure sustainability of these resources. On the other hand they are exposed to anthropogenic pressures due to attractiveness of environmental resources and the needs of growing population. Environmental change has increased especially in coastal areas which provide various ecosystem services owing to many natural resources on a global scale in the last century. Continuing trend of consumption that restricts sustainability also leads to environmental degradation and pollution and increased problems in coastal areas caused by human-induced change. Against this pressure, vulnerability of settlements, the capacity and ability of social, economic, human, institutional, physical and environmental capital to adapt or cope with change is a major problem that needs to be addressed. In this context, this article aims to assess vulnerability against negative effects of socio-ecological changes in Izmir, Aydin and Mugla Provinces located in West Aegean Region of Turkey that comes to the fore with natural assets, on the other hand which is under pressure of population, tourism and urbanization. In this evaluation it's assumed that exposure level to social, environmental and resource use changes is (population growth, water usage, waste change, land use change) the main factor that determines sensitivity. With this assumption, adequacy of settlements adaptive capacity has been questioned in case the change trend continues. Furthermore, the calculated indexes of vulnerability are compared between settlements and the influence level of geographical location, demographic, physical and economic structure is examined with Decision Tree Model. Two basic conclusions have been drawn as a result of this analysis. The first one is despite the high adaptive capacity scores, coastal settlements, where tourism activities concentrated, and experienced intensive environmental losses. Secondly, the natural resource consumption increases with the presence of low adaptive capacity values in rural inland side of the region. Based on these conclusions, policy implications are suggested to ensure sustainability of settlements.

Kozaman, S

THE EVALUATION OF VULNERABILITY TO SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN WEST AEGEAN TURKEY

Metu Journal Of The Faculty Of Architecture

https://doi.org/10.4305/METU.JFA.2017.1.5

One of the consequences of climate change is the increase in the frequency and entity of extreme weather events, including floods. Any strategy dealing with the various impacts of climate change must focus not only on mitigation aspects, but also on improving on the level of adaptive capacity. Over the past decades there has been an increase in the frequency and intensity of floods in Europe, a fact which has prompted the European Union (EU) to put forward the Directive 60/2007 (the 'Floods Directive'), requiring Member States to produce a comprehensive Flood Risk Management Plan (FRMP) by 2015. The purpose of this paper is to assess how the implementation of the 'Floods Directive' has contributed to the level of adaptive capacity in Austria, a EU member State hosting an important river basin. By relying on the existing literature, the paper first describes the governance system associated with flood risk management in Austria prior to the elaboration of the FRMP. Subsequently, based on collected primary data, the paper studies the governance structure associated with the elaboration of the FRMP in Austria by using descriptive social network analysis (SNA) and discusses the implications in terms of adaptive capacity of flood governance. The elaboration of the FRMP has had the merit of coordinating the pre-existing regional legislation into a coherent national framework, under the leadership of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Environment. A limited number of other public administration stakeholders act as brokers, but the overall governance structure appears centralized and exhibits low modularity. Such a structure, moreover, is exclusively composed of public administration actors with no de facto participation of other stakeholders (e.g., NGOs and private companies). The incorporation of a wider set of organizations in the earlier phases of the policy cycle is welcomed, in order to make the whole process less technocratic and effectively improve the overall level of adaptive capacity.

Ceddia, MG; Christopoulos, D; Hernandez, Y; Zepharovich, E

Assessing adaptive capacity through governance networks: The elaboration of the flood risk management plan in Austria

Environmental Science & Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.08.014

Using participatory action research methods, we co-developed climate risk management approaches with participating farmers as part of a large project in India on climate adaptation to climate change in Asia (ACCA). The key components of this work involved village level meteorological data recording and reporting, formation and development of farmer climate clubs, on-farm participatory research testing a range of sowing and irrigation practices in response to weather patterns, and preparation and dissemination of agro-meteorological advisories. This research catalysed the development of the CLimate Information Centre concept (CLIC), further evolving into the development of an ICT platform of software and hardware that integrated the ACCA project results, biweekly agro-meteorological advisory bulletins and static agronomy information. An evaluation of the CLICs was undertaken based on a survey of 330 farmers in eight CLICs villages in Telangana state in southern India. The evaluation considered aspects such as the frequency of visits to CLICs, farmer perceptions on usefulness of information, any changes in knowledge and practice due to CLICs visits, and satisfaction with the CLICs as a source of information. On average 80 percent of the surveyed farmers had visited CLICs during the period. Farmers highlighted the important contribution of the agronomy videos they watched, access to agro-meteorological bulletins, information on pests, and weather forecast information. These contributed to various types of benefits they derived including an average cost savings of US$ 4 - 64 per hectare/year. While the current version of CLICs has shown promise and relevance for small holders, they need to be further developed into small business centres that function as a knowledge and provision hub for various agriculture inputs and providing climate information as an important service. This will serve as a self-sustaining financial model for CLICs rather than climate information as the only source of information service that is currently the case.

Nidumolu, U; Adusumilli, R; Tallapragada, C; Roth, C; Hochman, Z; Sreenivas, G; Reddy, DR; Reddy, VR

Enhancing adaptive capacity to manage climate risk in agriculture through community-led climate information centres

Climate And Development

https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2020.1746230

This paper argues that flood vulnerability around the Weija Dam, near Accra, the capital of Ghana, can be explained by the city's complex peri-urbanization trajectories. The dam, which was constructed 40 years ago, supplies water to many parts of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. To offset the impacts of potential dam failure due to seismic activities, as well as accidental and planned water spillages, about 100 m of lands around the dam and 30 m of riparian lands around River Densu were reserved. Despite planning prohibitions, these reservations have largely been encroached by homebuilders and business operators. Analyses of time-series rainfall data and hazard mapping showed that during periods of torrential rainfall, the dam and the river are overwhelmed with storm water hence exposing the Weija Township located downstream to flood hazards. Questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews with selected homebuilders, and institutional consultations revealed that the spatial and institutional management dynamics, customary land ownership, along with the growing defiance of planning regulations were the key influences of floods in the Weija Township. The affected households have attempted to mitigate the effects of flooding by elevating structures with stones and sandbags, strengthening walls, constructing drains and pumping water out during flooding events, but with little success. However, given the lack of political will to remove the unauthorized structures constructed within the buffers and reservations, the challenge now is to minimize flood vulnerabilities by flood-proofing buildings, improving drains and channelizing portions of the river within the township. These structural measures should be complemented by flood vulnerability maps, early flood warning and evacuation systems, mandatory property insurance policies, and above all, improved institutional coordination and collaboration for flood management. The paper recommends a re-examination of Ghana's urban land use planning and management of water bodies in urban areas.

Owusu-Ansah, JK; Dery, JM; Amoako, C

Flood vulnerability and coping mechanisms around the Weija Dam near Accra, Ghana

Geojournal

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-018-9939-3

The problem of flooding in Warri, Nigeria is as old as the city itself. What has changed in recent years is the rapidly increasing magnitude and frequency of floodwater retention pools on urban streets as urban development expanded into low-lying swamplands within the city. Through the process of community urban risk assessments, urban flood zone occupants acknowledge the growing problem of on-street flood retention pools in a city once dominated by problems with off-street flood retention pools. A factor analysis of the perceived causes of flooding shows that Warri residents believe that human activities that reduced the floodwater storage capacity of its natural drainage sinks (i.e., its swamplands), violated building codes, changed local water levels, altered low-lying mangrove swamp terrain, and eliminated drainage facilities are responsible for the increasing retention of floodwater pools on city streets in the last few decades. Such local stock of flood knowledge has implications for a local participatory approach to community adaptations and mitigation methods to reduce urban flood risks from climate change and uncontrolled urban expansion. Local community adaptation choices guide how flood-affected residents cope with urban floods, especially how they use and alter their living space and respond to emergencies. However, such community views are often ignored by experts seeking solutions to flooding. If the views of flood zone occupants begin to inform flood adaptation choices, proposed solutions to flooding problems would be more likely to receive local support and acceptance, thus making the bottom-up solutions developed in this paper easier to implement and sustain. Once a well-formulated grassroots adaptation strategy for urban flood risk management for resiliency becomes the base for action, a more resilient national policy is sure to succeed, especially in low-income and lower-middle-income countries where informal settlement is the case and the role of government in flood management is still minimal.

Odemerho, FO

Building climate change resilience through bottom-up adaptation to flood risk in Warri, Nigeria

Environment And Urbanization

https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247814558194

Concerns over the potential harmful impacts of changing climate are strongly echoing around the globe. With its wide range of hazards to human societies, climate change is posing serious threats to human survival and impacting every aspect of human life, including food production systems. It is, therefore, imperative to gauge the local knowledge, perceptions, and adaptation capacity for the effective mitigation of the ill impacts of climate change. In this backdrop, the present study has been designed to investigate the perceptions of farmers regarding causes and impacts of climate change on agriculture. Required data were collected from the Madinah region in Saudi Arabia and analyzed to answer the following study questions: How do farmers perceive impacts of climate change? What factors affect their perceived impacts of climate change? Additionally, what factors affect their perception about the causes of climate change? Individual logit models were used to assess the impacts of various factors on perceived causes and perceived impacts of climate change on agriculture. A multinomial logit model was also employed to figure out significant determinants of perceived causes of climate change on agriculture. Results indicated that the most dominant perceived impacts of climate change are its effects on crop production, followed by drying water sources. The results also revealed that the age of the farmers had a positive effect on their perception of natural processes being the cause of climate change. Similarly, farming experience had an inverse effect on their perceptions regarding causes of climate change. The majority of the farmers seemed clear about the possible drivers of climate change in the country. In particular, about 79 percent of the farmers believed that GHGs and pollution are causing climate change in the country. The findings provide useful insights into farmers' perceptions about causes and impacts of climate change and may be used by policymakers to strategically design extension and agricultural development initiatives for helping the farmers to implement sustainable agricultural practices to adapt to and lower the adverse impacts of climate change in the Kingdom.

Alotaibi, BA; Abbas, A; Ullah, R; Azeem, MI; Samie, A; Muddassir, M; Dabiah, AT; Raid, M; Sadaf, T

Dynamics and Determinants of Farmers' Perceptions about Causes and Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Saudi Arabia: Implications for Adaptation, Mitigation, and Sustainability

Atmosphere

https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14060917

Due to climate change, erratic and extreme rainfall events are rising in Kerala, India. This, in turn, is triggering landslides and floods in the Western Ghats of Kerala. Accordingly, this study analyzes the assessment and distribution of household level vulnerability toward climate change among the occupational categories in the Western Ghats of Kerala. Based on landslide data of Kerala for the years 2018 and 2019, five villages from the Idukki district of Kerala that accounts for the highest number of landslides are selected as the study region. The landslides and floods have either entirely or partially destroyed 3367 households in the study region during 2018 and 2019. Among these, 348 families are chosen for the study. We have adopted a stratified random sampling technique. The households belonging to all occupational categories are included in the sample. To facilitate the analysis, we have developed the concept of adaptive capacity entitlement to analyze the household-level vulnerability differences among occupational categories. Accordingly, data is elicited using an interview schedule and analyzed using robust logistic regression models. The results show that agrarian households are significantly vulnerable to landslides and floods. Among agrarian households, agricultural laborers tend to be the most vulnerable. A substantial number of agricultural laborer households live in hazard-prone regions, resulting in unequally distributed exposure to climatic hazards. The study reveals that the family's historic wealth (landholding) plays a significant role in households' capacity to attain entitlement. Besides, the entitlement enables the household to migrate to safer locations. The study highlights the need to frame a holistic climate adaptation policy for the region. For this reason, a sustainable land use policy has to be developed. Consequently, we recommend further studies to analyze the prospects and challenges of rehabilitation as well as land use regulation policies.

Raj, R; Sofi, AA

Does climate change leads to severe household-level vulnerability? Evidence from the Western Ghats of Kerala, India

Land Use Policy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106655

In response to growing threats of climate change, the US federal government is increasingly supporting community-level investments in resilience to natural hazards. As such federal programs become more widespread, evaluating their efficiency and equity is essential. The Community Rating System (CRS), which is part of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), is a promising example of a federal policy designed to reduce flood losses by providing financial incentives for local climate adaptation. In exchange for community engagement in a range of risk communication and risk reduction activities, CRS provides discounts on NFIP premiums ranging from 5% to 45%. Using national-scale NFIP claims, policies, and CRS data between 1998 and 2020, we assess the program, asking whether it has been effective in reducing flood losses, how it can be improved, and what lessons it holds for similar programs. We find that participation in CRS is associated with reduced flood damage, with the percent reduction in claims roughly proportional to NFIP premium discounts. Among CRS activities, those related to 'Flood Damage Reduction' are most effective in reducing flood losses and are associated with a 20%-30% decrease in NFIP claims. Between 1998 and 2020, cumulative damage reductions attributable to CRS were $11.4 billion; over the same period, cumulative NFIP premium discounts were $12.1 billion. This close match is an endorsement of CRS historically and supports its future continuation. To improve the efficiency and equity of CRS, we recommend that Federal Emergency Management Agency: (a) reexamine the surcharge levied on NFIP premiums that cross-subsidizes premium discounts, and (b) allocate greater resources towards supporting participation among smaller, under-resourced communities. In general, CRS serves as an effective model for other federal market-based programs seeking to stimulate community-level investment in climate resilience.

Gourevitch, JD; Pinter, N

Federal incentives for community-level climate adaptation: an evaluation of FEMA's Community Rating System

Environmental Research Letters

https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acbaae

Developing countries are increasingly impacted by floods, especially in Asia. Traditional flood risk man-agement, using structural measures such as levees, can have negative impacts on the livelihoods of social groups that are more vulnerable. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) provides a complementary approach that is potentially more inclusive of groups that are commonly described as more vulnerable, such as the poor and women. However, there is a lack of disaggregated and quantitative information on the potential of EbA to support vulnerable groups of society. This paper provides a quantitative analysis of the differ-ences in vulnerability to flooding as well as preferences for EbA benefits across income groups and gen -der. We use data collected through a survey of households in urban and rural Central Vietnam which included a discrete choice experiment on preferences for ecosystem services. A total of 1,010 households was surveyed during 2017 through a random sampling approach. Preferences are measured in monetary and non-monetary terms to avoid issues that may arise from financial constraints faced by respondents and especially the more vulnerable groups. Our results reveal that lower income households and women are overall more vulnerable than their counterparts and have stronger preferences for the majority of the EbA benefits, including flood protection, seafood abundance, tourism, and recreation suitability. These findings strongly indicate that EbA is indeed a promising tool to support groups of society that are espe-cially vulnerable to floods. These results provide crucial insights for future implementation of EbA pro-jects and for the integration of EbA with goals targeted at complying with the Sendai Framework and Sustainable Development Goals. (c) 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Hagedoorn, LC; Bubeck, P; Hudson, P; Brander, LM; Pham, M; Lasage, R

Preferences of vulnerable social groups for ecosystem-based adaptation to flood risk in Central Vietnam

World Development

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105650

Natural disasters are increasing in frequency in China. Enhancing residents' livelihood resilience and adjusting their livelihood strategies have gradually become effective means of dealing with disaster risk. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore the livelihood strategies and livelihood resilience of rural residents in earthquake-stricken areas to help them cope with disaster risks. However, few studies have explored the correlation between residents' livelihood resilience and livelihood strategies from the perspective of residents' livelihood resilience. Based on a survey of 327 households in four districts and counties of Sichuan Province, China that were affected by the Wenchuan and Lushan earthquakes, we construct a framework for analyzing livelihood resilience and livelihood strategy selection. We comprehensively analyze the characteristics of livelihood resilience and livelihood strategy and explore their correlation using an ordinal multi-classification logistic regression model. The results show that: (1) Among 327 sample households, 90.21% were non-farming, 3.67% were part-time households and 6.12% were farming households. Residents' livelihood resilience is mainly based on their disaster prevention and mitigation capacity. (2) As far as the correlation between livelihood resilience and livelihood strategies is concerned, the stronger the buffer capacity in livelihood resilience, the more rural residents tend to engage in non-farming activities to obtain income. When other conditions remain unchanged, the logarithmic probability of choosing an agricultural livelihood strategy decreases by 21.814 for each unit of buffer capacity. From the perspective of residents' livelihood resilience, this study deepens our understanding of the relationship between livelihood resilience and livelihood strategy in earthquake-stricken areas. It also provides useful information for the formulation of policies to improve residents' resilience in disaster-threatened areas.

Zhou, WF; Guo, SL; Deng, X; Xu, DD

Livelihood resilience and strategies of rural residents of earthquake-threatened areas in Sichuan Province, China

Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04460-4

This paper contributes to the body of knowledge associated with the analysis of transdisciplinary research. We use a narrative centered approach, focusing on hybridity, sensemaking and the potential for transdisciplinary research to foster agency. When confronted with changes, people - as individuals - and local communities - as groups - make sense of them in the light of their own knowledge, beliefs and experiences. The process by which communities make sense of changing institutional and natural environments can be defined as the interaction between their own frame of reference and the perception of the situational demands inherent to changes, together with their interpretation of these changes. Such a dynamic process of sensemaking constantly redefines the boundaries of the narratives that community members can call on to give meaning to their past, present and future. In this paper we use five case studies to analyze how this sensemaking plays out in situations of changing climate risk and changing frames of reference associated with the presence of transdisciplinary scientists. We identify the central challenge of ambiguity. We define ambiguity as situations where narratives of change assign different meanings to the changes observed. In such situations, we observe three potential outcomes in our case studies: (1) communities appear to be forced into inaction - as a consequence of agency-depriving senselessness; (2) communities appear to be cornered into maladaptation - as a consequence of a misguided sense of agency; and (3) communities try to resolve ambiguity and effectively move forward - as knowledge-based agency-fostering exercise. In light of these results, we argue that by contributing to the clarification of such ambiguities, climate science may contribute to increases in local agency, thus enhancing adaptive capacities. We conclude by proposing that climate science be place-based and community-centered. The purpose of such a shift would be aimed at building the agency-enhancing sensemaking of local communities.

Vanderlinden, JP; Baztan, J; Chouinard, O; Cordier, M; Da Cunha, C; Huctin, JM; Kane, A; Kennedy, G; Nikulkina, I; Shadrin, V; Surette, C; Thiaw, D; Thomson, KT

Meaning in the face of changing climate risks: Connecting agency, sensemaking and narratives of change through transdisciplinary research

Climate Risk Management

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2020.100224

We reviewed 76 climate change adaptation projects that were operational between 2010 and 2020. The review was followed by office and field visits for verification. The office visit helped crosscheck the findings, and the field observations carried out between December 2020 and April 2021 asked 24 key informants and collected supplementary information appraisal and indicator development. Of the CCA projects studied, the most (n = 48, 32%) were community-based initiatives, while the least (n = 12, 8%) were ecosystem-based interventions. The main environment-centered projects were Ecosystem-based Adaptations and Ecosystems Protecting Infrastructure and Communities (EPIC) while Enhanced Action of Inclusive CSOs for Participation in Climate Resilient Economic Growth (UTHAN), Initiative for CCA (ICCA), Support to Rural Livelihoods and Climate Change Adaptation in the Himalayas (HIMALICA), etc., adaptation projects were community-based. Capacity building and awareness-raising were the major thrust of the CbA projects, while the abatement of climate vulnerabilities and risks through nature-based solutions were priorities of EbA. Payment for Ecosystem services is a nature-based solution that can play a role in enhancing adaptation to climate change at a local scale by adopting community-based and culturally appropriate methods and enhancing and incentivizing adaptation measures and capacities. A set of 11 criteria and 40 indicators comprised the institutional and behavioral responses and the use of technologies, and the design of climate-resilient plans and climate-smart practices were proposed as appraisal measures to evaluate the success of CCA interventions. The importance of criteria and indicators lies in the fact that such a comprehensive assessment would lead to effective and efficient adaptation projects, which could help benefit beyond the borders. It also furthers ongoing adaptation interventions and is set to be an integral part of associated studies and monitoring and review of new adaptation interventions.

Karki, G; Bhatta, B; Devkota, NR; Acharya, RP; Kunwar, RM

Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) Interventions and Indicators in Nepal: Implications for Sustainable Adaptation

Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313195